Alle Lecturesin 1

04-Mar-14
1
Discover the world at Leiden University
Emotion & Cognition
Dr. Marnix Naber 2014
Course Overview
10 Lectures in SC01
First 8 Lectures by me
Last 2 Lectures by Ellen de Bruijn

Book: Emotion Science by Elaine Fox

Exam: 3
rd
of April, 13:00 (2h) in USC
Re-exam: 24th of June, 13:00 in USC

Lectures
1. Introduction to Emotions
2. Emotion Categories & Dimensions
3. Emotions & Neuroscience
4. Emotions & Physiology
5. Emotions & Cognition
6. Emotions, Feelings, & Personalities
7. Emotions, Imitation, & Empathy
8. Emotion & Social Interactions
9. Emotional disorders
10.Emotions, Resilience, & Well-being

Lectures
Lectures every Monday and Tuesday from
17:00 till 19:00

No lecture on the 10
th
of February
No lecture on the 10
th
of March
But keep these slots open in your agenda,
just in case!

Last lecture on the 11
th
of March
Book
NEW BOOK!

OLD SUMMARIES WONT HELP
Additional literature
1. Nothing for this lecture
2. Nisbett, R.E., & Wilson, T.D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports
on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231259.
3. Damasio, A.R. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of
the prefrontal cortex. Transactions of the Royal Society, 351, 1413-1420.
4. Gazzaniga, M.S., & Heatherton, T.F. (2003). Mind, brain, and behavior.
Psychological science. New York: Norton. Pages 290-291 and 327-333.
5. Dijksterhuis, A., & Nordgren, L.F. (2006). A theory of unconscious thought.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 95-109.
6. Pessoa, L. (2009). How do emotion and motivation direct executive control? Trends
in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 160-166.
7. Craig, D.B. (2004). Human feelings: why are some more aware than others? Trends
in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 239241.
8. Glenn, A.L., & Raine, A. (2009). Psychopathy and instrumental aggression:
Evolutionary, neurobiological, and legal perspectives. International Journal of Law
and Psychiatry, 32, 253-258.
9. Huebner, B., Dwyer, S., & Hauser, M. (2009). The role of emotion in moral
psychology. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 1-6.
10. Muramatsu, R., & Hanoch, Y. (2005). Emotions as a mechanism for boundedly
rational agents: The fast and frugal way. Journal of Economic Psychology, 26, 201
221.
04-Mar-14
2
Exam
40 Multiple choice questions
Min. 27 correct
Questions are in English
Vocabularies permitted

April 3
rd
, one oclock in
University Sport Centre
(turn right after entrance)
Questions?
m.naber@fsw.leidenuniv.nl
Room 2.B11

Discover the world at Leiden University Discover the world at Leiden University
Emotion & Cognition

Lecture 1:
Introduction to Emotions
Book
Chapter 1:

Terminology
Biology
Famous models
Neuroscience
Outline

Lecture 1 overview
Emotion & Context
What are emotions?
Specific properties of emotions
Why do we have emotions?

Emotion & Science
Eliciting emotions
Measuring emotions
Theories & models of emotions

04-Mar-14
3
Lecture 1 overview
Emotion & Context
What are emotions?

Emotion & Science
Eliciting Emotions
Measuring emotions
Models of emotions

What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Emotion Schema
Familiar
Phenomenal
Physiological
Expression
Wow!
What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
What are emotions?
Jill Greenberg
Typical expressions, hard-coded
What are emotions?
- Distinct state of the mind,
displayed early in life
(babies/innate)
04-Mar-14
4
What are emotions?
Panksepp, 1998
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DPK_ij0llc8
What are emotions?
- Distinct state of the mind,
displayed early in life
(babies/innate)
Properties of emotions?

- Distinct from what?
- How universal?
Emotions in humans
Disgust Sadness
Emotions in humans
Disgust Sadness
Emotions in humans
Fear Anger Disgust Joy Neutral Sadness Surprise
Emotions in humans
Complexity
04-Mar-14
5
Emotion Properties
1. Relatively distinct, but mixed-
emotions possible
2. Subtle differences across subjects

Emotions in humans
Paul Ekman:
Emotions are universal across cultures
1971: New Guinea study
Pick 1:3 pictures fitting story
Pictures & stories
representing Happiness,
Sadness, Anger, Surprise,
Disgust & Fear
Emotions in humans
Elfenbein & Ambady (2002):
Emotions are universal to a limited degree
97 studies
Calculate cross-cultural
accuracy
Regress out in-group
advantage
Emotion CC Acc
(%)
IGA (%)
Anger 64.9 7.7
Contempt 43.2 8.0
Disgust 60.6 15.1
Fear 57.5 13.1
Happiness 79.1 7.3
Positive
negative
54.1 5.3
Sadness 67.5 10.2
Surprise 67.6 11.8
Overall 58.0 9.3
Emotions in humans
Russel (1974):
Low agreement
about classification
of expressions:

1. Low ecological
validity
2. Low overlap
between
phenomenal
experience and
facial pattern
3. Communicative
function?
Emotions in humans
Elfenbein & Ambady (2002):
Noise
/Flexible
/Culture
/Experience
Emotions in humans
Ekman & Friesen (1975) & Matsumoto (1990):
Culture
Watch Surgery
ALONE
Watch Surgery
TOGETHER
04-Mar-14
6
Emotions in humans
Kitayama et al. (2000):
Positive
emotions
N
e
g
a
t
i
v
e
e
m
o
t
i
o
n
s

Positive
emotions
N
e
g
a
t
i
v
e
e
m
o
t
i
o
n
s

Emotions in humans
Gezelligheid
Emotion & Culture
Amae (Japan): Feeling of dependency akin to what infants feel towards their mothers.
Important for bonding individuals to each other and cherished institutions. (Prinz 2004: 131).
Awumbuk (Baining of Papua New Guinea): Sadness, tiredness or boredom caused by the
departure of visitors, friends or relatives, (Russell 1991: 432).
Ijirashii (Japan): Arising when seeing someone praiseworthy overcome an obstacle,
(Matsumoto 1994 cited in Prinz 2004: 140).
Ker (Ifaluk): Pleasant surprise, (cited in Goldie 2000: 91).
Liget (Ilongot people): Aroused by situations of grief but closely related to anger, can inspire
headhunting expeditions, (Rosaldo 1980 cited in Prinz 147).
Malu (Dusun Baguk, Malaysia): Overlapping of shame and embarrassment, can be elicited
by being in the presence of a person of higher rank, (Fessler 1999 cited in Prinz 2004: 156)
Nginyiwarrarringu (Pintupi Aborigines of the Western Australian Desert): A sudden
fear that leads one to stand up to see what caused it, (Russell 1991: 431)
Rus (Ifaluk): Unpleasant surprise, cited in Goldie 2000: 91).
Song (Ifaluk people, Micronesia): Close to anger, or admonition, with moralistic overtones
and no disposition to revenge. (Lutz 1988 cited in Prinz 2004: 147).
Sram (Russia): Shame specifically focused on sexual indecency, originating in religious
discoursealso used as a noun denoting pudenda, or to prefix a location name in which sexual
activity occurs (such as a red light district)
Emotions in animals
Emotions in animals
Berridge, 2000
Question?
Can animals experience complex emotions?

Go to:
www.vot.rs
04-Mar-14
7
Emotions in animals
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWxCM6llL60
Emotions properties
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Sensory
/Label/
Cultural
Noise
Imitation
/Cultural
Noise
Neural/
ANS
Noise
Epigenetics
Emotion Properties
1. Relatively distinct, but mixed-emotions
possible
3. Relatively universal across
cultures/species, but different
expressions

Lecture 1 overview
Emotion & Context
What are emotions?

Emotion & Science
Eliciting Emotions
Measuring emotions
Models of emotions

Purpose of emotions

As emotions seem to be universal to a
certain degree, there must be a purpose. But
why do we have emotions?

Why emotions: Darwinian
1. Adaptive functions, universal
(Darwin)
2. Bodily responses (James)
3. Quick decisions (Damasio, Le Doux)
4. Based on appraisal (Arnold)
5. Social constructs (Averill)

04-Mar-14
8
What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Darwin
Principle of serviceable associated habits
Principle of antithesis
Principle of expressive habits through the
nervous system

Eyes slightly closed,
eye brows down
Eyes closed,
eye brows down
Eyes open,
eye brows up
Emotion Properties
possible
3. Universal across cultures, but different
expressions
4. Evolutionary purpose

Emotion Properties
Nesse, 1990
04-Mar-14
9
Certain states of the mind lead to certain habitual
movements which were primarily, or may still be, of
service; and we shall find that when a directly opposite
state of mind is induced, there is a strong and involuntary
tendency to the performance of movements of a directly
opposite nature, though these have never been of any
service.
Susskind & Anderson 2008 Comm. Int. Biology
Susskind, Lee et al. 2008 Nature Neuroscience
Principle of expressive habits
through the nervous system
Animals have distinct screams, only when extremely
frightened or in great pain.
Emotion Properties
possible
expressions
4. Evolutionary purpose
5. High criterion (threshold), but very
expressive behavior
(communication)

04-Mar-14
10
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KRVxqCo9iW8
Emotion Properties
Conclusions so far
possible (Ekman)
expressions
4. Evolutionary purpose (Darwin)
5. High criterion (threshold), but very
expressive behavior (communication)

Lecture 1 overview
Emotion & Context
What are emotions?

Emotion & Science
Eliciting Emotions
Measuring emotions
Models of emotions

Eliciting emotions
Reward
Punishment
Stories
Music
Pictures and Movies
Eliciting emotions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Bmhjf0rKe8
04-Mar-14
11
Eliciting emotions
Woman memorize disturbing images better than man (Canly et al., 2002)
Scary picture from images.google.com
Eliciting emotions
Two hunters are out in the woods when
one of them collapses. He doesn't seem to
be breathing and his eyes are glazed. The
other guy whips out his phone and calls the
emergency services. He gasps, "My friend
is dead! What can I do?" The operator says
"Calm down. I can help. First, let's make
sure he's dead." There is a silence, then a
gun shot is heard. Back on the phone, the
guy says "OK, now what?"
http://www.laughlab.co.uk/
Lecture 1 overview
Emotion & Context
What are emotions?

Emotion & Science
Eliciting Emotions
Measuring emotions
Models of emotions

Measuring emotions
Questionnaires
- How do you feel when ..?
- Do you think . is an
appropriate expression in
.. situation?
- How often do you feel ..?

Measuring emotions
Introspection

Indicate which
areas are activated
and deactivated
when you feel
Nummenmaa et al., 2014
Measuring emotions
RT Emotional Stroop task

Williams, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996; Compton et al., 2003
Congruent

Red
Blue
Green
Incongruent

Red
Blue
Green

Emotional

War
Cancer
Kill

04-Mar-14
12
Susskind, Lee et al. 2008 Nature Neuroscience
Fear
Disgust
Measuring emotions
Susskind et al. 2008
Measuring emotions
Measuring emotions
Physiology
Measuring emotions
Infants: emotions are pure and simple
Disorders: emotions are uncontrolled or
extreme
Reactions to emotional stimuli
Record and study expressions
Cross-cultural research (innate emotions)
Lecture 1 overview
Emotion & Context
What are emotions?

Emotion & Science
Eliciting Emotions
Measuring emotions
Models of emotions

04-Mar-14
13
Theories of emotions
Stimulus
Perception/Sensory
Processing
?
Question?
What comes first?
1. Emotion
2. Physiology

Go to:
www.vot.rs
James-Lange
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Cannon-Bard
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Schachter
Cognitive
Interpretatio
n
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Current view
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Similar?
Mental state
Experience
Cognition
Physiology
Introspection
Wakefulness
Interpretation
Mood
Feeling
Emotion
Expression
Consciousness
Culture
Genes
Stimuli
Thoughts
Goals
Models of emotions
Identifying basic dimensions
by language (Osgood)
04-Mar-14
14
Models of emotions
Plutchik's
Psychoevolutionary Theory
Few (8) basic emotions
Polar opposites
Vary in intensity
Remaining emotions
derived/mixed
Mapped onto adaptive
behaviors
Conclusions
(Some) emotions are likely to have an evolutionary
history
Emotions may have adaptive value (purpose)
(Some) facial expressions as well
Evidence for several universal facial expressions
Unclear whether expression=emotion
Some emotions seem to be more basic than others,
but unclear which

Next lecture (tomorrow)
Chapter 4-5

Emotion Categories
Emotion Dimensions

Nisbett, R.E., & Wilson, T.D. (1977).
Telling more than we can know: Verbal
reports on mental processes.
Psychological Review, 84, 231259.

04-Feb-14
1
Emotion & Cognition

Lecture 2:
Emotion Theories, Categories, &
Dimensions
IMPORTANT
Monday, 24
th
of FEBRUARY:

ROOM: zaal Lipsius 019
ADDRESS: Cleveringaplaats 1, Leiden

Lecture 2 overview
Emotion Theories
Emotion Categories
Emotion Dimensions

Book
Chapter 4-5:

Bodily distinctions
Neural distinctions
- Animals
- Humans
Famous emotion theories
Categories vs. dimension
approach
What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Darwin
James-
Lange
Why emotions: Jamesian
1. Adaptive functions, universal (Darwin)
2. Bodily responses (James-Lange)

James-Lange
04-Feb-14
2
Why emotions: Jamesian
The more rational statement is that we feel sorry
because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid
because we tremble, and not that we cry, strike,
or tremble, because we are sorry, angry, or
fearful, as the case may be (James, 1886)

ANS /
Expression
Phenomenal
Experience
Response before emotional experience
What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+
Nonverbal
Expression
James & Lange
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+
Nonverbal
Expression
Traditional View
Perception
Of
Event
James
Familiar
Phenomenal
Physiological
Expression
Wow!
What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+
Nonverbal
Expression
James & Lange
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+
Nonverbal
Expression
Traditional View
Perception
Of
Event
Langes idea
Is it possible that vasomotor disturbances, varied
dilation of the blood vessels, and consequent excess
of blood, in the separate organs, are the real,
primary effects of the affections, whereas the other
phenomena;~ motor abnormalities, sensation
paralysis, subjective sensations, disturbances of
secretion, and intelligence-are only secondary
disturbances, which have their cause in anomalies
of vascular innervation (Lange, 1885/1922)?
Langes idea
Is it possible that vasomotor disturbances, varied
dilation of the blood vessels, and consequent excess
of blood, in the separate organs, are the real,
primary effects of the affections, whereas the other
phenomena;~ motor abnormalities, sensation
paralysis, subjective sensations, disturbances of
secretion, and intelligence-are only secondary
disturbances, which have their cause in anomalies
of vascular innervation (Lange, 1885/1922)?
04-Feb-14
3
Lange:
Primary:
Vasomotor (blood
vessel dilation)
Secondary:
motor abnormalities
subjective sensations
intelligence-are
Get ready! Fight or Flight!
Testing James-Langes Theory
Testing James-Lange Theory
R L
MOVIE: Emotion & the brain

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNY0AAUtH3g
But by obsessively
keeping your nose to the
grindstone, arent you
merely addressing the
symptom and not the
cause of your problem?
Question?
How funny was this cartoon (1-5)?
Go to:
www.vot.rs
28 73 71
R L
04-Feb-14
4
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
F
u
n
n
i
e
n
e
s
s

R
a
t
i
n
g
Strack, Stepper & Martin (1988)
F
u
n
n
i
n
e
s
s

C
a
r
t
o
o
n

1. Change in body alters your emotions
Testing James-Lange theory
Lanzetta 1976
Strong Skin conductance
Subjective pain
Weaker Skin conductance
Less pain
Conceal expression
Group 1
Group 2
2. Cognitive inhibition of your body
weakens emotions
Control Physiology & Emotions
Hennenlotter et al. 2009
Sad
angry
produce
facial
expression
Control:
replication
BOTOX:
No expression
Amygdala activation
coupling with brainstem
04-Feb-14
5
2. Cognitive inhibition of your body
weakens emotions
3. Botox-induced body changes alter neural
activity related to emotion regulation

BOTOX = zombie without emotions. Think
twice before you apply it
Cannons Criticism
Primary:
Vasomotor
(blood vessel
dilation)
Secondary:
motor abnormalities
intelligence-are
ANS /
Expression
Phenomenal
Experience
Too simple!
Cannons Criticism
Primary:
Vasomotor
(blood vessel
dilation)
Secondary:
motor abnormalities
intelligence-are
ANS /
Expression
Phenomenal
Experience
Too slow!
Cannons Criticism
Separating body from CNS does not alter
emotional behavior in animals
Visceral changes too slow to be source of emotion
Artificial induction of visceral changes typical for
emotions do not produce them (adrenalin)
Relation bodily states emotional states not 1:1
No direct connection between body
(viscera) and brain (emotion)
Cannon-Bard theory
Phenomenal
Experience
Physiological
Pattern
Verbal+
Nonverbal
Expression
Perception
Of
Event
PARALLEL
&
SEPARATE
04-Feb-14
6
Cannons Criticism

Question?
Do humans have altered emotions after
spinal cord injury?

Go to:
www.vot.rs

44 55 72
Autonomous Specificity
Hohmann, 1966
Its a sort of cold anger. Sometimes I act
angry when I see some injustice. I yell and
cuss and raise hell, because if you dont do it
sometimes, people will take advantage of
you. But it just doesnt have the heat to
it that it used to have. Its a mental kind
of anger.
Patient with spinal cord lesion:
Hohmann, 1966
Cannons Criticism
Cannons Criticism
04-Feb-14
7
Autonomic Specificity
Ax, 1953
Cannons Criticism

Cannons Criticism

Ekman et al., 1983
Watch video
Produce same emotion
Measure Heart rate & Temperature change
Ekman et al., 1983
Negative emotions:
high HR
Positive emotions:
Low HR
Temperature:
different pattern

04-Feb-14
8
Cannons Criticism

Cannons Criticism

Adrenaline & Emotion Perception
Schachter & Singer, 1962
4 Groups:
1. Correctly informed:
shaky hands, pounding
heart, increased
breathing
2. Incorrectly informed:
itching, numb feet,
headaches
3. Noninformed: no side
effects
4. Control: saline injection
3 Hypotheses:
1. No arousal = no emotion
2. If arousal and can be explained = no emotion
3. If no other reason available, situation will color emotion
Adrenaline & Emotion Perception
Schachter & Singer, 1962
4 Groups:
1. Correctly informed
(CI): shaky hands,
pounding heart,
increased breathing
2. Incorrectly informed
(II): itching, numb feet,
headaches
3. Uninformed (UI): no
side effects
4. Control (C): saline
placebo injection
3 Hypotheses:
1. No arousal = no emotion FALSE
2. If arousal and can be explained = no emotion ???
3. If no other reason available, situation will color emotion TRUE

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
1 (CI) 2 (II) 3 (UI) 4 (CON)
E
u
p
h
o
r
i
c

f
e
e
l
i
n
g

Euphoria
Anger
F
e
e
l
i
n
g

1 CI 2 II 3 UI 4 C
Euphoria
Anger
Euphoric
Angry
Cannons Criticism

Cannon-Bard theory
Phenomenal
Experience
Physiological
Pattern
Verbal+
Nonverbal
Expression
Perception
Of
Event
Some
interactions
04-Feb-14
9
Adaptation to James-Lange
Cannon-bard criticism led scientists to adapt
James-Lange theory because:
Not all physiological changes show the same pattern per
emotion (complexity)
Adrenaline injection induce CONTEXT-dependent
emotions

Schachters two-factor theory
Cognitive
Interpretation/
appraisal
Arousal/
Physiological
Pattern
Perception
Of
Event
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Testing Schachters theory
Nisbett & Schachter, 1966
Nothing
Group 1
Group 2
Tremor/heart rate
Schachters two-factor theory
context and expectations can weaken
emotions/feelings
Acknowledge that emotional experience
depends on bodily changes
thus, physiological changes precede emotion
also, cognitive interpretations/appraisal
precede emotion
but, bodily changes are not solely responsible
for emotion
arousal must be interpreted
Emotion = Arousal + Interpretation
James-Lange
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Cannon-Bard
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Schachter
Cognitive
Interpretation
/ appraisal
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
04-Feb-14
10
Mental state
Experience
Cognition
Physiology
Introspection
Wakefulness
Interpretation
Mood
Feeling
Emotion
Expression
Consciousness
Culture
Genes
Stimuli
Mental state
Experience
Cognition
Physiology
Introspection
Wakefulness
Interpretation
Mood
Feeling
Emotion
Expression
Consciousness
Culture
Genes
Stimuli
Thoughts
Goals
Mental state
Experience
Cognition
Physiology
Introspection
Wakefulness
Interpretation
Mood
Feeling
Emotion
Expression
Consciousness
Culture
Genes
Stimuli
Thoughts
Goals
Theoretical conclusions so far

1. James-Lange theory claims that bodily reactions
mediate emotion
2. Autonomic responses not completely undifferentiated
(contra Cannon, Schachter)
3. but not specific enough, probably impact on
intensity of emotion
4. Interaction between autonomic responses and
cognitive interpretation BEFORE emotion
Lecture 2 overview
Emotion Theories
Emotion Categories
Emotion Dimensions

Basic Emotions (Ortony & Turner, 1990)

Theorist(s) Basic Emotions Basis for Inclusion
Arnold
Anger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire,
despair, fear, hate, hope, love, sadness
Relation to action tendencies
Ekman et al. Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise Universal facial expressions
Frijda
Desire, happiness, interest, surprise,
wonder, sorrow
Forms of action readiness
Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired
Izard
Anger, contempt, disgust, distress, fear,
guilt, interest, joy, shame, surprise
Hardwired
James Fear, grief, love, rage Bodily involvement
McDougall
Anger, disgust, elation, fear, subjection,
tender-emotion, wonder
Relation to instincts
Mowrer Pain, pleasure Unlearned emotional states
Oatley & Johnson-Laird Anger, disgust, anxiety, happiness, sadness No propositional content
Panksepp Expectancy, fear, rage, panic Hardwired
Plutchik
Acceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust,
joy, fear, sadness, surprise
Relation to adaptive
biological processes
Tomkins
Anger, interest, contempt, disgust, distress,
fear, joy, shame, surprise
Density of neural firing
Watson Fear, love, rage Hardwired
Weiner & Graham Happiness, sadness Attribution independent
04-Feb-14
11
Ortony & Turner
There is no OBJECTIVE way to investigate
which emotions are basic
Neuroscience cannot fully dissociate emotions
Disagreement which are basic due to vagueness
of language
Disagreement which are basic due to hierarchies
Disagreement whether emotions have to be
valenced

Question?
Which type of emotion is surprise?

Go to:
www.vot.rs

11 03 41

Subjective emotions
The term basic is a subjective label
There is no such things as basic emotions
Emotion is a slightly vague term
Words may not represent nature (Russel)
Dimensions rather than categories to
investigate emotions

Lecture 2 overview
Emotion Theories
Emotion Categories
Emotion Dimensions

Emotion Dimensions
Fear
Anger
Joy
Acceptance
Plutchik
Acceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust,
joy, fear, sadness, surprise
Relation to adaptive
biological processes
Emotion Dimensions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_0WXK8wupU
MOVIE of Multi dimensional scaling
04-Feb-14
12
Emotion Dimensions
Fear Anger Joy Acceptance
Emotion Dimensions

Russels secondary emotions
Russel, 1980
Subjective vs objective dimensions
Ratings are subjective but calculating the
dimensions is an objective method
MDS finds the underlying construct/dimension

Emotion Dimensions
Arousal (+ high vs. low)
Valence (+ positive vs. - negative)

Rolls
Rolls, 2005
Positive
Valence
Positive
Valence
Negative
Valence
Negative
Valence
+ = reward
- = punishment
Low
arousal
High
arousal
High
arousal
High
arousal
High
arousal
Joy
04-Feb-14
13
Rolls
Rolls, 2005
+ = reward
- = punishment
Reward
Delivery
Reward
Omission

Punishment
Omission

Punishment
Delivery

Emotion Dimensions
Goals (+ reward vs. - punishment)
Active vs. passive (+ delivery, - omission)

Plutchik's Psychoevolutionary
Theory
Few (8) basic emotions
Polar opposites
Vary in intensity
Remaining emotions
derived/mixed
Mapped onto adaptive
behaviors
incorporation
rejection
protection destruction
reproduction
orientation
reintegration
exploration
Emotion Dimensions
Similarity (proximity)

Roseman's Structural Approach
Goal-Consistent Goal-Inconsistent
Agency Power Probability Appetitive Aversive Appetitive Aversive
Circumstance
Unknown Surprise
Weak
Uncertain Hope Fear
Certain Joy Relief Sorrow
Discomfort,
Disgust
Strong
Uncertain Hope
Frustration
Certain Joy Relief
Other
Weak
Uncertain
Liking
Disliking
Certain
Strong
Uncertain
Anger
Certain
Self
Weak
Uncertain
Pride
Shame, Guilt
Certain
Strong
Uncertain
Regret
Certain
Objects
Social
Ego
Emotion Dimensions
Similarity (proximity)
Probability of the goal
Agency

04-Feb-14
14
Conclusions
Emotion = interaction between body and cognition
Unclear whether expression=emotion
(body=emotion)
Some emotions may seem to be more basic than
others, but unclear which and why
Dimensions are better than categories

Next week (Tuesday)
Chapter 2
Emotions, moods, feelings
Measuring emotions in
neuroscience &
physiology

Damasio, A.R. (1996). The somatic
marker hypothesis and the possible
functions of the prefrontal cortex.
Transactions of the Royal Society, 351,
1413-1420.

11-Feb-14
1
Emotion & Cognition

Lecture 3:
Emotions & Neuroscience
Announcements
Check blackboard for slides
Book
Chapter 2:

Neural markers of emotion
Physiological markers of
emotion

Lecture 3 overview
Emotions & Neural loci
The Limbic System
Neuroscientific theories of emotions
Damasios somatic marker hypothesis
LeDouxs quick decision theory
Emotions & Neurotransmitters/Hormones

Lecture 3 overview
The Limbic System

What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Darwin
James-
Lange
Neuro-
science
11-Feb-14
2
Lecture 3 overview
The Limbic System

Macleans stage of evolution
Basic bodily
functions
(survival)
Emotions &
Memory
(adaptive)
High-order
thinking
(intelligence)
Only limbic system processes emotions
Reptilians do not have a limbic system
Thalamus
Universal limbic system
Limbic system
Memory
consolidation
Relay Station/
Sleep/
Attention
Higher-order
Cognition
Emotion
regulation
Arousal
hormones
Smell
Taste
Limbic system
Old and universal system
Relatively few differences between animals
and humans
Emotion processing: direct adaptive
functions to interact with environment
Not all parts are directly involved in
emotions
Limbic system is not the only part evolved
in emotions

Panksepps idea
Emotion
Reflexes
Basic
Emotions
Complex
Emotions
All brain layers are important for emotions
11-Feb-14
3
Berridges idea
Humans
Animals
Emotion processing is shifted upwards in humans
Buckners proposal
Evolved cognition dissociates humans from animals
Lecture 3 overview
The Limbic System

Scherers idea
Five components of emotion representations
in the brain:
1. Information processing (bottom-up
processing)
2. Neurophysiological support/regulation
3. Motivational executive action (motor
planning/preparation)
4. Expression (motor action)
5. Subjective feeling (top-down monitor)

~ SYNCHRONIZATION ~
Why emotions: Neurosc.
3. Quick decisions (Damasio, LeDoux)

Lecture 3 overview
The Limbic System

11-Feb-14
4
LeDoux fast emotions
LeDouxs shortcut
Cognition
Thalamus
Amygdala
Response
Shortcut
LeDouxs short cut theory
High (cognitive) road: identifying
stimulus emotional evaluation
action
Low (raw) road: direct shortcut via
thalamus & amygdala to action
Testing LeDouxs shortcut
Lobue & Deloache, 2008
Children have less evolved
cognition (no experience)
Detect snakes vs. flowers
Anderson & Phelps, 2001
Tea
Table
House
Chair
Bike
Tree
Car
Attentional Blink:
Identify coloured words

T1 distracts
T2 bad identification
Time
T1
T2
Tea
Table
House
Chair
Bike
Rape
Car
Emotional AB:
Identify coloured words

T1 distracts
T2 good identification
Time
T1
T2
Amygdala
11-Feb-14
5
Emotional AB:
Control vs. amygdala patients
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Neutral Negative
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

c
o
r
r
e
c
t

T
2

r
e
p
o
r
t

T2
Control
Amygdala L
Emotional AB Results
Conclusions about LeDouxs theory
Amygdala recognizes threat and signals body for
fast response
Amygdala is part of the quick & dirty route of
visual processing

Amygdalas central role
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Amygdala
Amygdalas central role
Lane et al. 2002
Response
Filter
Hormones
(fatigue/arousal)
Learning/
Memory
Cognition/
Interpretation
Attention/
Consciousness
Conclusions about amygdala
Amygdala recognizes threat and signals body for
fast response
Amygdala is part of the quick & dirty route of
visual processing
Emotions depend on a network of brain
areas (also see Scherers idea)
Amygdala is at the heart
11-Feb-14
6
Amygdala & Expressions
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Amygdala
Amygdalas role
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
Kluver & Bucy, 1939
Loose fear response
Amygdalas role
Fear conditioning in rats
Phillips & LeDoux, 1992
Dysfunctional Amygdala
MOVIE: human with no amygdala regulation
Dysfunctional Amygdala
1. Monkeys have increased tendency to
approach threats
2. No nurturing and abuse of offspring
3. Rats cannot associate danger with
stimulus
4. Human children show no affection with
or attachment to their parents
5. Human adults become unpredictably
aggressive

Amygdala & Cognition
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Amygdala
11-Feb-14
7
Amygdala stimulation
Gloor, 1986
A patient reported he had a guilty
feeling, as if he were late in handing
in an assignment and someone were
angry at him.

Another reported he felt "as if I were
not belonging here," as though he
were attending a party where he
wasn't welcome.

A female patient reported sexual
feelings. Often these experiences
were linked with representations of
particular other individuals ("a
stronger boy was pushing me
down").
Amygdala & Fear recognition
Meletti et al. 2003
Epilepsy: Mesial Temporal Sclerosis
Amygdala & Fear recognition
Amygdala
Arousal
Amygdala & Physiology
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Amygdala
Neural firing in amygdala
Muehlhauser; Gothard et al. 2007
11-Feb-14
8
Amygdala & Pupil
Gloor, 1997; Kapp et al., 1992; Applegat et al., 1983; Kaada et al., 1954
Amygdala stimulation: increased pupil
1. Amygdala involved in implicit and
explicit emotional learning, recognition
of social responses and attention to
threatening events

Lecture 3 overview
The Limbic System

What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Darwin
James-
Lange
Damasio
Phineas Gage
Eslinger & Damasio, 1985
1849: back to work,
loses job because
of personality
changes;
impatient,
obstinate, yet
capricious and
vacillating, unable
to settle on any of
the plans he
devised for future
action ("no longer
Gage")
1859: lives with his
mother
1860: epileptic
seizures, dies

Emotion
Decision-
Making
Patient EVR
Saver & Damasio, 1991
Damasios patient:

"...it was as if he forgot to
remember short- and
intermediate- term
goals.... He couldn't
keep a problem in
perspective in relation
to other goals."(1985,
p.1737).
OFC/VM
11-Feb-14
9
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
Clinical characteristics of the
Orbitofrontal Syndrome
Disinhibited, impulsive behavior
(pseudopsychopathic)
Inappropriate humor, euphoria
Emotional lability
Poor judgment and insight
Distractibility
Damasio talking
MOVIE: Antonio Damasio
Damasios theory of emotions
OFC lesions impair decision-making
Impaired acquisition of somatic/bodily markers
Emotions necessary for appropriate decisions

Where does the somatic marker come from?

Damasios somatic marker
Somatic marker: Interplay between OFC and amygdala
Action
Goal /
Consequence
Emotion
OFC
Amygdala
Decision
Testing Damasios theory of emotions
OFC/VM Amygdala
11-Feb-14
10
Bechara et al., 2000
Task:

Pick 100 cards and
maximize profit.

Switch whenever you
like
Patients with amygdala and
ventromedial frontal
cortex lesions do not
perform well on the
gambling task.
Dissociation between OFC and Amyg.
OFC and amygdala impair behavior
OFC and amygdala impair decision SCR
Only amygdala impair reward SCR

OFC: decision-making and expectations
Amygdala: marks emotional outcomes

Amygdala, a kind of emotional memory,
is involved in
Implicit emotional learning (e.g.,
fear conditioning)
Explicit emotional learning
Recognition of social responses
Attention to threatening (and happy)
events
commonly in interplay with OFC
11-Feb-14
11
Decision-
Making
Emotion
Detection
Valence
Arousal
Lewis et al., 2007
Event
Emotion /
Response 1
Emotion /
Response 2
Somatic
Marker
Amygdala
(memory)
Same
Event
Emotion
Response 1
Emotion/
Response 2
P = 50%
P = 50%
P = 70%
P = 30%
Goal /
Saliency?
Forgotten
emotion/
response
Yes
No
OFC (decision)
OFC lesions impair decision-making
Impaired acquisition of somatic/bodily markers
Emotions necessary for appropriate decisions

Amygdala lesions impair link between decisional
outcome and emotion

The acquisition of this marker gives you a gut
feeling
The hunch helps you to make good and fast
decisions

Conclusions about neural loci
1. Amygdala involved in implicit and
explicit emotional learning, recognition
of social responses and attention to
threatening events
2. Orbitofrontal cortex implicated in
(social) decision-making

Other Neural Loci & Emotions
Many more neural regions are implicated
as modulators of affection

Read book chapter:
Berridge 2003 Comparing the emotional brain
of humans and other animals Chapter 3 in
The Psychology of Economic Decisions by
Brocas & Carrillo

11-Feb-14
12
Left PFC
Altered regulation:
Major Depressive Disorder
Grimm et al. 2008
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)
Pain anticipation
Hsieh et al. 1999;
Scienceblogs.com
Anticipating
unexpected
painful
Events

Memorizing
painful
events
Ventral Tegmental Area
Motivates & Maternal Care
Disrupted
Maternal
Care in rats

Mediates
Motivational
Effects in Nicotine
And Cocaine
Nucleus Accumbens
Pleasure & Reward
Lecture 3 overview
The Limbic System

Neurotransmitters & Emotion
Noradrenaline
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Cortisol
Serotonin
Oxytocin

11-Feb-14
13
Emotion Loci Neurotransmitter
Pain release relaxation Periaqueductal grey
(PAG)
Nucleus Accumbens
Hypothalamus
Dopamine
Glutamate
Rage Amygdala
Hypothalamus
Acetylcholine
Glutamate
Lust PAG
Hypothalamus
Amygdala
Glutamate
Care PAG
Amygdala
ACC
Oxytocin
Panic PAG (dorsal)
ACC
Thalamys
Glutamate
Opioids
Play PAG (ventral) Acetylcholine
Glutamate
Opioids
Noradrenaline
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Cortisol
Serotonin
Oxytocin

Oxytocins release station
Pituitary gland
Oxytocins chemical complexity
Oxytocin depletion
Social Investigation in Oxytocin knock-out mice
Ferguson et al., 2000/2001
Oxytocin administration
Nasal spray in humans
Kirsch et al., 2005
11-Feb-14
14
Oxytocin & Amygdala
1. No oxytocin in amygdala causes social
recognition deficits in mice
2. Oxytocin acts on the amygdala to reduce
fear (McCarthy et al., 1996) and to
modulate aggression (Bosch et al., 2005)
3. Oxytocin inhibits neural firing in
connections to brainstem sites mediating
fear responses (Huber et al., 2005)
4. Oxytocin regulates emotional responses

Final Conclusions
Damasio & LeDoux suggest that we have
emotions to quickly respond to and
memorize events
The amygdala & OFC play an important
role in this process
Oxytocin (and other
hormones/neurotransmitters) affect
neural activity in these areas

Next week (Monday)
Chapter 6

Interplay with cognition

Gazzaniga, M.S., & Heatherton, T.F. (2003).
Mind, brain, and behavior. Psychological
science. New York: Norton. Pages 290-291 and
327-333.

17-Feb-14
1
Emotion & Cognition

Lecture 4:
Emotions & (Neuro)Physiology
Book
Chapter 6:

Lazarus-Zajonc debate
Interaction between
cognition and emotions
Perception & Attention

What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Darwin
James-
Lange
Damasio
Physiology
Physiological Coupling
Familiar
Phenomenal
Physiological
Expression
Wow!
Lecture 4 overview
What is neurophysiology?
Why study physiology?
Emotions & Physiology
Pupillometry
Skin Conductance
Heart Rate (Variability)
Muscles

Lecture 4 overview
Pupillometry
Skin Conductance
Muscles

17-Feb-14
2
History of neurophysiology
Functioning of the nervous system

History (~1500 BC):

Edwin Smith Papyrus

First description of
examination of
physiology (pulse) after
head injuries (27/48).
What is Neurophysiology?
It studies the
interaction between
the brain and body
through the nervous
system

What is the nervous
system?
The nervous system
Central
Nervous
System
Peripheral
Nervous
System
Brain & Spinal
cord
Nerves connecting
organs & spinal cord
The nervous system
Central
Nervous
System
Peripheral
Nervous
System
Sensory
(Afferent)
Motor
(Efferent)
Muscles & Organs
(movements)
Sensory nerves
(temperature)
Somatic
Visceral
Voluntary
(arm movement)
Involuntary
(cardiac)
Sympathetic
Parasympath.

Fight & Flight
Rest & Digest

Balance!

Some organs
receive input
from both,
others just
one

Artery:
Only symp.
Constriction

Bladder:
both systems
Also somatic
Inhibition by
frontal lobe
Limbic takes-
over
17-Feb-14
3
The study the functioning of the nervous
system (brain, spinal cord, etc.) and the
body

Psychophysiology:
Focus on behavior!
Physiological example measures
Pupillometry
Skin Conductance (Galvanic,
electrodermal)
Heart rate, Variability (HRV, IBI)
Blood pressure (systolic, diastolic)
Cortisol (Saliva)
Startle response, blinks (EMG)
Respiration

The study the functioning of the nervous
system (brain, spinal cord, etc.) and the
body

Psychophysiology:
Focus on behavior!
Body affects cognition (James-Lange)
Cognition affects body (Placebo)
Clinical Psychophysiology
Mayberg et al., 2002
Placebo:
Improves mood (emotion)
Improves motor control
(body)
Lecture 4 overview
Pupillometry
Skin Conductance
Muscles

(in neuroscience and psychology)

to understand how the brain controls
the body
because physiological signals may serve
as objective measures of cognition
Subjective measures are unreliable judgments

17-Feb-14
4
Unreliable measures
Chivers et al., 2010
Measure:
Subjective report of sexual
arousal and physiological
responses
Results:
Match in men; No match in
women
Explanation:
Men receive physiological
feedback
(in neuroscience and psychology)

to understand how the brain controls
the body (placebo)
because physiological signals may serve
as objective measures of cognition
Subjective measures are unreliable judgments
Post-hoc explanations for their behavior
(Nisbett & Wilson, 1977)
You have to be conscious

Unconscious body effects
Ohman & Soares, 1994
Unconscious body effects
Ohman & Soares, 1994
Unconscious stimuli can alter physiology
Conclusions about physiology
Good reflection of conscious and
unconscious processes
Fast, easy
Participants do not have to be aware of
measurement (difficult with
questionnaires)

Lecture 4 overview
Pupillometry
Skin Conductance
Muscles

17-Feb-14
5
The eyes
Eyes look weird
Salient contrast between pupil, iris, and
sclera (eye white) suggests purpose
Communication (alarm!)

Movie of the Pupil Light Resp.
Dilator Muscle
Sphincter Muscle
(constriction)
Parasympathetic Nervous
System
Ciliary ganglion cells

Release of
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Dilation
(mydriasis)
Constriction
(miosis)
Sympathetic Nervous System
Cervical ganglion cells

Release of
Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine
(NOR)
Pupil Decreases

Stimulus Encoding
Pupil Increases

Arousal/Decisions
Encoding ACh Constriction Arousal NOR Dilation
Decreased ACh Alzheimer (1)
Alzheimer attenuated constrictions (2)
ACh Formation of declarative memories (3)
ACh Learning and plasticity (4)
ACh Sleep, REM (5)
ACh Novelty and exploration (6)

(1) Francis et al., 1999
(2) Fountoulakis et al., 2004; Prettyman et al., 1997
(3) Hasselmo, 2006
(4) Bakin & Weinberger, 1996; Seol et al., 2007
(5) Gais & Born, 2004; Power, 2004
(6) Warburton et al., 2003

NOR Arousal / Odd-ball (1)
NOR Decision-making (2)
NOR Expectancy (3-4)

(1) Murphy et al, in press
(2) Einhauser et al., 2010
(3) Friedman et al., 1973
(4) Vankov et al., 1995
17-Feb-14
6
Adrenaline Acetylcholine
Conclusions about the pupil
Driven by cholinergic parasympathetic
and adrenergic sympathetic nervous
system
Evidence for sympathetic innervation
Libby, Lacey & Lacey, 2013
The pupil & arousal
Cognition & pupil size
Pupil dilates to arousing pictures (symp.)
Can pupil constrictions also be driven by
cognition?
17-Feb-14
7
Sunny images & PLR
Naber & Nakayama, 2013
Sunny images & PLR
Sunny cartoon images & PLR
Naber & Nakayama, 2013
Sunny cartoon images & PLR
Pupillometry & Cognition
Pupil reflects internal state of the brain
Cognition affects physiological responses
Arousal cannot explain everything
Interpretations and processing of image
features can constrict the pupil

Pupil responses to scary animals
Behavioral
Response
Cognition
Stimulus
Interpretations
Scary!
Neutral
17-Feb-14
8
Pupil responses to scary animals
Naber et al., 2012
Pupil responses to face expressions
Pupillometry
Pupil reflects internal state of the brain
Cognition affects physiological responses
Arousal cannot explain everything
Interpretations and processing of image
features can constrict the pupil
Emotional content modulates pupil size
Response depends on stimulus type (faces
vs. scenes)

System

Release of
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Dilation
(mydriasis)
Constriction
(miosis)

Release of
(NOR)
Lecture 4 overview
Pupillometry
Skin Conductance
Muscles

Skin conductance
Skin resistance
changes caused
by sympathetic
activation of
endocrine
sweat glands
17-Feb-14
9
Damasio (1994)
Ventromedial-
frontal patients fail
to show affective
responses to
emotional stimuli
Amygdala and Implicit vs. Explicit
Emotional Learning
Impaired amygdala:
prevents implicit
learning (fear
conditioning)

No SCR responses
to conditioned
stimulus
Skin conductance & fMRI
Critchley et al., 2000
Methods:
fMRI and card game

Activity correlating
with SCR:
OFC
Insula
Occipital
SCR & lateralization
Banks et al., 2012
Female Male Female Male
Do SCR responses differ between hands?
Method: implicit vs. explicit emotions
Banks et al., 2012
Explicit

Implicit
Happy Neutral Anger Fear
Female Male Female Male
Banks et al., 2012
Baseline effect
Happy > Neutral
Sad > Neutral

17-Feb-14
10
Banks et al., 2012

Emotion > Neutral
Conclusions about SCR
Increases with fear, anger, or sexual
arousal
Amygdala and other emotion regions
drive SCR
Sympathetic Arousal SCR
Response depends on task set
Response can be lateralized
Lecture 4 overview
Pupillometry
Skin Conductance
Muscles

Both parasymp.
and
sympathetic
System

Release of
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Accelerations Deceleration

Release of
(NOR)
Libby, Lacey & Lacey, 2013
Heart rate & arousal
Attention to a
picture
decelerates heart
Not in agreement
with pupil
(specificity)
17-Feb-14
11
Heart rate & inhibition
Elliott, Bankart, Light, 1970
Red Green Blue Red Green Blue
Heart rate & emotions
Winton et al, 1984
Pleasant
Unpleasant
Heart rate & emotions
Critchley et al, 2005
Negative
emotional
expressions
accelerate heart
Heart rate conclusions
Decelerates during sensory processing
(attentional focus) & inhibition
Kahneman: deceleration when preparing or
waiting for something to happen &
inhibition of irrelevant information
Accelerates when aroused, frightened
(amygdala activation), motor response
Content dependent (faces vs. scenes)
Heart Rate Variability
Saul, 1990
Short
Long
Saul, 1990
Sympathetic
Adrenaline
Parasympathetic
Acetylcholine
17-Feb-14
12
Heart Rate Variability & Emotions
Lane et al, 2009
Emotional movies reduce HR variability
Emotions reduce parasympathetic activity
(more sympathetic)
Medial prefrontal cortex activity correlated
with HRV
More inhibition (control), more parasymp.
More arousal, more limbic symp.
Heart Rate Variability & Emotions
Thayer et al., 1996
Generalized
Anxiety Disorder
H
F
-
H
R
V

Mostly controlled by parasympathetic
nervous system
Emotion inhibition increases HF-HRV
Lecture 4 overview
Pupillometry
Skin Conductance
Muscles

Emotions & Muscles
Which muscles produce emotions?
Random muscle movements
Reverse engineering emotion recognition
Jack et al., 2014
Which emotion?
Movie of muscle emotions
Jack et al., 2014
17-Feb-14
13
Emotions & Muscles
Which muscles for emotion recognition
Early vs. late muscle movements
Jack et al., 2014
Which emotion?
Emotions & Muscles
Response of muscles in face occur in two
stages:
Early approach vs. avoidance (Evolution)
Late distinguish six basic emotions
Conclusions
Physiological signals useful indicators of emotional
states (no introspection)
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
complex contribution
Arousal IS NOT attentional focus
Task- and stimulus-dependent responses!
ANS Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Neurotransmitter Adrenaline
(norepinephrine)
Acetylcholine
Skin Conductance Increase +
Pupil Dilation + Constriction -
Heart Rate Acceleration + Deceleration -
Heart Rate Variability Low Frequency / Stable - High Frequency / Variable
+
Muscles Fast / inaccurate Slow / Accurate
Chapter 6-7

Interplay between emotion &
cognition

Dijksterhuis, A., & Nordgren, L.F.
(2006). A theory of unconscious
thought. Perspectives on Psychological
Science, 1, 95-109.

28-Mar-14
1
Emotion & Cognition

Lecture 5:
Emotions & Cognition
Lecture 5 overview
1. Appraisal theories of emotion:
Arnolds theory of appraisal
Mandlers theory
Oatley & Johnson-Laird approach
2. Interplay cognition & emotion
Consciousness
Memory
Attention/Arousal

Lecture 5 overview
Mandlers theory
Consciousness
Memory
Attention/Arousal

Why emotions: Cognitive

What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Appraisal
Darwin
James-
Lange
Damasio
Arnold
Arnold: Appraisal
To perceive or apprehend something means that I
know what it is like as a thing, apart from any
effect on me.
To like or dislike it means that I know it not only
objectively, as it is apart from me, but also that I
estimate its relation to me, that I appraise it as
desirable or undesirable, valuable or
harmful for me, so that I am drawn toward it or
repelled by it. (Arnold, 1960)
28-Mar-14
2
Arnold: Appraisal
Appraisal is NOT conscious interpretation or
intellectual judgment!
Rather: fast, rough evaluation, a relational
judgment (good for me, bad for me)
Resulting emotion = felt tendency toward
positively appraised events, or away from
negatively appraised events
Emotion is accompanied by drive-inducing
physiological changes
James-Lange
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Arnold
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Appraisal
Testing Arnolds theory
Silent
Irrelevant
Actors
Appraisal conclusion
Appraisal alters body responses and emotions
Is appraisal a cognitive function?
Appraisal = gut feeling
Appraisal = cognition
Lazarus interpretation
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Primary
Appraisal
Secondary
Appraisal
Knowledge/
Goals/
Intentions
Coping
Situation
(non)acquired
predisposition
Core relational themes:
Anger A demeaning offense against oneself
Anxiety Facing uncertain threat
Fear Facing immediate, overwhelming danger
Action
Tendencies
COGNITIVE
APPRAISAL
Zajoncs Criticism
Zajonc (1980) attacks the view that appraisal is cognitive:
Preferences need no inferences. Zajonc's does not believe the
following argument:
[a]n affective reaction, such as liking, disliking, preference, evaluation,
or the experience of pleasure or displeasure, is based on a prior
process in which a variety of content discriminations are made and
features are identified, examined for their value, and weighted for their
contributions. (Zajonc, 1980, p. 151)
Arnold
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Appraisal
COGNITIVE
APPRAISAL
28-Mar-14
3
Zajoncs mere exposure experiment
Pre-stimuli: Subliminally present nonsense words
such as zebulons and worbus (masked).

Post-stimuli: same nonsense words (old/familiar)
with new nonsense words (novel/unfamiliar)

Familiar nonsense words were liked more than
unfamiliar words

No cognition, but appraisal!
Appraisal precedes cognition

Zajoncs Criticism
Zajonc (1980) attacks the view that emotion is cognitive:
Preferences need no inferences. Zajonc's does not believe the
following argument:
[a]n affective reaction, such as liking, disliking, preference, evaluation,
or the experience of pleasure or displeasure, is based on a cognitive
process in which a variety of content discriminations are made and
features are identified, examined for their value, and weighted for their
contributions. (Zajonc, 1980, p. 151)
LAZARUS was wrong because:

1. Affective reactions are primary. ("Feelings come first," cognition
follows) James-Lange
2. Affective reactions are inescapable (too fast for cognition).
3. Affective reactions are difficult to verbalize.
4. Affective reactions do not necessarily depend on cognition.
5. Affective reactions may occur without content (no stimuli).
Appraisal = cognition?
Preference = cognition?
Appraisal conclusion
Appraisal is probably NOT cognitive but an
implicit gut feeling
Lecture 5 overview
Mandlers theory
Consciousness
Memory
Attention/Arousal

Mandlers theory of emotions
Undifferentiated arousal interrupts
processing, enforces appraisal, valence, and
conscious interpretation of event
Results in emotional experience, expression
and action
Sometimes perception may trigger action,
which is then functioning as trigger for
interpretation
Function of emotion: highlighting
important events, triggering
troubleshooting, driving action
Shortcut
Arnold
Mandler
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Appraisal
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Interrupt
Sympathetic
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
Appraisal/
Affective/
Evaluation
LeDouxs
Shortcut
28-Mar-14
4
- Valence +
-

A
r
o
u
s
a
l

+

Lewis et al., 2007
Testing Mandlers theory
MacDowell & Mandler (1989): Video game

Subjects learned a video game, expectations of positive
events (gold) and negative events (monsters)
Sudden change in game rewards, violated expectations
Increased heart rate when unexpected events were
encountered, stronger for negative events
Heart rate increased for BOTH positive and negative
"surprises"
Correlation between heart rate and subjective intensity of
experience
Arousal = surprise (discrepancy between expectation and
true event)
Summary of Mandlers theory
1. Appraisal evaluates valence of event
2. Appraisal precedes emotion
3. Appraisal is especially activated when
event has high arousal
4. Shortcut only in special events

No appraisal without an event?

Lecture 5 overview
Mandlers theory
Consciousness
Memory
Attention/Arousal

"Each goal and plan has a monitoring mechanism that evaluates events
relevant to it. When a substantial change of probability occurs of achieving
an important goal or subgoal, the monitoring mechanism broadcasts to the
whole cognitive system a signal that can set it into readiness to respond to
this change. Humans experience these signals and the states of readiness
they induce as emotions." (Oatley, 1992)
Planning/
Processing
Knowledge/
Goals/
Intentions
Action/
Expression
Monitoring /
Appraisal
Interrupt
APPRAISAL: Emotions are states that arise from (conscious or
unconscious) evaluations of goal-relevant events
Emotions signal presence of goal changesto the agent AND
observers!
Emotions function to manage plans and goals, induce readiness to act
Emotions affect cognitive organization; attentional & memory
biases, characteristics of problem solving
Emotions induce conscious rumination

Eliciting event Emotion Action
Goals being achieved Happiness Continue with plan
Failure of major plan Sadness Search for new plan, seek help
Self-preservation goal violated Fear Stop plan, attend environment
Active plan frustrated Anger Try harder, aggress
28-Mar-14
5
Planning/
Processing
Knowledge/
Goals/
Intentions
Action/
Expression
Monitoring /
Appraisal
Interrupt
Planning/
Processing
Knowledge/
Goals/
Intentions
Action/
Expression
Monitoring /
Appraisal
Interrupt
Planning/
Processing
Knowledge/
Goals/
Intentions
Action/
Expression
Monitoring /
Appraisal
Interrupt
Planning/
Processing
Knowledge/
Goals/
Intentions
Action/
Expression
Monitoring /
Appraisal
Interrupt
Conclusions about appraisal
1. Arnold: unconscious feeling of which
emotional response is appropriate
2. Lazarus: extends Arnold theory with
antecedents and coping
3. Zajonc: appraisal = conscious feeling
4. Mandler: cognition is only altered when
sympathetic arousal is significant
5. Oatley-Johnson-Laird: appraisal alters
action schema

Lecture 5 overview
Mandlers theory
Consciousness
Memory
Attention/Arousal

28-Mar-14
6
Interplay Cognition & Emotion

Cognition affects emotion and the
experience of events:
Attention biases may enhance emotional responses to
a degree of pathology (e.g., phobia, depression)
Memories may constantly evoke an emotional mood
(e.g., PTSS)
Short & long-term emotions depend on
conscious experiences, memories, &
attention (and more)

Lecture 5 overview
1. Cognitive theories of emotion:
Mandlers theory
Consciousness
Memory
Attention/Arousal

Emotions & Consciousness (Izard)
Cognition is, for example, the processing of a current or previous event,
mental state, consciousness, or action (preparation), that determines
emotions

Consciousness is a measure of self-controlled evaluation of cognition
and may lead to Action/Response/Emotion changes (meta-cognition)
Action/Response = occur automatic, unconscious
Emotion = occur automatic, unconscious

Example of meta-cognition
Emotions & Consciousness (Izard)
Example of a conscious emotion:
- A family member died and you grief

Example of unconscious emotion:
- Minor depression due to subliminal stress
Emotions, feelings, & consciousness
LeDoux: you can have emotion-related
physiological arousal without being consciously
aware of the emotional stimulus.

Damasio: conscious/aware of bodily state in
response to an emotional stimulus or thought is
called a feeling.
28-Mar-14
7
Emotions & Consciousness studies
Some example studies:

1. Emotions Consciousness
Consciousness Paradigm
Image Mergence
1
Image Rivalry
Emotions & Consciousness
Image Mergence
1
Image Rivalry
Perception during binocular rivalry:

Stare
At
This
picture
Dominant emotions in BR
Bannerman, 2008
House vs Face: different expressions across 60s trials
BR Dominance results
Bannerman, 2008
Feelings & Consciousness
Anderson, 2008
Feeling induction
Affect: Neu., Neg., Pos.
Face vs. house rivalry
Face: Neu., Neg., Pos.

28-Mar-14
8
Conclusions about emotions
and consciousness
1. Emotional stimuli enhance awareness
2. Stimuli congruent with mood are more
likely to enter awareness

Emotions & Consciousness studies
Some example studies:

1. Emotions Consciousness
2. Consciousness Emotions Decisions
Dijksterhuis experiment
Four apartments, each 12 info points each
(e.g., big living room).
One apartment was most desirable
Three groups:
1. Immediate decision
2. Conscious rumination (3min)
3. Distracted with 2-back task (3min)
(unconscious)
Measure: which apartment is best?

Question?
Which decision strategy is best?
1. Immediate decision
2. Conscious thought
3. Unconscious rumination

Go to:
www.vot.rs
876791
Dijksterhuis result
Results
1. Immediate: 36% correct
2. Conscious: 47% correct
3. Unconscious: 59% correct

Explanation
Immediate: no time to retrieve info
Conscious: too much info (capacity)
Unconscious: valence accumulation, leading
to a gut feeling

Conclusions about emotions
and consciousness
1. Emotional stimuli enhance awareness
2. Stimuli congruent with mood are more
likely to enter awareness
3. Emotional stimuli can affect behavior
and physiology without awareness
4. Gut feeling (unconscious storage of
emotional valence bias) leads to better
complex decisions than conscious
rumination

28-Mar-14
9
Lecture 5 overview
Mandlers theory
Consciousness
Memory
Attention/Arousal

Question?
Name your most recent emotion
(honesty / anonymous)!

Go to:
www.vot.rs
382649
Emotion tendency
Are your most recent emotions generally
more neutral, negative, or positive?

Events scoring high on arousal are
memorized better and therefore more easily
retrieved from memory
Emotion & Declarative Memory
Chainay et al., 2012
Memorize images (Neg, Neu, Pos)
Retrieval test
Emotion & Declarative Memory
Cahill & McGaugh, 1998
Emotionally arousing stimuli activate
amygdala
Amygdala innervates hippocampus
Conclusions about emotions &
memory
1. Amygdala facilitates memory storage of
emotional events/stimuli
2. Emotional stimuli enhance memory
3. Incidental/implicit/unconscious
emotional processing is more likely to
enhance memory storage (Dijksterhuis)

Suppress emotion worse memory?

28-Mar-14
10
Suppressing emotions
Richards & Gross, 1999
Watch slides of injured men
Additional oral information
about men
Either no instruction
(control group)
Or suppress emotion (target
group)
Test: recall oral information
Result: worse performance
for target suppression group
Conclusions about emotions &
memory
1. Amygdala facilitates memory storage of
emotional events/stimuli
2. Emotional stimuli enhance memory
3. Incidental/implicit/unconscious
emotional processing is more likely to
enhance memory storage (Dijksterhuis)
4. Suppressing emotions impairs memory

Lecture 5 overview
Mandlers theory
Consciousness
Memory
Attention/Arousal

Attention characteristics

Attention enhances mental representations. It
allocates neural resources to relevant
processes/items/representations
Cognitive process of selectively concentrating a
FEW aspects while inhibiting (ignoring) other
aspects
Bottom-up (distraction/saliency) vs top-down
(self-controlled)
Bottom-up attention drives eye-movements
when in a zombie mode
Distinct from arousal

Attention characteristics

Attention enhances mental representations. It
allocates neural resources to relevant
processes/items/representations
Cognitive process of selectively concentrating a
FEW aspects while inhibiting (ignoring) other
aspects
Bottom-up (distraction/saliency) vs top-down
(self-controlled)
Bottom-up attention drives eye-movements
when in a zombie mode
Distinct from arousal

Arousal & Performance
28-Mar-14
11
Low Arousal Intermediate High Arousal
? Unclear ? ? Overflow ? A SNAKE!
Too weak
Good!
Overwhelming
Arousal vs. Attention
ATTENTION Selective
Representations
Selects
relevant neural
pools
Enhances
Relevant neural
pools
Ledouxs shortcut

Improved recognition of scary animals
66
Behavioral
Response
Cognition
Interpretations
Animal
No animal
Stimulus
28-Mar-14
12
Lobue & Deloache, 2008
Threat recognition: Amygdala vs. Vision
68
Stimulus
Amygdala
70
Stimulus
Amygdala
Object
Recognition
Do frightening animals rapidly attract attention?
Which and how strong do features affect
detection and identification of animals?
Analyzing features
72
28-Mar-14
13
Procedure
Naber et al., 2012
No! Images of scary insects and predators did not
result in higher performance
Is there a fast subcortical visual pathway that
detects dangerous objects?
Naber et al., 2012
Correlations with image features
No! Images of scary insects and predators did not
result in higher performance
Is there a fast subcortical visual pathway that
detects dangerous objects?
Size, spikiness, luminance, contrast, and color
Feature contrast between animal and background
is highly important
28-Mar-14
14
Emotion & Reaction times

LeDoux
?
Conclusions
(Some) emotions depend on automatic appraisal
Emotions have (sometimes) interrupt function,
reorienting plans and intentions, trigger
troubleshooting
Emotions enhance consciousness
Implicit (unconscious) emotional processing
enhances memory consolidation
Arousal = overall activation, attention = selective
Automatic attention to emotional stimuli are mostly
driven by basic features such as contrast
Next week (Monday)
Room: LIPSIUS 19

Chapter 2-3

Emotions, moods, feelings

Pessoa, L. (2009). How do emotion and
motivation direct executive control? Trends
in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 160-166

24-Feb-14
1
Emotion & Cognition

Lecture 6:
Emotions, Feelings, Moods, &
Personalities
Book
Chapter 3,8:

Differences between emotion,
mood, feeling, temperament,
personality, and affective style.
Big five
Grays models (BIS, BAS)
Cloningers model
Neural Correlates of affective
styles etc.

Lecture 6 overview
Internal emotions
Feelings
Moods
Attitudes
Personality (traits)
Temperament
Affective style

Terminology
Emotions: brief autonomic and behavioural changes in
response to internal or external events
Feelings: subjective representations of emotions
Moods: low intensity emotions, but long-lasting
Attitudes: relatively enduring beliefs, preferences
Personality traits: predisposed, complex biases in
affective processing and reactions
Temperament: less complex, genetically determined
affective processing and reactions
Affective style: general response due to attitude
Individual Differences
Lecture 6 overview
Internal emotions
Feelings
Moods
Attitudes
Temperament
Affective style

24-Feb-14
2
Internal: Heartbeat Perception
Above-chance discrimination of own heartbeat (Katkin et al.)
Better heartbeat detectors = more intense emotions
But men > women, opposite to detection of social affect
Internal: Heartbeat Perception
Critchley et al. (2004)
Critchley et al. (2004)
Individual differences in
introception related to
insular cortex (implied
in autism, disgust, etc.)
Size of insula correlates
with self-rated bodily
awareness
Important for pain
perception (also in
others)
Emotion sensitivity conclusions
Men better heart beat detectors than
women (internal vs external?)
Good interoception strong emotions
Insula activity correlates with bodily-
awareness performance
Somatic marker?
Lecture 6 overview
Internal emotions
Feelings
Moods
Attitudes
Temperament
Affective style

General tendency of feeling
Negative tone at:
First and last half hour of the day
Mondays
First three months of the year
Suicide rate highest in spring (April/May)

Blue Monday: Monday in the last week of
January (dark, no holidays)
19
th
of January, 2015
Cason, 1931; Arnall, 2005
24-Feb-14
3
LeDoux feelings vs thoughts
LeDoux feelings vs thoughts
Feelings are induced by other stimuli and
events than thoughts
Feelings use other and more brain
systems than thoughts

Emotions vs. Feelings
Term feeling often interchanged with
emotion WRONG
Damasio:
Feelings are made internally
Emotions caused by external processes
Need to be conscious to experience feelings
Emotions vs. Feelings
Distinctions Emotions Feelings
Timing Current Ad-hoc
Function Biasing
decisions/actions
Interpretation of
bodily state
Consciousness Not necessarily Yes
Neural substrate Subcortical and
limbic
Cortical and limbic
Feelings & Insula
Cognitive
Interpretation/
appraisal
Arousal/
Physiological
Pattern
Perception
Of
Event
Emotion
2
nd
order
1
st
order
Feelings & Insula
Cognitive
Interpretation/
appraisal
Arousal/
Physiological
Pattern
Perception
Of
Event
Emotion
2
nd
order
1
st
order
Amygdala
OFC
Insula
24-Feb-14
4
Lecture 6 overview
Internal emotions
Feelings
Moods
Attitudes
Temperament
Affective style

Mood
Weak & Long-term states of emotions
Affects your thoughts/cognition, everyday
thinking
No constant stimulus necessary
Example: grief
Eliciting mood
Reading series of statements about
positive or negative mood
Listening to music (and lyrics) related to
positive or negative mood
Film clips
Giving grades
Hypnosis
Emotions vs. Moods
Distinctions Emotions Moods
Duration Seconds to minutes Hours to days
Function Biasing
decisions/actions
Biasing cognition
Nature of event Sudden event
(single factor)
General situation
(multiple factors)
Intensity High Low
Arousal Acute, specific Variable, diffuse
Neural substrate Subcortical, rapid Cortical, long-
lasting
Mood congruency effect
Bower et al., 1978
Learning Recall Performance
List 1 List 2 List 1 List 2
Sad Happy Happy
Sad Happy Sad
Happy Sad Happy
Happy Sad Sad
Hypnosis: get into a mood
Learn: list of 16 neutral
words
Bower et al., 1978
Learning Recall Performance
List 1 List 2 List 1 List 2
Sad Happy Happy Low High
Sad Happy Sad High Low
Happy Sad Happy High Low
Happy Sad Sad Low High
Hypnosis: get into a mood
Learn: list of 16 neutral
words
24-Feb-14
5
ERROR at p. 213
R
e
c
a
l
l

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

Sad Happy
Sad
Happy
Mood at recall
Mood during learning
ERROR at p. 213
Results should be reversed:
R
e
c
a
l
l

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

Sad Happy
Sad
Happy
R
e
c
a
l
l

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

Sad Happy
Mood at recall
Mood during learning
Bower et al., 1981
Mood & Creativity
List of 20 individual words: quickly provide
associated words for each word

Example target word: Happy

Neutral mood low creativity: Unhappy

Good mood high creativity: Melody

Isen et al., 1985
http://www.eat.rl.ac.uk/
Moods & Strategies
Processing strategies:

Positive mood Goal obtained: assimilation
Negative mood Goal failure: accommodation

Assimilation = explore, flexible (creative)
Accommodation = focus, analytic (uncreative)
Fiedler, 2001
Mood & Strategies
Experiment (Levine & Burgess, 1997):
1. Induced mood by giving random grades
2. (A = happy mood, D = sad mood) for performance
on a quiz.
3. Listen to story about the experiences in the 1
st
year
at the university of an undergraduate
4. Recall as many details as possible
5. Indicate mood after grade

Results
Happy (A) good memory as a whole
Sad (D) recall specific negative information
24-Feb-14
6
Mood properties
Mood is a specific brain state, affecting
memory
Good (bad) mood improves memories of
good (bad) things (congruency effect)
Good mood improves creativity and
exploration
Mood properties
Bower, 1981
Happy
Sad
Moods & Weather
Schwarz & Clore, 1983
High life
happiness
Low life
happiness
Good
mood
Bad
mood
Why?
Moods & Weather
Schwarz & Clore, 1983
High life
happiness
Low life
happiness
Good
Mood
Bad
mood
Correct Attribution
Weather?
Mood properties
memory
exploration
Judgments rely on current mood
Attributing mood to relevant target,
neutralizes irrelevant judgment
Moods & Neurotransmitters
Nutt, 2008
Weak moods
Less noradrenaline (norepinephrine),
serotonin, and dopamine
Less positive affect, more negative affect, or
no affect at all (weak hedonic tone)
Strong moods
More noradrenaline, dopamine, cortisol
Increase of positive and negative affects
(mania), or only negative affects
24-Feb-14
7
Mood properties
memory
exploration
Judgments rely on current mood
Attributing mood to relevant target,
neutralizes irrelevant judgment
Moods are determined by
neurotransmitters

Mood regulation (advice)
Ineffective:
Suppression rebounds and enhances mood
Rumination prolongs mood
Slightly effective:
Distraction removes mood (only when
distraction is positive)
Effective:
Acceptation & appraisal of bodily state

Lecture 6 overview
Internal emotions
Feelings
Moods
Attitudes
Temperament
Affective style

Attitudes
Conscious expression of valence (belief;
preference) towards external stimulus
Lecture 6 overview
Internal emotions
Feelings
Moods
Attitudes
Temperament
Affective style

Personalities
Disposition to PROCESS & REACT in certain
ways to emotional events

Three fundamental systems:
FFS: fight or flight system
BIS: behavioral inhibition system
BAS: behavioral approach system

Gray, 1982
24-Feb-14
8
Personalities in rats
FFS: fight or flight system
Solution to fear (direct)
Fight approach
Flight avoid

Gray, 1982
Distance
FIGHT
FLIGHT
BIS: behavioral inhibition system
Monitors conflicts
e.g., cat conflicts with feeding (exploit or
explore)
Active: exploit inhibit current function,
activate FFS
De-active: explore continue feeding
Gray, 1982
Animal literature:
Explore = continue search surrounding (food)
Exploit = stop; arousal, change situation (fight/flight)

Human literature
Explore = change, decide (fight/flight; noradrenaline; symp.)
Exploit = await, focus (food; acetylcholine; parasymp.)
BAS: behavioral approach system
Weighs rewards vs. punishments
Active: approach danger, but reward (food)
De-active: avoidance no danger, but
punishment (no food)

Gray, 1982
FIGHT
FLIGHT
Personalities in humans
BIS vs. BAS
High BIS inhibit (exploit, focus, decide)
High BAS risky (approach but reward)
Carver & White, 1994
Testing BIS vs. BAS
Humans with high BIS score are sensitive to
punishment (omitted reward)
Humans with high BAS score are sensitive
to reward

Personality traits
Ask college students to describe fellow
students with a list of 200 adjectives

Factor analysis (similar to MDS): correlates
co-occurrences of same adjectives

16 traits were discovered narrowed down
to the BIG FIVE (e.g., neuroticism,
extraversion)
24-Feb-14
9
Gray:
High BIS inhibit (exploit, focus, decide)
High BAS risky (approach but reward)

Eysencks:
High neuroticism worry, control, envy
High extraversion outgoing, thrill-seeking
Carver & White, 1994
Gray, 1970
High BIS
(inhibit, omit punishment)
Low BIS
(explore, punishment)
Low BAS
(avoid, omit reward)
High BAS
(approach, reward)
Neurotic
(anxious, jealous)
Low Neuroticism
(not anxious, less worry)
Introvert
(egocentric)
Extravert
(outgoing)
Personalities
Multiple personality traits
Map onto each other (complex
dimensions)
Predict emotional behavior in animals
Lecture 6 overview
Internal emotions
Feelings
Moods
Attitudes
Temperament
Affective style

Temperament
Predefined disposition to process & react in
certain ways to emotional events
Similar to personality but less complex
(temperament is part of personality)
Stable, strong genetic component (Kagan,
2003)
Temperament
Movie of babies with different temperaments
(tendency to approach)
24-Feb-14
10
Temperament in humans
Cloninger, 1987
Cloningers temperamental types:
1. Harm avoidance (worry, shyness)
2. Novelty seeking (explore surroundings)
3. Reward dependence (social approval)

Temperament and babies
Thomas & Chess (1977):
1. Easy Child
2. Difficult Child
3. Slow-to-warm up

Temperament
Movie of Thomas & Chess temperaments
Temperaments (traits)
Other examples:
Tendency to approach (or avoid)
General activity and energy (active vs. passive)
Reaction to novel situations (joy vs. scared)
Reward seeking (actively seeks rewards)
Attention span (focused vs. distractible)
Dominant mood (positive vs. negative)
Adaptive strength (getting used)
Persistence (stable vs. unstable)
Rhythmicity (regular vs irregular hunger)
Temperament & disorders
Depression
Anxiety/
Phobia
Temperament
Friends/
Life-style
spectrum
vulnerability
pathoplasty
complication
Lecture 6 overview
Internal emotions
Feelings
Moods
Attitudes
Personalities
Traits
Temperament
Affective style

24-Feb-14
11
Affective style vs. Temp.
Personality & temperament = complex
processing & reaction to affective situations
Affective style = appraising (positive/negative)
& reacting to affective situations
Reactions also affect experience (Jamesian)

Affective style
Differs across individuals (Davidson, 1998)
Threshold (response is elicited fast or slow)
Peak/Amplitude/Strength (intensity of response)
Duration (time till peak)
Recovery (time to fade out)
Positive affect vs. negative affect
Situational

Measure: PANAS how often did you
experience the following emotion during the last
week?

Neural Loci & Affective Styles
Davidson, 2000
Tomarkson et al., 1992
Coan & Allen, 2004
24-Feb-14
12
Affective style correlates with amygdala
reactions to valenced stimuli (intensity)
Positive vs. negative affect and PFC:
Shy, withdrawn, and less socially competent: higher
baseline activity in the right prefrontal cortex
Opposite type of people have higher left prefrontal
cortex activation
More cortisol release when right PFC
activity is high
Conclusions
Affective style
Personality
Temperament
Attitude
Mood
Emotion
Feeling
Reading:

Craig, D.B. (2004). Human feelings: why are some
more aware than others? Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 8, 239241.

25-Feb-14
1
Emotion & Cognition

Lecture 7:
Emotions, Empathy, & Imitation
Lecture 7 overview
Averills social construct theory of emotion
Empathy
Imitation

Lecture 7 overview
Empathy
Imitation

Why emotions:
Social Constructivist

What are emotions?
Physiological
Pattern
Phenomenal
Experience
Verbal+Nonverbal
Expression
Appraisal
Darwin
James-
Lange
Damasio
Arnold
Averills social construct theory
25-Feb-14
2
Averills criticism
Social function of emotions is
underestimated in other theories
Universality is overestimated (cultural
differences)
Individuals can take distinct social roles
in society and other contexts
Social roles underlie emotion
classifications

Averills theory of emotions
Verbal/non-
Verbal
Expression
ANS/
Physiology
Phenomenal
Experience /
Emotion
Appraisal
Culture
Addition to Arnold
Interpretation rules
Averills theory of emotions
Culture determines a social role
Emotion is a temporary enactment of a
social role
moral judgment: some events elicit
anger in a particular culture but not in
others

Inhibiting emotions
Movie of emotion expression
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xX6IMg5ufC0
Afghan funeral
Movie of emotion triggers
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UTE0G9amZNk
Inappropriate gestures
25-Feb-14
3
Averills MAIN conclusions
Emotions may not be the same across
cultures
The triggers of emotional behavior are
culturally mediated and can vary
The emotional behavior shown is
culturally mediated and can vary
Emotional behavior (also) serves
individual and social roles
Lecture 7 overview
Empathy
Imitation

Empathy

Capacity to perceive, share, and understand
others emotional states (Decety & Svetlova,
2011)

Empathy has two faces:
The person showing empathy
Feel what the other person feels
The person receiving empathy
Accepted
Understood
Acknowledged
Empathy and feeling contagion
Movie about empathy (and sympathy)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Evwgu369Jw
Empathy versus sympathy

Sympathy: affective reaction to others
situation

Empathy: emotional imitation of others
25-Feb-14
4
Purpose of empathy
Provides evolutionary advantages:
Understanding offsprings needs enables
quick and effective reactions
Understanding other parents, facilitates
foster care and help
Empathy in monkeys
Monkeys got food when pulled a
chain
Food was accompanied with shock
for other monkey
Monkeys were less likely to pull
chain or stopped pulling chain
Masserman et al., 1964
Empathy in therapy
Mutual understanding between patient and
therapist is extremely important

For more info: see Carl Rogers on youtube
Emotional vs. Cognitive Empathy
Distinction:
Emotional empathy =
emotional contagion
Cognitive empathy =
emotional empathy + appraisal
De Waal, 2008
Automaticity of social emotions
Automatically vs. cognitively elicited
emotions
Difficult to fake emotions (Ekman)
Smile is a social emotion (cue)
Some cognitive control over smiles
Different from automatic smiles?

Fake smiles
Genuine or fake?
Genuine
25-Feb-14
5
Fake smiles
Genuine or fake?
Fake
Fake smiles
Genuine or fake?
Fake
Fake vs. real emotions
Fake emotions are consciously controlled
(only smile)
Real emotions occur automatic (control eye
regions).
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/human
body/mind/surveys/smiles/
Fake emotions are consciously controlled
(only smile)
Real emotions occur automatic (control eye
regions).

Empathy:
Is empathy also an automatic mechanism?
Hard not to cry when a friend cries
Automatic contagion of emotions?
Lecture 7 overview
Empathy
Imitation

25-Feb-14
6
Movie about imitation
MOVIE OF BABYs
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WxUulGkLu4I
Emotional expression imitation
Dimberg et al., 2000
30ms
5s
Zygomatic Major Muscle (Smile)
Corrugator supercilii (frown)
Zygomatic Major Muscle (Smile)
Corrugator supercilii (frown)
Imitation and consequences
Berridge et al., 2003
Conclusions about imitation &
facial features
Emotions are difficult not to imitate
Imitation of emotions is not always visible
(subliminal but still measurable with EMG)
25-Feb-14
7
Emotion contagion
The initiation of emotional reactions and
imitation happens unconsciously

Why do we imitate?
Empathy? Feeling an other persons pain?
Testing empathic imitation theory
Confederate and subjects in one room
Cover task: describe content of images
Confederate was instructed to yawn
Chartrand & Bargh, 1999
Measurements
Empathy questionnaire:
When Im upset at someone, I usually try to
put myself in his/her shoes for a while
I believe that there are two sides to every
questions
I am often quite touched by things that I see
happen
Does not describe me well, describes me very well
Imitation rate

Testing empathic imitation theory
Highly empathic subjects were found to be
more inclined to yawn

Empathy leads to imitation and vice versa
Confederate and subject in one room
Cover task: describe content of images
Confederate was instructed to imitate the
subject (imitation) or not (control)
Liking questionnaire

Results: imitated subjects liked the
confederate more
Testing empathic imitation theory 2
Empathetic imitation of actions
The more we like a person, the more we
imitate their actions
The more we imitate a person, the more
that persons will like us

Do we automatically imitate other, perhaps
more subtle things, such as physiology?
25-Feb-14
8
Pupil & Mirror behavior
Pupil, imitation, & empathy
Harrison et al., 2006
Small
pupil
Big
pupil
Observed Pupil Size
Demos et al., 2008
Watching
dynamically
changing
pupil:

Amygdala
activation
Edinger Westhal Nucleus was active during
your own pupillary changes
Pupil contagion conclusion
People imitate pupil sizes, but only when
sad face is expressed
Effect of empathy?
Observing pupillary changes induce
amygdala activity in the observer
brainstem activity that determines your
OWN pupil size:
pupillary contagion

25-Feb-14
9
People imitate pupil sizes, but only when
sad face is expressed
Effect of empathy?
amygdala activity in the observer
brainstem activity that determines your
OWN pupil size:
pupillary contagion

Empathy enhances emotional and bodily
contagion:
The pupil of sad faces
Heart rate???
Blink rate???

Anybody interested in studying this? Let me
know! m.naber@fsw.leidenuniv.nl

MOVIE OF consecratory celebration of
PRINS WILLEM ALEXANDER
Theories of imitation
Why do we imitate?
To like each other and to fit into the group
(social bonding; chameleon effect: Chartrand &
Bargh, 1999)?
We copy behavior to efficiently learn new
things
Why do we imitate?
(social bonding; chameleon effect: van Baaren
& Cart.)?
things
Whac-a-mole
25-Feb-14
10
Design
Design
MOVIE in action
Results
Naber et al., 2013
Design 2
Confederate:
Slow, fast, slow, fast
adjacent, distant, adjacent, distant
Results 2
Naber et al., 2013
Design 3
Computer confederate:
Slow, fast, slow, fast
Invisible actions
25-Feb-14
11
Design 3
MOVIE computer in action
Results 3
Naber et al., 2013
Whac-a-mole conclusions
We imitate our competitors
Unconsciously
Even when maladaptive!
Even when it is a virtual opponent
Only visible behavior is imitated (Perception-
Action link)
Why do we imitate?
(social bonding; chameleon effect: Chartrand &
Bargh, 1999)?
things (either bad or good)
MOVIE of monkey washing potatoes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=788tnCR_rJY
Functional imitation experiment
Confederate and subject were shown
images (6s)
Subject instruction: perform first action
associated with the object that pops up in
your mind
Confederate instruction: perform normal or
abnormal actions
Second task: perform auditory 1- (easy) or
2-back (difficult) task (headphones)
25-Feb-14
12
Movies of automatic imitation
Deodorant in armpits (normal)
Thumbtack in eye (abnormal)
Eating fireworks (abnormal)
Results:
Abnormal behavior was imitated, although
less likely than normal behavior (inhibition)
More imitation during difficult auditory 2-
back task (less inhibition when distracted)
More likely to imitate abnormal behavior
after confederate showed normal behavior
(trust)
Conclusions about imitation
We imitate out of efficiency
Fast way to learn new things
Energy saving strategy, especially when
consumed by something else
Facilitates social bonding: a help from a friend
but .. we also imitate our enemies or bad
actions, whether we like it or not
That is why social bonding cannot be the main
reason for imitation
Conclusions
Emotions have a social function (Averill)
Empathy is feeling others emotions
Emotions are contagious (unconsciously)
Physiological signals are contagious
(unconsciously)
Automatic imitation bonds people together
. but efficiency is more likely to be the
main mechanism underlying imitation
Next week (Monday)
Chapter 8

Glenn, A.L., & Raine, A. (2009). Psychopathy
and instrumental aggression: Evolutionary,
neurobiological, and legal perspectives.
International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 32,
253-258

03-Mar-14
1
Emotion & Cognition

Lecture 8:
Emotions & Social Interactions
Lecture 8 overview
When social interaction fails:
Autism (Asperger)
Extreme emotions & disorders

Importance of social interaction
Isolation at island (cast away)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z-
365iujWk8
Successful social interaction
Depends to a large degree on the:
perception and understanding of emotional
cues
Expression of emotions

Lecture 8 overview
Autism (Asperger)

Autism Spectrum Disorder
Difficulty expressing emotions
03-Mar-14
2
Attwood, Frith, Hermelin, 1988
Using actions (gestures)
Deictic & Instrumental Expressive
No expressive gestures
ASD symptoms
Difficulty expressing emotions
Difficulty recognizing emotions

Alexithymia
A personality construct
characterized by the
sub-clinical inability to
identify and describe
emotions in the self and
others
Sifneos, 1973
Alexithymia properties
Difficulty identifying emotions
Difficulty dissociating feelings from
bodily sensations (no appraisal)
Focus on stimulus-response (few
thinking)
Weak imaginations
Reduced performance in recognition of
emotions in others
Cannot empathize with others feelings
Alexithymia
Parker & Taylor, 1993
03-Mar-14
3
due to lacking empathy?
due to lacking interest in humans?
due to cognitive impairments in
general?
Facial expression stimuli
Naber et al., unpublished
Emotion recognition in High Functioning
ASD (no cognitive impairments)
Movie of Flobi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FfGlG
O_VU4E
Alexithymia in high functioning
autism syndrome
Only sad
expressions of
humans were less
often recognized in
HF-ASD
No difference
between ASD and
control for robots
Autism increased alexithymia
Autism difficulty identifying all
emotional expressions
Asperger increased difficulty
identifying sad human expressions
Asperger no increased difficulty
identifying robot expressions
due to lacking empathy
due to lacking interest in humans
due to cognitive impairments in
general only in ASD, not HF-ASD
03-Mar-14
4
Emotional processing disorders
Dissociation between cognitive
impairment and empathy/emotional
impairment
Evidence: Capgras syndrome
Capgras Syndrome
"There's a man living in my house--I
think the Mafia have put him there, I don't
know why--he looks exactly
like my husband but I just know he's not.
They've switched him for my
real husband".
Capgras characteristics
Impaired feeling of familiarity
Capgras movie
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqBG
zkz1oDU
Capgras experiments
Can identify persons
.but no conscious feeling of familiarity
.and no differentiated skin conductance
response

Automatic emotional
trust feeling to face is
absent?
Missing gut feeling?
Emotion: unfamiliar
Cognition: familiar
Familiar
Unfamiliar
Prosopagnosia experiments
Opposite of Capgras
Impaired identification of any face

03-Mar-14
5
Prosopagnosia
Can NOT identify persons
.but skin conductance response to
familiar faces

Intact somatic marker
No conscious recall
Emotion: familiar
Cognition: unfamiliar
Capgras experiments
ASD theories
Damaged insular cortex (cingulate
cortex)
Less oxytocin
Impaired mirror neuron network
ASD theories
cortex)
Less oxytocin
Insula function
Recognition of emotions & empathy
skills
Self-awareness of own body and
emotions
Awareness of emotions in others
Alexithymia: Insular cortex
Morihuchi et al., 2007

Less activity
in Left
Anterior
Insular
Cortex
(LAIC)
By John Beal
03-Mar-14
6
ASD theories
cortex)
Less oxytocin
Initial studies in healthy humans show that oxytocin, a nineamino acid
neuropeptide, reduces anxiety and endocrine responses to social stress (18,19),
modulates social memory(2022), promotes trust in social interactions (23),
improves the ability to infer the emotional or mental states of others from subtle
facial cues (2426), and increases eye gaze to neutral expressions (27) and
emotional human facial expressions (28,29). Although the underlying neural
mechanism remains to be fully understood, recent neuroimaging studies suggest
that oxytocin modulates amygdala responsiveness to emotional stimuli (2933).
In addition, whole-brain analyses have also revealed modulatory effects in
prefrontal and temporal areas as well as in the brainstem (3234). The social
impairments in ASD show parallels to the social deficits found in rodents with
alterations of oxytocin (35) Thus, it has been argued that there might be a link
between ASD and altered central nervous oxytocin functioning (36,37). Indeed,
there is evidence for lower plasma levels of oxytocin in persons with ASD (38) and
a possible role of genetic variations of the oxytocin receptor in the development of
ASD (3943). In addition, recent studies suggest that systemic infusions of
oxytocin improve affective speech comprehension (44) and that intranasal
oxytocin administration enhances emotion recognition (45) and increases eye
gaze in face perception and promotes social interaction (46) in persons with ASD
(47).
Domes et al., 2013
Reading the mind in the eyes
Intranasal
Oxytocin
Playful
Upset
Desire
Test by Baron-Cohen
Oxytocin: healthy
Domes et al., 2005
Oxytocin: ASD
Guastella et al., 2010
Emotional processing disorders
Andari et al., 2010
03-Mar-14
7
Oxytocin in ASD
Oxytocin improves
emotion recognition in healthy
subjects, only for difficult items
(easy items are already at ceiling
performance)
Emotion recognition in ASD, only
for easy items (difficult items are at
floor performance)
Valence detection in HF-ASD
ASD theories
cortex)
Less oxytocin
Mirror Neuron Network
Important for imitation
Main driver of imitation:
Efficient learning
Second driver of imitation:
Empathy & group bonding
(Chameleon effect)
Mirror Neuron Network
Important for imitation
Main driver of imitation:
Efficient learning
Second driver of imitation:
Empathy & group bonding
(Chameleon effect)
Mirror Neuron System
Iacoboni & Daprett, 2006
Mirror Neuron System: faces
Hadjikhani et al., 2007
Autism Healthy
03-Mar-14
8
ASD Conclusions
Impaired limbic system (emotion)
Insula
Oxytocin
Impaired imitation of empathetic
actions
Lecture 8 overview
Autism (Asperger)

Emotional disorders
Emotions help us to quickly decide
..but additionally have a communicative
function
Inappropriate emotional perception and
expression result in social isolation
Emotional disorders
Isolation due to extreme emotions:
Anger pathological disorders (dangerous)
Acquired Sociopathy Syndrome
Characteristics of the Acquired Sociopathy
Syndrome
General dampening of emotional experience
Poorly modulated emotional reactions
Disturbances in decision making
Disturbances in goal-directed behavior
Disturbances in social behavior
Marked lack of insight into acquired changes
Developmental
Philip Garrido
Antisocial personality disorder
(ASPD)
DSM-IV-TR
failure to conform to social norms
deception, as indicated by repeatedly lying
impulsivity or failure to plan ahead;
irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by
repeated physical fights or assaults;
reckless disregard for safety of self or others;
consistent irresponsibility
lack of remorse,
03-Mar-14
9
ASPD causes
1. Increased Testosteron
2. Decreased cortison (counterbalances T)
3. Serotonin malfunctioning (mood)
4. Limbic neural maldevelopment (Cavum
septum pellucidum)
5. Frontal lobe damage (head injuries)

ASPD causes
septum pellucidum)

ASPD & CSP
ASPD causes
septum pellucidum)

MOVIE anti-social personality
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bvteZ
_bq0nk
ASPD conclusions
Problems arise because of impairment in
Neurotransmitter balance (testosterone,
serotonin)
Emotion (limbic) & Cognition (frontal)

03-Mar-14
10
Emotional disorders
Fear Anxiety/Phobia/OCD/PTSS (sensitive
to others reaction)
Disgust compulsive disorders (time-
consuming)
Balance of the BIS system
BIS imbalance:
Hyper: extreme
anxiety
Hypo: lacking
anxiety

Anxiety
In case of anxiety, BIS system activates
FFS:
Fight approach
Flight avoid

Gray, 1982
Distance
FIGHT
FLIGHT
Anxiety
Disorder
Treating Anxiety Disorders
Benzodiazepines:
Example: Valium (diazepam)
Faster removal of symptoms than SSRIs
but highly addictive (only use 2-4 weeks)
Long-term use: cognitive impairments

What does it do?
Acts on the neurotransmitter GABA
Enhances GABA-ergic communication
GABA inhibits (biases) behavior
Anti-Anxiety drugs
Anti-anxiety drugs bias the BIS system
Gray, 1982
Distance
FIGHT
FLIGHT
Benzodiazepines
Emotional disorders
to others reaction)
consuming)
Sadness Depression/Path. Grief (attached
to bed)
03-Mar-14
11
Balance of the CNS
Nervous system
imbalance:
Mood problems
Noradrenaline vs.
Acetylcholine
Depression
Mood altering neurotransmitters:
Noradrenaline: elevates hedonic tone (arousal)
Serotonin: decreases distress (worry)
Dopamine: motivates / anticipates (reward)
Note: all three neurotransmitters
biochemically depend on each other.

Depression
Acetylcholine :
Opposite of noradrenaline (inhibitor)
Depressed individuals have increased choline in
basal ganglia
Choline = precursor of acetylcholine
More acetylcholine less adrenaline weak
hedonic tone

Yesiloglu & Ankerst, 2005; Janowski et al., 1972
Depression
Treatment:
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
Serotonin: adverse sexual effects
SNRIs (serotonine-norepinephrine reuptake
inhibitors)
NRIs (norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors)
Tricyclic antidepressants
Norepinephrine: heart rate & blood pressure

Depression
Dissociation:
Anxiety & Irritable & Worry:
Less distress
Noradrenaline & serotonin
Lack of energy & lust:
More motivation
Noradrenaline & dopamine

Nutt, 2008
Emotional disorders
to others reaction)
consuming)
Sadness Depression/Path. Grief (attached
to bed)
Pleasure Addiction, Mania (disrespect,
oddity)
03-Mar-14
12
Movie of manic episodes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zTw-
TCBAL4
Bipolar disorder
Extreme hedonic tone:
Mania elevated mood
Counterpart of Major Depressive Disorder
Too much noradrenaline/norepinephrine
Treatment: Lithium
Reduces norepinephrine (exact mechanism
unknown)

Conclusions
Exam topics on the next slide (wait for it )
Social interaction is crucial to human well-
being
Impaired socio-emotional processing and
expression has consequences for social
interaction
Autism: impaired empathy recognition and
expression
Insular, Oxytocin, Mirror Neuron Network
Anti-social personality disorder
Frontal & Limbic, testosterone & serotonine
Extreme emotions are equivalent to disorders
Exam topics
Darwin's research goals, methods, principles
Research on intercultural universals and differences of emotions (Averill)
Empirical findings questioning and supporting the theory of James
Schachter's two-factor approach, theory and findings
LeDoux' two-pathway approach, theory, findings, criticism
Role of brain areas and neurotransmitters in emotion
Physiological reflections of emotion states
Control of facial expression, fake emotions, and subliminal changes
Interplay between emotions, consciousness, attention, and memory
Role of appraisal in emotion forming (Arnold)
The Lazarus-Zajonc debate
Mandler's approach
Oatley's approach
Relationships and differences between 5 main emotion theories
Emotion classifications, dimensions, and models
Differences, similarities between emotions, schemas, feelings, moods,
temperament, affective style, etc.
BIS, BAS, neuroticism, extraversion and relation to emotions
Empathy, emotional contagion, and imitation
Chapter 9

Determinants of emotional
disorders

Huebner, B., Dwyer, S., & Hauser, M. (2009). The
role of emotion in moral psychology. Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 13, 1-6.

1
Determinants of
emotional disorders

Chapter 10

Ellen de Bruijn
edebruijn@fsw.leidenuniv.nl

Emotion & Cognition
Clinical Psychology
Leiden University

4 March 2014

Content
Introduction: DSM pros and cons
Emotional disorders, some facts
Risk factors for anxiety and depression
Stressful life events
Temperament / personality
Neurobiological mechanisms
Cognitive factors
Symptom-driven approach
Performance monitoring: Disturbances in emotional disorders
Error detection / Error-related negativity in OCD
Summary
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
DSM-IV / 5: the bible?
DSM-IV criteria for Borderline Personality Disorder
Symptoms for BPD
BPD is manifested by a pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-
image, and affects, and marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a
variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:

1) Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment. Note: Do not include suicidal or
self-mutilating behavior covered in (5).
2) A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternating
between extremes of idealization and devaluation. This is called "splitting.
3) Identity disturbance: markedly and persistently unstable self-image or sense of self.
4) Impulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self-damaging (e.g., spending, sex,
substance abuse, reckless driving, binge eating). Note: Do not include suicidal or self-
mutilating behavior covered in (5).
5) Recurrent suicidal behavior, gestures, or threats, or self-mutilating behavior.
6) Affective instability due to a marked reactivity of mood (e.g., intense episodic dysphoria,
irritability, or anxiety usually lasting a few hours and only rarely more than a few days).
7) Chronic feelings of emptiness.
8) Inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger (e.g., frequent displays of
temper, constant anger, recurrent physical fights).
9) Transient, stress-related paranoid ideation or severe dissociative symptoms.
Some (impressive) numbers
Emotional Disorders: Depression and Anxiety
20% of the population
More women than men
MDD 7-12% for men, 20-25% for women
28% prevalence for anxiety disorder
40% of all disability due to mental illness.
90% of people with anxiety disorder experience at least
one episode of clinical depression in their life.
Large costs
Substantive research effort to try to understand cause and
find best treatment.
Diathesis-stress model of psychopathology
a) Diathesis: predisposition or vulnerability (e.g., genetic, social, etc)
b) Stress: the occurrence of some severe environmental or life event
Both the predisposition and the
stressful event are necessary.
2
1) Stressful environmental or life events
2) Temperamental or personality traits
3) Neurobiological factors
4) Cognitive processes and biases
5) Genetic make-up (predisposition)
Five risk factors discussed in Chapter 10
1. Stressful life events
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
35-39% following rape or violent assault
Tsunami PTSD center

Childhood abuse associated with increased risk for
anxiety and depression
Also found in adulthood: divorce, death of a loved
one, etc.
Note: Research in adults often correlational not
causal.
Sub-clinical depression may cause stressful events.
How can stressful life events generate
a vulnerability to emotional disorders?
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system
HPA axis and emotional disorders
People with AD or MDD often have overactive HPA.
Due to reduced levels of glucocorticoid receptors in
the brain.
Causality? Does depression lead to a reduction or
do lower levels result in depression?
Animal research has shown that stress in young
rats results in HPA alterations.
Theoretical models suggest that stressful events
lower threshold for stress activation by affecting
neurobiologial mechanisms.
Rosen & Schulkin (1998): amgydala sensitivity ->
hyper-reactive state
Heim & Nemeroff (1999): change in HPA ->
vulnerable later in life
Why are some people vulnerable
and others not?
Early life stressors and vulnerability
3
2. Temperamental or personality traits
Temperament
Anxiety
Depression
i. Vulnerability /
Predisposition
model
Temperament
Anxiety
Depression
Type of
friends
Life
style
ii. Pathoplasty
model
Temperament
Anxiety
Depression
iii. Scar /
Complication
model
Temperament
Anxiety
Depression
iv. Continuity /
Spectrum
model
Relation temperament and adverse life events
Adding to the complexity!
Are temperamental dimensions risk factors?
Difficult to determine direction of causality.
Methodological issues: Emotional disorder is already
present, thus temperament/personality before onset
unknown.
Solution: Large-scale longitudinal studies in non-clinical
populations.
Measure temperament at young age before onset of
disorder.
Follow cohort over years and determine which individuals
develop disorder and whether temperament is predictor.
Two affective dimensions play an influential role in the
development of emotional disorders:
Neuroticism-negative affectivity (N-NA)
Extraversion-positive affectivity (E-PA)
NA and PA
Neuroticism-negative affectivity (N-NA)
Aversive mood states including anger, contempt, disgust,
fear
Low NA = calmness, serenity, high NA = neuroticism,
anxiety
Extraversion-positive affectivity (E-PA)
Positive mood states: enthusiastic, energetic, confident,
active
Low PA = sadness, lethargy, high PA = extravert

Note that NA and PA are independent, can score low on
one, high on the other, or low or high on both.
High NA often considered negative, however!
NA is an important factor in
anxiety and depression.
Inhibition early in life Risk factors for anxiety and depression
3. Neurobiological mechanisms
Emotional disorders characterized by
disruptions to neural circuits underlying
emotion.
Again, causality difficult to determine.
Anxiety disorders often associated with
increased amygdala activations.
Is this increase the result of the disorder or
is it a causal factor for the development?
Longitudinal studies measuring premorbid
amygdala activity not yet available.
4
Frontal brain asymmetries and emotional disorders
Damage to left hemisphere -> depression
Damage to right hemisphere -> euphoria
Same has been shown using temporary
deactivation of left/right hemisphere.
Especially damage to left prefrontal cortex
(PFC) resulted in depression.
Prefrontal asymmetry as a risk factor for the
development of depression
EEG and PET: decreased activity / blood
flow in left PFC in diagnosed depression.
Increased right frontal activity associated
with higher depression scores.
Decreased left PFC with increased
right PFC as a marker for depression.
Top down vs. Bottom-up
(Dorsolateral) prefrontal cortex
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
Amygdala
Ventral anterior cingulate cortex
Top-down control in PTSD
Whittle et al. (2006): negative affective
states such as anxiety and depression
are associated with enhanced bottom-up
and reduced top-down activations.
Same holds for PTSD: absence of
top-down control over fear conditioning.
Problems with functional circuits
rather than specific areas
Hayes et al., 2012
Personality traits in the brain?
DeYoung et al., 2010
4. Cognitive factors
Cognitive biases are considered to play a
causal role in the development of emotional
disorders.
Bias in self-perception as motivating process.
People see themselves more positive.
Role for ventral ACC
Often disturbed in depression.
However, biases can be problematic.
Biases can occur in:
Attention
Judgment and interpretation
Memory
Attentional bias
Beck (1967): Bias for negative information in
depression and anxiety.
Especially a lot of evidence for bias to threat-
related information in anxiety disorders.
Even when not consciously aware.
Indication for automatic level
Emotional Stroop Task
5
Attentional bias
Emotional Stroop Task
Slower to respond to color when
word contains negative information.
Attentional bias
PTSD stimuli
Normal stroop: conflict between color and meaning of word
Emotional stroop: no conflict, but meaning attracts attention
Attentional bias
Attentional Bias in Spider phobics
Mogg & Bradley, 2006
Exposure duration
Attentional bias
Attentional Bias in Depression
Joormann & Gotlib (2007)
Changing attentional bias
Cognitive bias modification (CBM)
Promising technique to investigate causality
If cognitive bias is a predisposing factor, inducing bias should increase
emotional vulnerability.
In contrast, decreasing bias should reduce vulnerability.
Growing evidence that cognitive biases may play a causal role in the
development of anxiety.
Pine et al., 2009
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nrRqb5cvM5E
6
- uSM-lv crlLerla and some sypLoms for CCu:
- Cbsesslon and/or compulslons
- AL some polnL durlng Lhe course of Lhe dlsorder, Lhe person has recognlzed LhaL
Lhe obsesslons or compulslons are excesslve or unreasonable.
- Cbsesslons or compulslons lnLerfere wlLh normal behavlor, work, or soclal
acuvlues. 1hey Lake up a loL of ume and have damaglng eecLs.
- Compulslons means Lo neuLrallze Lhe obsesslve LhoughLs and assoclaLed anxleLy.
- auenLs know LhaL obsesslons are Lhe resulL of Lhelr own LhoughLs and do noL
sLem from an ouLslde source (cf. psychosls).
- Cbsesslons are oen relaLed Lo dlsease, dlrL, !"#$%& ())*)+ ,$-. /"-"+-)*0$/
/*%+(12(%/(+ 3*) -.(!+(45(+ *) *-.()+6 eLc.
- Compulslons are repeaLed behavlors, such as washlng, /.(/#$%&, or menLal
acuvlues such as counung or praylng.
- 1he alm ls Lo neuLrallze Lhe anxleLy or prevenL dlsasLers from happenlng.
Powever, Lhere ls no reallsuc assoclauong beLween Lhe naLure of Lhe compulslon
and Lhe evenL Lo be prevenLed.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
- 8oger lLman (1987): A Cyberneuc Model of Cbsesslve-Compulslve sychopaLhology"

- 8ackground: Comparlson processes ln Lhe braln resulL ln error slgnal (LhermosLaL).
- lLman's suggesuon: an enhanced error slgnal ln CCu.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder and error detection?
Interesting, but! how to measure?
P
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o
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le
m
a
k
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!
Error detection and adaptive behaviour: Performance monitoring
78"095( :(."5$*2)
- MonlLorlng of acuons enables fasL error
deLecuon and adapuve behavlour:
- Lrror correcuons,
- SLraLegy changes,
- Learnlng,
- LLc.
Action monitoring ensures
safe and flexible performance.
;.< 8* ,( !"#( ())*)+=
Limited knowledge
- Does not know correct option
- Still learning

Full knowledge
- Is not paying attention
- In a hurry

>*?@*A>* -"+#
Task:
Respond with a button press as fast as possible to a specific
stimulus and withhold your response when another stimulus is
presented.

For example:
Respond to the letter O
Do not respond to the letter X
7
B0((8A7//2)"/< -)"8(A*C
- When slowlng down, performance lncreases
(and vlce versa)
(!"#$ &'() llus, 1934)

- SLraLegy:
ersonallLy facLor, buL ls also sensluve Lo
exLernal facLors (lnsLrucuons, faugue, alcohol,
eLc.)

Philippe Petit, 1974,
Twin towers, NYC
D))*) 8(-(/-(8E -.(% ,."-=
- We make errors, buL are also able Lo
deLecL Lhem.

- MlsLakes are a facL of llfe, lL ls Lhe
response Lo error LhaL counLs.
(nlkkl Clovannl)
F(."5$*)"4 "8G2+-!(%-+
Co/no-Co Lask:
- ueLecung an error changes behavlor.

0
100
200
300
400
Correct
350 ms
Error
250 ms
Post-Error
450 ms
Post-error slowing
(Rabbitt, 1966)
Corrections during
movements
100-125 ms
(Schmidt, 1988)
Corrections during
response execution
30-50 ms
(Schmidt, 1988)

7% ())*) +$&%"4 $% *2) :)"$%=
EEG recording
Fpz
AFz
Fz
FCz
Cz
Pz
Oz
Fp1
Fp2
F7
F8
F3
F4
FC5
FC6
T3
T4
C3
C4
CP5
CP6
T5
T6
P3
P4
O1
O2
RM
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
50!V
stim1 res1 fb1 stim2 res2
Measuring (electrical) brain activity
Detecting errors: ERPs
Error-related negativity (ERN) (Falkenstein et al, 1991; Gehring et al., 1993)
Dipole-analyses suggest anterior cingulate involvement
Very fast (50-70 ms after error), before awareness (however!).
Followed by the Pe, later more controlled/affective processing
The ERN is a reflection of a fast
error-detection process.
Response
onset
ERN
Pe
Holroyd et al., Nature Neuroscience, 2004 Hester et al., Neuroimage, 2005 Klein et al., Neuroimage, 2007
A crucial role for posterior medial frontal
cortex (pMFC) in monitoring of own errors
Incorrect action > Correct action
Ridderinkhof et al., Science, 2004
Detecting errors: fMRI
8
Goal temp
= 20
Actual temp
= 20
Difference
= 0
Goal temp
= 20
Actual temp
= 17
Difference
= 3
Representations Comparator Error signal Adaptive behavior
How does error detection work? ERN: Mismatch and Reinforcement-Learning theory
Coles, Scheffers & Holroyd, 2001; Holroyd & Coles, 2002
representation
goal response
comparison Mismatch! error signal
behavioral
adaptation
representation
actual response
ERN
ACC Basal Ganglia
Loss of reward,
Dopamine
Corrections,
Learning,
Post-error slowing
negative
feedback
Monitoring of actions enables fast
error detection and adaptive
behaviour:
Error corrections,
Strategy changes,
Learning,
Post-error slowing,
Etc!

Action monitoring ensures safe and
flexible performance.
Fast and flexible adaptive behavior is
often disturbed in psychiatric disorders.
Adaptive behaviour and psychiatry
- 8oger lLman (1987): A Cyberneuc Model of Cbsesslve-Compulslve sychopaLhology"

- 8ackground: Comparlson processes ln Lhe braln resulL ln error slgnal (LhermosLaL).
- lLman's suggesuon: an enhanced error slgnal ln CCu.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder and error detection?
How to measure?
Gehring et al., 2000; Johannes et al., 2001
ERN in OCD
Increased ERN in OCD, which is in
accordance with Pitmans proposal.
Normal subjects
OCD subjects
OCD - normals
Fitzgerald et al., 2005; Maltby et al., 2005
fMRI research in OCD
9
- ueep braln sumulauon Lo LreaL LreaLmenL-reslsLed
pauenLs wlLh CCu
- LlecLrodes are placed ln Lhe lnLernal capsula of Lhe
braln
- Cen successful ln decreaslng CCu sympLoms
Nuttin et al., 2003; Van Laere et al., 2006
Neuromodulation, performance monitoring, and OCD
Relation with performance monitoring?
- Change ln acuvlLy ln venLral ACC ls
besL predlcLor for sympLom decrase
aer deep braln sumulauon ln CCu.

- 1here ls a remarkable overlap
beLween Lhls area and Lhe area
prevlously found Lo be hyperacuve
ln CCu pauenLs.
- 1o be conunued?
After neuromodulation
Reduced error monitoring:
Borderline personality disorder (BPD):
Impulsivity (fast, premature decisions
severely hinder daily functioning)
Fast mood changes and affective
instability
Increased impulsivity extremely
difficult for patients to control in daily
life.

= correct response
= incorrect response
response
onset
Control group BPD group
De Bruijn et al., J Psych Res, 2006
ERN in BPD?
Reduced ERN in BPD
Reduced ERNs:
Schizophrenia (e.g. Bates et al., 2002; 2004; Houthoofd et al,. 2012)
Borderline personality disorder (e.g. de Bruijn et al., 2006; Ruchsow et al., 2006)
Severe depression (Schrijvers et al., 2008; 2009)
Increased ERNs:
Obsessive compulsive disorder (e.g. Gehring et al., 2000; Johannes et al., 2001)
Tourette syndrome (Johannes et al., 2002)
Mild depression (e.g. Chiu & Deldin, 2007)
Anxiety disorders (e.g. Ladouceur et al., 2006)

Interesting! but how do these
findings relate to behavior?
ERN studies in psychiatric disorders
Error!
ERN
Extreme
adaptation
Complex
corrections
OCD patients: ACC PFC Motor
Error! ERN
Adaptive
behaviour
No change
in impulsivity
BPD patients: ACC PFC Motor
Error!
ERN
Adaptive
behaviour
Less
impulsive
Controls: ACC PFC Motor
De Bruijn, De Psycholoog, 2007
Disturbed performance monitoring and behaviour
- L8n lncreased for hlgh anxlLeLy, n-nA, excesslve worry, eLc.
- L8n may Lhus be an lmporLanL vulnerablllLy marker.
- 8ecenL supporL for Lhls assumpuon ln relauon Lo subsLance use dlsorder (Suu).
- ulmlnlshed error processlng represenLs a promlslng endophenoLype for Suu LhaL
may lndlcaLe a vulnerablllLy Lo Lhe dlsorder" (Luser eL al., 2012).
Performance monitoring and temperament / personality
10
- uSM: ulmenslonal vs caLegorlcal approach
- Lmouonal dlsorders are very common and come wlLh a loL of cosLs
- ulerenL rlsk facLors for developmenL of anxleLy and depresslon.
PA Axls plays an lmporLanL role ln sLress-relaLed physlologlcal responses
CveracuvlLy of PA axls resulLs ln conunued release of corusol wlLh negauve healLh
consequences.
auenLs wlLh anxleLy and depresslon oen characLerlzed by overacuve PA axls
1emperamenL, especlally n-nA ls assoclaLed wlLh a vulneraublllLy.
Powever complex cycle beLween Lhe eecLs of LemperamenL and sLressful llfe evenLs.
Lmouonal clrculLs ln Lhe braln oen lnvolved ln anxleLy and depresslon.
lronLal asymmeLry, lncreased amygdala, reduced Lop-down conLrol.
Cognluve blases oen presenL ln emouonal dlsorders.
Modlcauon of auenuonal blas suggesLs causal role for blas ln emouonal dlsorders.
SympLom-drlven approach: performance monlLorlng / error deLecuon
L8n lncreased ln anxleLy dlsorders, decreased ln lmpulslvlLy-relaLed dlsorders
L8n may be an lmporLanL vulnerablllLy marker.

Summary
1
Determinants of
resilience and well-being

Chapter 10

Ellen de Bruijn
edebruijn@fsw.leidenuniv.nl

Emotion & Cognition
Clinical Psychology
Leiden University

11 March 2014

Content
Part 1: Chapter 10 of the book
Introduction: Positive psychology
Subjective well-being
Resilience to stress
Happiness and well-being
Part 2: A social neurocognitive perspective on psychiatry

Combining cognition, emotion and social behavior
Approach avoidance in psychopathy
Social performance monitoring in psychopathy
Summary
Positive psychology Positive psychology
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qJvS8v0TTI
Satisfaction with Life Scale
Subjective well-being (SWB)
Edward Diener (1985):

1) In most ways my life is close to my ideal.
2) The conditions of my life are excellent.
3) I am satisfied with my life.
4) So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.
5) If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.
A global projection of subjective well-being
Worldwide
2
A global projection of purchasing power
Worldwide
SWB vs. buying power
Worldwide
What makes us happy?
Rapid increase in research on determinants of
SWB
However, we know relatively little.
SWB a dimension of positive affectivity (E-PA) or
best to discuss experience of emotions?
Distinction between resilience and well-being
Resilience is capacity of people to overcome
adversity.
Resilience to stress
Stressful life events
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
35-39% following rape or violent assault
Childhood abuse associated with increased risk for
severe problems (up to 70%).
60% do not develop PTSD
Some even experience post-traumatic growth.
30% do not develop a disorder after having
experienced severe childhood abuse.
Large individual differences

Resilience is the norm
rather than the exception.
Resilience to psychopathology
Temperament:
high positive affect (E-PA)
high (internal) locus of control (see e.g., Luthar, 1991)
Mostly rely on retrospective studies.
Longitudinal studies are rare, however few studies demonstrate that
social support and a cohesive family are important.
Resilience to psychopathology
Resilience
Temperament
(e.g., E-PA, high
locus of control)
Cohesive
family
Good support
outside the
family
3
Can stress lead to protection?
Exposure to stress may have a protective effect when
exposed to a new trauma.
Regehr et al. (2000): repeated exposure to traumatic
events increased firefighters internal locus of control.
Engage in constructive way is crucial.
Avoidant coping style -> risk PTSD
Action-oriented coping strategy -> resilience
Dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) -> 5-HT
Inescapable shock -> DRN increases (Maier & Watkins, 2005)
Amat et al. (2006): vmPFC issues inhibitory control over
subcortical regions -> resilience to stress
Top down vs. Bottom-up
(Dorsolateral) prefrontal cortex
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
Amygdala
Ventral anterior cingulate cortex
The warrior or worrier gene?
Gene-environmental interactions in violence cycles
Monoamine-oxidase A (MAOA) gene
Maltreatment in combination with low expression form of
MAOA gene -> increased conduct disorder, antisocial
behavior, violent crime
High expression & maltreatment -> less likely to develop
these problems
Sex-linked gene on X chromosome.
Females have XX, thus high level X can compensate for
low expression form on other X
This is not the case for men (XY).
Dopamine COMT gene: slow and fast acting enzymes
In normal circumstances, slow acting beneficial, e.g.,
associated with higher IQ and better executive functions
However, in stress, dopamine in frontal cortex increases
and then fast acting beneficial.
Is there a resilient personality type?
Rutter (2007): Resilience is not a trait-like characteristic
since the key influences may lie outside the person.
However, people with high E-PA are more likely to have a
wider network of friends, etc.
Ability to experience positive emotions during stress
Barbara Frederickson: Broaden-and-build theory of
positive emotions
Repressive coping style
Bruner & Postman (1947): Defensive vs. Sensitizers
Avoiding threat / repressive coping style a bad thing?
However, high anxiety associated with threat bias.
Repressors score low on anxiety, but high on
defensiveness
Dot-probe task findings:
High anxious showed vigilance for threat
Low anxious showed no bias
Repressors sowed a strong bias to avoid threat
Protective mechanism to keep levels of anxiety low
during stress.
Happiness and well-being
Three components of happiness
Happiness
Positive affect
Engagement
or flow
Meaning
Seligman (2002)
Determinants of happiness
Good health, wealth, loving marriage?
A remarkably small percentage
Income does improve SWB, but only at very low levels of income
Hedonic adaptation theory (Brickman et al., 1978)
However, happiness can change more & individual differences important
Lucas (2007)
External factors and life events
4
In some environments more control than in
others
Feeling of control crucial for SWB and positive
mental health
Remarkable nursing home study (Langer &
Rodin, 1976; Rodin & Langer, 1977)
Taking care of a plant for 6 months increased
SWB
30% of low-control group died, compared to 15%
of high-control group.
Schulz & Hanusa (1978): control over calendar
for planning visits of student volunteer increased
SWB.
Control even has an effect when its illusory.
Alloy & Abramson (1979): Mildly depressed
people did not display illusion of control.
Depressed people overestimate others control.
Importance of perceived control
People are very inaccurate at determining what
is likely to make them happy or sad.
Impact bias: tendency to overestimate
Underestimate our ability to adapt.
College students overestimated levels of
happiness for when they would be assigned their
desired dormitory.
They also underestimated how unhappy they
would be if they would be assigned another one.
A year later, levels of happiness were the same.
Errors in affective forecasting
Dunn et al. (2003)
Internal and external factors important for
happiness, but individual differences
modulate the effects
Temperament and subjective well-being
Temperament
Subjective
well-being
i. Direct
enhancement
model
Temperament
Type of
friends
Life
style
ii. Indirect
facilitation
model
Temperament
iii. Consequence
model
Temperament Subjective well-being
iv. Continuity /
Spectrum
model
Subjective
well-being
Subjective
well-being
Temperament cycles
Adding to the complexity!
Neurotransmitter dopamine plays a role in the brains reward system.
DA released in prefrontal cortex (ACC) results in cognitive flexbility
We also know that dopamine plays a central role in error monitoring
Error-related negativity (ERN) as marker for negative affect / anxiety?
Higher levels of dopamine result in increased ERNs
De Bruijn et al. (2004)
Subjective well-being and error monitoring
Only a few studies have investigated relationship between subjective well-being and
error monitoring.
Larson et al. (2010): Decreased ERNs for high life satisfaction
Errors are less important.
Larson et al. (2010)
5
Interventions to increase happiness?
Intervention exercises by Seligman et al. (2005):

Placebo control: early memories
Gratitude visit
Three good things in life
You at your best
Using signature strengths in a new way
Identifying signature strengths
- Internet study, measure happiness and depression
- Gratitude largest effects, but only for one month.
- Using signatures and three good things effects up to six months
- Note, participants might represent sample of mildly depressed
people.
- Davidson et al. (2003): Mindfulness meditation (two groups)
- EEG showed increased left-sided prefrontal activation
- Moreover, group showed better functioning of the immune
system.
Part 2:

A social neurocognitive perspective on psychiatry
Man is a social animal.
(attributed to Aristotle)
Why social cognition? Emotions and social cognition
Emotions provide us with crucial social keys to engage in approach or avoidance behavior.
Brain structures involved in social behavior
Medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC)
Ventral anterior
cingulate (vACC)
Anterior cingulate cortex
(ACC)
Amygdala
Posterior parietal cortex (PPC)
Insula
Anterior temporal cortex
(ATC)
Orbitofrontal cortex
(OFC)
Temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
Pre-supplementary
motor area
(Pre-SMA)
! "#$%&%'( *+,-.#/(&#- 0#+1&0%&+ /&% /++1-#/(%0 2#(.
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Prefrontal cortex, psychiatry, and social behavior
A social cognitive perspective is
essential to improve our understanding
of psychiatric disorders.
6
Based on instinctive action tendencies:
Approach positive stimuli (potential reward)
Avoid negative stimuli (potential threat)
Reflected in arm movements:
Arm flexion (approach) vs. Arm extension (avoid)
Approach-Avoidance Task (AAT) exploits these
automatic action tendencies.
Joystick movement: pulling towards or pushing away
Stimuli: happy and angry faces
Faster RTs for:
Approach happy (pull)
Avoid angry (push)

Approach-Avoidance behavior

Important input for social interaction and communication
Straight gaze is especially relevant, start of potential
interaction
Provide information about emotions and mental states

Widely used stimuli in cognitive neuropsychiatric research
However, usually rather passive tasks

AAT aims at investigating actual behavior
in response to emotional faces.
Facial expressions

Previous studies show that
High socially anxious individuals show stronger avoidance tendencies for angry,
but also for happy faces (Roelofs et al., 2010)

Psychopaths are characterized as having an anti-social lifestyle with a complete lack of
feelings of guilt or remorse and problems with empathy.
Instrumental aggression
Low on social anxiety
High on dominance
Do patients diagnosed with psychopathy display deviant social
approach behavior?
In collaboration with the Pompe clinic in Nijmegen (TBS kliniek)
17 patients diagnosed with psychopathy performed the AAT.

Social anxiety and approach-avoidance behavior
34
Von Borries et al., Psych Res, 2012
Results for angry faces
A
p
p
r
o
a
c
h

A
v
o
i
d

35
A
p
p
r
o
a
c
h

A
v
o
i
d

36
A
p
p
r
o
a
c
h

A
v
o
i
d

7
37
A
p
p
r
o
a
c
h

A
v
o
i
d

Patients show decreased
avoidance of angry faces.
Individuals with psychopathy show an approach rather than an avoid
response on angry faces.

Hierarchy as possible explanation:
High status associated with approach of anger.
Low status avoid anger.
Individuals with psychopathy ascribe a high status to themselves and will
thus approach threat.
Relation to instrumental aggression?
38
Conclusions Social Approach in Psychopathy
P
e
o
p
le
m
a
k
e
e
rro
rs
!
Social performance monitoring
P
e
o
p
le
c
a
n
d
e
te
c
t
o
th
e
rs
e
rro
rs
!
Performance monitoring in a social context
Gold medal race 10km, Winter Olympics Vancouver 2010
Performance monitoring in a social context
He knows it.
(detecting own errors)
They know it.
(detecting others errors)
Finally, he knows it. He really knows it.
(affective processing)
One mans loss!
(reward processing)
He makes the mistake.
Error-related negativity (ERN) (Falkenstein et al, 1991; Gehring et
al., 1993)
Crucial role for posterior medial frontal cortex (pMFC),
including pre-SMA and ACC
Monitoring of action enables fast error detection and thus
!ensures safe and flexible behavioral adaptations
Response
onset
ERN
Reminder: How the brain detects our own errors
8
Reduced ERNs:
Schizophrenia (e.g. Bates et al., 2002; 2004; Houthoofd et al., in press)
Borderline personality disorder (e.g. de Bruijn et al., 2006; Ruchsow et al.,
2006)
Severe depression (Schrijvers et al., 2008; 2009)
Increased ERNs:
Obsessive compulsive disorder (e.g. Gehring et al., 2000; Johannes et al.,
2001)
Tourette syndrome (Johannes et al., 2002)
Mild depression (Chiu & Deldin, 2007)
Anxiety disorders (Ladouceur et al., 2006)

Reminder: ERN studies in psychiatric disorders
Humans use similar neural mechanisms to
detect own and others errors.
How the brain detects others errors
De Bruijn et al., J Neurosci, 2009; De Bruijn & von Rhein, 2012; van Schie et al., Nat Neurosci,
2004
Performance monitoring and psychopathy
Individuals with psychopathy are characterized by a failure to efficiently adapt their
behavior in response to aversive events, suggesting deficits in error-monitoring
processes.
However, previous research has demonstrated that automatic error detection
processes seem to be intact, but more controlled processes, like learning from
errors are compromised.
Crucially however, the core symptoms of psychopathy are most prominent during
interactions with other people.
Disentangle possible deficits in the monitoring
of own and others errors
in individuals with psychopathy
Brazil et al., Biol Psychiatry, 2009; Von Borries et al., Psych Med, 2010
18 (incarcerated) individuals with psychopathy
and 18 healthy volunteers matched for age
and education.
Execute and observe flankers task in a
neutral context.
Brazil et al., Biol Psychiatry, 2011
Method
X = 48 Y = -58
No difference in neural activity associated
with monitoring own actions.
Y = 24
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
["V]
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 [ms]
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
["V]
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 [ms]
Healthy controls Individuals with psychopathy
Results: own actions
X = 48 Y = -58
Individuals with psychopathy display
reduced ERP amplitudes
in response to others actions.
Healthy controls Individuals with psychopathy
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
-3.5
["V]
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 [ms]
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
-3.5
["V]
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 [ms]
Results: others actions
9
X = 48 Y = -58
In line with previous studies from our lab, individuals
with psychopathy do not show disturbances in the
automatic processing of own errors.
Importantly, however, the current study demonstrates
specific deficits in the monitoring of others actions.
Neurophysiological support for previous suggestions
that psychopathy is associated with disorders in the
processing of social information.
The reduced neural activity after the observation of
both correct and incorrect responses in psychopathy
is a clear indicative that performance monitoring is
disturbed in social contexts.
This might play an important role in the abnormal
acquisition of social behavior, probably also altering
subsequent stages of behavioral adaptation and
social learning.

Conclusions - Social adaptive behavior in psychopathy

Summary
Positive psychology: focus on positive emotions or what makes life worth living.
Important measure: Life satisfaction or subjective well-being
Distinction between resilience and subjective well-being
Resilience = capacity to overcome adversity
Although there are many risk factors for the development of emotional disorders, most people do not
experience problems even though they experience adverse life events.
Individual differences in how we cope with stressful events.
Three factors important in developing resilience: Temperament / personality (E-PA; internal locus of
control), Cohesive family, Social support outside family
Different coping styles: Avoidant vs Action-oriented
Stress can result in protection to later stress, but only when action-oriented coping style
Gene-environment interactions (MAOA and DA COMT)
Determinants of happiness: external factors/events & perceived control
Interventions can increase happiness (e.g., three good things exercise)
Error-related negativity is reduced for people scoring high on life satisfaction
Studying disturbed social cognition in psychiatric disorders is crucial in improving our understanding of
psychopathology, especially since almost all disorders are characterized by problems in social
functioning.
Many cognitive, emotional and neurobiological mechanisms involved in psychiatry also involved in
social behavior.
Approach-avoidance tendencies and social performance monitoring integrate the different domains.
Individuals with psychopathy show increased approach to angry faces and a reduced monitoring
response to others actions.

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04-Mar-14

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