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Unit I : Introduction to Research Methodology

By Rajendra Lamsal HOD: Finance and Marketing Department Lumbini Banijya Campus

What is research?
Research is the systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. b. an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical investigation.

Research Defined
A structured way of answering questions, a systematic method of inquiry. Research is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or relationships and to expand and verify existing knowledge. Two key components Systematic in nature Focuses on a question of interest

Comparison Between Basic and Applied Research


The terms basic and applied imply a clear distinction between two classes of research. In basic research, general theories, ideas, and questions are explored and tested. It may even be argued that this type of research should not have priority, because it does not always result in an immediate benefit to humans, but without basic research, many applied research programs would be hard-pressed to get the start they need.

Comparisons:
Basic Research Applied Research

Domain- driven - intended to lead theoretical development Justified in terms of gaining knowledge for its sake they focus on making things better and creating a more humane society Done for the intellectual pleasure of learning

Demand-driven intended to lead to soln of specific problems Designed to solve practical problems of the modern world

Done to test theories in the field to achieve better validity.

Comparisons
Basic Mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory Directed towards finding information that has broad base of applications No commercial value attached to the discoveries that result from basic research. Applied Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society The central aim is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem There is commercial value, e.g. research to improve agricultural crop production

Comparisons
Applied Basic Synthetic Analytic Involves a search for Entails a search for pragmatics solutions to enduring or general particular problems truths Entirely a pursuit of Exploration curious social concerns rather than mundane events

Nature of Research
Systematic plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate Logical examine procedures to evaluate conclusions Empirical decisions are based on data (observation) Reductive general relationships are established from data Replicable actions are recorded
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Purpose of Research
1. Generation of new knowledge

The subject of study is relatively new and unstudied. 2. Validation of theory Testing, modifying and expanding theories. (A theory is an idea that attempts to explain reality). 3. Solving problems An investigation is commissioned into a issue with a view to remedying the situation based on the research findings. This is referred to as applied research.

Scientific Research
Science is the study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world in systematic manner specially through observation and experiment.
Results of science are developed from Observation and experiments They have the relationship of Cause and effect. Able to tested and retested Universally true principle

Scientific Research
So the result of Scientific Research
Rigid Empirically testable Clearly defined variables Facilitates Direct observation and Correction Have fixed answer (Objectivity) Replicability (Can be tested again and again) Scientific research is focused goal of problem solving. It follows certain scientific steps, methods and it has the nature of replicability.

Research Process
Realizing Problem identification Theoretical framework Hypothesis formulation Research design Collection of data Data analysis and interpretation and Generalization of data

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Characteristics/ Hallmarks of scientific research


Successful managerial decisions are seldom made on hunches or on trail and error method. The sound and effective decisions are always made on the basis of scientific research. Scientific research focuses on solving problems in a step _by _step logical, organized and rigorous manner in each step of research viz., identifying problem, gathering data, analyzing it and in arriving at a valid conclusion. Organizations may not always be involved in the scientific research due to various reasons like - simple problems which can solved with previous experience, time contingency, lack of knowledge, resource constraints etc.,

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However the scientific research performed in a rigorous and systematic way leads to repeatable and comparable research findings. It also enables the researchers to arrive at accurate, dependable and subjective findings. The hallmarks or distinguishing characteristic features of scientific research are as follows:
1. Purposiveness 3. Testability 5. Precision and Confidence 7. Generalizability 2. Rigor 4. Replicability 6. Objectivity

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1. Purposiveness :
SR must have a focus or a specific purpose. Research without purpose leads ambiguity. Clear purpose affect whole research process.

Failure to mention the purpose clearly will raise doubts in the minds of stakeholders of the research as to whether the researcher has sufficient understanding of the problem.
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2. Rigor
Rigor means carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of exactness in research investigation. In order to make a meaningful and worthwhile contribution to the field of knowledge, research must be carried out rigorously. Conducting a rigorous research requires a good theoretical knowledge and a clearly laid out methodology. This will eliminate the bias; facilitate proper data collection and analysis, which in turn would lead to sound and reliable research findings. Example:
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the manager reaches several conclusions on how employee commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for the following reasons:

1. 2. 3.

Based on few employees Bias and incorrectness There might be other influences on commitment which are ignored and are important for a researcher to know Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and thought out methodology. These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered.

3. Testability
After random selection manager and researcher develops certain hypothesis on how manager employee commitment can be enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose.
Test of hypothesis, is therefore, characteristics of scientific research. an important

The researcher might hypothesize that those employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in decision making would have a higher level of commitment.

4. Replicability
It means that it can be used again if similar circumstances prevails. In other words, by using similar method and procedures of data collection and analysis as followed by the previous study, the other research studies must also come with similar results, Replicability, It also eliminates the doubt that the hypotheses are supported by chance and ensures that the findings reflect the true state of affairs.

5. Precision and Confidence


Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample. It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude of the results of the sample. Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. This is also known as confidence level.

If the precision and confidence levels of the research findings are higher then the findings of the research study would be more scientific and useful. Precision and confidence can be attained through appropriate scientific sampling design.

6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our subjective or emotional values. Business organizations will suffer a greater extent of damage if a non-databased or misleading conclusion drawn from the research is implemented. Scientific approach ensures objectivity of research.
Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making will increase organizational commitment and this was not supported by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee participation would still help!

7. Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applying the research findings of one organizational setting to other settings of almost similar nature. The research will be more useful if the solutions are applicable to a wider range. The more generlizable the research, the greater will be its usefulness and value. However it is not always possible to generalize the research findings to all other settings, situations or organizations. For achieving genaralizability the sampling design has to be logically developed and data collection method needs to be very sound. This may increase the cost of conducting the research. In most of the cases though the research findings would be based on scientific methods it is applicable only to a particular organization, settings or situations

Social science Research


The application of scientific logic and methods to social phenomena. Social science seeks to understand social behavior through (a) the measurement of social phenomena, (b) the discovery of social regularities, and (c) the creation of social theories. Feelings, emotions, attitudes, and perceptions cant not be tested in laboratory as done in natural and physical sciences.
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The difficulty of applying Scientific Methods in Social Science Research

1. Complexity of Subject Matter:

Many variables, acting independently and in interaction must be considered in any attempt to understand complex human behavior. Each individual is unique in the way he or she develops, in mental ability, in social and emotional behavior, and in total personality. The behavior of humans in groups and the influence of the behavior of group members on an individual must also be dealt with by social scientists.

2. Difficulties in Observation:
more frequently involves interpretation on the part of the observers. Motives, values, and attitudes are not open to inspection. Social scientists own values and attitudes may influence both what they choose to observe and their assessment of the findings on which they base their conclusions.

3. Problems of Accurate Measurement:


Tools for measurement in the social sciences are much less perfect and precise than the tools of the natural sciences. Multivariate statistical devices for analyzing data in the social sciences take care of relatively few of the factors that obviously are interacting. It is also difficult to ascertain honesty of the respondents.

4. Difficulties in Replication:
much more difficult to achieve. Social phenomena are singular events and cannot be repeated for purposes of observations. Reproducing the same experiment again and again can not be carried out completely in social science research

5. Influence of the Measurement process on result ( Difficulties in control)


the range of possibilities for controlled experiments on human subjects is much more limited than in the natural sciences. The respondents, when they know that they are being observed and measured, often tend to react other than normally.

Quantitative and Qualitative paradigms of research


A paradigm is a worldview or a set of assumptions about how things work. Rossman & Rollis define paradigm as shared understandings of reality Quantitative and qualitative research methods involve very different assumptions about how research should be conducted and the role of the researcher.

What is Quantitative Research?


Empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. a. Objective is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypothesis pertaining to the topic being examined b. Measurement process is crucial - provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships

What is Qualitative Research?


- Detailed data is gathered through open ended questions that provide direct quotations. - The interviewer is an integral part of the investigation Umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomenon in the social world The objective of qualitative research is to describe and possibly explain events and experiences. According to qualitative research: Researchers can only come to understand the social world through participants interpretations interpretative approach. Reality is diverse and multifaceted. The goal is to get a picture of this reality. To measure means to reduce it and therefore lose meaning.

Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Paradigm Naturalistic (Realities are
multiple, constructed, and holistic. )

Quantitative Paradigm Positivistic (Reality is single,


tangible, and fragmentable.)

Give a complete detailed Summarize and description categorize observations

Interpretation of behavior Know only roughly what you are looking for

Prediction of behavior Make explicit and clear what you are looking for

Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Paradigm Design emerges during study Ends with hypotheses & theory Time consuming detailed Quantitative Paradigm Design is explicit and clear in advance Begins with hypotheses & theory efficient Less detailed (summarize details in categories or numbers)

Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Paradigm Make abstractions, concepts and hypotheses from details (Inductive) Part of to be observed data. Insiders point of view (emic). Quantitative Paradigm Form abstractions, concepts and hypothesis in advance and check if you can find them back in the data (Deductive) Objective observer. Outsiders point of view (etic)

What is management/business research?


Business research is defined as the systematic and objective process of generating information for aid in making business decisions. Business Research provides the needed information that guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems. The information provided could be the result of a careful analysis of data gathered firsthand or of data that are already available (in the company).

Why is it important for managers to know about research? (Managerial Value of Research)

The prime managerial value of business research is that it reduces uncertainty by providing information that it improves the decision making process, which associated with the development and implementation of a strategy involves fours interrelated stages: 1) Identifying problems or opportunities 2) Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities 3) Selecting and implementing a course of action 4) Evaluating the course of action

1. Identifying problems or opportunities: Before any strategy can be developed, an organization must determine where it wants to go and how it will get there. 2. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities: After problems or opportunities has been identified, Next step is to gain insight about the underlying factors causing the situation. 3. Selecting and implementing a course of action: Selecting best among alternatives

4. Evaluating the course of action: (1) Evaluation research is the formal , objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives. (2)Performance monitoring research is done regularly to provide feedback for evaluation and control of business activities. (3) Total Quality management is business philosophy that focuses on integrating customer driven quality throughout the organization.

Types of Management Research


Policy Research Managerial Research Action Research Evaluation Research

Policy Research
Policy-oriented research is designed to inform or understand one or more aspects of the public and social policy process, including decision making and policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation. A distinction may be made between research for policy and research of policy. Research for policy is research that informs the various stages of the policy process (before the formation of policy through to the implementation of policy). Research of policy is concerned with how problems are defined, agendas are set, policy is formulated, decisions are made, and how policy is implemented, evaluated, and changed (Nutley&Webb, 2000, p. 15).

Managerial Research
Managerial research is related to the specific problem of limited scope for which management need of additional information on which to base decision. This types of research is focused on one particular activity, scheme, or project launched by the management. Market potential for new product, best approach of new MIS etc. It concerns the seeking of solutions as to what should be done to solve problem and how to implement the solution Managerial research tend to be future oriented as opposed to taking an interest in the effectiveness of prior actions.

Action Research
As its name suggests, action research concerns actors those people carrying out their professional actions from day to day and its purpose is to understand and to improve those actions. It is about trying to understand professional action from the inside.

Carr and Kemmis (1986) describe action research as being about: the improvement of practice; the improvement of the understanding of practice; the improvement of the situation in which the practice takes place.

Action research as cyclic

& Skrzypic, 2012) Action(Spears research as cyclic

Evaluation Research
It is the formal, objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives. In addition to measuring the extent to which completed programs achieved their objectives or whether continuing program are presently performing as projected, evaluation research may provide information about the major factors influencing the observed performance level

Classification of Management research on the basis of functional area


Financial management research Production management research HR management research Marketing management research

What are Research Ethics?


Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with others The goal is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities

1. Ethical Treatment of Participants


Begin data collection by explaining to the participant the benefits expected from the research Explain to the participants that their rights and well-being will be adequately protected, and say how this will be done Be certain that interviewers obtain the informed consent of the participant

Issues Related to Protecting Participants

Informed consent Debriefing Right to Privacy/Confidentiality

a. Informed Consent
Securing informed consent from participants is a matter of fully disclosing the procedures of the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed with the study. If there is a chance the data could harm the participant (offering only limited confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits should be obtained. For most business research, oral consent is sufficient.

Informed Consent Procedures for Surveys


Introduce yourself. Brief description of the survey topic. Geographical area of the respondents and target sample. Sponsors name. Describe purpose of research. Time estimate for completing the interview Promise anonymity and confidentiality (when appropriate). Tell the interviewee that participation is voluntary. Tell the participant that item-non response is acceptable. Ask permission to begin.

b. Debriefing Participants
Debriefing involves several activities following the collection of data:
Explanation of any deception. Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the study. Post study sharing of results. Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention. The use of deception is questionable; when it is used, debrief any participant who has been deceived.

c. Rights to Privacy
Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse to be interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview. To address these rights, ethical researchers do the following:
Inform participants of their right to refuse to answer any question or participate in the study. Obtain permission to interview participants. Schedule field and phone interviews. Limit the time required for participation. Restrict observation to public behavior only.

2. Ethics and the Sponsor: Confidentiality


Some sponsors wish to undertake research without revealing themselves. They have a right to several types of confidentiality including
Sponsor non-disclosure Purpose non-disclosure Findings non-disclosure

Sponsor non-disclosure
Companies have a right to dissociate themselves from the sponsorship of a research project.
Due to the sensitive nature of management dilemma, or the research question, sponsor may hire an outside consulting or research firm to complete research project:
For example, when a company is testing a new product idea or If a company is contemplating entering a new market, it may not wish to reveal its plans to competitor. In such cases, it is the responsibility of the researcher to respect this desire.

Purpose non-disclosure
A research sponsor may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented and may not want to know of its plans:
It may be investigating employee complaints and may not want to spark union activity or The sponsor might be contemplating a new public stock offering, where advance disclosure would spark the interest of authorities or cost the firm heavily.

Findings non-disclosure
Most sponsors feel no need to hide their identity or the study purpose but want the research data and findings to be confidential, at least until the management decision is made. Thus sponsors usually demand and receive findings nondisclosure between themselves or their researchers.

3. Ethical Issues related to Researchers and Team Members

Safety Ethical behavior of assistants Protection of anonymity

4. Other issues related to scientific investigation


I. Plagiarism ii. Fabrication and Falsification III. Non-publication of Data IV. Faulty Data Gathering V. Poor Data Storage VI .Misleading Authorship

I. Plagiarism
Means using ideas, writings, or drawings of others as your own. Happens with student work as well with advent of Internet, the availability of research is greater is often more tempting
Can occur unintentionally with students and researchers if they are careless or nonsystematic about their pre-writing and revision to a paper/manuscript

Many schools are accessing plagiarism software


Anti-Plagiarism V.1.2

Common practice is to circulate drafts of papers among scholars who are know to be working in a specific area give credit where credit is due.

ii. Fabrication and Falsification


Occasionally, scientists will be caught making up research
Technical term is called Cooking the data

I only need a few more subjects, but I am running out of time. Falsification can also occur with cited literature Be careful how you are interpreting what an author says If it aint there, dont make it up out of thin air. Is another reason you should rely primarily on primary, original sources.

III. Non-publication of Data


This refers to not including data because they dont support the hypothesis Sometimes in the data, there are extreme scores or outliers - and these outliers are trimmed from the data set They can result in nonsiginificant findings but should automatically be cut.

Nonsiginificant results often give just as much important information as do significant results.

IV. Faulty Data Gathering

1.

Aspects that students should be aware of:


Continuing with data collection from participants who are not meeting the requirement of the research EXAMPLES? Subject comes in with a hangover and you use that data anyway
Malfunctioning equipment Inappropriate treatment of subjects Recording data incorrectly

2. 3. 4.

V. Poor Data Storage


Rule of thumb is to keep data for 3 years All original data should be kept if there is a question

VI .Misleading Authorship
1. 2. Order of authorship is based on authors contributions 1st author usually developed the idea for the research This needs to be decided BEFORE the research is started. Technicians are not necessarily authors
Data collectors are not necessarily included in the authorship

Two rules help to define authorship:

Authorship SHOULD include only those who directly contribute

Methodology for Management Research:

Objectives

Data Requirements and analysis

Research Output

Objectives

Data Requirements and analysis

Research Output

Objectives

Data Requirements and analysis

Research Output

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