Admin Leadership

Administrative Leadership: Planning and Time Perspective Author(s): Philip M. Ringle and Mark L.
Savickas Source: The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 54, No. 6 (Nov. - Dec., 1983), pp. 649-661 Published by: Ohio State University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1981935 . Accessed: 05/03/2014 23:11
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Philip M. Ringle Mark L. Savickas
Administrative Leadership
Planningand Time Perspective
I amnotafraid oftomorrow, forI haveseenyesterday and I lovetoday. William AllenWhite[4, p. 50] The futility of bringing about plannedchangein educationreceivesas much space in professional journals as do the and theories of plannedchange.Pessimism about theeffectechniques tiveness of planningabounds at a timewhenadministrators identify it as a crucialmanagement task. Planningis a necessity forcolleges to redefine and to realizeinstitutional two missions created struggling decades ago whenthe task of managerswas to spend generousallocations. The management roleof thecollegeadministrator has been altered influences enrollby external including budgetreductions, declining and greater statecontrol. ments, inflationary economy, today Planning limited human and resources to fiscal requiresallocating problems thefuture of postsecondary institutions. threatening viability Planning advocatesprovide little in meeting these assistance to theadministrator about plannedchange,elaborateschechallenges.Vague statements maticdrawings of theplanning diverse function, models,and planning that in are fact "shelf documents" forevaluacreated five-year plans tionagenciesor foryear-end offer minimal assistanceto topreports level managersas theyrespondto internal and external governance systems.
Essex Community PhilipM. Ringleis dean, Planningand Development, College. Mark L. Savickas is assistantprofessor,Behavioral Sciences, Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine. Journalof HigherEducation, Vol. 54, No. 6 (November/December 1983) ? 1983 by the Ohio State University Press Copyright
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Journalof HigherEducation
activiusefulplanning evenpotentially To compoundtheproblem, thescope of management. tiesare notembeddedwithin Rather, planforitsown sake. Manyadminisningis a separatefunction performed tratorsview planningas externalratherthan essential. Tryingto toward demand planningfrompersonnellackinga planfulattitude is notto developnewplanthefuture worked.The challenge has never need modibusinessapplications traditional ningschemata(although attibutto developtheplanful foreducationalenvironments) fication the the tudesand timeperspective to past, supervise required analyze and manage the future. present, The future is thefocusof truemanagement. requires Management consciousness.The past cannotbe managed,and a forward-looking of collegeinfancy The challenges thepresent onlysupervision. requires wereto spend A "manager's" realdilemmas in thepresent. werefocused mainto accommodate theannualbudget, construct growth, buildings tasks those To and hire tainfavored status, faculty. accomplish funding The future, thepresent. one neededonlyto supervise however, requires In collegeeducation, thenexttwodecadesmayrepresent management. the first real management challenge.Neverbeforehave collegeshad accountso closelyfor to choose betweenequallyviable alternatives, or protect mission so openly, defend their humanand fiscalresources, balanced educationwhen the pressureis for a balanced budget. needto undercan occur,administrators Beforethis"management" and of of themselves, stand the subjectivetimeof theirinstitution, been has staffs. their administrative by ignored Temporalperspective to the current and may have contributed educationaladministrators is not a balance amongtradition, of planning.If there failure today, we do not advocate. theremay be a tomorrow and tomorrow, WhyManage the TemporalPerspective? scares andthefuture ofconfusion; is full Thepastis gone;thepresent thehellout of me! David LewisStein[2, p. 386] Time is used to orientthe selfin the midstof ongoingeventsand Attitudes towardtimeinfluence withothers. interaction to coordinate activithatpromotes attitude howtimeis used. The temporal planning in adminisA planfulattitude tiesis "planfulness." emerges typically who are oriented tratorswho are futureoriented.Administrators have greater towardthepast or present difficulty propsychological into the future.If adminisand theirinstitutions jectingthemselves
Time Perspective
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trators are not future institutional and planning oriented, planfulness efforts may be stymied. As we initiated our studiesof planfulness and planning, we began withthe notionthata future orientation was a prerequisite to planfulness and competent As we learned planning. our studies progressed, thatthe personalexperience of timewas too complexto be understoodjust bydetermining towardwhichof thethree timezones (past, individuals and were institutions oriented. Based upon present, future) an extensive literature review and factor of temanalytic investigations modelto conceptualize poral experience,we developeda three-factor individualand institutional "subjectivetime."Subjectivetimerefers to the personalexperience of timein contrast to objectivetimesuch as "clocktime,"chronology, and calendars. The three factors history, of subjective timeare "perspective," and "integra"differentiation," tion." TemporalPerspective The first factorof thesubjective-time model is "temporal perspective."Perspective refers to how individuals and institutions viewand orientthemselves to time. Time can be viewed as an ally, enemy, or harasser, irrelevancy; this,in turn,makesit seemascending,fast, is determined slow, running out, and so on. Temporalorientation by whichtime zone has primary relevancefor contemporary decision focuson one timezone morethan on the making.Most institutions others on the amountand intensity of thefocus,that and, depending in subtleand notso subtleways. influences theinstitution perspective This preferred timezone becomestheinstitution's modal orientation. Those institutions witha past orientation may be so tiedto the past thateven minorchangesare resisted, externalrealitiesare ignored, and effort, and optimism, productivity pale in the lightof straightlineextensions of previous The tradition-bound administrator history. offers forinhibiting rationales leaderlengthy changeand enactsa rigid Past-oriented institutions use structured and ossiship style. highly fiedseries of policiesand procedures to thwart innoexperimentation, in Figure1 depictthemodal vation,and creative response.The circles orientation of thosecollegesin whichthepast has primary relevance forcontemporary decisions.Preoccupation withthepast is so promi'These activities are partof a program of research to investigate designed planfulnessand planning as they relateto careermaturity and vocationalbehavior.The proand numerouspapers examining the gramhas producedover a dozen dissertations withplanful associationof temporal attitudes and planning experience competencies.
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PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
Ooo
FIG. 1. Past-oriented Temporal Perspective
PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
FIG. 2. Present-oriente Perspecti Temporal

FIG. 2. Present-oriented TemporalPerspective
nent thatit overshadows thepresent and channels attention away from thefuture. The institution from thepast,and theadminisis a projectile trator's job is to protectthe originaltrajectory. At institutions theperspective is present where crisis manoriented, from is theorderof theday. Facultymoralesuffers anxiety, agement The administraof powerlessness, and a "skidding" feelings feeling. toris viewedas visionless and theinstitution Accountas rudderless. measuresare seen as transitory. abilitystandardsand performance of opportunity" are pursuedwithunrelenting vigorbut with "Targets little addressed to their impact.Departments pursue thought long-range new programs thatwill help themat the expenseof the institution's mission. wouldlead an observer to conclude thatonly Budgetmeetings existwithin a central an organization self-serving departments lacking Turfmanagement and controlissuesdomipurposeand philosophy. nate the hiddenagenda. In institutions wherethe modal orientation thepast is thepresent the of (see Fig. 2), passions themoment prevent or the future action. Constantpreoccupation fromshapingcurrent
Time Perspective
653
PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
FIG. 3. Future-oriented TemporalPerspective
PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
FIG. 4. Balanced TemporalPerspective
witheffectively in the heat of a new crisislimitsproactive reacting of the future. anticipation When a future orientation dominatesthe perspective, institutions becomedisconnected from their becomes past,and thepresent unsupervised.Figure 3 illustrates a future domination. Future-oriented administrators are so busycreating newprograms, newbuilda future through of newpopulationsthattheyoftenmisspresent ings,and thepursuit or violate Constituent opportunities past traditions. groupsviewthe institution as out of control.Administrators at thefuture-dominated institution are seenas havingtheir heads in theclouds whiletheinstitutionfallsapartaroundthem.Stability is sacrificed fora hoped-for and the becomes demoralized because theirpresent future, faculty does not promoteoptimism. experience The mixof remembering and experiencing (analyzing), (maintaining and influences both instisupervising), anticipating (managing) greatly tutional climateand leadership channelsplanstyle.Time perspective To createan ideal planningenvironment, the adminisningactivity.
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4 depicts a balancedtemporal trator shouldpromote perspective. Figure that balance. TemporalDifferentiation differentiation." timeis "temporal The second factorof subjective to the Its two variables are "density" and "span." "Density"refers timezone. Administrators number of eventswithin a particular vary with remember the how much detail they past, analyzethe regarding differ administrators and foreseethe future.For example, present, instituat their in thenumber of events occurring theyforesee greatly can predict tionduring thenextfiveyears.Some administrators only a foresee and others a fewmajor eventsin theirinstitution's future, with rich anecdotes to are them. With the some host of past, regard before and local history, and othersknow littleof what transpired is experienced arrived on thescene.A "dense"present byadministhey theendless of issuesand agendas. who appreciate trators interpretation extension. and refers to Retrospecretrospective prospective "Span" of the institutiveextension refers to how farback into the history refers to how far extension and prospective tion leadersremember, has potenThe also the institution. intothefuture present they project define can the biennium For tial forvarying budget example, length. of future extension the span of the present or the furthest planning. influence Attention to detailsand seeing planning beyondthemoment with which constituent the institutional On an level, density disposition. extend zone and how farthey on thecampuspopulateeach time groups a For instance, faculty the zones impactthe planningenvironment. will extension witha denselypopulated past and long retrospective the find thwart to represenRefining change. ways planned generally resultsin to include differentiation tationsof temporalperspective Figure 5. PAST PRESENT FUTURE
SPAN
e DENSITY r
Patternof Many Institutions FIG. 5. The TemporalDifferentiation
Time Perspective
655
thetemporal differentiation of manyinstitutions. Figure5 represents The present is the most complextimezone. It is denselypopulated witheventsand has broad span. The past is also denselypopulated, the events,the span for decisional and, althoughpeople remember has the least extension and purposesis not as extended.The future Yetthecollegeattempts to extend efforts wellbeyond density. planning those events.When thisoccurs,planningobjectivesbecome listsof of theinsticonnection to theexperience unspecified hopes withlittle its tution or staff. theviewand orientation of "perHavingpresented and span of "differentiation," let us conspective"and the density siderthe thirdfactorcomprising subjectivetime,"integration." TemporalIntegration The "temporal refers to thesenseof connectedfactor integration" ness amongeventsfromdifferent timezones. Integration's two variables are "continuity" Contiand (cognitive) "optimism" (affective). in the denotes the relatedness events nuity occurring among past, A senseof continuity and future. facilitates present, present connecting situationswithpriorbehavior and relatingfuturegoals to present efforts. a senseof agencythatenhancesstriving Continuity promotes A discontinuous and accomplishment. senseof timeproducesa fragthana senseof rather mented, disjointed,and frustrating experience timezonesthwart realistic evaluaflowand momentum. Disconnected of the same issues. Distionsand oftenresultin repeateddiscovery continuousexperience to repeatmistakesand of timecauses faculty feel trappedby circumstances beyondtheircontrol. is highly It denotes thesenseof conrelated to continuity. Optimism is fidencein the achievability of future goals. Like hope, optimism in an affective evaluationof thefuture. It differs that from optihope mismconnotesa positiveanticipation forthe future because distant to specific current behaviors.Hope connotes goals can be connected a desire butbecausefuture forfavorable outcomes, goalsarenotclearly connected behaviorone feelsunable to influence to current destiny. withtemporal Institutions integration displayhighmoralebecausethe in the future attainment of goals is alreadyaffectively experienced as employeesenact behaviorstheyknow are the "present of present future." things the subjectivetimeof an institution wheretemFigure6 portrays attiand integration facilitate differentiation, poralperspective, planful tudes and planningactivities. Because the past, present, and future are integrated, zone C is trulythe "zone of action." Zone C repre-
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PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
r A
I[
B l--C ':
E--4[
ZONES A-F
FIG. 6. The SubjectiveTime of an Institution DifWhereTemporalPerspective, and Integration FacilitatePlanful Attitudes and PlanningActivities ferentiation,
sentstheideal climateforplanning in to occur. It is an environment whichplanningfocuseson the past and future of present decisions. In this zone of institutional the past is analyzed, the functioning, is supervised, and the future is managed. Zone E represents present the "zone of optimism" in whichpresent actionsand contemporary decisionsare linkedto future to past influeventsbut not connected ences. The long-range are within thiszone. plans of mostinstitutions Zone B is the"zone of security" is closelytied because present activity to the traditions the "zone of of the institution. Zone F represents because future actions. This are unrelated to fantasy" plans present zone is populatedby seersand showpeopleand is thearea of fatuous thatpartof theinstihope. Zone A, the"zone of archives," represents tution's thatis disconnected thepresent. Few individuals from history residein zone A, but manyuse its data to impede discussionsthat to "change" institutions. Zone D, the "zone of the nonce," attempt in thepresent defines thoseactivities thathave no connection to past or future events. influence The above threefactorsof temporalexperience planful timeof theorganizaattitudes and planning activities. The subjective tion can facilitate readiness"or promotean "antiplanning "planning All areasof campusoperation and decision are influmaking posture." findaspectsof If administrators enced by the temporalperspective. timenonfacilitative to theirgoals, theymay considersyssubjective It is our the subjectivetimeof the institution. tematically changing theinstitution's clock" is a planning assertion thatsetting "subjective This competency includesthe forchiefadministrators. competency
Time Perspective
657
skillto assess the institution's of timeand the subjectiveexperience capacityto change the institution's subjectiveclock. Assessingthe Institution's TemporalPerspective If youwant a manto keephisheadwhen thecrisis comes, youmust before it comes. givehimsometraining LuciusAnnacus Seneca[3, p. 119] Beforeattempting to "set"thesubjective clockof a college,thechief administrator should assess the current temporalexperience.There are severalmethodsforassessingthetemporalperspective, differenof constituent the institution. tiation,and integration groupswithin The following three how temporal can examplesillustrate experience be assessed. 1. Begin by examining books and meeting agendas. appointment Is a typicalday filledprimarily withresponsesto past events, current emotional of future issues,or thevaluesand philosophy Is theagendaof thepresident's directions? councilbalancedwith reference to trackrecord and future or does it focus implication, on only one timeperspective? 2. Examinetheworkof curriculum Do they committees. represent of the past, refining extensions of the present, or areas of new endeavor? What is 3. Examinethepreoccupations of campusconstituencies. the contentof the governance An association? analysisof the issuesdealtwithbythefaculty senate,union,or other governing Whenthemajor issuesof such bodycan be extremely revealing. codistandards, tradition, groupsincludemaintaining protecting and temso the on, fying regulations, revising policymanuals, could be assumedto be "past."Whenthemajor poralorientation issuesare existing courseand curricula crisis resolution, revision, contract and and pronegotiation, salary, maintaining positions the orientation could be assumed to be grams, temporal "present." A "future" orientation would encourageitemsrelating to new curricula enrollment plan(coupledwith projections), long-range discussion of future of ningassumptions, implications proposals and ideas, and so forth. In most institutions, will requiredifferential an assessment diagnosison each temporal dimension. evenwithout thatdiagnoHowever, clock can be "set" by the actions of college sis, the institutional administrators.
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Settingthe TemporalPerspective
If a man takes no thought about whatis distant,he will findsorrow near at hand. Confucius [1, p. 196]
We assertthatsetting theinstitutional clock so thatit can be conduciveto planning is a responsibility of administrators. Illustrations of how thechiefexecutive officer can impactthesubjective temporal of an institution are providedbelow. experience Assume ProspectiveResponsibility thedecision-making and Temporalorientation permeates principles of chief executive officers and their even channels underpractices of their thisasserstanding occupationalrole.An examplemayclarify tion.A frequent statement made bycollegepresidents is "I am responsible to the board." What theymean by the word "responsible"is influenced of theirtemporalperspective. by the orientation Past oriented.Responsibility means that one should be able to examinewhathas happened,explainit, and suffer theconsequences. "I will means: take the heat and tryto Retrospective responsibility fixthings." The administrator withthisorientation interprets responto mean "obliged to account for or be answerableto." sibility Presentoriented. meansbeingcapable of and desigResponsibility natedto givea response,answer,or replyto current issues. Though an administrator is too busy assumingretrospective responsibility forthepast to supervise thepresent or managethefuture, accounting the present-oriented administrator is so busy supervising that the of delegating the to allow formanaging thought supervisory authority future neveroccurs to him or her. Future oriented.Responsibility means to proclaimone's choices. The prospective of responsibility is to commit oneself to some meaning lineof action. It entailstakinga standto whichothers can react.Proinvolves an explicit and publicvision spective responsibility announcing of what one believesshould be. If administrators do not stand for or bow to something, theycan fall foreverynew idea in thepresent the pressures of tradition. Each of theabove meanings has validity. of responsibility Responcan be a or a We contend, sibility accountability, reply, proclamation. is the unique duty of the however,that prospectiveresponsibility administrator. It is thechiefexecutive officer's roleto breakpathand to stimulate reactions to hisor herproactive efforts. The prospectively administrator realizes that failures butrather errors are not responsible are opportunities forcorrective feedback.Unlikethe retrospectively
Time Perspective
659
administrator and hiding who is busyexplaining mistakes, responsible to breakthelogjam theprospective is to make mistakes manager willing of confusion and anxiety thatarisesfrom an unarticulated future. The administrator witha senseof prospective has thecourresponsibility MartinLutherKing, Jr.'s,"I Have a Dream" age to be imperfect. F. and John speech Kennedy'sinauguraladdress are examples of behavior channeled leadership bya senseof prospective responsibility. ViewDecisions As Questions,Not Answers Administrators who sparsely populatetimezones denythemselves alternatives as well as opportunities forcompromise and synthesis. mind" makesone believe thatbehavior and choices Havinga "one-track are alreadydetermined Such the administrators system. by perceive their decisionsto be programmed bythepast or forced by contempoWhether or pressure, their choicesare effecrary pressures. bytradition and demand. tivelypreempted by expectation who denselypopulatetimezones come to see that Administrators their behavior is an independent variablerather thana dependent one. This promotesthe use of propositionallogic insteadof preemptive learnthattheir behaviorand decisionsare logic. Such administrators not answers. questions, timezones, administrators create a structured By differentiating of theenvironment awareness and of their role. The moreevents they are aware of, thegreater thedepthof their of thecolunderstanding lege and its possibilities.Heightenedawareness also increasesthe of theadministrator's own role. Administrators with meaningfulness a dense network of action pathwaysneed to reality-test the viability of alternative visionsand outlooks. Theirbehaviorand decisionsare theinstruments usedto explore Witha denseoutlook,decithefuture. sionsare notdetermined the or butare questions by posed past present the of future. Create Continuity Eventsoccur.Any"cause" or "connection" between one or another is strictly a function of thehumaninterpreting notof theevents them, themselves. eventsexactlythe would interpret Otherwise, everyone same. Administrators do not deal withchemicalreactionsin a test interactions. tube,wherestaticformulas accurately predictdynamic To testthisassertion, ask threeadministrators thecause of inflation. How theyexplainit and to whateventstheylinkit willtellyou more about themthan about inflation. The administrator creates self-connected events. continuity through in wanting The interest to connectpast, present, and future, and the
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wisdomto do so convincingly, skill.A disis a subjective time-setting cussionof connecting willshow a present crisis with thepastand future what is meantby creating continuity. A crisisis some currently on campus, experienced disequilibrium and it can be dealtwithas such. However,a crisisusuallycan be connectedwitha largerproblemthathas a history and withan opportuthathas future nity meaning.Insteadof exclusively dealingwiththe homeostatic the administrator upset, time-competent placesthisevent into a largercontextand attendsto opportunities the arisingwithin leader worksto turnsymptoms into presentproblem.An effective criseswithgrowth.The Chinese recognize strength through linking thiswithin theirlanguage. Their symbolforcrisisis a combination of the symbolsfor dangerand opportunity. An administrator who operateswitha disconnected sense of the a crisisas a traumathatis hardto invest withmeanpresent perceives sense to master.One witha disconnected ingand evenmoredifficult of thepast perceives a crisisas a threat to thestatusquo. An administrator who experiences from thefuture as fragmented thepresent perceivesa crisisas a conflict withhis or herdream. Any of the above of crisistendto structure thatleave theinstituperceptions responses tionin a morefragmented who can and rigidstate.The administrator encounter criseswitha senseof continuity them as probleperceives maticopportunities will lead to a more stable and whose resolution who strives to createcontiinstitution. The administrator integrated vulnernuityrealizesthata crisisis morethan a timeof heightened It is also a time of increased and the source of instituability. potential tionalprogression. a senseof continuity, theadministrator Bycreating can helptheinstitution deal witha crisisas a bumpin theroad rather than as anotherin a seriesof unexpected turning points. The above threesuggestions of a wide arrayof are representative in setting the thatwe have developedto trainadministrators strategies of theirinstitutions. The strategies temporalperspective rangefrom the conceptualto the practicaland requirevaried commitment of interest and energy. Theirapplicationto institutional life,however, can promote bothplanfulness and planning and can increase theeffectivenessof administrative behavior. available What followsis a sampleof the morepracticalactivities to administrators to enablethemto assumeprospective responsibility, view decisionsas questionsand not answers,and createcontinuity. 1. In speeches,meetings, and memos,make a consciouseffort to timeas dynamic and movingenergy thattheinstitution portray Avoid statements thattimeis forcing is harnessing. indicating
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you to do thingsor thattimeis harassingyou. Emphasize renot findit. You actually peatedlythatyou make your future, createyour institutional future by what you do today. 2. Remember thata future orientation is thesine qua non of institutional Insist that the future of proposals viability. implications be considered.Informstaffoftenabout future eventswithas muchspecificity and detailas possibleand ask staff to keepyou informedof events they predictwill happen and to extend scenarios they presentbeyond the original time limitsthey portray. 3. Be sensitive to thehiddenmessagebehind"we have alwaysdone it this way." 4. Realize thatby theireducationand training some of the staff have been taughta temporalorientation in theiroriginalprofessional For example,historians and accountants tend identity. to be pastoriented; business and speechfaculty tendto be present and scientists tendto be future oriented. oriented;economists 5. Pay special attention to the eventsimmediately and preceding at thecollege. Continually balfollowing major discontinuities ance remembering, and anticipating to showhow experiencing, the past led to the presentand influences the future. 6. Create future not compromises. plans that are syntheses, 7. Remember thatdeferring to luck, hope, or prayer you portrays as powerlessto influence destiny. We have positedthatan institution's use and subjective experience of timeis a primitive We have of predicate college administration. further contended thatsetting theinstitutional clock is a competency the used to promoteplanfulattitudes activities. and planning Setting and a clockto a future-oriented with sense density position underlying of continuity assume reis the preferred position. If administrators forreadjusting the subjectiveclock, a climateand envisponsibility ronment conduciveto planningcan be developed and fostered.
References
1. Confucius."The ConfucianAnalectsBk 15:11." In The Analects of Confucius. Translatedby A. Waley. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1938. 2. Peter,L. J. Peter'sQuotations:Ideas for Our Time. New York: BantamBooks, 1977. 3. Seneca, L. A. "EpistulaeAd Lucilium,No. 18." In Seneca Ad LuciliumEpistulae Morales. Translatedby R. M. Gummere.Cambridge,Mass.: The Loeb Classic Press, 1917. Library,Harvard University 4. White,W. A. Quotation. Readers Digest. (June 1938), 50.

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Administrative Leadership: Planning and Time Perspective Author(s): Philip M. Ringle and Mark L.

Philip M. Ringle Mark L. Savickas

FIG. 2. Present-oriente Perspecti Temporal

FIG. 3. Future-oriented TemporalPerspective

FIG. 4. Balanced TemporalPerspective

Patternof Many Institutions FIG. 5. The TemporalDifferentiation

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