8.

Frames for the Industrial Buildings without Cranes

The cross section and side elevation of a single storey industrial building are shown in figure
1. The columns are assumed to be fixed at the base and pinned at the top, acting as partially propped
cantilevers in resisting to the horizontal loads coming from wind action (seismic action must be
considered also). The eaves members and bracing hold the top of the column in the longitudinal
direction, as one may see in the side elevation.
Fig. 1. .................................................
8.1. Rigid Frames Made of Plate Girders or Hot Rolled Shapes Portal Frames as Independent
Single Span Stru!tures for the Industrial Buildings
ome of the constructions in the industrial field are not e!uipped with cranes and also, they
do not develop on important spans and bays so they do not need a powerful roof girder. "n these
cases arched or portal framed constructions, are preferred, as in figure # and they are either three$
hinged or two$hinged, or hinge$less (fixed).
Fig. #. tatic systems adopted for the rigid frames
Three$hinged frame has the advantage of being statically determinate although the moments
and crown deflections are greater than for the other types. The fixed portal induces the smallest
values of moments of all three structures.
%ll these types of structures have the disadvantage of imposing horizontal thrusts of some
magnitude upon the foundations& hence the total loading must not be so significant.
The calculations for the two$hinged or hinge$less portals are based upon the arch theory,
which presupposes the existence of the appropriate horizontal resistance at the feet of the portals to
provide the arch thrust. 'ere it should be specified that comparatively small horizontal
displacements at the footings will cause considerable redistribution of the moments. These types of
framing should not therefore be used in cases where the existence of ade!uate horizontal resistance
is suspect unless the effect of arch spread is included in the design calculations or unless positive
means are ta(en to determine the extent of the lateral movement of the portal feet, usually by the
insertion of ties at the base level.
Observation) The calculations for a three$pinned frame also call provisions of an ade!uate
horizontal thrust, but the effect of footing spread in this case is of little importance. %ll forces and
moments in the frame are increased in inverse ratio to that of the reduced crown height compared
with the original crown height, but no redistribution effects occur. "t is generally found that the
weight of a portal frame designed in elastic theory is greater than that of the lightest comparable
construction that uses trusses and columns, but this effect may be offset by savings and advantages
in other directions.
The portal frames may be of solid " sections (*oist or welded plate) or of lattice type. The
formulae dealing with the indeterminate structures, the two$hinged and the hinge$less frames are
given in specific tables (annex +). These may be used to calculate moments, shear forces and
thrusts when a solid section is used.
everal solutions may be used) three hinged frame& frames with hinges between the rafter
and the column& frames with rigid connection between the rafter and the column.
"n the case of the hinge between the rafter and the column, the latter must be fixed in the
foundations. The frames with rigid *oints may have the column fixed in the foundation or, if the
foundation ground is wea(, the column may be articulated in the foundation. ,henever there may
happen important settlements of the ground, or the construction is designed as dismounting
structure, the frames have three hinges, being static determinate.
The rafter may be a plate girder or a hot$rolled profile and in this case the advantages are)
simpler fabrication, smaller height, anti $ corrosion resistance. The *oints between the column and
the rafter and the apex area have greater dimension in the plane of the frame (named also portal
frames), the cross section being specifically reinforced with transversal stiffeners and wider flanges.
The solution is rational when higher strength steels are used, the cross section having supple
webs made of higher strength steels.
Fig. -. everal types of frames with steel rafters made of hot rolled section or build up and columns with
different types of cross sections (steel and reinforced concrete)
Fig. .. %doption of different cross section for the rafter) 1$1$ when purlins are placed at the top flange& #$#$
when purlins are missing (under the longitudinal s(ylight)
The build up sections of rafters must be insured against lateral buc(ling (flexural$tortional
buc(ling)& if the roof is sustained by purlins, these elements are able to prevent this phenomenon
from happening (fig. -. section 1$1). "f the roof is sustained directly on the rafter or s(ylights are
placed in the roof plane, the top flange of the rafter must be conse!uently reinforced (section #$#).
"n some cases, the rafter is provided with tie rod (fig. #.h). /alculation in this case considers
the hypothesis that the girder has one support articulated and the other fixed. The effort in the tie$rod
is X
1
, determined with the relationship)

11 1 1
X (1#)
where)

1
$ is the displacement in the direction of X
1
in the case of the girder without tie$rod, loaded
with external forces&

11
$ translations on the direction of the force X
1
=1.
The girder is bloc(ed in the position, double articulated practically, the supports having the
possibility of moving elastic, horizontally. 0!uilibrium conditions are written for the displacements
of the top of the columns, as to obtain e!ual forces at both ends of the columns. "f the stiffness of the
columns is different from one to the other (fig. #.a.), the displacements of their top part are inverted
proportional with the stiffness of the columns and the fixed section is placed at the distance l
1
from
the column S
1
and is given by the relationships)

l
EI
h K
EI
h K
EI
h K
l

1
1 1
#
# #
#
# #
1
- -
-
and)
1 #
l l l (1-)
where K
1
and K
2
are coefficients that ta(e into account the variation of the cross section of the
column.
"n the case when one support may shift, the displacement would be expressed as)
11 1 1
and is e!ual for both supports. The stiffness of the columns is the reason for a
diminished value of the effort in the tie$rod,
1 1
< and it is obtained with the relationship)
11 1
1
1 1
1 1
) (

EI
h K
(1.)
The transversal cross section may be designed with two frames or more than two, in this case
the central frame may be in many cases higher and with a bigger span than the frames placed aside.
1ifferent lifting capacities and wor(ing conditions of the cranes in these buildings are the
reason to vary the stiffness of the columns in the same transversal section. "n most of the cases, the
central span has two greater columns, fixed in the foundations and rigid *oint between the rafter and
the column& the side spans have smaller more flexible columns, even articulated in their foundations
and the rafter articulated to the column (fig. #.1.i,*).
8.". #esign of the $nee of the rigid frames
The general design of the frame (column and rafter) is the one that imposes upon the details
used in the connection area and which are specific for any of these cases.
Fig. 2. 3nees for rigid frames) 1)$ machine drilling& #)$ cut off part with oxi$acetylene flame
%s an important degree of stiffness must be achieved, the welded connections are preferred.
"n fig. 2. a, b different details for the hot rolled shapes are presented. They are obtained from cutting
the profiles with flame and processing the edges after heating. % steel plate is used as support and
fillet welds are used. For build up sections the details from the fig. 2. c+h are used& almost all of the
cases presented herein have ribs for stiffening the webs of the column and of the rafter.
The bending moments in the plane of the frame have in most of the cases, the biggest values
in these connections. % strengthened cross section in that area is necessary and this may be obtained
in the shape of a haunch with a straight line (fig. 2. *), or curved line (fig. 2. h).
Typical strength and stability chec(ing have as a result a thic(er web in the haunched area or
an increased number of ribs. "n particular, the bisetrix of the angle of intersection between the axes
of the column and of the rafter, respectively, must be put into evidence by a continuous rib
(diagonally) which ta(es all the important values of shear stresses in the *oint.
4ibs (or sometimes simple gussets) are developed all over the entire area in compression,
their length reaching the 5. %. of bending of the cross section (where stresses don6t exist anymore).
4ibs placed at the end of the haunched area are in fact diaphragms on which both the web of
column and rafter and the web in the corner are welded with fillet welds.
7olted connections are also used for the (nees of rigid frames, whether because the efforts
are not so important, or because the conditions of transportation and execution impose. "n the figures
below two of the most usually preferred details are presented. The second version of bolted
connection (fig. ..*) is made along the cross beam (the rafter) where the bending moment in the
plane of the frame is supposed to be annulled.
8.".1. %nees for re!tangular frames
"n figure 8, the rectangular frame$portal frame has a simple (nee between the cross$beam
and the column.
Fig. 8. !uare (nee between the column and the cross beam for a doubly articulated frame
%t any section of a member, the stresses may be found from the normal expression of
stresses)

I
y M
A
P
t
(12)
where)
9$longitudinal thrust (i.e. 5 or ' in this case)&
%$ cross sectional area of the member&
:$ bending moment at the section&
y$ distance from the neutral axis of the fibre considered&
"$ moment of inertia in the cross section considered.
/onsidering the design purposes, the bending moment is determined at the limits of the (nee,
i.e. in line with the inside flange of the girder or of the column.
hear stress is determined, considering the distribution in figure ; by dividing the shear force
to the gross web area.
Fig. ;. tress distributions on the edges of the (nee plate and on the ad*acent girder
"f the forces applied in the *oint are these mentioned in figure 8 then one may determine the
axial efforts resulted from the bending moment that act in the outside (T
<
) and inside (T
i
) flange,
respectively. %lso the components of the horizontal or normal thrust may be determined, in the
outside ('
<
) or inside ('
i
) flanges, respectively)

H
A
A
H H
A
A
H
A T A T
i
i
i i i


&
&
<
<
< < <

(18)
where)
=
<
, =
i
> average bending stresses in the outside and inside flanges&
%
<
, %
i
> cross sectional area of the outside and inside flanges.
/onse!uently, the girder will impose a tensile force of T
0
H
0
in the outside flange and a
compressive force of T
I
+ H
I
in the inside flange at the boundaries of the (nee.
The whole analysis is developed safely assuming that the flanges of the girder ta(e the whole
of the bending moment, M and transmit the whole of the thrusts, H while the web transmits only
shear.
These assumptions lead to the following relationships)

H
A A
A
H
H
A A
A
H
d
M
T T
i
i
i
i

<
<
<
<
<
<
(1;)
where)
d$ depth of the girder&
$the other annotations (eep the significance from the relationships (18)
For rolled sections with e!ual flanges, H
0
=H
I
.
0xperimental evidence shows that there is no tensile stress at the extreme corner of the (nee,
as the load ta(es a direct path across the web, fig. ;. The tensile force is assumed therefore to vary
uniformly in the outer flanges from a maximum value at the intersection with the vertical line that
limits the depth of the column to zero at the outside corner.
0ach of the flange loads is transmitted into the (nee web plate within the lengths of its sides,
and this plate is the only eans !y "hi#h the !endin$ oent is t%ans&e%%ed &%o the $i%de% to the
#ol'n. (onse)'ently* hea+y shea% &o%#es appea% in the ,nee.
"n the case when shear is transferred from flanges to web through means of fillet welds (plate
girders), welding is verified with the following relationship)

) ; . < (
) # ( #
) &
#
- -
a a .
T
so
t .
T
"
shea%
" "
"

(1?)
where)
T$ total thrust in the flange&
.$ length of the side of the web plate&
t$ thic(ness of the web&
a
"
$ throat of the fillet weld.
"n the top edge of the web plate the thrust T is e!ual to T
0
/H
0
, while in the bottom edge it is
e!ual to 0T
I
+ H
I
1/H , as in figure .#. ince 0T
I
+ H
I
1/H @ T
I
+H
I
0H
I
+H
0
1 @T
I
H
0
@T
0
H
0
.
The%e&o%e the shea% &o%#es in the top and !otto ed$es o& the "e! plate a%e e)'al. Siila%ly* those
in o'tside and inside +e%ti#al ed$es a%e e)'al.
The web may have an increased thic(ness or may be provided with suitable stiffeners.
5ormally, for the simple (nee, diagonal stiffeners are used.
"n this case, when &
- >
, diagonals are placed on the web (fig. ?.a). The thic(ness of the
diagonals is designed considering the necessity of ta(ing the stresses that remain uncovered by the
web. For corners without haunch the area %
d
is extracted from the e!uilibrium conditions expressed
for the effort in the top flange A, which becomes a shear force ta(en by the web and the diagonal
with their full capacities)

cos + - A - t h
h
M
d shea% " "#
"%
(.?)
8.".". Corners without a $nee or with haun!hed $nee
,hen the corner needs to be haunched, the verifications and the design of the rib will be in
the same manner. The web in the corner has bigger height in the cross section, so it may buc(le in
the area in compression. "t would be more cautiously to consider that it might not be able to ta(e
shear stress and in this situation the diagonal will ta(e all the stress (figure ;.b).

a b
Fig. ?. tiffened rectangular (nees for rigid connections) a)$ with diagonal& b)$ with diagonal and
haunched section in the connection
From the e!uation of e!uilibrium of the forces in the plane we shall obtain the force in the
plane of the diagonal, F
d
)
( ) ( )
#
< B
# 1
< B
1
.2 sin .2 sin + ( ( 2
d
(.C)
The efforts /
1
6
and /
#
6
will be determined considering that the area of the flanges in
compression A
1&
and A
2&
wor( with their whole strength capacity)

d s
& &
A - 2
A - ( A - (


#
B
# 1
B
1
&
(2<)
where)
A
1&
, A
2&
> the areas of the flanges in compression& usually) & &
A A
# 1

&
A
d
$ area of the diagonal (diaphragm)& in the worst case, & d
A A ;2 . <
, accepted as a
constructive preliminary condition.
"f the angles 3
1
, respectively 3
2
are bigger than 1#
<
the haunched area will not be stressed
more than the ad*acent areas in the column and in the rafter.
-e#oendation4 local buc(ling of the web and of the flange (flanges) in compression must
be avoided and verifications should be run accordingly.
8.".&. #esign relationships o'tained '( the )meri!an Studies
Dne of the more easily adaptable groups of formulae for rectangular web plates is attributed
to 5s$ood (ref. +). "f we consider a rectangular plate of uniform thic(ness t, loaded with forces and
couples (fig. C), in the e!uilibrium stage we may write)

( ) ( )
6 y6 y y 6y 6
2 2 ! M 2 2 a M # #
(1C)

Fig. C. 0!uilibrium status on the edges of the steel plate
The stress conditions in the plate must be determined, considering that the normal stresses =
x
and =
y
along the boundaries)
! y a 6 &
are uniformly varying and along the boundaries)
! y a 6 &
are everywhere e!ual with zero.
The Ai%y St%ess 2'n#tion is used for these conditions and)
( )( ) ( )( )
#
. -
#
. - #
-
8
1
-
8
1
) , ( 6 y ! 6 ! ! y 6 a y d # 6y ! y 6 & + + + + + +
(#<)
%nd further it is proved that)
( ) ( )
1
]
1

+
y 6 y 6y 6
M M 2 2 a M
a!t
!
#
-
.
1
#
(#1)
a!t
2
#
a!t
2
!
6
y
.
&
.
- -
(##)
t a!
M
d
!t a
M
!
6
y
-
.
-
.
.
-
&
.
-
(#-)
The normal stresses are then determined)
( )
( ) y ! 6
a
M
2
a!t
6 a y
!
M
2
a!t
y
y y
6
6 6
+

,
_

+
+
,
_

+
#
#
-
.
1
-
.
1

(#.)
The shear stress has the following relationship)
( )
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ + +
#
#
#
#
1
#
-
1
#
-
#
.
1
!
y
M
a
6
M y 2 6 2 2 2 a M
a!t
6 y 6 y y 6y 6 6y

(#2)
"n the relationships above the values of the forces and couples are)
( )
!
M
7 ,
n
7 ,

H 7 , 2
6

,
_

+

1 1
1
(#8)
( )8 p 2
y
# 1
(#;)
( ) H! M
p
%
p8 8 2
6y

< (#?)
( )! 7 ,
nM
7H H 2
y6
+

1
(#C)
M
7 ,
n
7 ,

M
6

,
_

+

1 1
1
(-<)
( )( ) H! M % M
y

<
# 1
(-1)
The formulae are !uoted in their original form, only the normal stresses are negative for
compression and positive for tension.
"n the relationships p and % are the proportions of 8 and M respectively, which are ta(en by
each of the flange of the column at the edge y=!. "f a flange is not continuous all over the (nee, as in
the case of the riveted or bolted constructions, it will transfer stress only partially across the
discontinuous section. %lso, , and 7 are proportions of H and and n are proportions of M, which
are ta(en by the top and bottom flanges of the beam portion of the (nee at the edge 6=a. "n the case
when there is no discontinuity, ,=7 and =n. The flanges carry no transverse shear.
"n the case of a welded frame)
( ) ( )
8a M M
9 ! H A a 8 M

+ +
<
<
(-#)
( )
( )( ) p H! M M
n M M
y
6
# 1
# 1
<


(--)
( )
( )8 p 2
H 7 2
y
6
# 1
# 1


(-.)

( )
!
nM
7H H 2
H! M
a
%
p8 8 2
y6
6y


<
(-2)
where)
7 = 0A%ea o& one &lan$e o& !ea1:0Total se#tional a%ea o& !ea1
n = 0Moent o& ine%tia I o& one &lan$e o& !ea1:0Total I &o% the !ea1
p* % > the corresponding values for the column.
The principal stresses in the (nee web may be computed)

1
1
]
1

,
_

t
+

#
#
# #
6y
y 6 y 6

(-8)
5ormally, the greatest stress occurs at the inside corner of the (nee where) 6=+a; y=+! .
The greatest shear stress in the web occurs at the point with coordinates)

6
6
y
y
M
! 2
d
#
y
M
a 2
!
!
6
-
-
#
.
-
#
.
-

(-;)
The maximum stress is computed from the formula)

1
1
]
1

,
_

#
#
max
#
6y
y 6

(-?)
"t is necessary to compute two sets of coefficients, first to obtain principal stresses and then
to obtain the greatest shear stress. The point where the greatest shear stress occurs is very near the
centre of the web. From this conclusion, <. T. =%i$ht determined a formula for the maximum shear
stress, which gives the same results as Dsgood6s formula, but often !uic(er to use)

,
_

+ +
! ! a a
#
I
t !
I
t a
a!t
M
- -
1
.
# #

(-C)
where)
a 8 ! H M M
#

< $ the moment of the inside corner of the frame&
I
a $a
> the section modulus of the (nee along a horizontal axis, including the vertical flanges
and the web plate&
I
!/!
$ the corresponding section modulus along a vertical axis
8.&. Haun!hed %nees for Rigid Frames with Pit!hed Roofs
"n the case of the pitched roofs, it is very common to haunch the (nees (fig. C).

Fig. 1<. Aarious haunches for pitched roofs) a+.d $ different solutions& e$ un(nown stresses area (analytic
solutions)
0xperimental experience show that the 5.%. of stress in haunched (nees moves towards the
inside of the frame (fig. C.a). /onse!uently the approximate force in the inside flange may be found
by assuming that the >.A. o##'%s at the thi%d point alon$ the dia$onal &%o the inside &lan$e to the
o'tside #o%ne% o& the &%ae. %lternatively the force in the flange may be resolved from the triangle
of forces from the same figure, the force that is (nown, being that one in the inside flange of the
rafter.
"n figure C.b it is assumed that only one$half of the force continues along the flange of the
main member, as the diagram shows. The stresses in the details of (nees in figure C. a, c and d are
found with the help of 8e%endeel? s Tape%ed 9ea formulae or 5lande%?s formulae .
The (nees in figure C shows what surface is EcoveredF by the above mentioned formulae. "t
is not possible to analyze the stresses in the hatched areas. till, if no critical stresses were found in
the area covered by the formulae, it is not li(ely to be so in the hatched areas.
The forces in the stiffeners at the limits of the (nee are found by a resolution of forces (see S
in the detail C.a.). The welds are designed accordingly. The remaining stiffeners inside the (nee can
be of nominal size, their primary function being to prevent local buc(ling of the web and lateral
failure of the inner flange.
8.*. Ridges in Pit!hed Roofs
"n practical design they are evaluated as obtuse$angled (nees. The shape of the angle
between the two rafters determines an important diminish of the forces. "f *oists are used it may be
unnecessary to add brac(ets. "n the case of lighter loaded frames, it may be sufficiently to butt weld
the ends of the rafters.
"f a bigger area is needed in figure 11 a typical detail are presented.

a b
Fig. 11. /ross beams at ridge) a)$ with *oists (lighter loading)& b)$ area of web with increased stiffness
8.+. %nees with Cur,ed Flanges
Goints with curved flanges are the sub*ect of a continuous controversy and the latest news in
the matter are herein presented.
% theoretical curved bar with parallel flanges (see figure 11) is solved with the =in,le%/
-esal formulae.

a b
Fig. 1#. %nnotations and representation of sectional efforts for the determination of stresses in the curved bar
with parallel flanges) a), b)$ symbols used in the ,in(ler$4esal formulae

# %
%
@
# M
A %
M
A
>
+

+
(.<)
where)
>$ the normal thrust&
A$ the cross sectional area of the bar&
M$ the applied bending moment&
%$ the radius of curvature of the bar ta(en to the 5.%. of the section&
#$ the distance from the 5.%. to the fibre being considered& positive when measured outside the
curvature and negative when measured inside&
@$a figure analogous to the moment of inertia, I and which may be replaced by I when the
value of % is greater than 2d, where d is the depth of the bar. "t is expressed considering the polar
coordinates of a curved line)

dA
# %
#
% @
A

+

#

"n the case when %A2d and the cross section is a plate girder composed of rectangles)

,
_

A
"
"
! % % @
i
#
1 #
log -<#2? . #
(.1)
the symbols having the significance in figure 11.
"n most of the situations presented herein the cross section is a plate girder (" section) with
une!ual flanges. The expression of @ becomes (see fig. 1-))

o
e6t o
i
i
%
# A
%
# A
I @
# #
int

+
(2.)
/urrent cases refer to the ratio)
? . 1 ... . . 1
d
%
and the values of
I @ ) <2 . 1 ... 12 . 1 (
.
Fig. 1-. ymbols for the determination of the stiffness @ on the cross section of a curved bar
"n figure 11, the sign of the efforts : and 5 is positive. The coordinate # is also positive
from the 5.%. to the external fibre and negative to the internal fibre. The diagram from the figure
shows the sign of stresses =, negative for compression and positive for tension. The values of normal
stresses in the extreme fibres, internal and external, are)

o
o
i
i
# %
#
@
% M
A %
M
A
>
# %
#
@
% M
A %
M
A
>
+

The stress in any fibre both sides the 5.%. is (see figure 1-))
a b
Fig.1.. pecific stresses determined by the efforts in the curved (nee) a)$stress distribution in the cross
section of a curved bar& b)$ radial forces in the web
The relationships above show a different distribution of the normal stresses than that for
straight bars& thus, in the internal part of the curve the stresses grow sensibly, while in the external
part they are smaller than those obtained with 5avier6s formulae (fig. 1#. a).
"n the web, stresses =

may be neglected being relatively small. Their maximum value is
obtained in the 5. %., without going over #<H from the normal stresses B
t
, tangent to the curve.
hear stresses are determined as for a straight member.
"n the curved area the flanges are bended in a transversal plane and an un$uniform
distribution of the normal stresses is obtained on the width of these flanges. This un$uniformity is
bigger for wider flanges.
"t must be specified that, while radial stresses B
%
are important the normal stresses along the
curvature radius are greatest in the 5.%. but almost insignificant (under #<H of the values of B
%
). "f
the radial forces tend to lead to overstressing, the flanges must be braced either by entire web
stiffeners or by small gussets, the spacing of which is a matter of engineering *udgement, as no
rules, mathematical or empirical, have been derived.
The change in direction of the force in the flange of a curved member induces radial stresses
in the web (fig. 1#.b.), which can be calculated with the following formulae (/ampus, Iniversite de
Jiege))

t -
(
%

(.#)
where)
B
%
$ the unit radial stress&
($the total flange force&
-$the radius of curvature of the flange being considered&
t$ web thic(ness.
%ccording to :agnel (ref+..), the radial stress should be added to that due to the shear
across the web. The radial force is applied at the *unction between the web and flange and causes
cross$bending, the edges of the flanges moving away from the centre of the curvature when the
flange is compressed and towards it when it is in tension (fig. 1-).
Fig. 12. 0ffects of the application of radial forces on flanges
'. 7leich (ref. ;) investigated the effects of this phenomenon and produced two coefficients
C and D, the first being associated with the longitudinal stresses and the second to the transverse
stresses.
"t must be specified that, while radial stresses B
%
are important the normal stresses along the
curvature radius are greatest in the 5.%. but almost insignificant as value (under #<H of the values
of B
%
). "f the radial forces tend to lead to overstressing, the flanges must be braced either by entire
web stiffeners or by small gussets, the spacing of which is a matter of engineering *udgement, as no
rules, mathematical or empirical, have been derived.
Fig. 18. 1istribution of radial stress B% on the bottom flange of the curved bar and averaged value
%

a b
Fig. 1;. ymbols and determination of the radial and tangential stresses in the bottom flange of the
curved bar with " section) a)$ determination of =r& b)$ determination of =t
1uring the computation process a virtual, reduced width ! is introduced, on which the
stresses are considered as being uniform distributed, having the value
%
(fig. 12). The reduced
width, ! ! <
B
is determined with the relationship)

%
!
t
d6
!

B
< B
(22)
The reduced width
B
! may be expressed as depending on the real width,
B
! , with the
relationships)

( )
- t
!
and , , &
!
!

#
B
B
B
) & -18 . 1 )& (
(
( )
&
% t
!

#
B
(28)
K and L have tabulated values.
The design of the cross section is made considering that the bottom flange has modified
dimensions ( ! instead of !) and the stresses
%

will be determined.
The curvature determines the existence of a radial component
%
p

of the stresses
%
in the
flange, according to fig. 12.b)

&
%
% %
%
ds t ! d
t !
d
t ! >

B
B B
#
#
#
sin #
(2;)
7ut)
ds !
>
p
%

B
and thus the result is)
-
t
p
%
%

.
The value of
%
p is constant and it causes a bending moment in the flange (fig. 12.a), which
for an unitary strip of flange has the value)
#
) (
# B
!
-
t
M
%
t

, and the normal stresses)
#
1
8
t
M
=
M
t
&
t
t

.
The values of C and D are tabulated and they both depend on the function !
2
:-t (see tab.1).
&
% t
!

#
B

<,< <,1 <,# <,- <,. <,2 <,8 <,; <,? <,C
K 1,<<< <,CC. <,C;; <,C2< <,C12 <,?;? <,?-? <,?<< <,;8# <,;#8
M < <,#C; <,2? <,?-8 1,<28 1,#-? 1,-#? 1,.C2 1,2;; 1,8-8
&
% t
!

#
B

1,<< 1,1 1,# 1,- 1,. 1,2 #,< -,< .,< 2,<
K <,8C- <,88- <,8-8 <,811 <,2?C <,28C <,.C2 <,.1. <,-8; <,--.
M 1,8;; 1,;<- 1,;#1 1,;#? 1,;-# 1,;-# 1,;<; 1,8;1 1,8? 1,;<<
"n table the values of M ( % t

) are presented as functions of L. %s one may see, the
values of the normal stresses produced through transversal bending, B
t
are greater with respect to
%

.
5ormal stresses developed in the plane of the (nee impose the verification of B
e#hi+
(N has
very small values and it is neglected))

t % t % e#hi+
+
# #
(2?)
For stresses with different signs the value of B
e#hi+
may be greater than the strength of the
steel.
0xperimental researches O-CO show that local plastic areas are not dangerous as long they do
not develop near the web, but on the external flange (flange in tension), while on the opposite flange
(flange in compression) this will not happen because
%
and B
t
have the same sign.
Jocal buc(ling of the top flange in plastic domain happens only when its whole section is
plasticized. This may happen only when B
e#hi+
reaches the yield limit in all the points.
(onside%in$ the %eal plasti# %ese%+es o& the #%oss se#tion 0e6pe%iental %es'lts p%o+e1 a
s'&&i#iently #o+e%in$ #al#'lation ay !e de+eloped only on the !asis o& the lon$it'dinal st%esses
%

* "ith the #ondition that the e&&e#ti+e no%al st%esses do not e6#eed the st%en$th.
Rules for practical design:
The bottom flange must be greater than the top flange& smaller values of stresses and a
bigger capacity of the whole (nee area is obtained this way&
3nees, as intersection of two horizontal structural framing elements, may be chec(ed
D.3. if both sides are considered separately, as in the figure 12.##.
,eb is insured against local buc(ling if, apart from the disposition of the ribs and
diaphragms ( t d
A A ;2 . <
), short transversal stiffeners must be provided. 4ibs and
diaphragms tie the bottom flange in compression from the top flange in tension and also
ma(e the lin( with the beams or purlins placed there& this way, the (nee is ensured
against overall buc(ling&
hort ribs insure the web against local buc(ling and stop the transversal displacement of
the flange in compression. They are sufficiently efficient against overall buc(ling due to
plasticity of the flange if they are placed in the areas on the web where there aren6t any
normal stresses or the stresses come from tension, or sometimes they are tied with a
longitudinal rib parallel to the flange in compression. This is a +e%y %ational sol'tion &o%
"e!s "ith ipo%tant hei$hts.
"n figure1?. a), b) two examples of curved (nees derived from curved bars are presented.

Fig.1?. /urved (nees for frames used in practical design
Penerally, (nees are not shaped li(e curved bars, the ma*ority of the type shown in fig. 1C. a
and b having the outside flange straight. The analysis of these (nees is carried out with the shape of
the Aierendeel6s Tapered 7eam formulae for a (nee with curved inner flange (fig. 1C.b) which is
presented below. "n any section %$% we may write)
a b
Fig. 1C. 3nees with straight outside flange) a)$ usual cases& b)$ ymbols for the tapered beam formula
( )

sin
1
< <
+

+

i i
i i
A 8
d t
a
I
M
A
P
a
I
M
A
P
(.-)
where)
B
0
and B
i/
$ the mean stresses in the outside flanges, respectively&
a
0
and a
i
> the distances of the centroids of the outside and inside flanges, respectively from
the axis shown&
E > the shear stress&
M, 8 and P$ bending moment, shear force and thrust at the section %$%&
t $ the web thic(ness&
d $ the web depth&
# #
< <
-
<
cos
1#
cos
i i
i
a A a A
d t
I
A A d t A
+ +

+ +

(..)
%fter the determination of the mean flange stresses, the maximum stresses may be computed
using 7leich6s coefficients and suitable stiffeners added if necessary. The formulae are available
also for haunched (nees.
Curved knees with circular sections were studied in I% (fig. 1?). F. 7leich adapted the
,in(ler$4esal formula by multiplying the whole expression by
cos
1
. "n figure 1? there may be
observed that % and # are measured in a different way, but the principles of calculation are identical
with those in fig. 1<.
Fig. #<. ymbols and section for verification of stresses with the adapted ,in(ler$4esal formula
The amount of the wor( involved in using 7leich6s method is less than others. './. Dlander
presents a method with reasonable results and a smaller amount of effort, by stating that is easier to
cut circular sections as A/9 that practically are perpendicular on the extreme fibres (fig. 1?) with the
cross section presented herein& A is the cross sectional area and I is the moment of inertia of any of
these cuttings.
The centre of the arc, 5 obtained from the intersection with the line % of the outside flange is
the place of resolving the forces in the right side if the cutting %$7. The force P
0
and the moment M
0
are determined, P
0
being the force that passes through the centre of gravity of the section A/9 and
the M
0
is the moment of forces about 5.
The stresses derived from these values are determined as for an ordinary beam, excepting
that shear is obtained from M
0
, that is S, the total shear is)
%
M
S
<
.
The shear stress is then)
t I %
F M
It
SF

<
(.2)
where F is static moment of the area of the section about the point being considered.
The normal stresses on the section will be)
#
I
M
A
P
t
<
(.8)
where M is the bending moment in the (.G. of the section A/9.
".-.1.+. .alle( /oints
They are used for the multi$bay structures. The design of the Q$shaped valley *oints are the
same as for the (nee *oints because it is rational to design each rafter section as though the *oint
were a (nee, the other rafter being ignored. (fig.1C.a.).
Two examples with haunched and curved inner flanges are presented in fig. 1C b), c) the
second being an economic solution for the accommodation of the gutter, by ma(ing the pitch steeper
in the valley area.

a b c
Fig. #1. Aalley *oints for rigid frames with more than one span) a)$ universal beams sections reinforced in the
(nee area, welded in wor(shop and bolted connections at site with the column and crossbeam& b)$ designed
(nee area after distribution of the sectional efforts in the rigid *oint& c)$ (nees obtained from build up sections
Capitals under roof rafter0 foundations and other details for rigid frames
Fig. ##. %rticulated connection of the cross beam to the column of the frame
Fig. #-. /olumns of rigid frames hinged in the foundations$different details
Fig. #.. 7ase of columns for rigid frames that insure bending moments transfer to the foundations
Fig. #2. olutions providing lateral stability against flexural$tortional buc(ling of the rafters (cross beams) of
the rigid frames (with braces between the bottom flange of the eave purlins or with rigid support between the
purlin and the rafter)