a.

iar

THE METRO POLITAN MUSEUM OF ART BULLETIN

'''' ?11

Qae L,:
':IPLJCIL-? L; 5

Summer 2002
I?g

rl I

--3CjLICL

I I :
.'

. ,

-:

.4

,5

i:
.I l IP1 i'/^
I

*P~~~~~~~~~~~*i 4

': I

WVq

L IF

: ALONGy

fG

T H E

NI

L E

Three Egyptians of Ancient Thebes

CATHA

RIN E H. ROEH RI G

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin www.jstor.org

D
This publicationwas made possible through the generosity of the LilaAchesonWallaceFund for The MetropolitanMuseum of Art establishedby the cofounder of Reader's Digest.
TheMetropolitan Museumof Art Bulletin
Summer 2002 HE

T
is

R 'S

NOTE

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

Volume LX,Number 1
(ISSN 0026-1521)

Copyright? 2002 by The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Publishedquarterly.Periodicalspostage paid at New York,N.Y.,and AdditionalMailing Offices. TheMetropolitan Museumof Art Bulletinis providedas a benefit to Museum members and is availableby
subscription. Subscriptions $25.00 a year. Single copies $8.95. Four weeks'

privilegedto possess one of the world's premiercollections of art from ancient Egypt.A quicktour of the Egyptiangalleries revealsnumerous statues,reliefs,paintings, amulets and other jewelry,ceramics, pieces of furniture,and even architectural monuments that are among the greatmasterpiecesof the Egyptianculture.Moreover,anyonewho has wanderedat a more leisurelypace through the galleries,which
contain more than 35,000 objects, knows

notice requiredfor change of address.

POSTMASTER:

Send address changes

to MembershipDepartment,The MetropolitanMuseum of Art, 1000

Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10028-

0198.Backissues availableon microfilm from UniversityMicrofilms,300 N. Zeeb Road,Ann Arbor,Mich.

48106. Volumes I-xxxvII
(1905-42)

availableas clothbound reprintset or as individualyearlyvolumes from AyerCompanyPublishersInc., 50 NorthwesternDrive #1o, Salem,N.H.

03079, or from the Museum, Box 700, Middle Village, N.Y. 11379.

General Managerof Publications John P. O'Neill Editorin Chiefof theBulletin JoanHolt Editor JenniferBernstein Production PeterAntony and Zach Siegel Design EmsworthDesign All photographsof works in the Museum'scollection, unless otherwise noted, are by the PhotographStudio of The MetropolitanMuseum of Art. New photographyfor this Bulletinis by BruceSchwarzof the Photograph Studio. Of the photographstaken in Egypt,figure56 is by DieterArnold
and figures 57, 59, 62, 67, and 69 are

that unexpectedtreasuresawaitthe visitor who chooses to exploremore thoroughly the wealthof materialproducedby accomplished artistsworking in all media over more than five thousand years. Nearly thirtyyearsago,whenpreparations werewell underway for the installationof the Templeof Dendurundera new glass enclosurein the Sackler Wing, the Museum of the Bulletindedicated an issue published to the subjectof dailylife in ancientEgypt. As was popularat the time, the bookletwas organizedaccordingto categoriessuch as "Dress," "Tableware," "Housekeeping," so and the objects and on, "Recreation," used to illustrateeach section includedthe sumptuouspossessionsof kings,queens, and wealthyofficials.Sincethat time, our of the Egyptianculturehas understanding and progressed, in this issue of the Bulletin, CatharineH. Roehrig,curatorin the Art,has chosen Departmentof Egyptian to presentthe subjectof dailylife from a differentperspective by drawingon the Museum'srich concentrationof excavated the lives of three materialto reconstruct who did not belong to Egypt's Egyptians elite rulingclasses. Theseindividuals-the managerof a wealthyman'sestate,the motherof an and a skilledcraftsman-are all architect, known to us simplyby the good fortune that theirtombs lay hidden,undisturbed, for thousandsof years.The contentsof the

tombs,which includedfunerary equipment, religioustexts,and, aboveall,personal effects,give us intriguingimagesof these threepeople.Moregenerally, we can see how fullythe artswereintegrated into the of lives all not day-to-day Egyptians, just those of the royalfamilyand the rulingelite. The illustrationsin this Bulletinalso provide a closer look at some of the bestknown worksin the collection-the models that belonged to the Middle Kingdom nobleman Meketre,the employerof the estatemanagermentioned above.Usually seen within the context of the crowded miniatureworkshopsand boats that they populate,groups of bakers,brewers, hunters,and musicianshavebeen photographedseparatelyfor this publication, allowing us to admirethe greatskill of the creatorsof these small,vital figures. I hope that this issue of the Bulletinwill encourageyou to revisitour Egyptian galleriesand discoverthe rich varietyof artworksthat offer glimpses into a civilization that flourishedso many centuriesago and continues to fascinateus today. Philippe de Montebello Director

by CatharineH. Roehrig.The blackand-white photographs,with the exception of figure67, are by Harry Burtonof the EgyptianExpeditionof The MetropolitanMuseum of Art.
On the front cover: Meketre's model

Plasteredand painted wood; granary. linen; ancient grain and straw.Maximum h. of walls 143/8 in. (36.5 cm). Rogers Fund, 1920 (20.3.11). Back cover: Eye panel on Wah's coffin (detail; see p. 23, fig. 28)

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin www.jstor.org

u! uew aq4 oI xau ',q6!J J-a,ua le alq!s!A 'J4jouleH'Ja41ows!4 lo qwo a414 q4!M '11!4 a!4qM euJno-la pqV 4t1!4lSlo do4 aq4 Jeau (LL [ii] qwol ueqa4q) jade4a 6u!Jajo s,lnwuauas 6u!MoqsMa!A Lain6!i

First Unification of Egypt 3100 B.C.

3000

Archaic Period 3100-2649 B.C.

2800

Dynasties 0-2

2600

Old Kingdom 2649-2150

B.C.
2400

Dynasties 3-6

2200

First Intermediate Period 2150-2030 B.C.

2000

Dynasty 8-mid-Dynasty 11

Middle Kingdom 2030-1640

B.C. 1 800

Mid-Dynasty 11-Dynasty 13

Second Intermediate Period 1640-1550 B.C.

1 600

Dynasties 14-17

1400

New Kingdom 1550-1070 B.C.

1200

Dynasties 18-20

1000

Third Intermediate Period 1070-712 B.C.

800

Dynasties 21-24

600

Late Period 712-343 B.C. Persian Period 343-332 B.C. Macedonian Period 332-304 B.C. Ptolemaic Period 304-30 B.C.
400

Dynasties 25-30

200

Roman Period 30 B.C.-A.D. 364

200

Byzantine Period A.D. 364-476

400

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin www.jstor.org

ROM1906 TO 1936,the EgyptianExpeditionof the MetropolitanMuseum'sDepartmentof Egyptian

Art conductedexcavationsat severalsites in Egypt.During these three decades,while workingin the cemeteriesof western Thebes, across the Nile Riverfrom the modern city of Luxor,the Museum's archaeologistsuncovereda number of intact tombs belonging to nonroyalindividuals.By the terms of the Museum'scontract with the EgyptianAntiquities Service,the finds from these tombs were divided, with half going to the EgyptianMuseum in Cairoand half coming to New York.The burialsconapproximately tained personalpossessions of the deceasedand funerarygifts left by family members.They also contained mummified bodies, the examination of which has given us some idea of the appearanceof the living individuals,as well as their physicalcondition and age at death. Two of these tombs, which provideus with invaluableinformationabout the lives of the ancient Egyptians, are highlightedin this Bulletin.The earlierof the two datesto the Middle Kingdomand belonged to a man named Wah;it was discoveredon March24,1920,beneaththe causewayleadingto the destroyedtomb of an important official,Meketre,who was Wah'semployer.The second, the earlyNew Kingdomtomb of a woman named Hatnofer,was uncoveredon January 11,1936,beneath the man-made terraceof the offering chapel belonging to her son Senenmut,the chief architect. The thirdand latestassemblage thatwill be discussedherebelongedto a man namedKhonsu,who livedat aboutthe midpointof the New Kingdom.Khonsuwas buriedwith severalgenerations of his familyin a tomb that was discoveredby membersof the EgyptianAntiquitiesServicein 1886.Becausethe funeraryfurniture within the cryptwas all quite similarin style,the Egyptiangovernmentgenerouslyallowedthe Metropolitan Museumto purchasea groupof objectsfromthe tomb-an acquisition that represented a significant addition to the fledglingcollectionof Egyptianart,nearlytwentyyearsbeforethe Museumbeganits own excavations. time in Egypt'shistory.Wahwas born in the Wah,Hatnofer,and Khonsu each lived at an extraordinary earlyMiddle Kingdomat the end of the reign of one of Egypt'sgreatestkings,NebhepetreMentuhotep,and he lived through the transitionalperiod in which power passed from the EleventhDynasty to the Twelfth. Hatnoferwas born late in the reign of NebpehtyreAhmose, another of Egypt'smost renowned rulers,and lived to see the great female pharaoh MaatkareHatshepsutbecome the principal ruler of Egypt. Khonsu, who was probablyborn at the very end of the EighteenthDynasty,nearlytwo centuriesafterHatnofer,lived most of his long life under a single pharaoh,UsermaatreRamesses,called the Great-the most illustrious
ruler of Dynasty 19.

The majority of the illustrationsin this Bulletinare of objects that were found in the tombs of Wah, Hatnofer,and Khonsu, but supplementarymaterial from the same periods has also been included. The black-and-whitephotographsare from the archivesof the EgyptianExpedition and were taken by Harry Burton (1879-1940), the expedition'sphotographer. The line drawingsare based on those made in the field by the expedition'sarchaeologistsand draftsmen. dates that Egyptianchronology is an ongoing area of study that is constantlybeing updated.The B.C. appearin the text of this Bulletinarebased on the chronologycurrentlyin use in the galleriesof the Department of EgyptianArt. These dates should be understoodas approximate, althoughthe prefix circahas been droppedexceptin the captions for the illustrations.

THE

M A N A G E R

OF

T HE

STOREHOUSE

jII _

EJ

Dynasty 11

2124-1981 B.C.

First Intermediate Period

2150-2030

B.C.

Nebhepetre Mentuhotep (II) 2051-2000 B.C.

Reunification of Egypt 2030 B.C. Birth of Wah 2005 B.C.

SeankhkareMentuhotep (III) 2000-1988 B.C. B.C. Nebtawyre Mentuhotep (IV) 1988-1981

- - - -

Dynasty 12 1981-1802

B.C.

B.C. Sehetepibre Amenemhat (I) 1981-1952

Death of Wah 1975 B.C. Capital moved north 1975 B.C.

Middle Kingdom 2030-1640 B.C.

IV

61

Figure2 Relief depicting Nebhepetre Mentuhotep(detail) FromwesternThebes(DeirelBahri, temple of Nebhepetre Dynasty11. Painted Mentuhotep).
limestone. H. 141/8 in. (36 cm).

ust over four thousandyearsago, in about 2005 B.C.,a boy named Wah was born in the Upper Egyptian provinceof Waset,which took its name from the city betterknown today by its ancient Greekname Thebes.At that time, Thebeswas the capitalof all Egypt, and NebhepetreMentuhotep,founder of the Middle Kingdom,was nearingthe end of his long reign.Nebhepetrewas a member of the Thebanfamilythat had controlleda largepart of Upper Egypt for severalgenerations.Earlyin the third decadeof his reign,about twenty-fiveyears beforeWah'sbirth, the king had reunited Upper and LowerEgyptaftera period of civilwarand had takenthe Horusname Sematawy-Uniter of the TwoLands.For his accomplishment,Nebhepetrewas foreverhonored by the Egyptiansas one of their greatestpharaohs. While growingup, Wahundoubtedly heardtales of the difficulttime when there had been no supremeleaderruling over the two lands of Egyptand Thebeswas cut off from tradewith the foreignlands to the northeast.He must havebeen told countlesstimes of the heroic deeds of Nebhepetreand his supporters,who had fought to reunitethe Nile Valleyin the south with the delta in the north. But in Wah'slifetime therewas peace,and prosperitywas returningto the land. Earlyin his life, probablywhen he was six or seven,Wahbeganstudyingto become a scribe.Learning the art of writingwas a processaccomplished long, painstaking primarilyby copyingstandardreligious texts,famousliteraryworks,songs, and poetry.Wahmay havemasteredboth the formalhieroglyphicand the cursivehieratic scripts,memorizinghundredsof signs and learningwhich had specificmeanings in themselves; which represented sounds and could be used to spell out words; which were determinatives, or signs that give clues as to the meaningof a word;and which could be used in more than one of

these ways.He would havepracticedforming the signs, learningtheir correctsize and spacingin relationto one another.He would also havelearnedto mix ink and to makebrushesfrom reeds,for Egyptian handwritingwas a form of painting,and the finest scribesdevelopedpersonalhands that were calligraphic in style. Sometimein his youth, perhapsquite earlyin his scribaltraining,Wahwent to work on the estateof Meketre,a wealthy Thebanwho had begun his careeras a governmentofficialduringthe reign of Nebhepetreand eventuallyrose to the exalted or treasurer-one position of "sealbearer," of the most powerfulpositions at court. A man of Meketre's importanceprobably owned a greatdeal of land, and his private domain would havebeen virtuallyselfsufficient,with tenant farmers,artisansand other specializedlaborers,scribes,administrators,and servantsall living and working on the estate.Wahprobablybegan his serviceas one of the lower-levelscribes, keepingaccountsand writingletters.Ultior manager, mately,he became an overseer, of the storeroomson the estate. We can speculateabout some of Wah's duties thanksto a set of wooden models that were probablymade during his lifetime as part of the burial equipment of his
employer, Meketre (see pp. 12-13). These

RogersFund,1907 (07.230.2) Theancient Egyptians considered NebhepetreMentuhotepone of their greatest kingsbecause he reunitedUpperand LowerEgypt after a periodof conflict. His Horusname,Uniterof the Two Lands, appearsin the rectangular device at the upperleft of this detail, and his personalname, Mentuhotep,is written in the oval-shapedcartouchebeside it.

small scenes,which form one of the finest and most complete sets of Middle Kingdom funerarymodels ever discovered,can be interpretedon more than one level. All of them have symbolic meanings connected with Egyptianfunerarybeliefs,but they also provide a pictureof the dayto-day tasksthat were performedon an ancient Egyptianestate.The basis of Egypt'seconomy was agriculture,and the grains,freshfruits,and vegetablesraised on Meketre's lands would havebeen his most importantassets.A largeportion of the crops would have been dried or processedinto oil and wine, stored,and used throughoutthe year in the estate's

Figure3 Fragmentof a quiver (?) FromwesternThebes(el-Khokha, MMA tomb 830). Dynasty11.

Dyed leather. W. 5/8 in. (13 cm).

RogersFund,1928 (28.3.5) Thisfragmentwas probably part of a decorativeborderthat was attached aroundthe top of a quiveror spearcase. Thecraftsman who made it sewed together wide stripsof red and green dyed leather,then wove narrower strips of red,green,yellow,and black throughslits in the surfaceto formthe decorativepattern.

kitchens.Some of the producewas set aside for taxes and salaries.Anythingleft over could be tradedfor rawmaterialsor luxury items not availableon the estate. Breadand beer,the staplesof the Egyptian diet, were made from the same ingredients and would havebeen producedin a bakeryand a brewerythat wereprobably side by side. The bakingof breadwas a process:the grain fairlystraightforward was pounded, groundinto flour,formed into loaves,and baked.Brewingwas a longerprocessrequiringseveralextrasteps. The bakerysuppliedloavesof coarsebarley flour that were only partially baked,so as not to kill the leaveningagent.Theseloaves werebrokenup and mixedwith waterand crusheddates,which providedsugarto When the resultpromote fermentation. the brew was ready, thickliquid was ing strainedthrougha sieve and decantedinto jarsthat were sealedfor lateruse. Meketreprobablyalso employedfowlers to catchwild birds and fishermento net or harpoon the abundantfish in the Nile. Bees were raisedfor their honey, and domestic ducks and geese for their eggs and meat. Therewould havebeen herdsmen for the estate'sgoats and cattle,which providedboth milk and meat. Cattle designatedfor slaughter were fattenedand even force-fed-a practice recordedin numerous models, wall paintings, and reliefs

from all periods (see fig. 13).Afterthe animals were killed, the meat that was not to be used immediatelywas dried,and the hides were processedinto leatherfor stool seats,drum covers,sandals,shields,quivers (see fig. 3), and certaintypes of protective clothing, such as archers' wrist guards. Leatherthongs were also needed for tools and weapons. In addition,artisanson the estateproduced ceramicvesselsin which to storebeer and wine; carpenters made and repaired furniture, doors,windows,and perhaps even coffinsand other funeraryequipment, when necessary; weaverswove the hundredsof yardsof linen used in everyaspect of life and for wrappingmummies after overdeath.In his adultyears, Wahprobably sawthe output of all of the artisanal shops, as well as the storageof agricultural produce,the payingof taxes,and the doling out of wagesin grain,cloth, and other productsfor work done on the estate. As a young man, Wah must havebeen an imposing individual;at nearlysix feet, his height far exceededthat of most of his contemporaries.However,at some point he seems to have injuredboth of his feet, and his duties as a scribeand overseer probablyallowedhim to maintain quite a sedentarylifestyle.Perhapsas a resultof these circumstances, by his mid-twenties Wahhad become obese-a sign of great but also perhapsof poor health, prosperity, for he died before he was thirty.

81

4 Figure Statuette of Wah and paintedwood; Plastered linen.H. 12/8 in. (32.2 cm). S. RogersFundand Edward Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.210) Thisstatuette, intendedto serve as a home for Wah'sspirit, depictsa young man in the prime of life. Fullof vigor,the little figure has the imposingpresenceof a much largerstatue. The linen wrapmay imitatethe type of long skirtwornby MiddleKingdom officials.Beneaththis, the figurewears the moretypical short kilt,carvedinto the wood and paintedwhite.

Figure5 Scribesfrom Meketre'smodel granary Plasteredand paintedwood. H. of right-hand figure61/8 in. (15.5 cm). S. RogersFundand Edward Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.11) in his career,Wahwas probEarly for recording the ably responsible goods broughtto Meketre's granariesand other storerooms.A varietyof writingsurfaceswere availableto Egyptian scribes.One of the figuresshown here writes on a whitewashedboard,while the other uses a rollof papyrus.

Figure6 Writing boardof an apprentice scribe Provenance unknown.Dynasty11 or earlier. Whitewashed wood and ink.H. 85/8 in. (22 cm). Gift of Edward S. Harkness, 1928 (28.9.5) It is clear fromthe awkwardly formedhieroglyphs and their unevenspacingthat this is the scribe workof an inexperienced who was practicinghis penmanship.Theboardcould be used again and again by wipingoff the inkand addinga new coat of whitewash.

Figure7 Scribe'spalette and brushes From Thebes.Dynasty21

(ca. 1000 B.C.). Wood, ink, and reed. L. of palette 191/8 in.

BrisbaneDick (48.6 cm). Harris Fund,1947 (47.123) Althoughthis writingequipment belongedto a man who lived about a thousandyears after Wah,palettes and reed brushes changed little duringthat time. Thetwo depressionsat one end of the palette hold remnantsof red and blackink,and the brushes could be stored in the slot carved in the center.

10

8 Figure Facsimileof a scene depicting an estate By CharlesK.Wilkinson, Graphic of Section,Egyptian Expedition TheMetropolitan Museumof Art. Ca. 1930. Tempera on paper. H.39 in. (99 cm). RogersFund, 1930 (30.4.57) Thisscene, copied from a wall in a New Kingdom tomb,shows some of the activitiesthat might have taken place on a private estate. Inthe center of the top register,men gathergrapes, which are being processedinto wine in the registerbelow.At the far rightis a two-story house with date palmsgrowingin its In the bottom register, courtyard. cattle are being branded at the far left, while a kneelingscribe recordsthe variousproceedings.

9 Figure Account ostracon Fromthe causewayof Meketre's tomb. Limestone and ink. W. 81/4in. (21 cm). RogersFund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.161) Thislimestonechip, called an ostracon,was used by a scribeto recordthe paymenthandedout by a stewardnamedIntefto the artisansworkingon the construc-

tion of a tomb, probably that of Meketre. Theoverseersreceived five times what the ordinary were paid. quarrymen Figure10 Bakersfrom Meketre'smodel bakery Plasteredand paintedwood. H.of tallest figure71/8in. (18 cm). S. RogersFundand Edward Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.12)

Thefigures in Meketre's models, especiallythose from the combined bakeryand brewery, are small worksof art in their own right.Althoughseveralfigures in a given model may be performing the same task, each is a distinct and each has a slightly individual, differentpose.

Ill

Figure11 Brewersfrom Meketre'smodel brewery Plasteredand paintedwood. H.of tallest figure77/8in. (20 cm). S. RogersFundand Edward Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.12) The most strikingaspect of Meketre's brewersis their arms, which were speciallycraftedfor each figureaccordingto the task he performs. Thesefiguresand those in Meketre's other models convey a feeling of motion that was seldom achieved,or desired, in moreformalEgyptian statuary. Note particularly the pose of the man decantingbeer at the right.

Figure12 Duck hunter and man harpooning a fish, from Meketre'smodel sporting boat Plasteredand paintedwood; linen;linen twine; copper. H.of tallerfigure9/8 in. (24.5 cm). S. RogersFundand Edward Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.6)

121

Figure13 Meketre'smodel stable Plasteredand paintedwood. H. 11 in. (28 cm). RogersFund S. Harkness and Edward Gift, 1920 (20.3.9) In the backof the stable, cattle are feeding at a trough.In the front room,two men are forcefeeding two animals,one of which is crouchingon the ground. Figure14 Meketre'smodel slaughterhouse Plastered and paintedwood; h. of walls201/4 linen.Maximum in. (51.5 cm). RogersFundand S. Harkness Edward Gift, 1920 (20.3.10) On the upperlevel of the slaughterhouse,meat has been hung up of to dry,while the butchering cattle takes place below.

113

THE

MANAGER OF THE

death-proby the timeof Wah's

STOREHOUSE

Iq

ablybeforeYear6 in the reign of SehetepibreAmenemhat,the first king of Dynasty12-Meketre was in the processof preparinghis own impressive tomb in the cliffs of westernThebes,facing the valley where a funerarycomplex was being built for the king. Severalsubsidiarytombs were included in Meketre's burial complex, and Wahwas assigneda small corridorcut into the ratherfriable bedrockjust below the terracein front of his employer'stomb. Afterhis funeral,the entranceto Wah's tomb was buried beneath the rubble fill used to build up the causewayleading to decothe porticoed entranceof Meketre's ratedofferingchapel.While Meketre's tomb was plunderedand his beautiful and reuse chapel destroyedby earthquakes of its building materials,Wah'slittle tomb remainedhidden for nearlyfour thousand years,until it was uncoveredby the Museum'sEgyptianExpeditionin 1920. Finding only a few desiccatedfood offeringsand a coffin in the rathercrudely cut, undecoratedcorridor,the archaeologists were deceivedinto thinking that they had found the tomb of a poor man. But Wahwas by no means poor, and his burial most suggeststhat he was one of Meketre's valued retainers. In preparationfor his funeral,Wahhad been very carefullymummified. In the earlyTwelfthDynasty,bodies were preservedin a solution of natron,a type of salt that was mined in certainareasof the vast desertsthat borderthe Nile Valley. First,Wah'sembalmersremovedhis liver and intestines.In many other cases,these organs,as well as the lungs and the stomach, were removedfrom the body, mummified, and placed in four separatevessels called canopicjars;but no such containers were found in Wah'stomb. Afterbeing treatedwith natron,Wah was wrappedin hundredsof yardsof linen Whilewrapping sheets,pads,and bandages.

the mummy,the embalmersplacedamulets and various pieces of jewelryin Wah's hands, on his chest, and around his neck. Among these ornaments,quite close to the body,was a beautifulbroad-collarnecklace made of brilliantblue faiencebeads. Severallayersabovethis, threelargescarabs were placed over the areaof the right wrist and hand. Two of the scarabsweresilver, one was of lapislazuli,and eachwas strung on linen twine with two beads of glazed steatiteor carnelian. In the earlyTwelfthDynasty,the scarab new invention,but it was was a relatively alreadyvery popularas an amuleticdevice. The beetle itself had long been associated with the risingsun, and the word for was similarin sound to the word "beetle" or "comeinto being."Thus, for "become," the simple oval scarab,often with a magical patternor inscriptioncarvedinto its base, was a powerfulsymbol of rebirthand continued existenceafterdeath.Castin three sections that were solderedtogether,the largerof Wah'ssilverscarabsis a superb exampleof Egyptianmetalwork(see figs.15a,15b).A linen cord passesthrough a gold tube that runs lengthwisethrough the scarab.Details of its body and the pattern on the base were chasedinto the surface,and the wing caseswere inlaidwith gold hieroglyphsgiving the names and titles of Wahand his employer,Meketre. Afterthe scarabshad been coveredwith half a dozen layersof bandages,three necklaceswere placed around the neck of the mummy-one of faience,one of gold, and one of silver.Then the wrapping processbegan in earnest,and accordingto a set pattern.First,pads of folded linen fabricwere placed on the chest and down the front and sides of the body. Next, a largesheet was folded around the mummy and securedby a long strip of linen wound in a figureeight aroundthe shoulders, acrossthe chest, and around the feet. Finally,half a dozen or more bandages ripped from a long sheet were wrapped

141

Figure15a Wah'sscarab bracelet Silver,gold, glazed steatite, and linen cord.L. of scarab 1'/2 in. (3.9 cm). RogersFundand Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920 (40.3.12) Figure15b Undersideof scarab

aroundthe mummy in severallayers. This entire processwas repeatedagain, and again,and again. About a thirdof the way through the wrapping,the head and chest of the mummy were coveredwith a mask (see a materialconfig. 19) made of cartonnage, of linen and that could be plaster sisting modeled into the desiredshapeand decoratedafterit dried.A thin sheet of gold foil was appliedto the face of the mask,and a shortbeardof paintedwood was attached to the chin. Side-whiskers and a mustache wereaddedin paint,as were eyebrowsand eyes,shown as if outlined in kohl.A striped headclothwas paintedin blue and green and a broad-collarnecklacein red,blue, and greento represent beads of faienceand carnelian. Afterthe maskwas put in place, the wrappingcontinueduntil the mummy had become a huge cylinderabout sixty inches in circumference, with only the face of the maskleft visible. Wah'scoffin was made of cedar,a wood that had to be imported from Lebanon; the lapis lazuli for one of his scarabsmay and the silhave come from Afghanistan; ver in his jewelryis of a puritythat suggests that it was mined in lands bordering the AegeanSea,not in Egypt.The presence of these luxury materialsin a tomb at Thebesindicatesnot only the prosperityof the tomb owner but also the extent to which southernEgypthad become reconnected with the easternMediterranean since the end of the FirstIntermediate Period,duringwhich Upper Egypthad been unableto acquiregoods from Anatolia, the Near East,and centralAsia. When the mummy was ready,a procession of mournersaccompaniedWah on his finaljourney.Depending on where Meketre's estatewas located-on the east or west bank of the Nile-the cortege would have crossedover the river,passed through a wide strip of cultivatedland on the floodplain,and followed the desert path to the tomb. The coffin was probably

transportedon a wooden sledge and was protectedwith a linen pall, tied in place with three strips of cloth. Afterbeing lowered down the steep ramp at the entrance to the tomb, the coffin was carriedto the back of the corridor,the linen stripswere untied, and the pall was discardedon the floor (see fig. 18).A huge sheet of heavy linen was folded and placed in the bottom of the empty coffin, along with a wooden headrest,to form a bed for the mummy. Next, Wah'smummy was laid on its left side in the coffin,with the head directly behind the eye panel painted on the outside. A copper mirrordisk with no handle was placed near the mummy'sface, and a pair of wooden sandals,never intended to be used in life, were set at its feet. A fine statuettecarvedfrom wood and wrapped in a piece of fringedlinen cloth (see fig. 4) was also enclosed as insurancethat Wah's spiritwould have a home if the body did not survive. If Wahwas marriedand had children, they would havebeen very young, and his burial ceremonymay havebeen carried out by a brotheror anothermale relative ratherthan by his eldest son, as was customary.At some point in this ceremony, priestswould have filled the air with incense,made libations and offeringsof food to the mummy and the statuette,and readofferingtexts that would guaranteea limitless supply of "breadand beer,cattle and fowl, and all good and pure things upon which a spirit lives." AfterWah'smummy and the other equipmentwere placed inside, the coffin was packedwith more than thirty folded sheets;three thick wooden staffs,perhaps an indication of his office,were laid near the top; and warm resin was poured on the uppermostlayerof linen. Finally,the coffin was closed. Pegswere driveninto predrilledholes at the head and foot to securethe lid, and the large,cylindrical boss that had servedas a handle for lifting the lid was sawn off and discardedon the

floor of the tomb. Bread,beer,and a shoulderof beef-the choicest cut, used for ceremonialoccasionsand in offerings to the gods-were arrangedin front of the eye panel of the coffin. The entranceto the

small tomb was sealedwith mud brick, and Wahwas left to begin his journey to the netherworldwith all of the provisions necessaryto assurethe survivalof his ka, or life force,in the afterlife.

Figure16 Thetomb of Meketrewas carved into the edge of the cliffs at the top of a steep slope that was later evened out with rubbleto formthe causeway,bordered by thick mud-brick walls, that is its feature.The most recognizable entranceto Wah'stomb is below the terrace,at the top of the causeway,barelyvisible inside the right-handenclosurewall. Anothersmall opening,just outside the enclosurewall, marksa cache of embalmingmaterials.

top Opposite, Figure17 View of the blockedentranceto Wah'stomb as it appearedon March24, 1920

bottom Opposite, Figure18 The interiorof Wah'stomb, shown with his coffin at the back, is smallerthan it appears.The the funerary priestsperforming would have ritualundoubtedly found the corridor quite constricting.The low ceiling required a personeven of average height, five and a half feet tall, to duck his head, and an adult standingin with the center of the corridor armsoutstretchedcould have easily touched the side walls.

161

[C
FiLil

it rl

rrrr I Je j iij i:

"

a"lFii8IEi"

ii .,.

,_...

.Ii?sp

i
lolsBI%I -ii ...

i"

it

._1:4 ?? -kar PI=ra-id

1CII A

II

.I ?.- 7i s?Ea .9 I:j

I llCdi56sii!B
?s15;s ilP rrlll: Bg L ar III Illbl, ~"Jf pr ?rI:; d I IY r

,BFIm

=_ia

i-

?!?r i L. _:r28 1-----,, 30 lg iB gr I rrrr* rih6i sgrg?[

I"IL iliserea? i&L114PIET I$ii;"P;;jb4% iSI1PiiS nri I "' ra?sl I

a Trsrc I.rl II III 11 :J-

Ir nsii!uc? Lp)(~ itr Y; lq"F

FBI
tistiss.ll

I
bll I1IiEb C%aiisi

%i!apsr

lalsW Il .r*IIIL?ii a I' I III rCI in?? ?I%lgr =

i
1 I-s

? ;r 'P sCII a;gl ain ;; I -?lii .'3 ELlj larsar rp:sr aPs41L II Lrraa h25 aie -I : -I n risapi) 1

iii ;IIil

I Ir

'gi31C,
II

,,ii
8iiiagl

c
tr? ;p f; ??? ?s?; B1$1 ,E

iii,, ?
jllip?srrn

iii i.Ci;i riaai r-p;an?a 9 39?::_=

jfmEi i ?qBI

ar Isnar n ravaa

I "s"';

CI V

Figure19 Wah'sfunerarymask Cartonnage, gold foil, and wood. H. 263/8in. (67 cm). RogersFund S. Harkness and Edward Gift, 1920 (40.3.54)

181

fromtop left Clockwise Figure20 Ringsand necklace and linen thread;blueCarnelian glazed steatite and linen thread; carnelian, turquoise,moss agate, amethyst,milkyquartz,greenglazed steatite, and twisted linen cord.L. of scarab 1 in. (2.6 cm). S. RogersFundand Edward Harkness Gift,1920 (40.3.1,.11,.16) Thesingle barrelbead of highqualitycarnelianand the scarab of blue-glazedsteatite were both

found in the palmof Wah'sleft hand.Thesmall length of linen threadattached to each suggests that they were intendedas rings, servedas but they probably amulets,not as jewelry funerary wornduringlife. The lovely, beadednecklace, asymmetrical though perhapsa piece of personal jewelry,seems to have been restrungfor the funeral,since the linen cord shows no sign of wear.

Figure21 broad-collarnecklace Funerary Faienceand linen thread. W. 153/8in. (39 cm). RogersFund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920 (40.3.2) Wah'sfaience broadcollar is one of the finest examplesof this type of funerarynecklacefrom the early MiddleKingdom. Althougha few areas required with modernthread, reinforcing the stringingis almost entirely original.

Figure22 Braceletand necklace Goldand twisted linen cord;lapis lazuli,carnelian,and twisted linen cord. L. of scarab 1'/2 in. (3.8 cm). RogersFundand Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920 (40.3.14, .17) Wah'sgold necklaceconsists of hollow beads of gold foil, made in two sectionsand soldered together at the middle.

Figure23 Wah's necklace Faienceand twisted linen cord. L. 201/2in. (52 cm). RogersFund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920 (40.3.15)

119

Ioz

Figure25 Meketre'smodel funerary procession Plastered and paintedwood; linen. H. of right-handfigure in. (24 cm). RogersFundand 91/2 Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.8) A priestcarrying a censer and an elongatedjar for libationsleads a processionof three offeringbearers.Thefirst supportsa boardon his head that is piled with linen sheets, includingone that has been dyed red like the shawl that was found wrappedaroundWah's The next figurebalances mummy. a basketon her head containing baguette-shapedloaves of bread and two sealed beerjars, while in her righthandshe clutches a duck.The last figurecarries anotherduckand a basketfilled with flat, square-shaped bread. the membersof the Together, procession bringall that is needed to sustain Meketre's spiritin the afterlife.Similar offeringswould have been madeat the actual and Wah. funeralsof Meketre

Figure26 Workmen carryingMeketre's modelsfrom his tomb to the dig house in March1920

121

-i)
i,"

" ;

--J;''

I
c, j/"'^.'-] .'l,t^"~~~~~~~~~ fUl /J1 ^\.vp ^^~
}xs;ly^.-

,"

-y=

Figure27 Planof Wah'stomb showing its contents as found by the Museum's

~ ~

archaeologists

221

Figure28 Eye panel on Wah'scoffin w. of eye Paintedcedar.Overall motif 151/2in. (39.5 cm). Rogers S. Harkness Fundand Edward Gift, 1920 (20.3.202a) Wah'scoffin was built of cedar texts and paintedyellow.Offering were writtenon the lidand around the upperedge of the box. A pair of eyes was also paintedat the head end of the coffin'sproper left side, as was customaryin the MiddleKingdom.

Figure29 Priestsfrom one of Meketre's model funeraryboats Plastered and paintedwood. H. of

tallest figure 91/4 in. (23.5 cm).

S. RogersFundand Edward Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.4) Thesethree priestfiguresprovide offeringsfor Meketre's spirit.The priestat the left presentsa censer the hand shapedlikea forearm, claspinga bowl for the burning incense.Thepriestat the right offersa forelegof beef, and the one in the center readsfroma scrollof papyrus inscribed with an essential partof the standard offeringtext: "1,000breadand beer,1,000 cattle and fowl."

123

THE

HO

U S E M I S T R E S S
I

Dynasty 17 1635-1550 B.C.

Second Intermediate Period 1640-1550

Sequenenre Tao 1560-1552 B.C. Kamose 1552-1550 B.C. Dynasty 18 1550-1295 B.C. Nebpehtyre Ahmose 1550-1525 B.C. Reunification of Egypt 1540 B.C. Birth of Hatnofer 1533B.C. (?) Djeserkare Amenhotep (I) 1525-1504 B.C. Thutmose (I) 1504-1492 B.C. Aakheperkare

B.C.

AakheperenreThutmose (II) 1492-1479B.C. Hatshepsut:principalqueen Thutmose (III) 1479-1425 B.C. Menkheperre

Regency of Hatshepsut 1479-1473 B.C. Burial of Hatnofer 1473 B.C. Coreign of Menkheperre Thutmose 1473-1458 B.C.

New Kingdom 1550-1070 B.C.

andMaatkare Hatshepsut
Death of Maatkare Hatshepsut 1458 B.C.

Sole reign of MenkheperreThutmose 1458-1425

B.C.

241

30 Figure Bowl Faience.Diam.71/8in. (18 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.8) Thisfaience bowl was amongthe tomb. objectsfound in Hatnofer's Thecolorand decorationevoke the imageof lotus blossoms growingin a pond.

ometime in 1473B.C., an elderly woman named Hatnoferwas laid to rest in the Thebannecropolisin a small rock-cuttomb that had been preparedfor her by her son Senenmut.Hatnofer had lived through an extraordinary time in Egypt'shistory.She was born late in the reign of NebpehtyreAhmose in the vicinity of Armant,a town some ten miles southof Thebes.In about1540 B.C., lessthan a decadebeforeHatnofer's birth,Ahmose had reunitedthe two lands of Egyptby defeatingthe Hyksos,descendantsof migrantsfrom westernAsiawho had settledin the easterndeltaand controlled LowerEgyptand partof the Nile Valleyto the north of Thebesfor about a century. Identifiedby historiansas the founder of the New Kingdomand the firstrulerof the EighteenthDynasty,Ahmose was the brotherof Kamose,the last king of the SeventeenthDynasty,whose familyhad ruled Thebesand part of southernEgypt duringwhat we now call the Second Intermediate Period.Since Hatnofer'shometown was part of the Thebanprovince, one or more of her close male relatives

almost certainlywould have fought alongside these Thebankings in the battlesthat eventuallydrovethe Hyksosback into westernAsia and securedthe throne of a united Egyptfor Ahmose. When we considerthat she lived in the
middle of the second millennium B.C.,

Hatnoferwas fortunateto have been born into a culturethat recognizeda woman as an individual,not merelyas the possession of her male relatives.In Egypt,a woman could inherit,buy, and sell propertyin her own right.Any materialgoods or land that she brought to her marriageremained hers, and she could make a will to distribute her propertyas she wished. She could take grievancesbefore a judge,be a witness in a court case, and even sit on a jury. Although Egyptiansociety was essentially and men generallyheld all patriarchal positions of power,both on the local level and at the royalcourt, a wife could carry out at least some of her husband'sofficial duties when he was absent.Indeed, during Hatnofer'slifetime, circumstancesarose that alloweda woman to claim the most powerfulposition in the land. This exceptionalevent occurredwhen Hatnoferwas alreadyin her fifties,in
1479 B.C., when Aakheperenre Thutmose

"wentforth to the sky and joined the gods."Thutmose had no sons with his principalqueen (and half sister), Hatshepsut. Therefore,the king was succeededby the son of Isis,a secondaryqueen.This boy, who was also named Thutmose, took the throne name Menkheperre. Since the new was too to rule king by himself, young Hatshepsutbecame regentfor her nephew. The arrangementis commemoratedin the biographicaltext in the offeringchapel of the venerableofficialIneni, who had servedeveryEighteenthDynastyking since Djeserkare Amenhotep: Thegod'swifeHatshepsut wasmanaging
the affairsof the land, the Two Landsbeing under her direction.Egyptin compliance workedfor her-the effectiveseed of the
125

god,whocameforthfromhim;theprow stake of themooring ropeof Upper Egypt, sternropeof Lower theSouth, theefficient whosedirecmistress of governance, Egypt; theoneatwhosespeech tionwasefficient; become theTwoLands peaceful. Hatshepsutwas not the firstEighteenth Dynastyqueen to wield significantpolitical power.She was, however,the firstto and titles claim for herselfthe prerogatives as her throne of a king, adoptingMaatkare name and becoming, in essence,the senior 21of hernephew's of EgyptuntilYear coruler reign.She appearsto have made the transition from regentto king in Year7, and it that seems to havebeen shortlythereafter Hatnoferdied. At the time of her death,Hatnoferwas a short, ratherstout grandmotherof about sixty-a "goodold age"in Egyptianterms. At some point, perhapsas a child in the Hatnofer house of her mother,Sit-Djehuty, nickname Tju-Tju.Justover acquiredthe five feet tall,with a delicatebone structure, she must havebeen quite attractiveas a young woman. On specialoccasions,she probablywore her darkbrown, naturally curlyhair in braidssimilarto those seen on a statuetteof one of her contemporariesthat is now in the Museum'scollection (see figs.33a,33b).In orderto achieve the volume necessaryfor this hairstyle, Hatnoferwould have augmentedher own braidsof the hair with supplementary same color.Evenafterher death,when her mummy was being preparedfor burial, scoresof darkbrown supplementary braidswere woven into her white hair in an imitation of the style of her youth. Likeall Egyptians,the men as well as the women, Hatnoferwould have used variouskinds of cosmetics,includingoils and unguentsto protecther skin from the drynessof the Upper Egyptianclimate. She alsowould haveoutlinedher eyeswith kohl,a blue, green,or blackpowderof ground mineralsthat was thought to enhancethe eyes'beautywhile protecting

them from the sun'sglare.In orderto apply her makeupand admireher handiwork, mirrorsmadeof highly Hatnofer had several polished bronze or silverset into wood or metal handles.She also owned a bronze which was found with other cosmetic razor, implementsinside a basketin her tomb. Hatnoferprobablymarriedbefore the age of twenty,moving into the household of her husband,Ramose.We know nothing of Ramose'sbackground,but he seems to havebeen a man of modest meansanythingfrom a tenant farmerto an artisan or even a small landowner.He probably brought his wife into the house of his parentsratherthan to an establishment that was exclusivelyhis own. Egyptian households often compriseda number of generations,including parents,elderly and unmarriedand married grandparents, siblingsand their children.Prosperous householdswould also have included servants. In the earlyyearsof her marriage, Hatnoferwas probablysubordinateto her mother-in-lawand may have shared housekeepingduties with her husband's unmarriedsisters.Eventually, however,she became the head of her own household and was given the honorific title nebetper, meaning"housemistress." Although their contributionsare largelyunrecorded,women performed importantfunctions in nearlyeveryaspect of ancient Egypt'ssociety and economy.As the mistressof a household, Hatnofer caredfor the family'smaterialgoods and oversawthe storageand preparationof food, includingthe grindingof grain to produceflour for bread.If her husband was a farmer,she would have helped him with the harvest.Hatnoferprobablyalso made and mended the clothing, and she may even have plied flax fibersinto thread and woven the linen cloth that was needed for clothingand many other essentialitems. In the New Kingdommost linen was still woven on horizontallooms that could be set up with pegs driveninto the ground,

Figure31 Seated statue of Hatshepsut (detail) FromwesternThebes(Deirellimestone. Indurated Bahri). h. 77 in. (195.6 cm). Overall RogersFund,1929 (29.3.2) Thislifesize statue of Maatkare once stood in her Hatshepsut mortuary temple at Deirel-Bahri.

261

and this type of loom seems to havebeen employedalmost exclusivelyby women. Becauseof its durabilityand multitude of uses in life as well as in death,linen was one of the most valuablecommodities in the Egyptianeconomy,which was based on the bartersystem;any woman capable of weavinghigh-qualitycloth was thus a substantialasset to her household. Linenwas producedin a varietyof weavesand a wide rangeof qualities,from coarseto superfine.Whole sheets of coarsercloth, some more than sixty feet long, were folded to form mattresses, cushions, and blankets.Pieces of softer fabricwere made into loincloths, shirts, shifts,kilts, and tunics. Lengthsof sheer linen were pleatedand worn as fashionable outer garments.Old linen was used for cleaningand for wrappingand storing food, and small strips of cloth were tied aroundthe mouths of jarsto securestoppers and lids. Wornlinen was also saved for lateruse in mummificationor as grave goods. Threewooden chests containinga total of seventy-sixlong, fringedsheets of linen were found in Hatnofer'stomb. Rangingfrom fourteento fifty-fourfeet in length, the sheets had seen much wear,and some had been mended. Beforebeing placed in the chests,the individualpieces of fabrichad been laundered,pressed,and carefullyfolded into neat rectangles. Among the other objectsassociated with Hatnofer's tomb is a leathertambourine that was found just outside the entrance.Althoughit may havebeen used in the funeraryritualperformedat her burial,the instrumentwas probablyone of Hatnofer's personalpossessions.In ancient Egypt,just as today,music enrichedall spheresof life, from the familyhome to the templesof the gods. Musicalensembles includeddifferentcombinationsof flutes, harps,lutes, and percussioninstruments, as well as vocalistsand dancers.Professional musicians,both male and female, performedat public festivalsand were

probablyemployedin the homes of the wealthyand at the royalcourt. In Hatnofer'stime, women of some statusin the communityalso servedas musiciansin temple rituals.Since she was probablynot a professionalmusicianand had no title connectingher with a divine cult, Hatnofer probablyplayedthis tambourinein her own home or at the homes of friends, where she and fellow amateurmusicians would haveaccompaniedimpromptu singing,dancing,storytelling,and other informalentertainments. In a seeminglybizarreact for which the reason can only be guessed,Hatnofer's tambourinehad been damagedbefore it was laid in front of the tomb, where it was coveredwith debris.The red leathercover had been slit and sections of a chair-the only piece of household furnitureassociated with Hatnofer'sburial (see fig. 42)had been stuffedinside. This type of low chairwas usuallyused by women. The craftsmanwho made it employedlight and darkwoods to advantagein the decorativescheme, alternatingcolors in the open-workeddesign on the back panels and in the borderstripsof the braces.The openworkincludes a figureof the household god Bes, in the center,flankedby tyet amuletsand djedpillars,both of which would have ensuredthe well-being of the chair'sowner.The seat was made of linen cord,plaited into a herringbonemesh that miraculouslysurvivedits rough treatment when the chairwas dismantled.

Overleaf Figure32 Theentranceto Hatnofer's tomb, with contents shown in place 127

281

Figure33a Statuette of Taweret FromwesternThebes(Asasif). New Kingdom, early Dynasty18. with traces of paint. Limestone in. (17.5 cm). Purchase, H. 67/8 Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (26.7.1404) The housemistress Taweretlived at about the same time as hairis Hatnofer. Here,Taweret's dressedin a style that was fashionableat Thebesduringthe early New Kingdom: two largelappets of smallerbraidshang in front, with three thickerbraidsdown her back.She also wearsa type of simplesheath dressthat was commonat the time.

Figure33b Backof Taweret'shead

Figure34 Basketand toilet articles FromwesternThebes(SheikhAbd el-Qurna,below TT71). New Dynasty18, earlycoKingdom, Thutmose reignof Menkheperre and Maatkare Halfa Hatshepsut. grass and linen cord;Egyptian alabaster,linen, linen cord,and ebony;boxwoodand cypress. H.of basket(withoutcover)5 in. (12.8 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.189, .190, .199) Theobjectsshown here were discoveredwith the burialof an unnamedwomanwho livedat about the same time as Hatnofer. Thebasketcontainsa mass of fine braidsof darkbrownhumanhair

and three bundlesof loose, wavy locks.Thesetresses would have been used to augmentthe owner's own hairin orderto create the fashionablehairstyle of the period. The lid of the small alabaster jar has been coveredwith a scrapof cloth boundwith linen cordto keepthe contents-the powdery eye makeupknownas kohl-from spillingout. Whenfoundinsidethe basket,the sticklikekohlapplicator of polishedebonywas stuck througha fold in the linen.The small wooden box has two comeach with a slidinglid, partments, and was probably used forjewelry.

129

Figure35 Razorand mirror Bronzeand wood; bronze.H. of mirror 63/4in. (17 cm). Rogers Fund,1936 (36.3.69, .13) Thisbronzemirror was actually found in one of the other coffins in Hatnofer's tomb (see fig. 54) but probably belongedto Hatnofer. It was cast in two pieces;the mirror disk has a tang that fits into a hole in the handleand is held in place by a small bronze peg.Thehandledepictsa woman's face with cow's ears and a curled the wig-the emblemof Hathor, goddess of love and beauty. Figure36 Two pairs of sandals FromwesternThebes(Sheikh Abdel-Qurna,below TT71). New Dynasty18, earlycoKingdom, Thutmose reignof Menkheperre and Maatkare Hatshepsut. Papyrus, palm leaf, and grass; calfskin,stained red. L. of red sandals(each) 73/4 in. (19.8 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.159,.234) Thesesandalswere found in tombs of the same periodas Hatnofer's. AlthoughEgyptians often went barefoot,they also fashionedsandalsout of leather and fromvariousgrasses.The palm-leafsandalswere made for a child. Figure37 Basketof food Halfagrass, palm leaf, and linen cord;ceramic;desiccated raisins, dates, dom palm nuts, and bread. H. of basketwith lid 101/4 in. (26 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.57; .64-.66; foodstuffs unaccessioned) The large,oval storage basket(see also fig. 54) was made with coils of halfa grass sewn together with stripsof the same material,some of which were dyed red or black to create the patternof chevrons and rectangles.Insidethe rim, a flange to supportthe lid was attached to the side of the basket with palm-leafstrips.Similar stripswere used to reinforcethe bottom of the basketand several of the lowest coils. The basket was filled with breadand fruit to sustain Hatnofer's spirit in the afterlife.

301

>g~ +<< gX ~

Figure38 Thismodelof a weavers'shed found in the MiddleKingdom _ 40 E gXtomb of Meketre(see p. 7) shows some women weavingcloth on horizontallooms while others thread.Thewomen prepare standingby the wall are measuring out the warpthreads.The model itself, excavatedin 1920 Egyptian by the Metropolitan's ~~~1 3 ^Expedition,is now in the Egyptian Cairo. _ I MusMuseum, Figure39 The photograph at left illustrates the differentqualitiesof linen found in the tomb of Hatnofer.
marks, and each also

on.U . l

thefntleweaver's

40 Figure Facsimileof an offering scene (detail) By Normande GarisDavies, Section, Egyptian Graphic of The Metropolitan Expedition Museumof Art.Ca. 1930. Tempera
on paper. Overall 543/8 x 64 in.

(138 x 162.5 cm). RogersFund, 1930 (30.4.33) In the late Eighteenthand early NineteenthDynasties,both men and women wore elaborately pleatedouter garmentson formal occasions.Thesheer qualityof the finest linen is suggested in wall paintingsof the period,such as this fromthe Thebantomb of Userhat(New Kingdom, early Dynasty19, ca. 1290 B.c.), in which the mutedcolor of flesh is visiblethroughthe fabriccovering the armsof the figures.

131

Figure41 Gable-topped chest and linens Whitewashedwood; linen. H. of chest 173/8in. (44 cm). Rogers Fund,1936 (36.3.56,.54, .111,.140) Thiswhitewashedchest (see also fig. 54) was one of three found in Hatnofer's tomb.Twoof the chests, includingthis one, were probablymade especiallyfor Hatnofer'sburial. Theywere filled linen sheets of variousqualities and weaves. Shown here with the chest are a shirt of fine linen; a sheet of superfineweave, probably used as an outer garment; and a sheet of coarserweave more than seventeen yardslong, which may have servedas a mattress. After it was packedwith linen,the chest was tied shut with a piece of linen cord that was securedwith a mud seal.

| l 0;; | l| _r

;0 |with ~ t~~
W

9S900;\;;S\>;

EtlI

?
'

~J~Bi~ I

rarr

42 Figure Chair Boxwood,cypress,ebony,and linen cord. H.207/8in. (53 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.152) carvedand finished, Skillfully Hatnofer's chair is a fine example The of Egyptian woodworking. variouselements were assembled with mortise-and-tenon joinery, with pegs to hold the tenons in place. Pegs also fasten the braces to the backand to the seat. The with a joins were reinforced resinousglue.

321

Figure43 shows the Thisphotograph tomb as it entranceto Hatnofer's A rectangular was discovered. of red-stainedleather tambourine stretchedover a wood frame had been placedin front of the tomb's entrancebeforethe area was coveredwith debris.Hatnofer's almost thirty inches tambourine, long, is one of the only examples of its type that has been found largelyintact. It is now in the Museum,Cairo. Egyptian

Figure44 Figuresfrom a model traveling boat FromwesternThebes(tombof MiddleKingdom, Meketre). early Dynasty12, reignof Sehetepibre Amenemhat. Plastered and painted wood. H. of harp61/4 in. (16 cm). S. RogersFundand Edward Harkness Gift, 1920 (20.3.1) These beautifullycraftedfigures, one playingthe harpand the other singing, bringto minda form of Egyptianpoetryknownas ?L~ ~ 5:IE i ""the harper's song, in which the singer encourageshis listenersto eyes enjoy life. Here,the harper's appearto be closed in concentration on his music;however,in art, the conventionof Egyptian closed eyes was generally partially used to indicateblindness.

Figure45 In this drawingof female musicians from the tomb of Rekhmire, who servedas vizierto Menone woman Thutmose, kheperre similarto playsa tambourine Hatnofer's.

133

THE
HOUSEMI'

STRESS

Figure46 Artist'ssketches of Set nenmut FromwesternThebes(S ;heikh Abdel-Qurna,below T1 r71). Limestone. W. 63/4in. (I cm). l17 1.2) RogersFund,1931 (31.z

IthoughHatnoferperformedor oversawmany taskswithin her S household,her primaryresponsibility was to bear and rearchildren.The namesof six childrenbelongingto Hatnofer and Ramosehavebeen preservedfor us: two daughters,Nefrethorand Ahhotep, and four sons, Senenmut,Amenemhat, Pa-iry,and Minhotep.Senenmutis by far the best-known member of the family;his likenessis representedon severalsurviving ostraca,or limestone chips used as sketch pads (see fig. 46). As a child, he must have studied to become a scribe,and that training enabledhim to pursuea careerthatwas to provebeneficialto his familyin the coming years.Havingrisen to the high position of stewardof the estatesof Amun, Senenmutalso became tutor to Princess Neferure,the daughterof Aakheperenre Thutmose and Hatshepsut.Later, as overseer of all works of the king, he directed
the construction of, and may even have

abandonyou. When you were born after your months, she was yoked to you still,

youforthreeyears.... When breast-feeding

she sent you to school, and you were taught to write, she kept watchingover you daily, with breadand beer in her house.

Senenmutcertainlyrepaidhis mother at the end of her life by excavatinga tomb for her on the easternslope of the hill that is now called SheikhAbd el-Qurna,just below the location he had chosen for his own offeringchapel (see fig. 1). He began to excavatehis chapel in mid-Marchof
1473 B.C.,by which time he was already

designed,the mortuarytempleof Maatkare

Hatshepsut, one of the greatest achievements of ancient Egyptian architecture.

Unfortunatelyfor Hatnofer,her husband died when he was only in his midthirties,leavingher a widow probablywith young childrento support.It is possible that Senenmut,who may havebeen the eldest son, had reachedhis late teens when his fatherdied and thus became head of
the household, taking on the responsibility for his mother and younger brothers and sisters. In ancient Egypt, family ties were strong, and the debt children owed to their parents was stressed in a form of writing known as wisdom literature. The texts were often composed as instructions from a father to his son. Senenmut seems to have taken to heart a passage from one of these compositions, the Instructions of Any, which might easily have been addressed by Ramose to Senenmut himself: Double the food your mother gaveto you, supporther as she supportedyou; she had a heavyburden in you, but she did not 341

chief architectto Maatkare Hatshepsut. With his connections at court, and the personalwealth they must have brought, he was able to providehis mother with a well-appointedburial.Many of the goods in Hatnofer'stomb were drawnfrom the royalstorehouses,including much of the linen and the jars of oil. Some of these items bore ink inscriptionsnaming the God'sWife Hatshepsut-her designation as queen. Othersdisplayedthe seal of Maatkare-Hatshepsut'sthrone name, takenwhen she became king (see p. 26). The presenceof both titulariesin Hatnofer'stomb suggeststhat she was buried at about the time of Hatshepsut'stransition from regentto senior corulerwith her nephew Menkheperre. When she died, Hatnoferwas mummified in the standard fashionof a well-to-do Egyptianof the earlyNew Kingdom.Four of her internalorgans-her liver,lungs, intestines,and stomach-were removed, preserved, wrapped,and placed individually in four separate potteryjarsthat were in stored a canopicchest made of wood. Her brainwas also removed,but, unlikethe other organs,it was discardedas something of no importance.Her heartwas left in place,since it was consideredthe seat of the intellectand had to remainwith the body. The body itselfwas completelycovered with solid natronand left for eight to ten weeksto dry out. Then,the natronwas

Figure47 Thisdetail of Hatnofer's leather scrollshows the barkof the sun god, Re,with Isisstandingat the front,followed by Thoth,the god of wisdom.At the center is Khepri, the sun god in his manifestation at dawn. Behindhim is Maat, the goddess of truth,followed by Hatnoferherself.

removed,the skin was rubbedwith oils, and the hairwas dressedwith Hatnofer's supbraids.Next, a numberof rings plementary wereplacedon her left hand,and the wrapping was begun.First,the armsand legs werewrappedseparately, then the whole body was envelopedin hundredsof yards of sheets,pads,and bandages. To honor his mother,Senenmutpurchaseda well-crafted anthropoidcoffin made of wood and accentedwith gilding,as well as a cartonnage mummy maskcovered with gold foil. The most valuableof Hatnofer'sfunerarygiftswas her heartscarab this (see figs.52a,52b).Madeof serpentine, amuletwas beautifully carvedwith considerable detail,much of which has been obscuredby the gold mountingbands.The undersidewas incisedwith tiny hieroglyphs of a clarityseldommatchedon contempoThe simplemount of raryheartscarabs. beatengold was gluedto the stone with a dark,resinousgum, and a loop of gold wire was solderedto the head end of the mount. is the flexible The tour de force,however, links chain,woven of minute,interlocking of fine gold wire,with everylink soldered separately.

AfterHatnofer'smummy was wrapped, it was envelopedin a sheet that was neatly sewn up the side. Her heart scarabwas laid over the chest, along with a small silver mirrorwith a wooden handle.Then, the maskwas arrangedover the head and chest, and the mummy was placed in the coffin on its back.Three scrolls,two of papyrusand one of leather,were then set on the mummy'schest (see fig. 47). The scrollswere inscribedwith chaptersfrom the Book of the Dead, a collection of texts intended to help Hatnofer'sspirit in its journey to the afterworld. As a final act of filialpiety,Senenmut returnedto the cemeterywherehis father and severalother familymembershad been buried,probablynearArmant.The mummies of Ramose,threeyoung women, and three children-perhaps daughters,or in-lawsand grandchildren, of Hatnoferwerebroughtto Thebes,providedwith in Hatnofer'stomb. coffins,and reinterred This was Senenmut'sgreatestgift, for it allowedthe spiritsof his fatherand relatives,all of whom had been buriedwhen the familywas less prosperous,to partake in the abundanceof Hatnofer's burial.

135

i - -7T / /,

48 Figure Facsimileof a funeraryscene (detail) By CharlesK.Wilkinson, Graphic of Section, Egyptian Expedition The Metropolitan Museumof Art. Ca. 1930. Tempera on paper. x 317/8 in. (37 x 81 cm). Overall 145/8 RogersFund,1930 (30.4.108)

In this scene from the New Kingdom tomb of Nebamunand Ipuky a (late Dynasty18, ca. 1360 B.C.), woman mournsthe death of her in front of his husband.Crouched coffin, she bares her breastsand throws dust into her hairwhile tears streamfrom her eyes.

361

Figure49 A knottedpot sling found in Hatnofer's tomb (and now in the Museum,Cairo)consists Egyptian of an open-workednet of multiply linen cord,with the cords plaitedin large loops at the top for suspension.At the bottom is a ringof halfa grass whippedwith linen cord.Thesling was found in a baskettray (see fig. 54) that also held a tufted linen seat cushion.Here,it has been photoone of the graphedsurrounding found in the potteryamphoras tomb.

Figure50 Storage jar and amphora alabasterand linen; Egyptian ceramicand mud.H. of amphora 251/4 in. (64 cm). RogersFund, 1936 (36.3.82, .83) Thestoragejar on the left (see also fig. 54) containsa viscous, dark-amber-colored liquidconstituted of some sort of animalfat. Theamphora(see fig. 54) was sealed with Nile mudand stamped with an oval device that reads "God's Wife of everyland,Hatin Theink inscription, shepsut." hieraticscript,reads"Year 7, setjwy oil ... ";the type of oil meant by setjwycannot be determined.

137

Figure51 Scaraboidrings and scarabs Glazedsteatite and silver;blueglazed steatite; blue-glazed steatite; glazed steatite and gold. L. of largestscarab 1 in. (2.5 cm). RogersFund,1936 (36.3.3-.6) Theseringsand scarabswere found on the fingersof Hatnofer's left handwhen her mummywas Thescarabsand unwrapped. scaraboidseals, one set in gold and the other in silver,were all skillfullycarvedfrom soft steatite and then glazed.Thesmallerblue scarabis inscribedwith the name Wife," Hatshepsutand "God's the title she held before becoming corulerwith Menkheperre Thescaraboid at the far Thutmose. right is inscribedwith the image of a scorpion;the other,at far left, has an enigmaticdesign.

Figure52a Heartscarab Serpentineand gold. L. of scarab mount)25/8in. (6.6 cm); (including

I. of chain 311/8 in. (79 cm).

RogersFund,1936 (36.3.2) Figure53 mask Funerary Cartonnage, gold foil, Egyptian alabaster, obsidian,and ebony. H. 18 in. (45.8 cm). RogersFund, 1936 (36.3.1) Hatnofer's gildedfunerarymask is a good indicationof how prosperousher family had become, thanksto the positionof her son Senenmut.Formed of cartonnage-linen and plasterworkedin a fashionsimilar to papier-macheand then gilded,it representsa womanwearinga heavy lappet wig coveredwith a striatedcloth. Theinlaideyes of Egyptian alabasterand polishedobsidianwere set into sockets of ebony.Around the chest and shoulders,the surface of the maskwas incisedwith a patterndepictinga beaded necklacewith teardrop-shaped beads along the loweredge. Hatnofer's heartscarabwas made of green stone, as stipulatedin the collection of texts knownas the Bookof the Dead.The underside was inscribedwith chapter 30B,which exhortsthe heart not to bearwitness against its owner at the momentof judgmentin the afterlife.Theflexible chain is a masterpieceof goldwork.Each segment of the chain is composed of six double links.

Figure52b Inscribed undersideof Hatnofer's heartscarab

381

M.N..

;'?;?.::: ::?:: 1::::: .-.:..r?;. .?.?;..?-.?..?.?:'':;::'::..::::::::f?:j:.;.:I :::'??:?:.????? ??? " "' ;:I? .? . :::::'?::.:i:?'i::::1.??.::. .?I??-?'?'??'::"?' ? i? .?;? -.?-???.? ??I.?:?.'?? '?? "?????- '.'?:::-II?::::: :-:(.???:I;=?.??::??' ?:??? ?:??.?.?:':?:-;'i'::;.::.';I ??....-:.L.:?:..-.:.?._.?.?.?:-..:?::: ::??--. ... ;; .?-????..? .:' :: ?..?:t??:::?:: ,?.?:;:'??.....?.....`;:?: ..?..? =-= :??::;::::::...':::':?:;..I:. ?;'::.:'.:.?::.:.: ?....:.':??.:?r.:;I:.?1::.::.'.:::::?i.: "?'?'-? 1.?:.?.?.:?.; :):.-::-_? :::l?.:j;iti :-.::?. :(:.:::;:. ?:;???.;?:??-:??? .:????; ?-..?.?.r???..? ?:..-. .-...... ??:;:? ?:?. ;.??:.?. ??. ?.:? ...\:;j:l;::::: ::?:I:?.??:.:::.?::,:_: I::?:..:.?.??;? ;::::::i:?::: ::::-1:I::?:?.???'?? :?????':-''::?:, 1 :?:?I: ?? ?.? ??' `::::::.ji:.:?:.:::.'.: ....?';:::.:.?:_::?:.....:::.::;...?.::::::?'::.:::?..I::: ri::.`:.?: .-?:?: ??-?:?-??? ''-'''-;'';'''' :-'' ?:::::.::::?,?:-:.'.: ......:. '' ' "... ..:'.-'.-'..-.....?:::-.:'.1.: ?..?.? '?-;?' :??.:..::;:i._.;;......:.:.?::: 1? "'''"'"'"" .';?'?'?:'?:.:.??:.?(.?::'..?; .....?:?': ?::?'?:.:.1:'.' ??;?;?????'?.:;?;,..... ???t::?:.?;.:?:-: : :?::i:::.I.:?:::::?'?: ::::-:.?.`:.:?: ?::.. :?::':?.':.?;-? ::' :'.:::. .::::::..::li;. "':?:?.?I??:.??-? :=?.??.,??;::;?.?:?:.....,;?:?.:? ??-.??:,: -r-?.?? ::-:,.?:-::i :?:?:::r:: i:i.?:: ::? '-li:::::; :;....?::I:'. .:;.?.??,.....,:-:j: ;:; ja .?;;..?-.. .?.::-?_::?:::.::::::??-.-. " ?--`;:; ???:.? ?:?:?.:,::??.;:::::I:::.:::,::; " ; ?'?' "'?'?:??;.?.???-.-rl??? ;?-.. -? :?;:?:::;.?'??:.;?????;?:?.:.'.?.':.-."'''`': :.:". :"':.:':::::;?.? .:?I;:()l:r:?,::: I.:.::::::::?:ij:::::?i::::..?:?.:.: :;:;:-;;:.: .::. :: .?.? o '? ??????-???? :":'?":.'?? ?'?";?.. e? :??:.;:l.r ??-??; ?: : '""...:'r..: ?..???.?..?? .:.??? ???':????: -? .:?.??-?????.' ??r.:;i:?: .?: c_ ... :? ???.?????: ? .d i.. " ..?.:?:?:? ..: -???? . .??. :'.'::??????? ?;?.-.?: .....-.... "'' -????; ?: .??:. ::::.:::?.; t-?'. .:?:???:.?.?.:t.? *:. :?::?rr.? .:...?:??;?::-:::... ?.:??;::?:. ."-..."".-""': ........

?:?:??;?.':??,.:jj::::.i:'`j-::i?iii:

?????.-.-.? -;?;.-??.?:::? ?.??.... ...-..?. ??? " .::'.: :;:::::' ??,.:-:..: i?:? ?.:'. :;.'?::?:::::._:::::i.f .. :?::?I '??' :::.':: :::::..'. '. ........' ???

Figure54 Planof Hatnofer's tomb showing its contents as found by the Museum's archaeologists IRamose's coffin II Hatnofer's coffin D Hatnofer's canopicbox III coffin containingthe bronzemirror (fig. 35) and the faience bowl (fig. 30) J gable-toppedchest filled with linen (fig. 41) C basketof food (fig. 37) 4, G potteryamphoraand alabaster jar (fig. 50) M basketcontainingthe pot sling (fig. 49) L basketcontainingthe razor(fig. 35)

CM.O10
------

ZO 30

40

SCALE 50

75

M.

------

139

THE

SERVANT

IN

THE

PLACE

OF

TRUTH

^X /17 -nI

d-P

Dynasty 18

1550-1295

B.C.

1500

1400

Ne;w Kingdom 1550-1070 Haremhab1323-1295 Djeserkheperure

B.C.

B.C.

Birthof Khonsu1300B.C. (?)

1300

Dynasty 19 1295-1186 B.C. Menpehtire Ramesses (I) 1295-1294 B.C. Menmaatre Seti (1) 1294-1279 B.C.

B.C. Ramesses Usermaatre (11)1279-1213

Death of Khonsu 1240
B.C. (?)

1200

lose to thirty-threecenturiesago, a young man named Khonsu in the Place becamea "servant of Truth"-a designationthat identified membersof the crewof artisanswho carvedand decoratedthe royaltombs of the New Kingdom.These artisans included quarrymen,scribes,draftsmen, The sculptors,painters,and carpenters. entire crew,which usuallynumberedno more than sixty,lived with their familiesin a walled community known to its residents simply as the Village.Situatedin a small desertvalley on the west bank of the Nile, at the edge of the Thebancliffs,the Villagewas within easy reachof the two principalroyalcemeteries:the GreatPlace, 401

now calledthe Valleyof the Kings;and the Placeof Beauty,or the Valleyof the Queens. More than 1,500yearsafter Khonsu'stime, a Christianmonastery (deirin Arabic)was built near the longabandonedtown (medinain Arabic),and this monastic establishmenteventually gavethe areaits modernname,Deir elMedina-"the monasteryof the town." Most Egyptianvillages,and even most royalpalaces,werebuilt of mud brick,a mixtureof mud and strawthat was shaped in molds and dried in the sun. The Village, however,was located some distanceaway from the sourceof these materials,and thus it was built largelyof stones that were collectedfrom the surroundinghills.As a

result,the walls of many of the houses are still preservedto a height of threeor four feet, and it is possibleto see the remainsof living rooms, household shrineshonoring local deitiesand ancestors,kitchens,underthat ground storageareas,and staircases once led to roofs that could be used for dryingfood and as workspacesor gathering placeson warm summerevenings. Khonsuwas the fourth son in a large family,and like most membersof the royal work crew,he and at least one of his brothershad followed in the footsteps of their father,Sennedjem,who was also a servantin the Placeof Truth.Sennedjem was an activemember of the crew in the time of MenmaatreSeti, the son of a former generalnamed Ramesseswho had ascendedthe throne of Egyptas Menpehtire and founded a new dynasty.Sennedjem had probablybegun his career under Menpehtire's predecessor, DjeserkheperureHaremhab,duringwhose reign and expanded. the Villagehad been restored Afterone of the expansions,Sennedjem and his wife, Iineferti,were assigneda largehouse at the southwesterncornerof the walled town. This must have happened aftersome of their childrenwere grown, because their eldest son, Khabekhnet, had the crew and was assigned alreadyjoined the house next door. Probablyabout ten yearsyoungerthan his brother,Khonsu may still havebeen a child, and he seems to have remainedat home even after becoming a member of the royalworkforce and to have eventuallyinheritedthe house from his father. By carefullyobservingthe night sky,the ancient Egyptianshad developeda very accuratecalendarbased on recurring astronomicalevents,such as the heliacal rising of the Dog Star,Sothis,which predicted the coming of the yearlyflood. The yearitself was divided into three seasons of four months apiece,and each month includedthreeten-dayweeks.The standard workweeklasted eight days,followedby

two rest days.When a king'stomb was in progress,Khonsu and his fellow artisans would begin their week by climbingthe ridge behind the Villageon a trail that still exists today.They would walk northeast along the cliff path to a second trail,which leads up sharplyto the top of a ridge and then down into the steep-sideddesertvalley that forms the GreatPlace.The first part of this journeywould have offered view of the Nile Valley, them a spectacular with its lush green fields ending abruptly at the edge of the desert.Here,the workers would havebeen able to see the cemeteries of their ancestors,includingthe impressive ruins of Meketre's tomb, where the storehouse managerWahhad alreadylain buried for seven centuries(see pp. 6-23). Insteadof makingthis trip each day,the men would sleep in stone huts located near the royaltomb or up on the ridge, returningto the Villageat the end of their eight-dayshift. During rest periods in their long workdays,the artisanswould sometimes pick up the smooth limestone chips that were work. a by-productof the quarrymen's Some of these chips were employedby scribesfor recordkeepingand some by the chief draftsmenfor the small-scale preparatory drawingsthat would then be copied onto the walls of the tombs. Still others were used by membersof the crew to practicetheir skills,offer prayersto their favoritedeities,or just amuse themselvesby sketching,drawingcartoons,or of each other,their makingcaricatures superiors,and even the king. These drawings are usuallyfreerin style than the beautiful,but very formal,paintingsand painted reliefsfound in the royaltombs, and they lend a sparkof individualityto these otherwiseanonymous artists. On one particularly fine ostracon (see fig. 55),an unidentifiedking, accompanied by his faithfulhunting dog, is shown spearinga lion. The fiercecreature has been wounded by four arrowsbut
141

with its claws still attacks, and teethbared.The figuresaredrawnin the spare,confidentstyle of an artistwho requires no gridlines to guide his hand.The king Itis elea -understood by as the of i" . Eg yjEgyptians one who maintainedorderin a chaoticworldstandson a ground_y leavig while the lionline, pc a' ... l c te the embodimentof ? _ andchaos-is ungrounded. The hieraticinscription abovethe lion reads, "Theslaughter of everyforeignland;the Pharaoh-may he Thereis no and be healthy." live,prosper, sceneof this type in any royaltomb,nor do standard huntingscenesshow the king in nearhand-to-handcombatwith animals. In this elegantsketch,the artistseemsto his personalhope that the haveexpressed currentrulerwould dominatethe enemies of Egyptandbe victoriousoverthe shadowy powersof chaosthat constantlythreatened the ordered,peacefullife of the Nile Valley. By leavingthe ostraconin the royalcemetery,a placemade sacredby the proximity of deceasedrulerswho had successfully completedthe journeyto the next world and werethemselvesconsidereddivine,the to the gods. artistwas makinga pleadirectly fortunate his sons were and Sennedjem to live during a period of greatprosperity for the Village.At the height of Sennedjem'scareer,in the firstsixteenyears of the new dynasty,two royaltombs were required.Menpehtirewas an elderlyman when he became king, and he ruled for less than two years.As a result,his tomb when he had been only partiallyexcavated died, and the small room on which the quarrymenwere workingat the time of his deathbecame the burial chamber.Only this small chamberwas ever decorated

Figure55 Drawingof a king slaying a lion FromwesternThebes(Valley of the Kings). New Kingdom, Dynasties19-20 (ca. 12951070 B.C.). Limestone and ink.

W.47/8in. (12.5 cm). Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (26.7.1453)

with the scenes and texts that were considered essentialguides for the king'sspirit on its perilousjourney to the afterworld. Becausetime was short, the decoration was simply painted on the walls, insteadof firstbeing carvedin relief,and the colors are particularly well preserved.Egyptian used natural painters pigments to createa limited palettethat included red (made from red ocher), yellow (eitheryellow ocher or orpiment,a form of arsenic), blue (copper),green (malachiteor copper), black (carbon), and white (chalk). To coverlargerareas,the paintersprobably used brushesmade of palm fiber and mixed their colors in largebowls. For small-scaleand detailwork, an artist might use his own painter'spalette and a brush similarto those employedby scribes.Workingby the light of oil lamps deep beneath the ground,these artists were able to give life not only to the figures of the king and the gods but also to the hieroglyphsof birds and plants and animals that were used to recordthe magical texts on the walls. Sennedjemprobablyworked on Menpehtire's relativelysmall tomb and certainlyhelped to createthe monumental sepulchreof the next king, Menmaatre Seti,which today,aftermore than three millennia,is consideredthe finest example of royalfuneraryarchitecture preserved from the New Kingdom.Khabekhnetand Khonsuwere among the artisanswho carvedand decoratedthe tomb of Menmaatre'sson Ramesses,known as Usermaatre,who was the most prolificbuilder of his time. In the GreatPlace,along with his own largetomb-which must have rivaledhis father'sin the beauty of its relief decoration-Usermaatre commissioned a monument in memory of his sons, at least twelveof whom predeceased him. This rock-cutstructure,the full extent of which is not yet known, is a warren of tunnels containingmore than 150 rooms, and it alone could have kept the

421

entire crew of royalartisansat work for a Ramessesalso decadeor more. Usermaatre commissioneda number of monuments for his female relativesin the Placeof

Beauty,firmlyestablishingit as a burial place of queens.The tomb the king had preparedfor his beloved wife, Nefertari, is one of Egypt'sgreatnational treasures.

Figure56 In this photograph of DeirelMedinataken from the cliffs lookingsouth, the ruinsof the walled workmen's village are visible on the left, and the terraced cemeteryis at the right. Figure57 View of the Villagefrom the west gate lookingeast

143

Figure58 Drawingof a bullfight from westernThebes. Probably New Kingdom, Dynasties19-20 (ca. 1295-1070 B.C.).Limestone and ink.W. 71/4in. (18.5 cm). RogersFund,1924 (24.3.27) Bullfightswere encouragedby herdersin orderto Egyptian select the strongestand most aggressiveanimalsfor breeding. Imagesof fighting bullsare never found in royalfunerarymonuso ments of the New Kingdom, this is not a trialsketch intended for copyingonto the walls of a king'stomb.Theartist may have made the drawingto practicehis skills,as a votive offeringto help bringabout the king'sdefeat of enemies,or simplyto Egypt's amuse himselfin a quiet hour of relaxation.

Figure59 In the scene reproduced below from a wall of the burialchamber of Menpehtire the king, Ramesses, identifiedby the two cartouches above him, kneels between two the ancestors figuressymbolizing and Lower Because of Upper Egypt. of the brevityof his reign,the tomb decorationin Menpehtire's was not carvedin relief.Instead, the figuresand texts were simply paintedon the carefullysmoothed and plasteredsurfaceof the wall, which allows us to appreciate fully the grace and detail of the two-dimensionalimage.

441

Figure60 Sketch of a dog FromwesternThebes(Valley of the Kings). New Kingdom.

Limestone and ink. W. 37/8 in.

M. (10 cm). Gift of Theodore Davis,1914 (14.6.245)

Thiswell-used artist'spalette belonged to Amenemopet, who servedas vizier in the mid-Eighteenth It contains Dynasty. the six basic colors of the Egyptian palette, plus two extras: reddishbrown,a mixtureof red ocher and carbon;and orange, a mixtureof Figure61 Painter'spalette orpiment(yellow) and red ocher.The fromThebes.New Probably paintercould also Dynasty18, reign Kingdom, his colors of Aakheperure vary by applyinga Amenhotep thickeror thinnerlayerof paint Woodand (ca. 1472-1400 B.C.). or by addingwhite or blackto pigment.L. 8/4 in. (21 cm). achieve a lighteror darker shade. 1948 RogersFund, (48.72)

Figure62 In the decorationof the tomb of wife of the second Nefertari, Ramesses,the talents of the relief sculptorand those of the painter mergeto createwhat the Egyptians would have regarded as a living image of the queen.

145

THE SERVANT IN THE PLACE OF TRUTH

n I

he amount of time it took the crew to complete a royaltomb depended on the length of a king'sreign,and work was sometimes cut short by the pharaoh'sdeath,as discussedpreviously in relationto the elderlyMenpehtire(see
p. 42). Because of the length of time

f-

requiredfor mummification,the team would have up to three months to finish its work, and then the processwould begin all over again for the new pharaoh.Even before the beginning of the Nineteenth Dynasty,the principalfeaturesof a royal tomb had become standardized. Although the dimensions variedfromreignto reignusuallybecomingnoticeablylarger-the same seriesof corridorsand chambers would be carveddeep into the bedrock, culminatingin the pillaredhall that was the last restingplace of the king. Afterthe site for a new tomb had been chosen and its dimensions and exact floor plan decided upon, the quarryingwork would begin. The art of cutting a tomb into bedrockhad been perfectedover generationsand was accomplishedwith awe-inspiringprecisionby the skilled quarrymenof the Village,who most likely includedKhonsuand his relatives.Using bronze chisels,wooden hammers,and simple tools for measuringand leveling, they were able to tunnel more than three hundredfeet into the bedrockwhile dropping eighty feet in elevationand changing the tomb'saxis up to three times without deviatingby more than an inch or two from the intended orientationof the burialchamber.To achievesuch accuracy, trainedsurveyorsmust havebeen on hand to check and correctthe excavationof each room. Khonsu'sfather,Sennedjem, may havebeen one of these surveyors,for his burialequipmentincludeda set of inscribedmeasuringand levelingtools. While Sennedjemand his colleagues were at work on MenmaatreSeti'stomb, a number of innovationswere introduced, includinga wonderfulvaultedceiling in

Figure63 Jar from the tomb of Sennedjem Paintedred pottery.H. 12 in. (30.5 cm). Fundsfromvarious donors,1886 (86.1.10)

the burialchamberand severalside rooms, one with high benches around the walls.This was also the first royaltomb in which everychamberalong the axis was decorated,not just the rooms close to the burialchamber.Accordingly, decoration of the tomb seems to have commenced before the quarryingwork was entirely finished.Beforethe decorationcould be executed,the walls had to be carefully smoothed. Then, a string soakedin red paint was pulled tight and snappedagainst the walls to provide guidelinesfor the draftsmen(see fig. 65), who sketchedthe outlines of the figuresand the hieroglyphs. More elaborategrids were sometimes drawnin areaswhere complicatedscenes or largefigureswere to be placed,but experiencedartistsneeded nothing more than a groundlinefor the figuresand borders for the columns of hieroglyphsin orderto transferthe decorativescheme from a small-scaledrawingonto the walls. Afterthe masterscribehad reviewedthe work of the draftsmen,sculptorscarved awaythe background,leavingthe hieroglyphs and figuresin relief.Any errors were correctedwith the applicationof fine plaster,and then the paintersadded color and detail. As compensationfor their meticulous work,the royalartisanswere paid in food, firewood,pottery,and clothing. They were also providedwith the servicesof laundrymen, and women were on hand to grind a family'sgrain.In addition to the two rest daysin everyweek, the workersof the Village enjoyednumerous religiousfestivals and feast daysthroughoutthe year.During this free time, they used their skillsto augment their income and barteredfor goods that were often made by other members of the community.A wooden box and a decoratedpotteryjar (see fig. 63) that belonged to Khonsu'sfamily may have been acquiredin this fashion. The same talentsthat createda spectacularsepulchrefor the ruling king were

461

also put to use in the more modest burial places of the workersthemselves.Located in a terracedcemeteryon the hillside adjacentto the Village,their funerary monumentsincludedsmall,vaulted,abovegroundofferingchapelsthatweretopped by miniature,steep-sidedpyramids.In or nearthe chapels,shaftscut deep into the bedrockled to groupingsof corridorsand vaulted rooms that were often used by many generationsof the same family.One of the finest of these tombs belonged to Sennedjemand his descendants.Built at the southern end of the cemetery,the family crypt was just a stone'sthrow away from its owners'house. The upperlevel of the complex had offeringchapelsfor both Sennedjemand Khonsu,and the decoratedburialchambercontainedthe mummies of Sennedjemand Iineferti;Khonsu and his wife, Tameket; Khonsu'syounger brotherRamesses;and four other named membersof the family,as well as eleven unidentifiedmummies. Khabekhnet and his familyowned a second tomb, which was cut into the terracejust above and slightlyto the south of his father's. When Sennedjemand Iinefertidied, aftertheir long, productivelives in the Village (Iinefertiwas over sixty at her death), Khonsu sharedresponsibilityfor their funeralriteswith his siblings,and vignettespainted on Iineferti'scoffin lid show Khonsuand his brotherRamesses honoring their parents.In preparationfor his own journey to the afterworld, Khonsu commissioned a pair of nesting anthropoid coffins made of wood (see fig. 72). The lid of each depicts Khonsuin the form of a mummy,with arms crossedover his chest and hands clutchingthe tyet amulet and djedpillar,the same magical symbols that were used some two hundred yearsearlieron Hatnofer'schairto ensure the owner'swell-being (see fig. 42). The coffins are coveredwith magicaltexts and vignettes featuringdeities as well as Khonsu and Tameket. A mask of painted

wood and cartonnagecompletedthe ensemble.Khonsuhad also obtained a painted canopic box to hold his internal little figuorgansand severalshawabtis, rines that were intended to substitutefor the deceasedowner if he were called upon to performany kind of manuallabor in the next life. When he finallybegan his own journey to the afterworld,Khonsuwas about sixtyfive yearsof age and had seen two generations of his descendantsenter the work crew.He was placed in the familytomb along with his parents,and the funeral rites were probablyperformedby his sons Nakhemmutand Nakhtmin,who spoke the words of the offeringtexts and repeatedthe names of those who had passedon to the next world, thus giving them renewedlife. Afterbeing used by of Khonsu's descendants, manygenerations the familycrypt was sealedat last and remainedundisturbeduntil February i, when it was uncovered 1886, by agentsof the EgyptianAntiquitiesService. Sincethe mid-nineteenthcentury, thousands of recordsrelatingto the Village and its residentshavebeen discovered. Writtenon ostracaof limestone or pottery, these lists, letters,contracts,and accounts were of no intrinsicvalue to their users afterhaving servedtheir purpose,and they were simply discarded.The ostraca,supplementedby informationgleanedfrom inscribedobjectsfound in the houses and tombs, provideintriguingglimpses into the lives of the artisansand their families. From these sources,it is possible to piece togetherthe names,titles, and relationships of dozens of membersof Khonsu's extendedfamily,who inhabitedthe Village over a period of about two centuries.The familytree begins with Khonsu'spaternal Khabekhnetand Tahenu, grandparents, and can be tracedforwardto his own great-great-great-great-great-grandson, anotherKhonsu,who was a foremanof the crew duringthe reign of the eleventh
147

Ramesses,the last king to initiate a tomb in the GreatPlaceand the final rulerof the New Kingdom.By this time, most of the residentshad moved awayfrom the Village to dwellingslocated at the edge of the floodplain,but the familychapelsand

tombs were still in use, and it is possible that some of the unidentifiedmummies found buried with Sennedjemand his son Khonsu date to this much less prosperous time in the family'shistory.

Figure64 Writing boardwith an architecturaldrawing FromwesternThebes.New Dynasty18. Plastered Kingdom, in. and paintedwood. W. 137/8 (35.2 cm). Gift of Normande GarisDavies,1914 (14.108) Thisfragmentary architectural drawingshows partof a small shrine(at upperright,in red)facing a bodyof water (at far left) and surrounded by trees within an enclosurewall of mud brick(in

also enclosed, black).An orchard, runsparallelto the water.The measurements of the walls are writtenfrom rightto left, and in each begins with a hieroglyph the shape of a forearm,which the Egyptian unit means "cubit," of length.Thissymbolis followed, in each case, by a number: an elongatedsemicirclestands for ten, and a strokestands for one. Thus,the width of the orchardis thirty-twocubits.

481

Figure65 Artist's reel and cord FromwesternThebes.Middle Dynasty12, reignof Kingdom, Amenemhat (ca. 1981Sehetepibre 1952 B.C.). Woodand twisted linen cord.L. of reel 141/8in. S. Fund and Edward (36 cm).Rogers Harkness Gift, 1922 (22.3.72) Althoughit dates to the time of Wah,some seven centuriesbefore Sennedjemand his son Khonsu were workingin the Valleyof the this reel of linen cord is Kings, similarto the tool that wouldhave been used to makethe guidelines and in the tombs of Menpehtire his successorsof Dynasty19. A trace of red paint is still visible on the cord.

Figure66 Artist'sgridded sketch FromwesternThebes(DeirelNew Kingdom, Bahri). Dynasty18, of reign Hatshepsut(ca. 1479and ink. 1458 B.C.).Limestone
W. 51/2 in. (14 cm). Rogers Fund,

1923 (23.3.4) Thissmall sketch depicts a frequentlyoccurringgroupof hieroglyphs meaning"life,prosperity, Thegrid lines and dominion." allowedthe artist to drawthe at whateverscale was hieroglyphs needed.

149

Figure67 On this partially completedrelief decorationin the tomb of MenmaatreSeti, two columnsof text were drawnby the draftsmen.In the lower half of each column, a sculptorhas carvedaway the background, leavingthe hieroglyphsin relief.

Figure68 Box from the tomb of Sennedjem Gessoedand paintedwood. H. 61/4 in. (16 cm). Fundsfrom variousdonors,1886 (86.1.8) The lid of this box, which is attached at the backwith horizontal pivots,opens to revealfour for cosmetics.The compartments box could be securedby winding a piece of twine aroundthe two knobsat the front. Its elaborate decorationwas intendedto imitate moreexpensiveboxes inlaid with ebony,ivory,and perhaps cedaror mahogany.

501

Figure69 Theeast wall of Sennedjem's vaulted cryptis decoratedwith a vignette that illustratesspell number110 in the Bookof the taken Dead.Here,in a photograph at the site, Sennedjemand linefertiare shown harvesting grain,sowing seeds, and pulling flax in the abundantfields of the next world.

151

Figure70 Vignette on lineferti'scoffin lid Gessoedand paintedwood. H. of Khonsu 47/8in. (12.5 cm). Funds fromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.5a) In this vignette, Khonsu stands before his motherand recites scroll.The from an open papyrus reads on the scroll inscription "theOsiris, the housemistress, lineferti," indicatingKhonsu's belief that his mother'sspirithas become one with Osiris,the great god of the underworld.

Figure71 Vignette on lineferti'scoffin lid Gessoedand paintedwood. H. of Ramesses51/8in. (13 cm). Funds fromvarious donors,1886 (86.1.5a) brotherRamesses Here,Khonsu's offers a libationto their father, Sennedjem.
521

Figure72 Khonsu'santhropoidcoffins Gessoedand paintedwood. H.of taller coffin 783/4in. (200 cm). Fundsfromvarious donors,1886 (86.1.1, .2)

153

73 Figure Khonsu's funerarymask Paintedwood and cartonnage. H. 187/8 in. (48 cm). Fundsfrom variousdonors,1886 (86.1.4)

Figure74 Shawabtibox and shawabtis Paintedwood; limestoneand ink. H.of box111/4in. (28.5 cm).Funds fromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.14, .18, .21). Gift of J. Davis,1967 (67.80). Lionberger Fundsfromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.28) Thewooden shawabtibox is inscribed for Paraemhab, a servantin the Placeof Truth who was a son or grandsonof

Sennedjemand lineferti.The shawabtifigures,from left to for lineferti right,are inscribed and her eldest son, Khabekhnet; for Khonsu; for Khabekhnet alone; and for a woman namedMesu. had a sepaAlthoughKhabekhnet rate tomb complexnearthat of Sennedjem,he is depictedwith his siblings in the decorationof and burialchamber, Sennedjem's objects inscribedwith his name were buriedin the familytomb.

541

Figure75 Vignette on Khonsu'sinner coffin lid Gessoedand paintedwood. H.of Khonsu 6 in. (15.3 cm). Funds fromvariousdonors,1886 (86.1.2a) Thiskneelingfigureis identified by the two columnsof hieroglyphs in frontof himas "theOsiris, the servantin the Placeof Truth, Theimageand Khonsu, justified." its text are a graphicexpression of Khonsu's hopethat his spiritwill passsuccessfully throughthe trial of judgmentin the afterlifeand becomeone with Osiris.

Notes
p. 4 Dynasty 8-mid-Dynasty 11 There is no longer considered to have been a Dynasty 7. p. 5 Egyptian Antiquities Service The Service des Antiquites de l'Egypte, now known as the Supreme Council of Antiquities of Egypt, was founded in 1863. p. 7 Horus name Sematawy Egyptian kings usually had five names in their titularies. The Horus name was written in a rectangular device with the god Horus, in his guise as a falcon, perched on top. The two most commonly used names, the personal name that was given at birth and the throne name that was taken upon accession to kingship, were each written inside a cartouche. p. 8 kill the leavening agent A type of wild yeast was discovered in the dregs of beer contained in a jar found in Wah'stomb. This yeast was subsequently named Saccharomyces winlocki after Herbert E. Winlock, who was the director of the Metropolitan Museum's excavations at that time. p. 8 at nearly sixfeet X rays of Wah'smummy were taken in 1936,and the group of doctors who analyzed them reported that Wah had been a "tall young adult male of large frame."In his own notes on the X rays, Herbert Winlock estimated Wah'sheight at five feet three or four inches, stating that X rays exaggerate size. In light of a more recent examination of the skeleton, however, Ken Mowbray of the American Museum of Natural History, New York,has suggested a much greater height. p. 14 as an amuletic device Scarabs first appear in large numbers at sites around Badari, in Middle Egypt, during the First Intermediate Period, probably only a century before Wah'sbirth. p. 25 laid to rest We cannot know exactlywhen Hatnofer was buried, but inscribed material from the Museum's excavations suggests that her tomb was sealed sometime in Year7 of the joint reign of Menkheperre Thutmose (III) and Maatkare Hatshepsut. p. 25 in the vicinity ofArmant Hatnofer's son Senenmut held a title that suggests that his family came from this town. Since the majority of Egyptians probably married within their own communities, it seems likely that both of his parents were born in or near Armant. p. 25 even sit on a jury For more information on the legal status of women, see Janet H. Johnson, "The Legal Status of Women in Ancient Egypt,"in Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: Women in Ancient Egypt, edited by Anne K. Capel and Glen E. Markoe (New York,1996). the gods" From the biography of Ineni, a p. 25 "'joined Theban official, found in his offering chapel (TT 81). Translation by James P.Allen. p. 26 "TwoLands becamepeaceful" Ibid. p. 26 to wield significantpolitical power Hatshepsut was not the first queen in Egyptian history to take kingly titles. That distinction belongs to Nefrusobek, who ruled for about three years at the end of Dynasty 12. p. 26 "goodold age" in Egyptian terms This estimate of Hatnofer's age at death was made when her mummy was unwrapped by Herbert Winlock in 1936. p. 26 siblings and their children In ancient Egypt, although the king often had more than one wifepartly to ensure the succession and partly to form alliances with foreign rulers-monogamy was the rule among the population as a whole. Likewise, while the king might marry his sister or half sister, this type of consanguineous marriage was seldom, if ever, practiced outside the royal family. p. 26 meaning "housemistress" While similar to our honorific title Mrs. (which has come to denote a married woman but is in fact an abbreviationfor "mistress"), the ancient Egyptian title nebet per actually denoted a woman's oversight of the family's domestic affairs. p. 27 almost exclusivelyby women By the Eighteenth Dynasty, the upright loom had been introduced into Egypt from Asia, but most Egyptians continued to use horizontal looms. See Catharine H. Roehrig, "Women'sWork: Some Occupations of Nonroyal Women As Depicted in Ancient Egyptian Art,"in Mistress of the House. p. 34 beneficial to hisfamily in the comingyears It is highly unlikely that Senenmut could have attained the high administrative positions that he held later in life

155

to readandwrite-somehadhe not learned wouldhavedone as a child. thinghe probably believethathe spenttime in the Somescholars as a youngman,a supposition based military Abdelon veryfragmentary textsin his Sheikh no Qurnaofferingchapel(TT71).However, titlesarepreserved on anyof his existmilitary ing monuments. estimates p. 34 onlyin hismid-thirties Previous or sixty, put Ramose's ageat deathat fifty-five of his remains but a morerecentexamination thathe was,in fact,a muchyounger suggests man.Seethe abstract for a papergivenat the annualmeetingof the Paleotwenty-fourth heldin SaintLouison Association, pathology M. F.Gaballah, April1 and 2,1997.R.Walker, from andZ. Gadawy, "TheHumanRemains at Luxor," PPANewsthe Tombof Hatnufer letter(1997), p. 13. andbeerin herhouse" Instructions p. 34 "bread fromthe translation ofAny7.17-8.1. Adapted in TheNewKingdom, by MiriamLichtheim A Bookof Literature: vol. 2 of Ancient Egyptian 1976), p. 141. (Berkeley, Readings toMaatkare p. 34 already Hatshepchiefarchitect sut Workon Senenmut's offeringchapelwas begunon the seconddayof the fourthmonth of the growingseasonin Year 7 of the reignof Thutmose 13, (III)-about March Menkheperre tombwassituated B.C. SinceHatnofer's 1473 terrace of Senenmut's beneaththe man-made chapel,it is likelythatshe wasburiednot long

afterthis workwasbegun. p. 41 Menpehtire's predecessor, Djeserkheperure Haremhab Haremhab, alsoa formergeneral, hadservedduringthe reignof Tutankhamun andascended the throneafterthe rulingfamily diedout. Havingno heirshimself,Haremhab a new dynasty did not establish andis usually considered the lastkingof Dynasty18. p. 41 inherited thehousefrom hisfather The andKhonsuhave namesof both Sennedjem beenfoundon architectural features preserved in the house,andit seemsto havebeencusto remainin the same tomaryfor dwellings andKhonsu Sennedjem familyforgenerations. alsoshared of a familytombin the ownership to the Village. adjacent cemetery weeks Twelve p. 41 threeten-day thirty-day monthsequal360 days,andfivedayswere addedat the end of the yearto make365. forleapyear, Because it madeno allowances the civilcalendar shiftedone dayeveryfourth the calendar usedto determine However, year. whento celebrate festivals wasbegun religious eachyearat the risingof Sothis,whichthe with theirgoddessSepdet. identified Egyptians to thegods Cathleen A. Keller p. 42 a pleadirectly of depositing votives haswrittenon thepractice in in theValley of the Kingsin "Private Votives in Iubilate Cemeteries: TheCaseof KV9," Royal in Memory AzizSadik, Studies ofAbdel Conlegae: pp.139-56. 10:2-3 (1995), pt. 1, Varia Aegyptiaca smalltomb The p. 42 Menpehtire's relatively

tombof Menpehtire Ramesses (I) is KV 16. [Kings Valley] in largebowls TheMetp. 42 mixedtheircolors Museumownsa palm-fiber brush ropolitan soakedwith redpaintanda brokenbowlused in to mix bluepaint.Theseareon display of Egyptian Art. 15a Gallery
p.42 preservedfrom the New Kingdom The

tombof Menmaatre Seti(I) is KV17. in memory p. 42 a monument of hissons Usermaatre wassucceeded Ramesses by his thirteenthson, Merneptah. Thetombof the sons KV5, is currently of Ramesses, beingexcavated of the American by KentR.Weeks University in Cairo. treasures p. 43 oneof Egypt's greatnational 66. Nefertari's tombis QV [Queens Valley] of discardedTranslations p. 47 theywere simply maybe foundin manyof thesedocuments F.Wente,Letters Edward Egypt fromAncient andA. G.McDowell, 199o), (Atlanta, Village Life ListsandLoveSongs in Ancient Laundry Egypt: (OxfordandNewYork, 1999).Theyalsoform The the basisof studiesby MorrisBierbrier, Tomb-Builders (London, 1982), of thePharaohs Ancient Lives: andJohnRomer, DailyLifein All of (NewYork, 1984). Egypt of thePharaohs thesesourceshavebeenconsultedin writing the sectionon Khonsu.

t i B ibliography c1 Morris.TheTomb-Builders Bierbrier, of the Pharaohs. London,1982. Mistress AnneK.,andGlennE.Markoe. of Capel, in Women Mistress theHouse, of Heaven: H. Roehrig, Ancient Essays by Catharine Egypt. New H. Johnson. andJanet BetsyM. Bryan, Art with the Cincinnati York(in association Museum), 1996. at A Community Jaroslav. Cerny, of Workmen with in theRamesside Period Thebes (in English 2nded. Cairo, 2001. French introduction).
The Valleyof the Kings:Fragmentsd'un -. manuscrit inacheve (in English with French Memory ofAbdelAziz Sadek) (Aug.-Dec. 1995), From the TombofMeket-Re' at Thebes.Publica-

pt. 1,pp.139-56. in Painters: Deirel-Medina . "Royal VisIn Fragments XIX." of a Shattered Dynasty
age: The Proceedingsof the International Symposium of Ramesses the Great.Monographs of

Museumof Art tions of The Metropolitan vol. 18.NewYork, 1955. Expedition, Egyptian Bul. "TheMummyof WahUnwrapped."
letin of The Metropolitan Museum of Art 35,

no. 12(Dec.1940),pp.253-59.

ArtandArchaeology of Egyptian the Institute no. 1.Memphis, StateUniversity), (Memphis

1991.

"The andWilliamC. Hayes. Ambrose, Lansing, Bulletin at Thebes." Excavations Museum's of

the Metropolitan Museum of Art 32, no. 1 (Jan.

Cairo,[1973]. preface).
Dorman, Peter F The Monuments of Senenmut: Problems in Historical Methodology. London

sec. 2,"TheEgyptian 19351937), Expedition, pp. 4-39. 1936,"

McDowell, A. G. Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs. Oxford and New

Acknowledgments
Theauthorwouldliketo thankJames Allen, Marsha Dorothea Hill,andDiana Arnold, commentsand CraigPatchfor theirinvaluable andEmelia NobukoKajitani suggestions; of ancient theirknowledge Cortesforsharing forherexperandDeborahSchorsch textiles; thanksgo to tise on ancientmetalwork. Special Ann Heywoodand BruceSchwarz, who,with greatpatienceandinfinitecare,devisedthe ingeniousmountingmethodsthatallowed for objectsto be photographed manyfragile
this Bulletin.

andNewYork, 1988.
. The Tombsof Senenmut: The Architecture and Decoration of Tombs71 and 353. Publica-

York, 1999.
Romer, John. Ancient Lives:Daily Life in Egypt of the Pharaohs. New York,1984. Wente, Edward F, trans. LettersfromAncient

Museumof Art tions of TheMetropolitan vol. 24.NewYork, 1991. Expedition, Egyptian

Hayes, William C. The Scepterof Egypt:A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom, 5th ed. Vol. 2, The Hyksos Period and the New Kingdom, 4th ed. New York, 1990.

vol. 1, fromAncientEgypt, Writings Egypt. editedby EdmundS. Meltzer. 199o. Atlanta, of Egyptian H [erbert]E."ADiscovery Winlock,
Jewelryby X-Ray."Bulletin of The Metropolitan

no. 12(Dec.1936), Museum pp.274-78. ofArt31, Bulletin at Thebes,1919-20o" . "Excavations

of The Metropolitan Museum of Art 15,no. 12 (Dec.1920),sec.2, "TheEgyptian Expedition,

in Royal Votives A. "Private Keller, C[athleen] The Caseof KV9."Varia Cemeteries: Aegyptiaca lo, nos. 2-3 (lubilate Conlegae:Studies in

1918-1920," pp. 12-32.

.Models of Daily Life in Ancient Egypt:

561

T IPe

ML(eftropo1iliLia

Museuim o$f

Ar4t

uB1t1lEl

IlnnLex

Summer2002-Spring 2003 New Series,VolumeLX

B
Andrea,seeNorth of the Apennines Bayer,

Chinese Export Porcelain, No. 3, 1-60 Adams,John, 55 "Arbor" design,26, 27 armorial design, 17-20, 24-26, 38-40 Dutch market(1690-1700), beaker, covered,and saucer,presumably 21 Beert,Osias,8 Birch,William,50 bottle,Venetianlatticino design(ca. 1715-25), 11 Boudinot,Elias,52 bowl:market,classical design(ca. 1811), 56; Imari(ca. 1715), 16; detail,coat of arms,16; "hong," 48; kraak porcelain(Ming dynasty),9 Bulfinch,Charles,41 Bull familyof Charleston, 23, 38 Cantonesefactories, 28, 33, 34, 57 Chantillyporcelainfactory,16 Chase,Samueland HannahKiltyGiles, 38 ChewWilcocks,Benjamin,56, 57 13 "chinamania," Clinton, DeWitt and MariaFranklin, 48, 50, 51 cloisonne,22 27 copperengraving, cup:covered,Chinesewith Englishmounts (ca. 1565-70), 7; interior, market(ca. 1690-1700), 10 7; standingcovered,European of Independence signing(1840-75), 60 cup and saucer,Declaration 22 Delfos,Abraham, Delft pottery,28 Derby,EliasHasket,46, 49 Americanmarket(1785-90), 38 dinner,tea, and c6ffeeservice, dish:Dutch market,29; detail,29; Englishmarket(ca. 1715), 18; and Brayarms,18; famillerosepattern detailof Harrison (ca. 1735), 20; Germanceramicstyle (1770-75), 33; detail of cartouche, 33; Imarimotifs (18th cen.), 16; Italianmarket (ca. 1698), 19; kraak porcelain(early17th cen.), 9; Scottishmarket(ca. 1735-40), 24 Doccia factory,Florence,19 Dresdenmanner,33 Du Paquier, Claudius,26, 27 Dutch EastIndiaCompany(VOC), 8-13, 26-28, 29, 32-33, 37, 53 Dutch embroidery 9 patterns, Edwin,David, 52 Empress of China,40-44, 49 EnglishEastIndiaCompany,15, 32, 38 Father Xavierde, 26 Entrecolles, ErieCanal,50, 51 verte(ca. 1725-30), 17;French silverpattern ewer: famille (ca. 171525), 17; Kangxiporcelain,Dutch market(late 17thmarket(Ming dynasty, early18th cen.), 13; Portuguese Zhengdeperiod),6 Eyre,BenjaminG., 48 famillerosepattern,20, 26, 58-59 famillevertepattern,15, 16, 17 market(ca. 1800-1810), 41 fan,American Feuille,Daniel de la, 33 Medicidesigns,19 Florentine Franklin, Benjamin,55 50 Fungmanhe, design,33 Fiirstenberg Giles,JamesH., 40 Ginori,Carlo, 19 GrandTurk, 46, 47 Grant,UlyssesS., 57, 59 Green,John, 40, 42, 49 27, 52 grisaille, Guillot,Elias,29 GustavIII, king of Sweden,22

Francis Habermann, Xavier,33 Edward and Frances Harrison, Bray,18 Horsemanden family,40 A. E. van Braam,53 Houckgeest, Imaridesign, 15, 16, 28 James,fifth dukeof Hamilton,20 Japantrade,11 Arita,26-27 Japanese Jesuits,20, 22, 26 kilns, 13, 26, 27, 28 Jingdezhen Johnson,Sir Henryand MarthaLovelace,15 jug, Washingtonbust in grisaille(1800-1815), 52 Kakiemon style, 15 Kangxiperiod, 13, 22, 27 kinrande ("goldbrocaded") painting,7 Kirk,Samuel,57 kraak ware,8, 9, 17 Lamb,John, 47 SirJohn, 22 Lambert, Lee, Henry,42 13 Leyland,Frederick, line paintingafterprintsources,26 PrinceWenzelFerdinand,19 Lobkowicz, Low,AbielAbbot, 56 Meissenporcelain factory,16, 28 Antonio da Silva,35 Mendesda Fonseca,Francisco Ming dynasty,13 24 Monnoyer,Jean-Baptiste, Morganfamily,46 Netherlandish glassdesigns,10, 11 New Yorkmarket,49-51 Okeover,Leakeand MaryNichol, 32 Opium Wars,57 Osgood,John, 41 pagoda(ca. 1785-92), 41 Paine,Daniel and LouisaThurber,59 partialservice,famillerosedesign(ca. 1860-66), 58-59 PaterPatriae(memorial to GeorgeWashington,ca. 1800-1818), 55 porcelain(ca. 1693-97), 15 planttub, armorial plaque,Dutch design(mid-18thcen.), 22 plate:Americanmarket:Angel of Fame (ca. 1784-85), 42; detail, emblem of Society of the Cincinnati, 42; Boudinot arms (ca. 1785-90), 52; Chase arms (1785-90), 38; landscape and Chinese immortals(ca. 1796-1805), 48; Morgan arms (ca. 1785-90), 46; Vaughanarms (ca. 1750-55), 37; Verplanckservice(ca. 1765), 36; "Arbor" design (ca. 1740), 26; detail, 26; "Clemency"(ca. 1740), 21; Dutch market(ca. 1692), 21; Guillot arms (ca. 174045), 29; Englishmarket,Okeoverarms (ca. 1739-43), 32; Frenchmarket,Orry arms (ca. 1745-50), 25; Portuguesemarket(ca. 1820), 35; Swedishmarket (ca. 1750), 25 Swedishmarket(ca. 1755-60), 25; Washington's tomb platter: (ca. 1800-1810), 54; detail,54 wares,15, 17, 18 polychrome traderoutes,7-8, 19 Portuguese 25 Precht,Christian, Pronk,Cornelis,26, 27, 28, 33 punch bowl:Americanmarket(ca. 1785-90), 48; details,4, 48; badgeof Society of the Cincinnati (ca. 1788), 43; certificate, Societyof the Cincinnati(ca. 1786-90), 44, 45; covererd,with platter,Swedishmarket(ca. 1745), 23; detail, Chateauof Lickb, 23; Empressof China (ca. 178.4-90), 47; detailof interior,47; New YorkCity (1812), interior,50; exterior,51; detailof armsof city of New York, 51 Putnams,Hans, 9 Qianlongemperor,28 Qing dynasty,13 Queen'sWare(Wedgwood),34 reverse paintingon glass,55, 57 Ary, 28 Rijsselbergh, Ripa,FatherMatteo,27

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin www.jstor.org

colonialmarket(ca. 1800), 35; detailof saladbowl, Portuguese Silveira arms,35 e Albuquerque, Dom Gaspar Saldanha de, 31 market(ca. 1715-20), 28 sauceboat, European saucer: American market,Rogersarms(ca. 1785-88), 40; detail,40; MarthaWashington's initials(ca. 1795), 53 saucetureenand stand:Brucearms(ca. 1785), 34; Wedgwood (ca. 1770), 34 saucetureenand underplate, American market(ca. 1786), 46 Sevresfactory,25 Seymour,Samuel,50 Shaw,Samuel,40, 41, 42-44 Silveira e Lorena,Dom Bernardo Jose Mariada, 35 Societyof the Cincinnati,42, 43, 44-45 44-45 Stevens,Ebenezer, sugarbowl, New YorkStatearms(1770-1800), 49 SwedishEastIndiaCompany,25, 32 tableservice,Portuguese market(ca. 1760-65), 31 Dutch market(ca. 1700-1710), 10; detail, 12 taperstick, tazza,Continentalmarket(ca. 1700), 12; top view and detail, 12 teapot,Swedishmarket(ca. 1755), 22 tea service,partial,Dutch market(Pronk),27 textilesas designsource,33 Tilghman,Edward,52 transfer printing,28 Treatyof Wanghia,57 Tros,Willem, 33 Trumbull, John, 60 tureen:covered,American market,Fitzburgh pattern(early19th cen.), 53; Hoaching(ca. 1843), 56 U.S. CentennialExhibition,57, 60 van derMy, Hieronymus,22 van Dijck, Floris,8 44 Varick,Richard, Vaughan,Samuel,37, 40 Venetianlatticino design, 11 family,36, 38 Verplanck VungTau(Chinesejunk), 10, 15, 17 Wanli period(1573-1620), 8, 26 Washington,George,42, 48, 52, 54, 55 .53, 55 Washington,Martha, Wedgwood,Josiah,34 Whistler,JamesMcNeill, PeacockRoom, 13 WitteLeeuw(Dutch ship), 9 mark,13 yu "jade" Yuandynasty,8

F
Alice Cooney, seeChinese Export Porcelain Frelinghuysen, Le Corbeiller, Clare,seeChinese Export Porcelain Life Along the Nile: Three Egyptiansof Ancient Thebes, No. 1, 1-56 Thutmose,25, 34 Aakheperenre accountostracon,11 artist's griddedsketch,49 artist's reeland cord,46, 49 bakers fromMeketre's model bakery,11 basketand toilet articles,29 basketof food, 30 baskettray,37 36, 37 Bonghi,Bartolommeo, Book of the Dead, 35, 38, 51 bowl, 25 bracelet and necklace,19 Brewers fromMeketre's model brewery,12 burialceremony,15-16 41 calendar, canopicjars,14 chair,27, 32 coffinsof, 53 Davies,Normande Garis,31 Deir el-Medina,40, 43 Djeserkare Amenhotep,25-26 41 Haremhab, Djeserkheperure drawingof a bullfight,44

duck hunterand man harpooning model sporting fish, fromMeketre's boat, 12 closedin Egyptianart,33 eyes partially facsimileof a scenedepictingan estate,11 facsimileof offeringscene (Davies),31 familyties, 34 firstIntermediate Period,15 broad-collar necklace,19 funerary masks,15, 18, 38, 54 funerary rituals,27, 34-35, 36, 47 funerary chest and linens, 32 gable-topped harper's song, 33 Hatnofer,25-27, 34; chairof, 27, 32, 47; childrenof, 34; deathof, ritualof, 27, 34-35; heart 26; funerary mask,38; funerary scarab amulet,35, 38; knottedpot sling, 37; leatherscroll, 35; mummification of, 34-35; nicknameTju-Tjuof, 26; tambourine of, 27, 33; tomb of, 3, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34,35,37,38, 39 25-26, 34; statue(detail),26; thronenameof, 34, 38 Hatshepsut, heartscarab, 38 49, 50 hieroglyphs, Iineferti,41, 47, 51; coffinof, 52 Ineni, 25 Instructions ofAny,34 ka (life force), 16 Kamose,25 Khabekhnet, 41, 42, 54 Khonsu,40-41, 42, 46, 47; coffinof, 55; familytreeof, 47-48, 54; funeralritesfor, 47; funerary maskof, 54; in vignetteon mother'scoffin,52 linen, 27, 31, 32, 34 Maatkare 26, 29, 30, 34 Hatshepsut, Meketre,7-13; burialcomplexof, 11, 14, 16, 41; estateof, 15; models by, 7-8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 20, 21, 23,31,33 Meketre's model funerary boats,20, 23 21 Meketre's model funerary procession, Meketre's model slaughterhouse, 13 Meketre's model stable,8, 13 Meketre's model traveling boat, 33 Meketre's modelweaver's shed, 31 Thutmose,25, 29, 30, 33, 34, 38 Menkheperre Menmaatre Seti, 41, 42; tomb of, 46, 50 41, 42; burialchamber, 44, 49 MenpehtireRamesses, mummufication, 14-15, 34-35, 46 musicalensembles, 27 nebamunand Ipuky,tomb of, 36 NebhepetreMentuhotep,7; relief(detail),7 Ahmose,25 Nebpehtyre Necklaces,19 Nefertari, 43; tomb of, 45 New Kingdom,royaltombs,40 ostraca,11, 34, 41, 42, 44, 45 palette,45 painter's 54 Paraemhab, placeof Beauty,43 Princess Neferure,34 Quiverfragment,8 Ramose,26, 34, 35 razorand mirror,30 ringsand necklace,19 royaltombs,46, 49 sandals,30 scarabs,14, 15, 38 10 scribesfromMeketre's model granary, scribe's paletteand brushes,10 Amenemhat,14, 33 Sehetepibre Senenmut,34, 38, 48; artist's sketches,34; and mother'sfuneral, 34-35; offeringchapel,3 41, 42, 47, 52; box from tomb of, 50; burialchamber,54; Sennedjem, eastwall of vaultedcrypt,51; jarfromtomb of, 46 box and shawabtis, Shawabti 54 SheikhAbd el-Qurnahill, 34 sketchof a dog, 45 37 jarand amphora, storage Tameket,47 hairstyleof, 29; statuetteof, 26, 29 Taweret: Userhat's tomb, 31 Usermaatre 42-43 Ramesses,

Valleyof the Kings,40 Valleyof the Queens,40 Village,40-41, 43, 46, 47 Wah, 8, 41; birthof, 7; coffinof, 15-16, 23; deathof, 14; funeralof, 15;jewelryof, 14, 15, 19; maskof, 15, 18; mummufication of, 14-15; statuetteof, 9, 15; tomb of, 14, 16, 17, 22 wisdomliterature, 34 women'scosmetics,29 women'srolesand property, 25, 26-27, 34 scribe,10 writingboardof apprentice 48 writingboardwith architectural drawing,

N
North of the Apennines:Sixteenth-CenturyItalian Painting in Lombardyand Fmilia-Romagna,No. 4, 1-64 AlfonsoI, duke d'Este,48-49, 53 Albrecht,26 Altdorfer, Sofonisba,47 Anguissola, Ariosto,Ludovico,Orlando furioso,49 62 Francesco, Baiardo, 59, 61-62 Bedoli,GirolamoMazzola,TheAnnunciation, 49 Bellini,Jacopo,48; TheFeastof the Gods, Benci,Ginevrade', 18 Bentivoglio,GiovanniII, 39, 40 Bernard,16, 55 Berenson, di Stefanoda Fossano),11. Works: The Bergognone (Ambrogio 21, 22, 23; TheAssumption Assumption of the Virgin, of the di Brera, 13 (Pinacoteca Milan),22; Christ, Virgin Bologna,39-48 GiovanniAntonio, 14. Works:Girlwith Cherries Boltraffio, (poss. Crowned attrib.),16, 17, 18-19; PalaCasio,42-43; Youth witha Garland, 19 and Child,9 Bouts,Dieric, Virgin Donato, 7, 10 Bramante, Bramantino Suardi),29; Madonnaand Child,10-11 (Bartolomeo GiovanniJacopo.Works:Diana, 21; Juno,21; Minerva, 21; Caraglio, 21 Venus, 26 Merisi),23; TheFlagellation of Christ, (Michelangelo Caravaggio Carpi,Girolamoda, 55 LudovicdandAnnibale,55 Carracci, 59; Correggio(AntonioAllegri).Works:Ashburtonaltarpiece, Madonnaand ChildwithSaintsFrancis, Anthony of Padua, Catherine 56, 58; SaintsPeter, of Siena,andJohntheBaptist, and Leonard, Martha,MaryMagdalen, 55-59; detail,39 Councilof Trent, 30 23 distemper, Dosso Dossi (Giovannide Lutero):Three AgesofMan, 49, 50-51, 53 Sir Charles,27, 30 Eastlake, 39-63 Emilia-Romagna, ErcoleII d'Este,48-49 Estefamily,48-49 Fassi,Melchiore,55-56 48-55 Ferrara, in a Works:Portrait 47-48; Self-Portrait Fontana,Lavinia. ofa Prelate, 47 Study, Fontana,Prospero, 47, 48, 62 23; Madonnaand Justice Foppa,Vincenzo.Works: The of Trajan, Child(Cambrai Madonna)(ca. 1480), 7, 8, 9-10; infrared 9 photograph, di Marcodi GiacomoRaibolini), Francesco Francia, (Francesco 40-47. Works:Federigo 42, 43-44; Madonnaand Gonzaga, Child,44, 45, 47; Madonnaand Childwith SaintsFrancis 40, 41, 42 44, 46, 47; Nativity,40; SaintRoch, andJerome, Cecelia,18 Gallerani, Gambara, Veronica,55 Garofalo(Benvenuto Tisi). Works:SaintNicholas of Tolentino a Child,52, 53; SaintNicholas Reviving of Tolentino theBirds,52, 53, 54-55 Reviving Garofalo and Dosso. Works: TheMassof SaintNicholas of Tolentino, intoRoses, 53 53; TheMiracleof BreadConverted 47 Gentileschi, Artemisia, (GiovanniPietroRizzoli).Works:Diana theHuntress, Giampietrino 19, 20, 21; Diana witha Stag,21 Giovio, Paolo,49 47 XIII, Pope (Ugo Boncompagni), Gregory Grien,Hans Baldung,26 A (Croweand Cavalcaselle), 27 History of Painting,

Isabella d'Este,39, 43-44, 49, 55 JuliusII, Pope (GiulianodellaRovere),39, 49 . Juste,Antoine (Antoniodi Giusto Betti), 13 vs. parerga, 49, 53 justisoperibus Leonardo da Vinci, 7, 14-19, 21, 23, 40. Works:Ladywithan Ermine,18, 19; TheLastSupper, 14; Ledaand theSwan, 15; Leda,21; StudyofArmsand Hands,19; TheVirgin Standing 14, 33, 59 of theRocks, Lippi,Filippino,42 Alfonso:SaintNicholasof Tolentino Lombardi, (attrib.),53 7-37 Lombardy, Longhi,Roberto,33 and Cupid,16 Lotto, Lorenzo,27, 33; Venus Luther,Martin,30 Mannerism, 21, 63 56, 58 Andrea,40, 48; TheMadonnadella Vittoria, Mantegna, Mastelletta (GiovanniAndreaDonducci), 62 39, 40, 49 Michelangelo, Milan, 7-23 Pietrodi, 53 Monterrubiano, Morelli,Giovanni,55 in Morettoda Brescia(Alessandro Bonvicino),26-32. Works:Christ the Wilderness, 28; beforerestoration, 28; TheEntombment, 30; Portrait ofa Man, 28, 29, 30 Abbess Lucrezia 34, 35, Moroni,GiovanniBattista: AgliardiVertova, 36, 37 36; Bartolommeo Bonghi, Miindler,Otto, 27 Nicholasof Tolentino, Saint, 52, 53-54 Oggiono, Marcod', 14 L'Ortolano(GiovanniBattistaBenvenuti):TheAdoration of the 54, 55; TheNativitywithSaints JohntheBaptist, Shepherds, andMaryMagdalen, 55 Francis, Parma,55-63 MariaMazzola),55. Works: The (GirolamoFrancesco Parmigianino Annunciation 61, (attrib.),59-63; detailof X-radiograph, 62 62; Entombment, with Vannucci):Madonnain Glory Perugino(Pietrodi Cristoforo Saints,42 Pino, Paolo,32 Pliny, 53 Poitiers,Diane de, 21 Predis,GiovanniAmbrogiode, 17, 18 39-40 Raphael,23, 27; Saint Cecelia, Roberti,Ercolede', 48 23, 24, 25, 26; TheMadonna Romanino,Girolamo:TheFlagellation, 33 23, 25; SaintMatthew, of Mercy, RossoFiorentino,21 Savoldo,GiovanniGirolamo,30. Works:Nativity,34; SaintMatthew and theAngel,32-34; X radiograph of, 33, 34 33 Sesto,Cesareda: Baptism of Christ, Sigonio,Carlo,47, 48 SixtusV, Pope, 47 Solari,Christoforo,16 11, 12, 13, 14; Headofa Solario,Andrea.Works:Christ Blessing, with theHeadof SaintJohnthe Bearded Man, 13; Salome Baptist,14-16, 33; detail,7 Studius,53 49 andAriadne, Titian, 27, 36; Bacchus Tura,Cosimo, 48 MariadellaRovere),44 Urbino, duke of (Francesco van Winghe,Joss,62 Vasari,Giorgio,27, 33, 40, 49 Venturi,Lionello,36 Vertova,AbbessLucrezia Agliardi,34, 35, 36 WesternVeneto, 23-37 Weyden,Rogiervan der,48

R
Recent Acquisitions:A Selection: 2001-2002, No. 2, 1-64 48-51 "Africa, Oceania,and the Americas," ancestorfigure(korwar) (New Guinea,IrianJaya,Cenderawasih Bay,late 19th-early20th cen.), 50 duct flute (Mexico,Veracruz peoples,7th-10th cen.), 48 FemaleFigure Old BeringSea,2nd cen. B.c.-lst cen. A.D.), (Alaska, 48 a Chair). Keita,Seydou. Unfitled#313 (PortraitWomanSeatedon sI

necklace beads(Colombia,Tairona,1Oth-16th cen.), 48-49 two headrests (SouthAfricaor Zimbabwe,Tsongaand Shona peoples,19th-20th cen.), 50-51 woman'sgravemarker (sunduk)(SuluArchipelago, probably Bajaupeople, 19th-20th cen.), 49 "Ancient World,"6-9 bowl:deep (Greek,Calenian,3rd-early2nd cen. B.C.), 8, 9; spouted (early Cycladic II, ca. 2700-2200 B.C.), 6 Head of a PtolemaicQueen (Greek,Hellenisticperiod,3rd cen.
B.C.), 8

Kushite Pharaoh Dynasty25, ca. 713-664 B.C.),7 (Egyptian, Recumbent Lion (Egyptian, Dynasty4, ca. 2575-2465 B.C.),6 late 1st millenniumB.C.), 9 StandingBull (SouthArabian, 52-62 "Asia," belt buckle(Central Asia, 1st cen. B.C.), 52 beltplaque(northwestern China,4th cen. B.C.),52 belt plaquewith confrontedbovines,(southernSiberia,2nd-1st cen. B.C.), 52 bowl:(Chinese,Ming dynasty),56; with inlaidand stamped Chos6n dynasty,2nd half of 15th cen.), design(Korean, 60 box (Chinese,Ming dynasty),55 CentralAsianor northwestcup:large,with ringhandle(Eastern ern Chinese,periodof Tibetanrule,8th-9th cen.), 53; CentralAsianor northwestern stem (Eastern Chinese, periodof Tibetanrule,late 7th-8th cen.), 53 with scenesof childrenat play (Chinese,Song dish, octagonal, dynasty),55 6th-5th cen. B.C.), 52 garmentornament(Kazakhstan, Kamishimo (apanese, early20th cen.), 59 18th cen.), 56-57 Madonna(Sino-Spanish, Maharana AmarSinghII ofMewarRidinga Horse(Indian Mewar],ca. 1700-1710), 60-61 [Rajasthan, Edo period),59 piece froma Noh costume(Japanese, Portrait Eastern Posthumous of a Queenas Parvati(Indonesian, Javanese period,Majapahit kingdom, 14th cen.), 62 Warrior the Yellow S6yu,Maejima, Chinese ZhangQian Crossing River,58 Boons Savioress, Tara,theBuddhist (pagefroma disDispensing Indian [WestBengal] manuscript, persedPrajnaparamita or Bangladeshi, early12th cen.), 60 type, 58-59 Tomotsugu,Bamen,armorof the Gusoku vase (Chinese,Song dynasty),54 Guan(Chinese,unidentified artist,activeearly18th Emperor cen.), 57 1700-1900," 23-33 "Europe Hamilton,SecondViscount Carriera, Rosalba,Gustavus Boyne,in 23 Costume, Masquerade centertable(Russian, Tula, Imperial Armory,ca. 1780-85), 25 31 Cezanne,Paul, TheFishermen Scene), (Fantastic 28 CourtoisFreres,Cometa pistons, Bowl,32 Dresser,Christopher (designer),Wave MadameCharles-Maurice BaronFrancois-Pascal-Simon, Gerard, Princesse de Benevent...,27 de Talleyrand-Pericord, Man, Surrounded Theodore, TheRescue Gericault, of a Drowned (recto),28 by Other FigureStudies Art Pottery,Wave Bowl,32 Linthorpe Mounted 29 Hussar, Meissonier, Jean-Louis-Ernest, Paris,29 Mestral,O., Angelof thePassion, Sainte-Chapelle, and Hope,24 Faith, Charity, Moll, Balthasar Ferdinand, Moneton a Garden 30 Bench, Monet, Claude, Camille Nini in the Garden 32 Renoir,Pierre-Auguste, (Nini Lopez), Michael,Portrait Rysbrack, of a Lady,24-25 33 GrandeJatte, Seurat,Georges,GrayWeather, Volpato,Giovanni, TheRiverNile, 26 Graces" III: The "Three Wyon, William,PatternCrown of George 26-27 Crown, 10 "Islam," in a Garden Nidha, Mal, Princeand Ladies (attrib.),10 late 12th-early13th cen.), 10 oil lamp (Khorasan, "Medieval Europe,"11-13 bracteate 5th-6th cen.), 12-13 (Scandinavian, (French,Limoges,ca. 1170-80), 11; Plaquewith CensingAngels detail, 11 late 12th cen.), 13 psalter(Byzantine, ca. 1180), 12 cross(French,Limoges?, reliquary 39-47 "Modern,"

in Central Park, Arbus,Diane, Childwitha ToyHand Grenade N.YC., 42-43 surunplan horizontal Assassinat deMadameVeuve Bol,Projection (French,Parispolice photograph,1904), 39 40-41 Beckmann, Max, TheLastOnes, 47 Cavalli,Roberto,Man'sEnsemble, Form,42 Form,42; Thistle Coper,Hans: Cyladic Nude-Pink Stripe, 43 Diebenkorn,Richard,Reclining 47 Ensemble, Gaultier, JeanPaul,Evening witha BananaII, 42 Gilot, Francoise,Claude at theAgeof Nine, 41 Gorky,Arshile,Self-Portrait Full ofLove,44 William, Casspirs Kentridge, Flowers 44-45 Bloom, Kiefer,Anselm,Leta Thousand Oud, Jacobus JohannesPieter,"Giso404" pianolamp,41 45 Robert,Ruminations, Rauschenberg, 'topher, Rie, Dame Lucie,bowl, 42 40 Rohlfs,Christian,DeathasJuggler, 46-47 Struth,Thomas,NationalMuseum ofArt, Tokyo, 39 Sie, Louis, ClaudeTerrasse, 46 Viola, Bill, TheQuintetof Remembrance, 44 Witek,Joan, The Trickster, "NorthAmerica1700-1900," 34-38 and Mountford(manufacturer); unknowndecorator, Burroughs exhibitionvase,37 34 Chase,Anne, sampler, Homer,Winslow,Boysin a Dory,38 Meeks,Joseph,and Sons, piertable,34-35 Rush,William,Eagle,36 Saint-Gaudens, Augustus,Hiawatha,37 chest (American, Massachusetts, 1770-80), 35 serpentine-front Townsend,John, dining table,34 West, Benjamin,Maternity, 36, 37 "Renaissance and Baroque Europe,"14-22 18 Jacques,Samson, Bellange, 14 in the Wilderness, Benedettoda Maiano,SaintJerome nearAntwerp, Merxem, 16, 17 Jan the Elder,Castle Brueghel, Willem Pietersz.,Poultry Marketin a Dutch Town, Buytewech, 18-19 Carracci, Ludovico,Conversion of SaintPaul, 16 ca. 1610-20), 17 cuirassier armor(Italian,Milan or Brescia, Poussin,Nicolas, Studyof a Palm Tree(recto);MountainLandscape (verso),20-21 Adored Rubens,PeterPaul, TheVirgin bySaints(recto),19 SaintJohntheEvangelist Salviati,Francesco, (recto),15 Shell,and Stoskopff,Sebastien,Still Lifewitha Nautilus,Panther Box,20 Chip-Wood Sweerts, Michiel,Man HoldingaJug, 22 in Delft,21 of the Old Church Witte, Emanuelde, Interior H., seeLife Along the Nile Roehrig,Catharine

? 2003byTheMetropolitan of Art,NewYork Museum Copyright

r ??;-I? L--

":;

--??P;

i
:? :4 : : "

_:_::;, :I_;---_ ;?? :s--:?-;:--l--::?-

: -I--:

: : ::?-:_i;-:?:;_i:_xi?:R:?:a?; a-ia

---,:: :::,i,-:-? ::_: -_:r;?-; I,?-----; I1F:(:::. i- : :_?._:_il;::-. -:1S.;;:;: -::::::::ll:i'-''M:Ys-;_ II-.?---? R :-I':-"BWA nad-u

Bn;
azz;a-ie?a I

i?L

I--: l-IB--anrS 8nn:sas "" P9B. : : ;;:;; tg si? Y -ete::a--;: i-;?;----?_---:_;i I r ----_-_-:-;--?---_ea:--?;----11 P I -

--?---; ; -a sA

XL i--?:eBa?aea

;i

- ---: -

-e-?a BiwY ; I: ;'""";"-i " ':?TI-:?:;i:?-'--:--r;----:;: -.-:-:i ? -

,_?

:I

sBud;;,%B -i-g ii -s

I "

'