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By Rajendra Lamsal HOD: Finance and Marketing Department Lumbini Banijya Campus
What is research?
Research is the systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. b. an endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical investigation.
Research Defined
A structured way of answering questions, a systematic method of inquiry. Research is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or relationships and to expand and verify existing knowledge. Two key components Systematic in nature Focuses on a question of interest
Comparisons:
Basic Research Applied Research
Domain- driven - intended to lead theoretical development Justified in terms of gaining knowledge for its sake they focus on making things better and creating a more humane society Done for the intellectual pleasure of learning
Demand-driven intended to lead to soln of specific problems Designed to solve practical problems of the modern world
Comparisons
Basic Mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory Directed towards finding information that has broad base of applications No commercial value attached to the discoveries that result from basic research. Applied Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society The central aim is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem There is commercial value, e.g. research to improve agricultural crop production
Comparisons
Applied Basic Synthetic Analytic Involves a search for Entails a search for pragmatics solutions to enduring or general particular problems truths Entirely a pursuit of Exploration curious social concerns rather than mundane events
Nature of Research
Systematic plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate Logical examine procedures to evaluate conclusions Empirical decisions are based on data (observation) Reductive general relationships are established from data Replicable actions are recorded
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Purpose of Research
1. Generation of new knowledge
The subject of study is relatively new and unstudied. 2. Validation of theory Testing, modifying and expanding theories. (A theory is an idea that attempts to explain reality). 3. Solving problems An investigation is commissioned into a issue with a view to remedying the situation based on the research findings. This is referred to as applied research.
Scientific Research
Science is the study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world in systematic manner specially through observation and experiment.
Results of science are developed from Observation and experiments They have the relationship of Cause and effect. Able to tested and retested Universally true principle
Scientific Research
So the result of Scientific Research
Rigid Empirically testable Clearly defined variables Facilitates Direct observation and Correction Have fixed answer (Objectivity) Replicability (Can be tested again and again) Scientific research is focused goal of problem solving. It follows certain scientific steps, methods and it has the nature of replicability.
Research Process
Realizing Problem identification Theoretical framework Hypothesis formulation Research design Collection of data Data analysis and interpretation and Generalization of data
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However the scientific research performed in a rigorous and systematic way leads to repeatable and comparable research findings. It also enables the researchers to arrive at accurate, dependable and subjective findings. The hallmarks or distinguishing characteristic features of scientific research are as follows:
1. Purposiveness 3. Testability 5. Precision and Confidence 7. Generalizability 2. Rigor 4. Replicability 6. Objectivity
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1. Purposiveness :
SR must have a focus or a specific purpose. Research without purpose leads ambiguity. Clear purpose affect whole research process.
Failure to mention the purpose clearly will raise doubts in the minds of stakeholders of the research as to whether the researcher has sufficient understanding of the problem.
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2. Rigor
Rigor means carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of exactness in research investigation. In order to make a meaningful and worthwhile contribution to the field of knowledge, research must be carried out rigorously. Conducting a rigorous research requires a good theoretical knowledge and a clearly laid out methodology. This will eliminate the bias; facilitate proper data collection and analysis, which in turn would lead to sound and reliable research findings. Example:
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the manager reaches several conclusions on how employee commitment can be increases, the whole approach to the investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for the following reasons:
1. 2. 3.
Based on few employees Bias and incorrectness There might be other influences on commitment which are ignored and are important for a researcher to know Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and thought out methodology. These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered.
3. Testability
After random selection manager and researcher develops certain hypothesis on how manager employee commitment can be enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose.
Test of hypothesis, is therefore, characteristics of scientific research. an important
The researcher might hypothesize that those employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in decision making would have a higher level of commitment.
4. Replicability
It means that it can be used again if similar circumstances prevails. In other words, by using similar method and procedures of data collection and analysis as followed by the previous study, the other research studies must also come with similar results, Replicability, It also eliminates the doubt that the hypotheses are supported by chance and ensures that the findings reflect the true state of affairs.
If the precision and confidence levels of the research findings are higher then the findings of the research study would be more scientific and useful. Precision and confidence can be attained through appropriate scientific sampling design.
6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our subjective or emotional values. Business organizations will suffer a greater extent of damage if a non-databased or misleading conclusion drawn from the research is implemented. Scientific approach ensures objectivity of research.
Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making will increase organizational commitment and this was not supported by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee participation would still help!
7. Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applying the research findings of one organizational setting to other settings of almost similar nature. The research will be more useful if the solutions are applicable to a wider range. The more generlizable the research, the greater will be its usefulness and value. However it is not always possible to generalize the research findings to all other settings, situations or organizations. For achieving genaralizability the sampling design has to be logically developed and data collection method needs to be very sound. This may increase the cost of conducting the research. In most of the cases though the research findings would be based on scientific methods it is applicable only to a particular organization, settings or situations
Many variables, acting independently and in interaction must be considered in any attempt to understand complex human behavior. Each individual is unique in the way he or she develops, in mental ability, in social and emotional behavior, and in total personality. The behavior of humans in groups and the influence of the behavior of group members on an individual must also be dealt with by social scientists.
2. Difficulties in Observation:
more frequently involves interpretation on the part of the observers. Motives, values, and attitudes are not open to inspection. Social scientists own values and attitudes may influence both what they choose to observe and their assessment of the findings on which they base their conclusions.
4. Difficulties in Replication:
much more difficult to achieve. Social phenomena are singular events and cannot be repeated for purposes of observations. Reproducing the same experiment again and again can not be carried out completely in social science research
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Paradigm Naturalistic (Realities are
multiple, constructed, and holistic. )
Interpretation of behavior Know only roughly what you are looking for
Prediction of behavior Make explicit and clear what you are looking for
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Paradigm Design emerges during study Ends with hypotheses & theory Time consuming detailed Quantitative Paradigm Design is explicit and clear in advance Begins with hypotheses & theory efficient Less detailed (summarize details in categories or numbers)
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Paradigm Make abstractions, concepts and hypotheses from details (Inductive) Part of to be observed data. Insiders point of view (emic). Quantitative Paradigm Form abstractions, concepts and hypothesis in advance and check if you can find them back in the data (Deductive) Objective observer. Outsiders point of view (etic)
Why is it important for managers to know about research? (Managerial Value of Research)
The prime managerial value of business research is that it reduces uncertainty by providing information that it improves the decision making process, which associated with the development and implementation of a strategy involves fours interrelated stages: 1) Identifying problems or opportunities 2) Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities 3) Selecting and implementing a course of action 4) Evaluating the course of action
1. Identifying problems or opportunities: Before any strategy can be developed, an organization must determine where it wants to go and how it will get there. 2. Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities: After problems or opportunities has been identified, Next step is to gain insight about the underlying factors causing the situation. 3. Selecting and implementing a course of action: Selecting best among alternatives
4. Evaluating the course of action: (1) Evaluation research is the formal , objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives. (2)Performance monitoring research is done regularly to provide feedback for evaluation and control of business activities. (3) Total Quality management is business philosophy that focuses on integrating customer driven quality throughout the organization.
Policy Research
Policy-oriented research is designed to inform or understand one or more aspects of the public and social policy process, including decision making and policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation. A distinction may be made between research for policy and research of policy. Research for policy is research that informs the various stages of the policy process (before the formation of policy through to the implementation of policy). Research of policy is concerned with how problems are defined, agendas are set, policy is formulated, decisions are made, and how policy is implemented, evaluated, and changed (Nutley&Webb, 2000, p. 15).
Managerial Research
Managerial research is related to the specific problem of limited scope for which management need of additional information on which to base decision. This types of research is focused on one particular activity, scheme, or project launched by the management. Market potential for new product, best approach of new MIS etc. It concerns the seeking of solutions as to what should be done to solve problem and how to implement the solution Managerial research tend to be future oriented as opposed to taking an interest in the effectiveness of prior actions.
Action Research
As its name suggests, action research concerns actors those people carrying out their professional actions from day to day and its purpose is to understand and to improve those actions. It is about trying to understand professional action from the inside.
Carr and Kemmis (1986) describe action research as being about: the improvement of practice; the improvement of the understanding of practice; the improvement of the situation in which the practice takes place.
Evaluation Research
It is the formal, objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives. In addition to measuring the extent to which completed programs achieved their objectives or whether continuing program are presently performing as projected, evaluation research may provide information about the major factors influencing the observed performance level
a. Informed Consent
Securing informed consent from participants is a matter of fully disclosing the procedures of the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed with the study. If there is a chance the data could harm the participant (offering only limited confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits should be obtained. For most business research, oral consent is sufficient.
b. Debriefing Participants
Debriefing involves several activities following the collection of data:
Explanation of any deception. Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the study. Post study sharing of results. Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention. The use of deception is questionable; when it is used, debrief any participant who has been deceived.
c. Rights to Privacy
Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse to be interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview. To address these rights, ethical researchers do the following:
Inform participants of their right to refuse to answer any question or participate in the study. Obtain permission to interview participants. Schedule field and phone interviews. Limit the time required for participation. Restrict observation to public behavior only.
Sponsor non-disclosure
Companies have a right to dissociate themselves from the sponsorship of a research project.
Due to the sensitive nature of management dilemma, or the research question, sponsor may hire an outside consulting or research firm to complete research project:
For example, when a company is testing a new product idea or If a company is contemplating entering a new market, it may not wish to reveal its plans to competitor. In such cases, it is the responsibility of the researcher to respect this desire.
Purpose non-disclosure
A research sponsor may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented and may not want to know of its plans:
It may be investigating employee complaints and may not want to spark union activity or The sponsor might be contemplating a new public stock offering, where advance disclosure would spark the interest of authorities or cost the firm heavily.
Findings non-disclosure
Most sponsors feel no need to hide their identity or the study purpose but want the research data and findings to be confidential, at least until the management decision is made. Thus sponsors usually demand and receive findings nondisclosure between themselves or their researchers.
I. Plagiarism
Means using ideas, writings, or drawings of others as your own. Happens with student work as well with advent of Internet, the availability of research is greater is often more tempting
Can occur unintentionally with students and researchers if they are careless or nonsystematic about their pre-writing and revision to a paper/manuscript
Common practice is to circulate drafts of papers among scholars who are know to be working in a specific area give credit where credit is due.
I only need a few more subjects, but I am running out of time. Falsification can also occur with cited literature Be careful how you are interpreting what an author says If it aint there, dont make it up out of thin air. Is another reason you should rely primarily on primary, original sources.
Nonsiginificant results often give just as much important information as do significant results.
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VI .Misleading Authorship
1. 2. Order of authorship is based on authors contributions 1st author usually developed the idea for the research This needs to be decided BEFORE the research is started. Technicians are not necessarily authors
Data collectors are not necessarily included in the authorship
Objectives
Research Output
Objectives
Research Output
Objectives
Research Output