GUIDE TO WRITING A PHILOSOPHY PAPER

1. An Argument for a Conc u!"on A #$" o!o#$% #a#er "! an argument for a conclusion. &efore %ou 'r"te a #a#er( %ou !$ou ) a!* %our!e f t$e +ue!t"on, '$at am I argu"ng for "n t$"! #a#er- If t$"! +ue!t"on cannot .e an!'ere) "n a declarative sentence of 15 words or fewer( t$en %ou )o not $a/e a conc u!"on( an) $ence( %ou )o not $a/e an argument. You )o not $a/e a #a#er. 0a" ure, 1T$"! #a#er '" oo* at t$e t$eor"e! of /"rtue of P ato an) Ar"!tot e...1 1T$"! #a#er '" a!* "f P ato an) Ar"!tot e agree on /"rtue .e"ng...1 1T$"! #a#er '" com#are P ato an) Ar"!tot e on /"rtue an)...1 Succe!!,

1T$"! #a#er '" argue t$at P ato an) Ar"!tot e $a/e )"fferent t$eor"e! of /"rtue.1 T$e conc u!"on to %our argument !$ou ) .e g"/en to %ou .% %our #a#er to#"c. Ho'e/er( %ou ma% $a/e to a)a#t t$e 'or)! of t$e #a#er to#"c "n or)er to o.ta"n a conc u!"on. 2See a !am# e #a#er to#"c an) a !am# e f"r!t #aragra#$ .e o'3. Your conc u!"on '" norma % .e a genera conc u!"on 2e.g. 1Determinism is false13 or a conc u!"on a.out an aut$or4! #o!"t"on 2e.g. "Socrates is a hedonist13 or a conc u!"on a.out an aut$or4! argument 2e.g. 1Aristotle fails to establish that weakness of the will is possible13. In or)er for %our argument to .e a !ucce!!fu argument( "t mu!t 2at ea!t3 .e t$e ca!e t$at t$e conc u!"on t$at %ou reac$ follows from %our ear "er conc u!"on!( an) t$at %ou $a/e argued for %our ear "er conclusions. 0or e5am# e( "f %our conc u!"on "! t$at 1Socrates is a hedonist1( t$en #re!uma. % %ou $a/e a rea)% argue) t$at( for e5am# e( 1Socrates holds that everyone pursues only pleasure1 an) t$at( for e5am# e( 1Hedonism is the position that everyone pursues only pleasure.1 T$u!( an

argument ma% 2an) u!ua % )oe!3 conta"n sub arguments. Eac$ !u.6argument !$ou ) contr".ute to t$e ma"n argument. It "! not "m#ortant t$at t$e conc u!"on to %our argument .e true. 2Of cour!e( "t 'ou ) .e nice "f 'ere true3. It "! "m#ortant t$at t$e conc u!"on to %our argument .e argued for to t$e .e!t of %our a." "t%( $a/"ng ta*en "nto account t$e argument2!3 of t$e #$" o!o#$er2!3 %ou $a/e 'r"tten a.out. 2If "t "! not( t$en "t "! irrelevant t$at t$e conc u!"on to %our argument "! true3. E/er%t$"ng t$at %ou 'r"te "n %our argument !$ou ) .e re e/ant to %our argument. If %ou f"n) t$at %ou $a/e 'r"tten !omet$"ng t$at "! not re e/ant to %our argument 2e.g. 1Socrate! 'a! marr"e)13 t$en %ou !$ou ) discard "t. 7. A Correct Intro)uct"on A #a#er !$ou ) $a/e an "ntro)uct"on of at ea!t one #aragra#$. An "ntro)uct"on "! not a c$ance to 1!et t$e !cene1( or to te %our rea)er '$% %ou c$o!e to 'r"te t$"! argument( or to

!ummar"8e e/er%t$"ng t$at %ou *no' a.out t$e #$" o!o#$er( or t$e to#"c( "n +ue!t"on. In!tea)( an "ntro)uct"on !$ou ) "nform t$e rea)er of t$e conc u!"on t$at %ou are go"ng to argue for( an) "f nece!!ar%( t$e !u.6argument!( '"t$ t$e"r re!#ect"/e conc u!"on!( t$at %ou are go"ng to #ro/")e to !u##ort t$at conc u!"on. T$"n* of t$e "ntro)uct"on a! an 1a.!tract1 of %our #a#er( t$at "! to !a%( a !ummar% of %our ent"re #a#er. 9. Language of a P$" o!o#$% Pa#er Certa"n #$ra!e! an) 'or)! !$ou ) !"#"$ a##ear "n a #$" o!o#$% #a#er 2un e!! %ou are +uot"ng a #$" o!o#$er3. T$e% "nc u)e t$e fo o'"ng, 1"n t$e rea 'or )1 1ne/er 'or* "n #ract"ce1 1rea "!t"ca % !#ea*"ng1( etc. 1: t$"n*! t$at1 1: fee ! t$at1 1:4! o#"n"on "! t$at1( etc. 1:4! og"c1

1: argue! og"ca %1( etc. 2!$ou ) .e !tate) "n term! of /a ")"t% or !oun)ne!!3 1t$"! ten)! to1 1t$"! a mo!t1 1t$"! near %1( etc. 1n"t6#"c*"ng1 1$a"r6!# "tt"ng1 1goe! "nto a ot of )eta" 1( etc. 1" og"ca 1 1r")"cu ou!1 1cra8%1 1a.!ur)1( etc. slang of any kind 1"t4!1 2a 'a%! 'r"te 1"t "!1( or( "f "t "! #o!!e!!"/e( 1"t!1; t$ere "! !"m# % no e5cu!e for 'r"t"ng 1"t4!1 "n a #a#er( !"nce %ou are e"t$er ma*"ng a m"!ta*e or a..re/"at"ng( an) !"nce %ou !$ou ) ne/er a..re/"ate "n a #a#er( t$at "! a m"!ta*e a !o3

T$e correct anguage of an argument "! a! fo o'!, 1: argue! t$at1 1:4! argument "! t$at1( etc. 1: !tate!1 1: a!!ert!1 1: )en"e!1 1: conten)!1 1: re<ect!1 1: c a"m!1 1: conc u)e!1 1: contra)"ct!1 1: a!!ume!1( etc. 666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 1true1 or 1fa !e1 2a! a## "e) to a premise or a conclusion%

2can a !o .e a## "e) to a !tatement( or an a!!ert"on( or a #ro#o!"t"on( '$ere t$"! !"m# % mean! a #rem"!e3 66666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 1/a ")1 or 1"n/a ")1 2a! a## "e) to arguments on %% 66666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 1!oun)1 or 1un!oun)1 2a! a## "e) to valid arguments on %% 666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 =. 1True1( 1>a ")1 an) 1Soun)1 It "! a 'a%! a m"!ta*e to !a% t$at a statement "! /a "). T$"! "! mean"ng e!!. T$e t$"ng! t$at are /a ") are not !tatement!. In or)er for a t$"ng to .e /a ") "t mu!t con!"!t of at ea!t t'o #rem"!e! an) a conc u!"on. In or)er for a t$"ng to .e /a ") "t mu!t .e a comple& t$"ng 66 !#ec"f"ca %( an argument. If %ou '"!$ to ta * a.out a !tatement( %ou mu!t !a% t$at a !tatement "! true.

S"nce a #o"nt "n an argument is a #rem"!e 2or a conc u!"on3( "t "! a 'a%! mean"ng e!! to !a% 1a /a ") #o"nt1. T$at "! t$e !ame a! !a%"ng 1a /a ") #rem"!e1 or 1a /a ") conc u!"on1( '$"c$ "! mean"ng e!!. 2To .e c$ar"ta. e( !omet"me! #eo# e "nten) to !a% 1a /a ") % argue) for #o"nt1. &ut t$"! "! rare3. It "! a 'a%! a m"!ta*e to !a% t$at an argument "! true. T$"! "! mean"ng e!!. In or)er for a t$"ng to .e true( "t mu!t .e a !tatement( an) an argument "! not a !tatement. You mu!t !a% t$at a !tatement "! true( or "f "t "! a !tatement t$at "! "! a #rem"!e "n an argument( t$at a #rem"!e "! true( or "f "t "! a !tatement t$at "! t$e conc u!"on of an argument( t$at a conc u!"on "! true. In t$e ca!e of an argument( $o'e/er( %ou mu!t !a% t$at an argument "! /a ")( or t$at "t "! !oun). If an argument "! !oun) t$en t$e conc u!"on mu!t .e true( an) !o %ou $a/e to ) %our rea)er t$at t$e conc u!"on "! true. If an argument "! /a ") 2on %3( t$e conc u!"on ma% or ma% not .e true( .ut t$e rea)er *no'! t$at at ea!t one #rem"!e "! fa !e. T$e !ame a## "e!( of cour!e( "n t$e ca!e of false 2t$"! a## "e! to !tatement!?#rem"!e! only3 an) invalid 2t$"! a## "e! to argument!

only3 an) unsound 2t$"! a## "e! to /a ") argument! only3. @. T$e P$" o!o#$er A t$o!e Wor)! on t$at Page In an argument %ou mu!t argue for or aga"n!t '$at a #$" o!o#$er !a%!( or a!!ert!( or argue! 66 t$at "!( e&actly what is on the page. T$"! mean! t$at %ou mu!t 'uote or closely paraphrase an% #$" o!o#$er '$om %ou )"!cu!!. Argument! aga"n!t '$at a #$" o!o#$er )oe! not !a% are "rre e/ant. 2T$"! "! *no'n a! argu"ng aga"n!t a 1!tra' man1( ".e. '$en %ou argue aga"n!t a #o!"t"on 2a 1!tra' man13 t$at "! not $e ) .% t$e #$" o!o#$er3. Once %ou c$aracter"8e a #$" o!o#$er4! argument or $er conc u!"on "n a certa"n 'a%( %ou !$ou ) u!e t$e !ame anguage '$en referr"ng to t$at argument or t$at conc u!"on for t$e rema"n)er of %our #a#er. T$"! "! a !o true of %our o'n argument "n %our #a#er. If %ou !tate t$at %ou are go"ng to argue for a certa"n conc u!"on 2e.g. 1Socrates holds that everyone pursues only pleasure13 t$en %ou mu!t u!e t$e !ame anguage t$roug$out %our argument( an) not a ter "t 2e.g. 1Socrates holds that everyone pursues only happiness13.

You )o NOT $a/e to #re!ent t$e argument of a #$" o!o#$er "n !"m# e argumentat"/e form 2".e. num.ere) #rem"!e! fo o'e) .% a conc u!"on3. In fact( "t "! !afer not to attem#t to )o t$"!( un e!! %ou $a/e con!")era. e e5#er"ence "n tran! at"on 2"n og"c3. Ho'e/er( %ou !$ou ) .e a. e to #re!ent $er argument "n !uc$ a 'a% t$at "t 'ou ) .e ea!% for !omeone e !e 2me( for e5am# e3 to tran! ate $er argument "nto !"m# e argumentat"/e form. T$"! !$ou ) a !o .e true of your argument. B. 4Anything that can be said( can be said clearly4 2Lu)'"g W"ttgen!te"n3 E/er% !entence "n an argument !$ou ) .e short an) clear an) precise. A !entence !$ou ) not .e vague 2".e. "t "! not c ear to t$e rea)er '$at "! .e"ng a!!erte)3 or ambiguous 2".e. "t can .e eg"t"mate % "nter#rete) a! ma*"ng at ea!t t'o non6e+u"/a ent a!!ert"on!3. Eac$ !entence !$ou ) ma*e a point( an) "t !$ou ) ma*e <u!t one #o"nt. A/o") o/er6com# "cat"on. Cee# eac$ c a"m !"m# e. Tr% not to a/o") mu t"# e c au!e!. A!!ume t$at %our rea)er $a! not rea) t$e #$" o!o#$er! %ou )"!cu!! "n %our #a#er. A!!ume t$at %our rea)er $a! never encountere) t$e argument! %ou e5am"ne.

A!!ume( $o'e/er( t$at %our rea)er teaches advanced logic an) t$at !$e en<o%! #o"nt"ng out to #eo# e t$at t$e"r argument! are hopelessly muddled. It $e #! to a!!ume t$at %our rea)er .e "e/e! t$at %our conc u!"on "! false. T$"! 'a% %ou rea % '" $a/e to #re!ent t$e best argument possible for %our conc u!"on. You !$ou ) #o!!e!! a )"ct"onar% 2O5for)( Co "n!( or We.!ter4!3 an) a t$e!auru! 2e.g. $oget)s *hesaurus3( an) not mere % re % u#on on "ne )"ct"onar"e!. You ma% "n/e!t "n a )"ct"onar% of #$" o!o#$% "f %ou '"!$. Ho'e/er( a goo) )"ct"onar% "! u!ua % !uff"c"ent. It "! muc$ more "m#ortant t$at %ou actua % +S" %our )"ct"onar% an) t$e!auru!.

D. Rea)"ng %our o'n #a#er W$en %ou $a/e f"n"!$e) a )raft of %our #a#er( "t "! a goo) ")ea to rea) %our #a#er a ou). T$"! "! an "m#ortant e5erc"!e for 'ee)"ng out o/er6 ong !entence!( a'*'ar) !entence!( an) m"!ta*e! "n !%nta5 an) #unctuat"on. 2Of cour!e( t$"! "! on % #o!!". e "f %ou $a/e f"n"!$e) a )raft of %our #a#er !ome t"me "n

a)/ance of t$e )ea) "ne3. In a))"t"on t$e !#e 6c$ec* an) grammar6c$ec* on %our to u!"ng a $ar) co#% t$e !#e 6c$ec* an) grammar6c$ec* on %our com#uter( %ou of %our #a#er grammar6c$ec* on %our com#uter !$ou ) a 'a%! a))"t"on t$e !#e 6c$ec* an) grammar6c$ec* on %our to u!"ng #roofrea) an) %ou !$ou ) a 'a%! grammar6c$ec* on %our com#uter( %ou !$ou ) a 'a%! on %our to u!"ng a $ar) co#% #roofrea) of %our #a#er. In a))"t"on to u!"ng t$e !#e 6c$ec* an) grammar6c$ec* on %our com#uter( %ou !$ou ) a 'a%! #roofrea) a $ar) co#% of %our #a#er. No' )o %ou .e "e/e meC$ec* t$at %our #age! are num.ere)( t$at a of %our +uotat"on! $a/e correct c"tat"on!( an) t$at t$e &". "ogra#$% "! correct. E. T$ree Draft! of a P$" o!o#$% Pa#er A #$" o!o#$% #a#er !$ou ) go t$roug$ at ea!t t$ree )raft!. 0"r!t )raft, after )a%! of re!earc$( 'r"te u# t$e ent"re #a#er from .eg"nn"ng to en). PRINT THIS.

Secon) )raft, re6'r"te t$e #a#er !o t$at no'( f"na %( "t "! e5#re!!e) "n t$e .e!t( c eare!t( !"m# e!t 'a% #o!!". e( '"t$ t$e !$orte!t !entence!( an) u!"ng t$e !"m# e!t 'or)!. PRINT THIS. F Note, "f t$e c ar"t% of %our !econ) )raft )emon!trate! t$at %our #a#er no onger $a! an argument( t$en %ou mu!t !tart aga"n '"t$ a f"r!t )raft. Hence( %ou '" $a/e five )raft!. It "! !a") t$at P ato re6'rote eac$ !entence of t$e $epublic !e/ent% t"me!( "n or)er to get "t r"g$t.G T$"r) )raft, #roof6rea) for t%#"ng m"!ta*e!( ma*e !ure %ou t$at $a/e %our #age! num.ere)( c$ec* for correct #age num.er! "n %our c"tat"on!( c$ec* t$at %ou $a/e t$e correct reference!( c$ec* t$at %our +uotat"on! are "n)ente)( etc. PRINT THIS AND STAPLE THIS. H. C"t"ng Source! If %ou u!e !omet$"ng t$at 'a! !a") "n c a!!( .% me or anot$er !tu)ent( %ou )o not nee) to c"te %our c a!! note!. T$ere "! no nee) to 'r"te !omet$"ng "*e 1.... 2C a!! Note!( T$ur!)a% 77n) No/em.er31.

It "! an e5ce ent ")ea to )"!cu!! %our #a#er '"t$ ot$er!. Argument! "n/ar"a. % "m#ro/e a! a re!u t of .e"ng te!te) on ot$er!. If %ou )"!cu!! %our #a#er '"t$ an%one ot$er t$an m%!e f( $o'e/er( #ro/")e t$e #er!on4! name "n a !ect"on after t$e &". "ogra#$%. If %ou u!e an% art"c e or .oo*( or an% mater"a from a 'e.!"te( "n 'r"t"ng %our #a#er( t$en %ou mu!t c"te "t "n %our #a#er an) "nc u)e "t "n %our &". "ogra#$%. If %ou $a/e a +uotat"on from an aut$or( t$en t$"! mu!t .e # ace) "n !"ng e or )ou. e +uotat"on mar*! "n %our #a#er( an) %ou mu!t c"te t$e aut$or an) #age num.er 2!ee e5am# e 2a3 .e o'3. If %ou #ara#$ra!e 2".e. !ummar"8e c o!e %3 an aut$or( t$en %ou mu!t a !o c"te t$e aut$or an) #age num.er 2!ee t$e !econ) #aragra#$ "n !am# e #a#er .e o'3. If %ou u!e t$e ")ea! or argument! of an% aut$or( t$en %ou mu!t a !o c"te t$e aut$or an) #age num.er2!3. T$e ru e to fo o' $ere "!, always cite the source. Remem.er( t$ere "! no #ena t% for c"t"ng !omet$"ng t$at %ou )o not nee) to c"te. T$e more %ou c"te( t$e more %ou re/ea t$at %ou $a/e )one %our re!earc$. &ut t$ere are /er% !er"ou! #ena t"e! for fa" "ng to c"te !omet$"ng t$at %ou )o nee) to c"te( "nc u)"ng e5#u !"on from t$e un"/er!"t%.

0or more on t$e !u.<ect of # ag"ar"!m( !ee t$e ".rar%4! 'e.#age, $tt#,?? ".rar%.' u.e)u?re!earc$?ref?c"teI# ag.a !# 2a3 C"tat"on! "n t$e .o)% of t$e te5t. T$e first t"me %ou +uote or #ara#$ra!e an aut$or( %ou !$ou ) #ro/")e t$e aut$or4! a!t name( t$e t"t e of t$e #u. "cat"on( an) t$e #age num.er. 0or e5am# e, 1666666666666661 2P ato( $epublic( #. 1J93. T$e second t"me %ou +uote or #ara#$ra!e an aut$or( %ou $a/e !e/era o#t"on!. You ma% !"m# % re#eat 2a3. 2If t$ere are man% +uotat"on!( $o'e/er( t$"! ma% .ecome te)"ou!3. Or( %ou ma% #ro/")e t$e aut$or4! name( an) an a..re/"at"on of t$e t"t e an) t$e #age num.er. Or( %ou ma% #ro/")e t$e aut$or4! name an) t$e #age num.er. Or( %ou ma% #ro/")e t$e t"t e an) t$e #age num.er. Or( %ou ma% #ro/")e an a..re/"at"on of t$e t"t e an) t$e #age num.er. You mu!t a 'a%! #ro/")e !ome !ource an) t$e #age num.er2!3( $o'e/er. 0or e5am# e,

166666666666661 2P ato( $epublic( #. 1JB3. 166666666666661 2P ato( $( #. 1JB3 166666666666661 2P ato( #. 1JB3 166666666666661 2$epublic( #. 1JB3 166666666666661 2$( #. 1JB3 In t$e ca!e of +uotat"on! from 'e. #age! t$at )o not $a/e #age num.er!( %ou '" !"m# % $a/e to #ro/")e t$e aut$or4! name( or( "f t$at "! not #o!!". e( an a..re/"at"on of t$e !ource. 2T$e fu reference mu!t .e g"/en "n t$e &". "ogra#$%3. 1666666666666661 2Co$en3 2.3 ,ook $eferences "n t$e &". "ogra#$%. You mu!t #ro/")e t$e fu name of t$e aut$or 2 a!t name( f"r!t name2!33 an) t$e t"t e( an) t$en t$e fu #u. "cat"on )eta" !( "n or)er of # ace( #re!! an) %ear. 0or e5am# e, Nage ( T$oma!( *he -ossibility of Altruism 2O5for), O5for) Un"/er!"t% Pre!!( 1HDJ3.

2.3 Article references "n t$e &". "ogra#$%. You mu!t #ro/")e t$e fu name of t$e aut$or 2 a!t name( f"r!t name2!33( t$e t"t e of t$e art"c e 2"n !"ng e or )ou. e +uotat"on mar*!3( t$e t"t e( t$e num.er( t$e %ear an) t$e #age num.er! of t$e art"c e. KcKa$on( C$r"!to#$er( 4T$e Para)o5 of Deonto og%4( -hilosophy and -ublic Affairs 7J 21HH13( #. 9@J69DD. 2c3 ,ook chapter references "n t$e &". "ogra#$%. &eauc$am#( Tom( 4Su"c")e4( "n Tom Regan( e).( .atters of /ife and Death 2P$" a)e #$"a, Tem# e Un"/er!"t% Pre!!( 1HEJ3( #. BH617J. 2)3 We. #age reference "n t$e &". "ogra#$%. Ka$on( Lame! E.( $tt#,??$ome.' u.e)u?Mma$on<?Wr"t"ngPa#er.$t m

6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 6666666666666666666666666666666666666 SAKPLE PAPER TOPIC WITH SAKPLE INTRODUCTION 20IRST PARAGRAPH3 AND SAKPLE START O0 THE &ODY O0 THE PAPER 2SECOND PARAGRAPH3 Out "ne t$e argument of T$ra!%mac$u! "n &*. I of t$e Re#u. "c for t$e conc u!"on t$at 1<u!t"ce "! not$"ng ot$er t$an t$e a)/antage of t$e !tronger1 2$epublic( #. 1=3. Out "ne t$e argument! #ro/")e) .% Socrate! aga"n!t t$"! )ef"n"t"on of <u!t"ce. Doe! Socrate! refute T$ra!%mac$u!- Pro/")e an argument to !u##ort %our an!'er. T$"! #a#er '" argue t$at Socrate! )oe! not refute T$ra!%mac$u!4! )ef"n"t"on of <u!t"ce. 0"r!t of a ( "t '" out "ne t$e argument of T$ra!%mac$u! "n &*. I of t$e $epublic for t$e conc u!"on t$at 1<u!t"ce "! not$"ng ot$er t$an t$e a)/antage of t$e !tronger1 2P ato( $epublic( #. 1=3. It '" t$en out "ne t$e

argument #ro/")e) .% Socrate! aga"n!t t$"! )ef"n"t"on of <u!t"ce( accor)"ng to '$"c$ "t "! <u!t to )o '$at "! )"!a)/antageou! to t$e !tronger. Ne5t "t '" out "ne T$ra!%mac$u!N! mo)"f"e) argument for t$e conc u!"on t$at <u!t"ce "! t$e a)/antage of t$e !tronger. T$en "t '" out "ne Socrate!4! argument aga"n!t T$ra!%mac$u! for t$e conc u!"on t$at <u!t"ce "! to t$e a)/antage of t$e 'ea*er. 0"na %( "t '" conc u)e t$at Socrate!4! argument for t$e conc u!"on t$at <u!t"ce "! to t$e a)/antage of t$e 'ea*er re!t! u#on a #rem"!e t$at "! fa !e( an) $ence( t$at $"! argument "! un!oun). It '" conc u)e t$at Socrate! $a! not refute) T$ra!%mac$u!. T$ra!%mac$u! argue! t$at 1<u!t"ce "! not$"ng ot$er t$an t$e a)/antage of t$e !tronger1 2P ato( #. 1=3. H"! argument "! a! fo o'!. 0"r!t( $e a!!ert! t$at "n e/er% c"t% t$ere "! a !"ng e #er!on 2or .o)% of #eo# e3 '$o ru e!. T$"! ru er ma% .e ca e) 1t$e !tronger1 2P ato( #. 1=3. T$e ru er ma*e! a'! t$at are to $"! a)/antage. T$e ru er t$en )ec are! t$at "t "! <u!t to o.e% t$e a'!( an) t$at "t "! un<u!t to )"!o.e% t$e a'!. S"nce t$e a'! are to t$e a)/antage of t$e ru er( "t fo o'! t$at <u!t"ce( or o.e)"ence to t$e a'!( "! to t$e a)/antage of t$e ru er 2P ato( #. 1=3.

T$at "! to !a%( <u!t"ce "! to t$e a)/antage of t$e !tronger. Etc. 66666666666666666666666666666666 F E5tra, #o!!". e tran! at"on of #aragra#$ one "nto an argument "n !"m# e og"ca form. T$ere "! no nee) to attem#t t$"!.G 1. E/er% c"t% $a! a ru er 21t$e !tronger13. 7. T$e ru er ma*e! a'! t$at are to t$e a)/antage of t$e ru er. 9. T$e ru er )ec are! t$at "t "! <u!t to o.e% t$e a'!( an) un<u!t to )"!o.e% t$e a'!. =. T$erefore( <u!t"ce "! o.e)"ence to t$e a'!. 2from 93 @. O.e)"ence to t$e a'! "! to t$e a)/antage of t$e ru er. 2from 76=3 666O Lu!t"ce "! t$e a)/antage of t$e ru er 24t$e !tronger43.