1

CHAPTER I


CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN




1.1 INTRODUCTION

The reactor is the heart of a chemical process. It is the only place in the process
where raw materials are converted into products and reactor design is a vital step in the
overall design of the process. An industrial chemical reactor is a complex device in
which heat transfer, mass transfer, diffusion, and friction may occur along with chemical
reactions, and it must be safe and controllable. In large vessels, questions of mixing of
reactants, flow distribution, residence time distribution, and efficient utilization of the
surface of porous catalysts also arise. A particular process can be dominated by one of
these factors or by several of them; for example, a reactor may on occasion be
predominantly a heat exchanger or a mass-transfer device. A successful commercial
unit is an economic balance of all these factors.
The reactor is the most important part for a chemical process. Good reactor
performance is of paramount importance in determining the economic viability of the
overall design and fundamentally important to the environmental impact of the process.
Decisions must be made in terms of type of reactor, concentration, temperature and
pressure of optimum condition, phases involve and also catalyst used.
2

1.2 FLUDIZED BED REACTOR

1.2.1 CHEMICAL DESIGN FOR FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR

Table 1.1: Summary of differences between fixed bed and fluidized bed reactor
Types of
Reactor
Fixed-bed reactor Fluidized bed reactor

Criterion of
catalyst
particles

- The catalyst is piled up in
a dense bed that moves
slowly, degradation of
catalyst occur
- Heat loads vary through
the bed, difficult
temperature control
- Hot spots occur, causes
the onset of undesired
reactions
- Lost of some catalyst
and need frequent
adding of fresh one

- The catalyst is held in
suspension by an
upward flow of gas as a
fluid bed
- Rapid motion of
particles, good heat
transfer
- Temperature uniform,
prevents the formation
of hot spots
- Particles can be
removed continuously,
regenerated and
recycled back
- Recycling of catalyst
remove heat in
exothermic reactions
and add heat in
endothermic reactions

(Source: Yang, W. C. (2003). Handbook of Fluidization and Fluid Particle Systems.
Marcel Dekker, Inc.)

3

In general, the optimum temperature range for carrying out the ammoxidation
reaction of such hydrocarbon, and the amount of exothermic energy generated by the
reaction is large. Therefore, a fluidized bed reactor is often used in ammoxidation
reaction because it is excellent in temperature controllability and because it can treat
high concentration starting gas, and thus can attain high productivity. On the other
hand, fluidized bed catalyst is characterized in the mixing of catalyst particles; including
the mixing of the catalyst particles in an upward stream with those in a downward
stream can be successfully attained. However, due to this characteristic feature, the
mixing of an upward gas stream with a downward gas stream, that is, back mixing
tends to occur in the catalyst bed. (Source: N.T, 2000)
A particular advantage of this reactor type is the excellent uniformity of
temperatures. This is the achievable throughout the bed because of the motion of the
solid and the good heat exchange between solid and gas. The ease of adding and
removing solid is an additional advantage. Hence a fluid-bed reactor is of value for a
very exothermic reaction that cannot be adequately controlled with a multi-tube reactor,
or when catalyst must be removed and replaced frequently. For a partial oxidation
reaction, this kind of reactor also permits a method of readily introducing air and
reactant at different locations in the reactor. This avoids formation of an explosive
composition that could exist if they were introduced together. A fluid-bed reactor may
be less expensive to construct than multi-tube reactor the same the capacity, and heat
exchange may be simpler than with the adiabatic multi-bed reactor. However, the
hydrodynamics of fluidized beds are complex, scale-up procedures are still relatively
empirical, solids-separation equipment must be provided, and the catalyst must be
attrition-resistant and not agglomerate.
A mixture of particle sizes, typically in the range of about 20 to 100 m, is
desirable for good fluidization characteristics. At atmospheric or slightly higher
pressures, the corresponding maximum linear velocity usable is about 60 cm/s. Much
higher velocities cause elutriation of solids from the bed. Moreover, cyclone separators
are installed internally to return the fines to the bed, and these will become overloaded
at excessive gas velocities. The minimum bed height to accommodate these and other
internal structures, such as heat-exchange surfaces, is typically about 3 m, so using a
fluid-bed reactor for reaction times of a few seconds or less is difficult.
4

Fluidized bed reactor technology, allows short reaction times and very high heat
transfer coefficients to be achieved, by preserving safety despite the potential explosive
reaction mixture and very high exothermic effect.
Since the commercialization of Sohio process in the early 1960s, all the
acrylonitrile plants built in the world have been based on the reaction between
propylene, ammonia and air. Propylene, ammonia and air are fed into a vapour phase
catalytic reactor (Fluidized bed reactor). The reaction is carried out at temperature
400
0
C 510
0
C and the pressure is typically at 5 to 30 psig (34 to 207 kPa) and the
reaction is highly exothermal (H = -123kcal/kmol).
The reactor R1 used in this process is an isothermal fluidized bed reactor. An
isothermal reactor is used as a function to maintain the temperature in the reactor
through out the process. Mixture of propylene, ammonia and air crosses a distribution
plate and than reaches the catalyst bed that is fluidized. Heterogeneously-catalyzed
single-step gas-phase oxidation of propylene in the presence of NH
3
and air using,
Bismuthmolydates as a catalyst occurs. Bismuthmolydates is used as the catalyst
because it is effective for increasing the reaction rate and for improving the resistance
to deterioration by reduction. The optimal size of catalyst is in the range 40 to 100 m.
The reactor is a large diameter cylindrical vessel which provided with a gas
distribution grid for supporting the fluid bed, as well as with injection devices for feeding
the gaseous reactants. The gas velocity is slightly above the minimum velocity which is
in the range 0.4 to 0.5 m/s. In the high pressure (30 to 40 bar), oxygen (air) will be
injected from the bottom of the reactor and be contacted with propylene and ammonia
at the tray which installed transversally in order to reduce the negative effect of back
mixing. The operating pressure should be as low as possible in order to prevent the
formation of byproducts. The residence time of the reactor is in the range of 2 to 20
seconds. Longer the residence time gives more byproducts. (Source:
http://tekim.undip.ac.id/staf/istadi/files/2009/05/topik51.pdf (online))



5

Table 1.2: Performance projections of three reactor configurations for acrylonitrile
production, capacity: 100 tpd **
Reactor
type
Inside
dia.,
cm
Height,
cm
Temp.,
C
Propy-
lene
conver-
sion, %
Acrylo-
nitrile
selecti-
vity, %
Acrylo-
nitrile
yield,
%
MTY1,
(Mass
time
yield)
Other
key
design/
operating
features
Steam-
cooled
multi-
tubular
fixed bed

3.81
2


800

Feed
307
Peak
360
Exit
327

87.1

89.3

77.8

0.608

# Of Tubes
18,000
Catalyst
particle
size1/8 in.
Inlet gas
velocity
45 cm/s
4

Bubbling
fluidized
bed
500 500
3
442 98.9 81.3 80.4 1.945
Catalyst
particle
size100
micron
Inlet gas
velocity
56 cm/s
4

Circulating
fluidized
bed
280 2,000 442
5
80.7 75.5 60.9 5.94
6

Catalyst
particle
size75
micron
Inlet gas
velocity
865 cm/s
4

Catalyst
loading
51.54 kg/m
3

gas

** Assuming same feed composition as follows for all reactor types: C
3
H
6
8.3%, O
2
16.8%,
NH
3
9.6%, H
2
O 1.5%
6

1
MTY: tons of acrylonitrile produced per ton of catalyst per day
2
Each tube
3
Dense bed height
4
Superficial velocity at inlet conditions
5
Feed temperature
6
Based on bed inventory only and does not include catalyst in the rest of circulation loop
(Source:http://www.eng.auburn.edu/users/edenmar/6470/Hydrocarbon_Processing_Pa
per.pdf (online))

The table above immediately indicates that a bubbling fluid-bed (BFB) reactor is
perhaps the most attractive configuration between the three choices. It offers the
highest conversion of propylene and yield in a reasonable size reactor. The BFB
reactor also offers a significantly higher MTY (mass time yield: tons of acrylonitrile
production per ton of catalyst) compared to the fixed-bed reactor due to operation at a
much higher and uniform temperature level. This is due to higher reaction rates at
elevated temperatures.
The fixed-bed reactor cannot be operated at as high temperatures as intended
due to heat transfer limitation, which leads to a temperature runaway within the reactor
tube. A circulating fluidized-bed (CFB) reactor may offer equal or better MTY than a
BFB since the CFB can also be operated at a higher temperature. However, the CFB
would require a very tall reactor to achieve a conversion comparable to BFB.
7




Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of Sohio reactor for Acrylonitrile production by fluidized
bed ammoxidation of propylene.(Source: Yang, W. C. (2003).


8

1.2.1.1 Catalyst (Bismuth Molybdates, BiMoO)

The function of a catalyst is both to speed up a chemical reaction and to steer it
towards a desired product e.g. an oxygenated organic compound rather than carbon
dioxide and water. The selection of catalyst used in this process is highly important as
the best catalyst can enhance acrylonitrile production or higher yield of products can be
achieved.
Common catalysts used by manufacturer suitable with the selected process
contain molybdenum or antimonium oxides mixed with transition metals (Fe, Ni, Co, V).
Acrylonitrile production yield can be achieved up to 80 - 82 % if the best catalyst has
been used in the process and the yield cannot be achieved higher than that because
some of the propylene loss in combustion. Catalysts having molybdenum as a
component are listed in Table 1.

Table 1.3: Molybdenum compounds in catalyst
Catalyst Application Reaction Importance
Sulfided Co-Mo or
Ni-Mo on alumina
Hydrotreating,
hydrodesulfurisation
Remove sulfur
from crude
petroleum
Oil and petroleum
refining
Bi-Mo oxides
Propene selective
oxidation,
ammoxiation
Synthesis
acrolein,
acrylonitrile
Making polymers
and plastics
Mo-V oxides Acrolein oxidation
Synthesis
acrylic acid
Making polymers
and plastics
Fe-Mo oxides Methanol oxidation
Synthesis
formaldehyde
Making formalin,
polymers, resins
Mo oxide on
alumina
Olefin metathesis
Propene to
ethene and
butene
Olefin synthesis
Mo complexes Epoxidation
Olefin to
epoxide
Polyether
synthesis
Heteropolyacids-
phosphomolybdate
Propene hydration
Propene to
alcohol
Alcohols synthesis

(Source: http://www.imoa.info/moly_uses/moly_compounds/catalysts.html(on-line))
9

Table 1.4: Physical properties of catalyst

Catalyst Bismuth molybdenum
Density (kg/m
3
) 10220
Atomic weight 95.96
Crystal structure
Body-centered cubic
(BCC)
Melting temperature
(C)
2623

(Source: http://www.imoa.info/moly_uses/moly_compounds/catalysts.html(on-line))







10

1.2.1.2 Calculation of reactor volume

Major assumption in reactor design (Source: William L. Luyben, 1990)
- Isothermal reactor
- Constant hold-up
- Constant pressure
- Constant density conditions and
- Perfectly mixed gas phase

The reaction involved in the fluidized bed reactor: (Source: Hopper, J. R. (1993).
Main reaction,

6
+
3
+
3
2

1

3

3
+ 3
2

= 518 / (1.1)
Side reaction,

6
+
2


2

3

4
+
2
(1.2)

6
+
3
+
9
4

3

2

3
+
1
2

2
+
1
2
+ 3
2
(1.3)

6
+ 3
3
+ 3
2

4
3 + 6
2
(1.4)

6
+
9
2

5
3
2
+ 3
2
(1.5)





11

Table 1.5: The Activation Energy and Reaction Rate Constant

Rate constant, k
(sec
-1
)
Activation energy,
E (cal/gmol)
k
1
4.9996 19000
k
2
0.0038 19000
k
3
0.0124 7000
k
4
0.0616 19800
k
5
0.0519 7000
(Source: Hopper, J. R. (1993). Waste Minimization by Process Modification. Science
Direct , 3-14.)

It is assumed CSTR (Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor) and steady state. From CSTR
equation (H. Scott Fogler, Elements of Chemical reaction Engineering, 3
rd
Edition,
Prentice Hall)
Input = Output + Disappearance + Accumulation (1.6)
Since Accumulation is zero hence the equation (1.6) become equation (1.7)
Input = Output + Disappearance (1.7)

Input of A, moles/ time = F
A0
(1 X
A0
) = F
A0

Output of A, moles/ time = F
A
= F
A0
(1 X
A
)
Disappearance of A by reaction, moles/ time = (- r
A
) V (1.8)
I

12

ntroducing these three terms into equation 1.6, we obtain

V
F
AO
=
X
A
r
A
(1.9)

The reaction is the first order reaction and the rate of reaction for this reaction can
defined as:

(1.10)

=
1

+
2

+
3

+
4

+
5

(1.11)

=
1
+
2
+
3
+
4
+
5

= 4.9996 +0.0038 + 0.0124 + 0.0616 + 0.0519

= 5.1293

(1.12)

Rearrange equation 1.9,

(1.13)
Where
=

= , (/)

= , (/
3
. )

Conversion of propylene

= 1

(1.14)
13

From HYSYS simulation,

= 0.98

= 2784.12

= 0.773 /

0
= 64198.5
3
/
Since,

=
0

(1.15)
Thus,

=
2784.12

64198.5
3
/
= 0.0434 /
3

Hence,

= 1 0.980.0434 /
3

= 0.0009 /
3

So,

= 5.1293 0.0009
= 0.0046

3
.


Volume of reactor,
=

=
0.98
0.0046
0.773
=

14

Assume:
H/D = 4
H = 4D
V = tD
2
L/4
= tD
3


Reactor diameter, D = (V/ t)
1/3

= (170 /)
1/3

= 3.78 m
Reactor height, H = 4D
= 4 x 3.78 m
= 15 m


1.2.1.3 Volume of catalyst


Consider the void fraction of the catalyst bed as 55 % of the total volume of reactor, c =
0.55.
Therefore, volume of catalyst is:
=

1 (1.16)

= 170 (1 0.55)

15

1.2.1.4 Residence time,

The time spent by reactants and intermediates at reaction conditions determines
conversion.
=

0
(1.17)
Where
= ,
= ,
3

0
= ,
3
/

=
170
3
64198.5
3
/
3600
=
16

Table 1.6: Summary on chemical design for reactor
Identification Reactor
Item no R1
Material of construction Stainless steel (316)
Catalyst
Bismuth Molybdenum
Temperature (C) 420
Pressure (bar) 2.5
Flowrate (kgmol/h) 2784.12
Density (kg/m
3
) 1.16
Molecular weight (kg/kgmol)
26.74
Residence time (s) 10
Reactor volume (m
3
) 170
Diameter (m) 3.78
Height (m) 15
Volume of catalyst (m
3
) 77


17

1.2.1.5 Mechanical characteristics of bed























Figure 1.2 Step to determine the height of fluidization
Specify
Volumetric flow rate, Particle diameter, Temperature and Pressure
Calculate minimum fluidization velocity, u
mf
and superficial velocity, u
t

Guess h
mf
Calculate bubble size,d
b
at h
mf
/2
Guess bubble size, d
b
Calculate rise velocity of bubble, u
b

Calculate fraction of bed in bubble phase,
Calculate height of minimum fluidization
Set superficial velocity, u
o
(u
mf
< u
o
< u
t
)

Calculate
bubble size, d
b

at h
mf
/2
END
18

Data
Operating Conditions
Pressure = 2.5 bar
Temperature = 693 K
Reactor
Diameter = 3.78 m
Height = 15 m
Volume = 170 m
3
Feed
Volumetric flow rate, Q = 17.83 m
3
/s
Superficial velocity, U
o
= 1.58 m/s
Catalyst
Particle diameter = 100
= 1 (assumed)

= 10220 kg/m
3

Gas properties

= 1.16 kg/m
3

= 2.942 x 10
-5
Pa.s




19

Step 1 Gravitation term,
= g (
p

g
) (1.18)
where
= gravitation term, kg/s
2
.m
2

p
= particle density, kg/m
3

g
= gas density, kg/m
3

= 9.8110220 1.16 = 1.00 10
5
kg/s
2
. m
2


Step 2 Porosity of bed at minimum fluidization

= 0.586
0.72

d
p
3

0.029

0.021
(1.19)

= porosity of bed at minimum fluidization -

= sphericity -
= viscosity Pa.s
= gravitation term kg/s
2
.m
2

d
p
= particle diameter m

p
= particle density kg/m
3

p
= gas density kg/m
3

= 0.586(1)
0.72

(2.942 10
5
)
2
1.161.0 10
5
(100 10
6
)
3

0.029

1.16
10220

0.021
= 0.42




20

Step 3 Calculation of terminal gas velocity, U
t

From Beayens and Geldart (1974) terminal velocity was determined by the Figure 1.3
Appendix D.

2
=
4
3

2
(1.20)

(1.21)
For sieve size, d
p
is 100 m

2
=
4
3
(100 10
6
)
3
1.1610220 1.169.81
(2.942 10
5
)
2
= 179

From the chart of C
D
Re
2
and C
D
/Re versus Reynold number, the value of Re
p
= 17

=
17 2.942 10
5
1.16 100 10
6

= 4.312 m/s








21

Table 1.7: Calculation for terminal velocity at different size of d
p

Sieve size,
d
p
(m)
C
D
R
eT
2

Reynold
number
Terminal velocity,
U
t
(m/s)
40 11.46 0.42 0.266
50 22.39 0.80 0.406
60 38.69 1.40 0.592
70 61.44 2.00 0.725
80 91.72 3.00 0.951
90 130.59 10.00 2.818
100 179.14 17.00 4.312


Step 4 Calculation for superficial gas velocity at minimum fluidization, U
mf

Baeyens & Geldart (1974) for d
p
< 100 m

0.934

0.934

1.8
1110

0.87

0.066
(1.22)
Where,

= = 100

= = 10220 /
3

= = 1.16 /
3

= = 2.942 x 10
5
Ns/m
2

= = 9.81 /
2

= 0.0231 /
22

Step 5 Calculation of superficial gas velocity, U
0


0
=
Q
A
(1.23)
Where,
Q = volumetric flow rate of inlet gases, 64198.5 m
3
/h
A = cross sectional area of bed, 11.25 m
2


0
=
17.83 m
3
/s
11.25 m
2


0
= 1.58 /

According to M. Rhodes, Introduction to Particles Technology, (2008),
entrainment or ejection of particles from the surface of bubling bed occurs if terminal
velocity is greater than the superficial gas velocity (U
t
U
o
) and particles will fall back if
terminal velocity is less than the superficial gas velocity (U
t
< U
o
). Based on the
calculation above, terminal velocity is less than the superficial gas velocity, and we can
conclude that no entraiment occur in the reactor.

Step 6 Bubble sizes, d
bo
, d
bm
, and d
b
:
For perforated plate

= 0.00376(

)
2
(1.24)

= 0.00376(1.58 0.023)
2
= 0.0092

By assuming the diameter of particles is 5.27 m

= 0.652

)
0.4
(1.25)

= 0.652
(5.27
2
)
4
(

)
0.4

23

= 0.652
(5.27
2
)
4
1.58 0.023
0.4

= 4.66

= 0.71

1/2
(1.26)
Rise velocity of a single bubble in a bed otherwise at u
br
is 1.85 m/s

Step 7 Rise velocity of a bubble when many bubbles are present

(1.27)

= 1.58 0.023 +1.85 = 3.42 /

Step 8 Fraction of bed in bubble phase:
= 1

(1.28)
= 1
1.85
3.42
= 0.46

(1

)(1)
(1.29)
Where,
W = weight of catalyst = 783472 kg

p
= density of particle = 10220 kg/m
3

A = area of catalyst = 87.27 m
2

=
783472
10220 87.271 0.42(1 0.46)
= 2.8


24

Table 1.10: Summary of mechanical characteristics of bed
Properties Values
Gravitational tern, 1.00 x 10
5
kg/s
2
.m
2

Porosity of bed at minimum fluidization,
mf
0.42
superficial velocity at minimum fluidization, U
mf
0.023 m/s
Superficial gas velocity, U
0
1.58 m/s
Terminal velocity, U
t
4.312 m/s
Bubble sizes, d
b
0.0092 m
Velocity of bubble, U
b
3.42 m/s
Height of catalyst at minimum fluidization, H
mf
2.8 m

25

1.2.1.6 Cooling system

Since the reaction is highly exothermic and reactor is isothermal, cooling system
will be needed in order to control the temperature. If the reactor temperature is high
enough, the heat removed can be used to generate steam. The lowest steam pressure
normally used in the process industries is 2.7 bar (25 psig) and steam is normally
distributed at a header pressure of around 8 bar (100 psig); so any reactor with a
temperature above 200
0
C is a potential steam generator (R. K. Sinnott, 2005).
Cooling system is an apparatus employed to keep the temperature of a
structure or device from exceeding limits imposed by needs of safety and efficiency. In
our plant acrylonitrile, we choose molten salt as the coolant. The molten salt is a
mixture of 60 percent sodium nitrate and 40 percent potassium-nitrate, commonly
called saltpeter. The salt melts at 430
0
F and is kept liquid at 550
0
F in an insulated cold
storage tank.
The heat transfer salt must be circulated through the reactor and salt cooler in
order to remove the heat of reaction from reactor. The closed system must also include
a storage tank (accumulator) to hold heat transfer salt during shut down periods and
also to ensure the pump suction pressure is maintained above the lower limit of
operation for the pump.
Molten salt is used in cooling system as a coolant because it provides an
efficient, low-cost medium in which to store thermal energy, its operating temperatures
are compatible with today high-pressure and high-temperature steam turbines, and it is
non-flammable and nontoxic. It also a strong oxidant at high temperatures and can
react with the metal tube walls above 500
0
C. It has the highest heat transfer rate of any
of the commercially available high temperature heat transfer media. Furthermore, it is
readily available and much cheaper than other high temperature coolants such as
mercury, sodium or sodium potassium alloys.



26

However, molten salt is a mild irritant, and that it support combustion, so care
will be required to ensure that it does not come into contact with hydrocarbon. This salt
is a solid at ambient temperature, so it needs a special attention during shut downs and
start ups process. Even it has low corrosivity for stainless steels and chrome steels but
it will react with some metals such as magnesium and aluminium.

Table 1.11 Typical properties of molten salt
Operating temperature range 142
0
C 600
0
C (bulk temperature)
Freezing point -10
Specific gravity 500 1.72
Specific heat (at 200600.) 1.5KJ/KgK
Viscosity


200 7.6mPaS
400 1.8mPaS
600 1.0mPaS
Thermal conductivitya.v200600 0.60W/mK
(Source: http://www.soken-
tecnix.co.jp/english/heating_medium/products/sk_salt/index.html(-on-line))


27

1.2.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN FOR FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR


1.2.2.1 Design of cylindrical section


1.2.2.1.1 Design Pressure

For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is normally between 5
to 10% above the working pressure. For safety purposes, take the design pressure
10% above operating pressure.
Operating pressure = 2.5 atm
Operating pressure, Pi = 2.5 atm + (2.5 atm x 0.1) (1.30)
= 2.75 atm
= 278643.75 N/m
2

= 0.279 N/mm
2



1.2.2.1.2 Design Temperature

The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature. Therefore, the
maximum allowable design stress will depend on the material temperature. According
to Sinnott, 2006, the design temperature is taken as the maximum working temperature
in the reactor.
= 420
0
= 693


28

1.2.2.1.3 Material of Construction

Stainless steel (316) is chosen as the material of construction since it is widely
used in acrylonitrile production. (Source: www.axens.com). In addition, it is available in
a wide range of standard forms and sizes and can be easily worked and welded. It has
good tensile strength and ductility.

1.2.2.1.4 Welded Joint Efficiency

The value of joint factor used in the design will depend on the type of joint and
amount of radiography. Taking the factor as 1 implies that the joint is equally as strong
as the virgin plate. The use of lower joint factor will result in thicker and heavier vessel.

1.2.2.1.5 Corrosion Allowance

The corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for
material lost by corrosion and erosion. From Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6,
for stainless steel where severe corrosion is not expected, a minimum allowance of 2
mm should be used. However for toxic materials we add the minimum corrosion
allowance to 4 mm.

1.2.2.1.6 Design Stress

According to Sinnott, 2005, the design stress, f should be evaluated at the
design temperature, 420
0
C. From Table 13.2, Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6,
page 812 using interpolation, the design stress for stainless steel is 103 N/mm
2
.
29

1.2.2.1.7 Minimum Wall Thickness

For a cylinder shell, the minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure
is determined from the following equation. Stainless steel (316) is used for the
construction of vessel because we involved with toxic materials.

, =

(1.31)
Where
=

= = 3.78
= = 103 /
2

= = 0.279 /
2
=
0.279 3.78 10
3
2 103 0.279

= .

Corrosive allowance of 4 mm is add
Therefore, the wall thickness,
= +
= 5.13 +4
= .

However, the thickness calculated above is not suitable in designing a reactor
because it is smaller than the minimum thickness that is suggested in general guide.
There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently
rigid to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads (Chemical Engineering
Design Volume 6). So, the suitable wall thickness for reactor is 14 mm.
30

1.2.2.2 Design of heads and closure

The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The
principal types used are flat plates and formed flat heads, hemispherical heads,
ellipsoidal heads and torispherical heads. According to Sinnott, (2006) gives the brief
applications of each as follows;

Table 1.8: Applications of heads and closure
Types of heads Applications
1) Flat plates & formed flat heads
- Used as covers for many
manways, and as the channel
covers of heat exchanger
- Limited to low-pressure and
small-diameter vessel
2) Torispherical
- Most commonly used for
operating pressure up to 15
bar
3) Ellipsoidal heads
- Most economical for operation
above 15 bar
4) Hemispherical heads
- The strongest shape
- Higher cost than torisphere
- Used for high pressure

(Source: Sinnott, R.K. (1983). Chemical Engineering Volume 6. 1
st
ed. Great Britain:
Pergamon Press.)



31

1.2.2.2.1 Standard ellipsoidal head is used

, =

2 0.2

(1.32)
Where D
i
= D
t
= 3785 mm
Minimum thickness, e =
0.279(3785)
(2 x 1 x 103) (0.2 x 0.279)

= .
Ratio minor axes = 2 : 1
4 mm corrosive allowance is added.
Plate thickness required = (5.12 + 4) mm = 9.12 mm 10 mm


1.2.2.2.2 Torispherical head is used

, =

0.2)
(1.33)
Where C
s
= stress concentration factor for torispherical heads =
1
4
3 +

R
c
= crown radius
R
k
= knuckles radius
J = joint factor taken as 1.0
Minimum thickness, e =
(0.279)(3785)(1.77)
(2 x 1 x 103) 0.279(1.77 0.2)

= 9.06 mm

32

4 mm corrosive allowance is added.
Plate thickness required = (9.06 + 4) mm = 13.07 mm 14 mm

So an ellipsoidal head would probably be the most economical. The thickness of head
is take as same thickness as wall 14 mm.


Ellipsoidal shape





Figure 1.3: Ellipsoidal head









i
t
head
D
Flange
h
33

1.2.2.3 Dead weight of vessel

The major sources of dead weight loads for slurry reactor are
The vessel shell
The vessel fittings: manways, nozzles.
Auxiliary equipments which is not self-supported: agitators
The insulation
The weight of liquid to fill the vessel*

Note*: For vessels on a skirt support, the weight of liquid to fill the vessel will be
transferred directly to the skirt. (Source: Chemical Engineering Design, 2006).


1.2.2.3.1 The Weight of Shell


The approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed ends and uniform thickness
for a steel vessel can be approximated by

= 240

+0.8

(1.34)

where

= , ,
= 1.08
= 1.15 , ,

= , , = 15

= =

+ 10
3
,
= ,

34

Factor account for the weight of nozzles, C
v
= 1.15

Mean diameter for vessel, D
m
= D
i
+t x 10
3
(1.35)
= (3785 + 16)mm
= 3.80 m
Weight of cylinder vessel with domed end and uniform thickness, W
v
W
v
= 240 C
v
D
m
(H
v
+ 0.8D
m
) t
= 240 x 1.15 x 3.80(15 + 0.8(3.80)) x 16
= 305.148 kN

1.2.2.3.2 Weight of Catalyst

From above calculation the mass of catalyst = 783472.5 kg which gives the weight of

(1.36)
= 783472.5 9.81
= .

1.2.2.3.3 Weight of Insulation

The type of insulation used is mineral wool with thickness of 75 mm and density of 130
kg/m
3
. (Source: Chemical Engineering Design, 2005). The volume of insulation
=

(1.37)
= 3.78 15 75 10
3

= 13.50
3


35

and its weight

= (1.38)
= 13.50 130 9.81
=
Double this to allow for fittings, etc. Therefore,

= 34440
Total weight:
Shell = 305.15 kN
Catalyst = 7686 kN
Insulation = 34.44 kN
Total weight =8008 kN


1.2.2.4 Wind loading

For a smooth cylindrical column or stack the following semi- empirical equation can
used to estimate the wind pressure

= 0.05

2

Where

= ,

= 23.56

= 0.05(23.56/)
2
= 22.75 /
2




36

The dynamic wind pressure, P
w
can be taken as 22.75 N/m
2
. Mean diameter, including
insulation

= 3.78 +21610
3

= 3.82

Loading (per linear meter),

(1.39)
= 22.75 3.82
= 105.92 /
Bending moment at bottom tangent line:

2
2
(1.40)
=
105.92 15
2
2

= 12138.46


1.2.2.5 Analysis of stresses

At bottom tangent line, pressure stress
Longitudinal stress, o
L
=
P
i
D
t
4t
(1.41)
=
0.279 x 3785
4 x 20

= 13.18 N/mm
2



37

Circumferential stress, o
H
=
P
i
D
t
2t
(1.42)
=
0.279 x 3785
2 x 20

= 26.37 N/mm
2


Dead weight stress, o
w
=
W
v
D
t
+tt
(1.43)
=
305148
3785 +20 x 20

= 1.28 N/mm
2


Bending stress:

+(2) (1.44)

= 3785 +2 20 = 3825

64

4
(1.45)
=

64
3825
4
3785
4

= 4.327 10
11

2
+ (1.46)
=
12094.74 10
3
4.327 10
11

3785
2
+20
= 0.054

2


The resultant longitudinal stress is

(1.47)

38

is compressive and therefore negative

= 13.18 1.28 +0.054 = + 11.96

= 13.16 1.28 0.054 = + 11.85

2


As there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be o
z
and o
h
.
The greatest difference between between the principal stresses will be on the down-
wind side (26.37 11.85) = 14.52 N/mm
2
< 98 N/mm
2
, which is well below the
maximum allowable design stress.

The radial stress is negligible, (P
i
/2) = 0.1395 N/mm
2
.







Up-wind Down-wind





26.37
11.96


26.37
11.85


39

1.2.2.6 Checking elastic stability (buckling)

Critical bucking stress o
c
= 2 x 10
4

t
D
0
(1.48)
= 2 x 10
4

20
3785

= 104.58 N/mm
2

Buckling stresses =
b
+
w
(1.49)
= 0.054 + 1.27 N/mm
2

= 1.330 N/mm
2

Critical buckling stress > buckling stresses so design is satisfactory

1.2.2.7 Vessel support

There are basically three types of supports which are saddle support, skirt
support and bracket support. Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle
supports. Skirt supports are used for tall, vertical columns and brackets or lugs are
used for all types of vessel.
However, if the bending moment is likely to be significant, skirt supports should
be considered in preference to bracket supports. Based on foregoing reasons and
since the vessel designed is vertical, skirt supports are chosen because they do not
impose concentrated loads on the vessel shell. (Source: Chemical Engineering Design,
2005).



40

Assume a straight cylindrical skirt(

= 90
0
) of plain carbon steel, design stress
100 N/mm
2
, Youngs modulus 200,000 N/mm
2
at ambient temperature and skirt height
is 3m. The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of
gas mixture.

Approximate weight = V
mix
g (1.50)
= 170 x 1.16 x 9.81
= 1.934 kN
Total weight of reactor, W = Approximate weight + weight of cylinder
= 1.934 kN + 8008.234 kN
= 8010.169 kN

Bending moment at base skirt, M
s
= F
w
x
H
v
+H
skirt

2
2
(1.51)
Where, F
w
= 105.92 N/m
H
v
= 15 m
H
skirt
= 3 m

= 105.92
N
m
x
15 +3
2
2

= 17.43

Take the skirt thickness, t
s
as the same thickness as that of the bottom section of the
vessel, 20 mm.
41

=
4

(1.52)
=
4 17.43 10
3
10
3
3785 +20 20 3785

= 0.077

(1.53)
=
8010.169 10
3
3785 +20 20

= 33.50

(1.54)
=
305.15 10
3

3785 +20 20

= 1.27

= 0.077 +33.50 = 33.577

= 0.077 1.27 = 1.193

2


Take the joint factor, J as 0.85. The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst
combination of wind and dead-weight loading the following design criteria are not
exceeded:




42

1.193 100 0.85 sin90
1.193 85
and

0.125

33.577 0.125 200000
20
3785
sin90
33.577 118
Both criteria are satisfied, adding 4 mm for corrosion allowance give a design thickness
of 24 mm.


43

1.2.2.8 Base ring and anchor bolts

Scheiman (1963) gives the following guide rules which can be used for the selection
of anchor bolt:
I. Bolts smaller than 25 mm (1in) diameter should not be used
II. Minimum number of bolts = 8
III. Used multiple of 4 bolts
IV. Bolt pitch should not be less than 600 mm (2ft)

Based on these guidelines, approximate pitch circle diameter, say 4. The
circumference of the bolt circle = 4000. Number of bolts required, at minimum
recommended bolt spacing (600 mm)
=
4000
600
= 20.9 21
The closest multiple of 4 is 12 bolts. Taking the typical maximum allowable bolt
stress, f
b
= 125 N/mm
2
, M
s
= 1743 kNm, and with the assumption of the anchor bolts
are to share the overturning load equally, the bolt area required is given by

=
1

(1.55)
=
1
21 125

4 1743 10
3

4
305.15 10
3

= 548
2





44

Based on this area, the bolt root diameter is calculated to be about 26 mm.
Since the minimum recommended diameter given by Scheiman is 25 mm, the area of
548 mm
2
can be used. From Figure 13.30, Chemical Engineering Design volume 6, use
bolt size M30 (BS 4190:1967) with the root area of 561 mm
2
. Therefore, the diameter

=
4

=
4561

(1.48)
= 27



Which is above 25 mm minimum diameter. The skirt diameter, D
s
is taken as the
3.78 m (inside diameter). The base ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load
to the foundation. The total compressive load on the base ring is given by

=
4

(1.56)
=
4 1743 10
3
3.78
2
+
305.15 10
3
3.78

= 180954 /

Taking the maximum allowable bearing pressure, f
c
on the concrete as 5 N/mm
2
, the
minimum width of base ring is given by

1
10
3
(1.57)
=
180954
5

1
10
3

= 36.19

This is the minimum width required; the actual width will depend on the chair design.
The actual width required (Figure 13.30, Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6)
=

+50 (1.58)
= 76 + 24 +50
= 150
45

The actual bearing pressure on the concrete foundation is

=
179188
150 x 10
3

= 1.21 /
2



The required thickness for the base ring is found by treating the ring as a cantilever
beam. The minimum thickness is given by

(1.59)

where L
r
is the distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring and f
r
is
the allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm
2
. Therefore,

= 76

3 1.21
140

= 12.22 ( 14 )

The skirt is to be welded flush with outer diameter of the column shell which is usually
preferred.

46

1.2.2.9 Bolted flange joints

Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessel, for
manhole covers, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required.
Flanges may also be used on the vessel body when it is necessary to divide the vessel
into sections for transport or maintenance. Flanged joints are also used to connect
pipes to other equipments such as pumps and valves.
Standard flanges will be specified for most applications. Special designs would
be used only if no suitable standard flange were available or for large flanges, such as
the body flanges of vessels. According to Sinnott, (2006) the optimum pipe diameter
made of stainless steel can be estimated using the equation below

= 260
0.52

0.37
(1.60)

Where G is the flow rate (kg/s) and is the density (kg/m
3
) d is the inside pipe
diameter (mm). Therefore, the optimum pipe diameters can be calculated as follows
using the properties taken from Hysys simulation.

Reactant inlet

= 260 61.36
0.52
1.16
0.37

= 2093

Product outlet

= 260 61.36
0.52
1.13
0.37

= 2114

47

1.2.2.10 Fluidization grids

A fluidization grid must perform a uniform gas distribution in the bed. To obtain
this, the pressure drop through the grid must be great enough to reduce fluctuations
coming from the bed weight.
Many types of grids are used in industry such as perforated plate, bubble-cap
plate and valves plates but the simplest plate is perforated plate distributor (sieve
plate).

1.2.2.10.1 Design of a perforated plate distributor



=

(1.61)
= 9.81 4599 15
= 676.74 10
3




= 0.3

(1.62)
= 0.3 676.74 10
3

= 203.02 10
3


Determine the gas velocity through the grid hole (trial and error). Assume C
d
= 0.7

,
(1.63)

= 0.7

2 203. .02 10
3

1.16
= 414.15 /
48

Determine the number of grid holes required by trial and error
=
4
0

(1.64)
=
4(1.585)
0.0001
2
(414.15)
= 488416
Hole density,

=
488416

4
3.78
2
= 43517 /
2

Determine the hole pitch

=
1

60

(1.65)

=
1

43517 60

= 0.0052
Check the value for Cd:

=
0.006
0.006
= 1 (1.66)

0.1
= 0.98

= 0.98

0.1
= 0.7

Therefore,
Solving, we find the following possible combinations:



49

Table 1.9: Different numbers of orifices with different diameter
d
or
(m) 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004
N
or
(m
-2
) 488416 122104 54268 30526

Orifices that are too small are liable to clog, whereas those that are too large may
cause uneven distribution of gas and may cause the particles fall into the windbox.

Orifice diameter, d
or
= 0.0001 m
Number of orifices per unit area of distributor, N
or
= 488416/m
2


50

1.2.3 SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
ITEM VALUE UNIT
Operating pressure 2.5 atm
Operating temperature 420 C
Design pressure 0.279 N/mm
2

Design temperature 420 C
Material of construction Stainless steel (316) -
Design stress, f 103 N/mm
2

Minimum thickness of column 14 mm
Dead weight of vessel, W
v
305.15 kN
Weight of catalyst, W
cat
7686 kN
Weight of insulation 34.44 kN

Material of insulation Mineral wool -
Total weight of vessel 8008 kN
Effective column diameter, D
eff
3.80 m
Loading per unit length of column, F
w
105.92 N/m
Bending moment at tangent line, M
x
12138.45 Nm
Circumferential pressure stress,
L
13.18 N/mm
2

Longitudinal pressure stress,
H
26.37 N/mm
2

Dead weight stress,
w
1.28 N/mm
2

Bending stress,
b
0.054 N/mm
2

Critical buckling stress,
c
104.58 N/mm
2

Type of skirt design
Straight cylindrical
skirt
-
Skirt height 3 m
Maximum dead weight load, W
app
1.934 kN
W
total
8010.169 kN
Wind load, F
w
105.92 kN/m
Bending moment at skirt base, M
s
1743 kNm
51

ITEM VALUE UNIT
Bending stress in the skirt,
bs
0.077 N/mm
2

Skirt thickness 24 Mm
Pitch circle diameter 4.0 m
Circumference of bolt circle 4000 t -
Spacing between bolts 600 mm
Minimum number bolts required, N
b
21 -
Bolt design stress, f
b
125 N/mm
2

Bolt area, A
b
548 mm
2

Bolt root diameter, d 26 mm
Compressive load on the base ring per
unit length,F
b

180954 N/mm
Bearing pressure 5 N/mm
2

Actual bearing pressure on concrete
foundation, f
c

1.21 N/mm
2

Base ring width (minimum),L
b
36.19 mm
Actual ring width 150 mm
Base ring thickness,t
b
14 mm

52


































53

CHAPTER 2



HEAT EXCHANGER

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A heat exchanger is a device that assists in the transfer of heat from one fluid to
the other. This device involved in the process of heat exchange between two fluids that
are at different temperature and separated by a solid wall. The applications of heat
exchanger may be found in chemical and petrochemical plant as well as natural gas
processing. (Wikipedia, 2010)
In the production of acrylonitrile, the reactant involved to produce acrylonitrile is
propylene, ammonia and oxygen. After reaction occurred in reactor, the temperature of
products must be decreased before entering next process. Therefore, a cooler is used
to reduce the temperature of products from 420
o
C to 220
o
C. Water is used as medium
to transfer the heat and the inlet water temperature is 30
o
C.






54

2.2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Specific temperature must be obtained to ensure the next process in quench will
completely done. With the present of cooler, the desired temperature can be achieved.
The principle design requirement for cooler must be considered as it play important role
in the process. Thus, in designing the cooler, a heat exchanger principle was applied.

The parameters that are involved to design heat exchanger included physical
properties of two fluids, operating conditions, and basic heat exchanger configuration.
The calculations of heat transfer rate, overall heat transfer coefficient, heat transfer
area, tube and shell diameters, tube and shell pressure drop and other parameters
such as tubes diameter, length and layout also influence the design of heat exchanger.


2.3 TYPE OF HEAT EXCHANGER

There are various type and design of heat exchanger such as plate, plate-fin,
regenerative, or shell and tube heat exchanger.

2.3.1 Plate Heat Exchanger

One of type of heat exchanger is plate heat exchanger. Plate heat exchanger
consist of thin plates with a small amount of space between each plate. Fluid will flow
between plates and transfer heat from the rectangular plates as it flows. Plate heat
exchanger become more effective because the fluids are exposed to a much larger
surface area since the fluids spread out over the plates. Hence, the rate of heat transfer
and temperature change between two fluids is increases. (Source:
www.thomasnet.com)

55

2.3.2 Plate-fin Heat Exchanger

Plate-fin heat exchanger is a compact heat exchanger that have characterized
by high effectiveness, compactness, low weight and moderate cost. Four type of fin
used are plain which is simple straight-triangular or rectangular designs, herringbone
which placement is like zigzag path, and serrated and perforated which refer to cuts
and perforations in the fins to augment flow distribution as well as improve heat
transfer. However, plat-fin heat exchanger has some disadvantages. One of the
disadvantages is that they are prone to fouling due to their small flow channel and
cannot be mechanically cleaned. (Wikipedia, 2010)

2.3.3 Regenerative Heat Exchanger

Regenerative heat exchanger is another type of heat exchanger. The flow
through this heat exchanger is cyclical and periodically changes direction. A large
amount of energy can be saved because almost all relative heat being transferred from
the exiting fluid to the incoming fluid since the process is
cyclical.(Source:www.thomasnet.com)

2.3.4 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

The most typical type of heat exchanger is the shell and tube design. This type
of heat exchanger consists of a shell with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs
through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer
heat between the two fluids. To design shell-tube heat exchanger, several factors must
be considered that influence the shell-side heat transfer coefficient in order to
determine the rate of heat transfer in the shell-side. Shell and tube design is classified
based on construction. There are divided into two which is fixed tube sheet and U-
tube.
56

2.3.4.1 Fixed tube heat exchanger
A fixed-tube sheet heat exchanger has straight tubes that are secured at both
ends to tube sheet welded to the shell.

Table 2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of fixed tube sheet
Advantages of fixed tube sheet Disadvantages of fixed tube sheet
- Low cost because of simple
construction
- Tubes can be cleaned mechanically
after removal of the channel cover
- Leakage of the shell side fluid is
minimized since there are in flanged
joints
- The outer sides of the tubes cannot
be cleaned mechanically since the
bundle is fixed to the shell and cannot
be removed.
- Unable to absorb the differential
stress for the event of a large
differential temperature between the
tubes and the shell.


2.3.4.2 U-tube heat exchanger
U-tube heat exchanger is the bent in the shape of a U. There is only one tube
sheet in a U-tube heat exchanger. U-tube heat exchanger is preferable due to their
efficiency to transfer thermal energy.

Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of U-tube
Advantages of U-tube Disadvantages of U-tube
- One end is free, the bundle can
expand or contract in response to
stress differentials.
- The outsides of the tubes can be
cleaned as the tube bundle can be
removed.
- Higher cost due to additional cost for
bending of the tubes and larger shell
diameter.
- Inside of the tubes cannot be cleaned
effectively since require flexible-end
drill shafts for cleaning.

57

2.3.4.3 Floating Heat exchanger

The floating-head exchanger is the most versatile type of shell and tube heat
exchanger and preferred to be used as cooler. There are various type of floating-head
construction. The two most common are the pull-through with baking device (TEMA S)
and pull-through (TEMA T) design. Horizontal arrangement is chosen to design heat
exchanger because this arrangement provide higher heat transfer coefficient. More
specification of the heat exchanger according to the Tubular Exchanger Manufacture
Association (TEMA) is as follow:

Figure 2. 1 TEMA designations for shell and tube heat exchanger (Source : www.
unix.ecs.umass.edu/~rlaurenc/Courses/che333/Reference/exchanger.pdf (on-line))
58

Table 2.3 Comparison between heat exchanger
Criteria Plate Heat Exchanger Plate-fin Heat Exchanger Regenerative Heat
Exchanger
Shell and Tube heat
Exchanger





Advantages
-Simple, compact in size,
easily cleaned, simple
maintenance, and more
heat transfer efficiency.
-Capacity can be
increased by introducing
plates in pairs.
-Leaking plates can be
removed in pairs, if
necessary without
replacement.
-Turbulent flow help to
reduce deposits which
would interfere with heat
transfer.

-High heat transfer
efficiency in gas
treatment.
-Larger heat transfer
area.
-Approximately 5 times
lighter weight than shell
and tube heat exchanger.
-Able to withstand high
pressure.
-A large amount of energy
can be saved because
almost all relative heat
being transferred from the
exiting fluid to the incoming
fluid since the process is
cyclical.
-Less expensive as
compared to plate type.
-Can be operating in higher
temperatures and pressures.
Pressure drop across a tube
is less.
-Tube leaks are easily
located and plugged since
pressure test is
comparatively easy
-Tubular in refrigeration
system can act as receiver
also.
-Easier to clean and do
maintenance.
59

Plate Heat Exchanger Plate-fin Heat Exchanger Regenerative Heat
Exchanger
Shell and Tube heat
Exchanger





Disadvantages

-Initial cost is high since
some plates are
expensive
-Finding leakage is
difficult since pressure
test is not as ease as
tube heat exchanger.
-Bonding material
between plates limits
operating temperature of
the heat exchanger.
-Pressure drop is higher.
-Joints may be
deteriorated according to
the operating conditions


-Might cause clogging as
the pathways are very
narrow.
-Difficult to clean the
pathways

-There is an unavoidable
carryover of a small fraction
of one fluid stream into the
other
-There is always some
mixing of the fluid streams,
and they can not be
completely separated

-Heat transfer efficiency is
less compared to plate type./
-Capacity of tube cannot be
increased.
-Requires more space in
comparison to plate type.

60

2.4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF HEAT EXCHANGER

There are three primary classifications of heat exchangers based on their flow
arrangements which are parallel-flow, counter-flow, and cross-flow. In the parallel-flow,
two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end and move parallel to one another to the
other side. The cross-flow heat exchanger moves the fluids in a perpendicular fashion.
In counter-current flow, two fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The most
efficient design of heat exchanger is counter current design which can transfer the
greatest amount of heat from the heat transfer medium. (Wikipedia, 2010)


2.5 DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Shell and tube heat exchanger is chosen to design since it is commonly type used
in chemical and petrochemical industry. There are several criteria that should be
considered to design shell and tube heat exchanger.


2.5.1 Tubes diameters
The range of tube diameters used to design heat exchanger is between 5/8 in.
(16mm) to 2 in. (50mm). Smaller diameters are preferred to give compact and cheaper
exchanger. The cleaning process becomes easier when dealing with larger tubes.
(R.K. Sinnott, 1993)






61

2.5.2 Tube thickness

The tube thickness is important to sustain internal pressure and give adequate
corrosion allowance.


Table 2.4 Standard dimension for steel tubes

Outer diameter (mm) Wall Thickness (mm)
16 1.2 1.6 2.0 - -
20 - 1.6 2.0 2.6 -
25 - 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.2
30 - 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.2
38 - - 2.0 2.6 3.2
50 - - 2.0 2.6 3.2
(Source: Chemical Engineering Design, R.K.Sinnott, 1993)

2.5.3 Tube length
The range of tube length in heat exchanger are: 6 ft (1.83 m), 8 ft (2.44 m), 12 ft
(3.66 m), 16 ft (4.88 m), 20 ft (6.10 m), 24 ft (7.32 m). The use of longer tubes will
reduce the shell diameter with a given surface area. This automatically will reduce the
cost of exchanger. The optimum range of tube length to shell diameter is between 5 to
10. ( R.K. Sinnott, 1993)

2.5.4 Tube arrangements
Arrangement of tubes in a exchanger is either triangular, square, or rotated
square pattern. For heavily fouling fluids, a square or rotated square is used because it
is necessary to mechanically clean the outside of the tubes. The tube pitch which is the
distance between tube centers recommended is 1.25 times the tube outside diameter.
(R.K. Sinnott, 1993)
62

2.5.5 Baffles

To increase the fluid velocity and improve the heat transfer, baffles are used to
direct the fluid streams across the tubes and the commonly type used is the single
segmented baffles. To specify the dimensions of a segmental baffle, the term baffle
cut is used. It represent the height of the segment removed to form the baffle and
expressed as the percentage of the baffle disc diameter. The percentage used is
between 15 to 45 percent and the optimum range is between 20 to 25 percent to give
good heat transfer without excessive pressure drop. (R.K. Sinnott, 1993)



2.6 CHEMICAL DESIGN

The Kerns method was applied in designing heat exchanger because it is
simple to apply and is accurate enough for preliminary design calculations.
Furthermore, it is suitable for designs where uncertainty in other design parameters is
such that the use of more elaborate methods is not justified. Kern method was based
on experimental work on commercial heat exchanger. The prediction of the heat-
transfer coefficient for standard design also reasonably satisfactory. However, the
prediction of pressure drop is less satisfactory since pressure drop is more affected by
leakage and bypassing than heat transfer. (R.K. Sinnott, 1993)










63

2.6.1 Design Specifications

Acrylonitrile enters the cooler at temperature 420
0
C with mass flow rate
220,931kg/h. The temperature need to be decreased to 220
0
C by water. Water enter
the cooler at 30
0
C and leave at 57.28
0
C.


























Process fluid inlet
Thi = 420
0
C
Process fluid outlet
Tho = 220
0
C
Cooling water inlet
Tci = 30
0
C
Cooling water outlet
Tco = 57.28
0
C

HE2
64

2.6.2 Physical Properties

Table 2.5 Physical properties of cold fluid (water)

Properties Outlet Mean Inlet
Temperature (
0
C) 99.41 575 25
Specific heat (kJ/kg
0
C)
4.217 4.214 4.211
Thermal conductivity ( W/m
0
C)
0.680 0.625 0.569
Density (kg/m
3
)
986.87 992.79 998.7
Viscosity (N sm
-2
)
0.0279 0.101 0.175
(Source : Hysys)

Table 2.6 Physical properties of hot fluid (mixture)

Properties Inlet Mean Outlet
Temperature (
0
C) 420 320 220
Specific heat (kJ/kg
0
C) 1.4546 1.4036 1.3525
Thermal conductivity ( x 10
-2
/m
0
C) 0.0537 0.0459 0.0381
Viscosity (N sm
-2
) 0.00281 0.00248 0.00215
(Source : Hysys)






65

The density of gas mixture can be calculated as :

m
= (
1
v
1
+
2
v
2
+ .. +
n
v
n
)/(v
1
+ v
2
+ .. + v
n
) (2.1)
Where:

m
= density of the gas mixture (kg/m
3
)

1

..

n
= density of each of the components (kg/m
3
)
v
1
+ v
2
+ .. + v
n
= volume share of each of the components (m
3
)

Table 2.7 Summary calculation for Density Mixture
Mixture Density x Volume Volume
AN 0.000710401 8.81391E-07
ACN 2.76744E-05 3.5344E-08
HCN 6.17636E-05 8.836E-08
ACR 3.85451E-08 4.59472E-11
NH3 2.45867E-06 3.61569E-09
O2 1.64548E-09 1.41729E-09
H20 8.3775E-07 8.3884E-10
C3H6 1.50413E-09 2.89255E-12
N2 9.37406E-09 2.03166E-09
CO2 1.30234E-13 4.62808E-14
Summation 0.000803187 1.01305E-06
Density mixture =792.8421231 kg/m
3

(Source : http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/gas-mixture-properties-_586.html(on-
line))
66

2.6.3 Specifications

Flow rate hot fluid :
220,931

1
3600
= 61.37

Duty, =
= 61.37

1.4036
kJ
kg0
C
x 420 220
0
C
= 17,228

As a first trial, flow rate of cold fluid is assumed as 150 kg/s.


Equation of energy balance gives :

=
150

4.21kJ
kg0C
x (T
out
30)
0
C
17,228 =
150

4.21kJ
kg0C
x (T
out
30)
0
C

( )
= 57.28
0
C






67

2.6.4 Overall Coefficient

Table 2.8 Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U-values) for Cooler
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid U [W/m
2
C]
Organic solvents Water 250 - 750
Light oils Water 350 - 700
Heavy oils Water 60 - 300
Reduced crude Water 75 - 200
Gases (p = atm) Water 5 - 35
Gases (p = 200 bar) Water 150 - 400
Gases Water 20 - 300
Organic solvents Brine 150 - 500
Water Brine 600 - 1200
Gases Brine 15 - 250
(Source : http://www.engineeringpage.com/technology/thermal/transfer.html(on-line))

Since the hot fluid considered as organic solvents and cold fluid used is water, the
overall coefficient for this two fluid will be in the range of 250 750 W/m
2 0
C.

Initial guess is 500 W/m
2 0
C



68

2.6.5 Exchanger type and dimensions

In order to determine the heat transfer area required for a given duty, an
estimate of the mean temperature difference, AT
lm
must be made:


) T - (T
) T - (T
ln
) T - (T - ) T - (T
T
i c, o h,
o c, i h,
i c, o h, o c, i h,
lm
= A (2.2)
Where AT
lm
= Log mean temperature difference
T
h,I
= Hot fluid inlet temperature
T
h,o
= Hot fluid outlet temperature
T
c,I
= Cold fluid inlet temperature
T
c,o
= Cold fluid outlet temperature

Thus from equation, the log mean temperature difference is:

AT
lm
=
420 57.28 220 30
ln
420 57.28
220 30

AT
lm
= 267.12
0
C

The true temperature difference is given by:
lm t m T F T A = A
(2.3)

69

Where, T
m
= True temperature difference, the mean temperature difference
for use in the design equation Q = UAT
m

F
t
= The temperature correction factor.

The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube, fluid temperatures, and
the number of tube and shell passes. It is normally correlated as function of two
dimensionless temperature ratios:

Temperature ratio,
1 2
2 1
t - t
T - T
R = (2.4)

Where , T
1
= Inlet shell-side fluid temperature
T
2
= Outlet shell-side fluid temperature
t
1
= Inlet tube-side temperature
t
2
= Outlet tube-side temperature

And S,

1 1
1 2
t T
t t
S

= (2.5)
Thus,
=
420220
57.2830
= 7.33
=
57.28 30
420 220
= 0.136

70

From appendix B.1, by assuming one shell passes and two tube passes, the
temperature correction factor, F
t

F
t
= 0.9


The true temperature difference is obtained:
AT
m
= 0.9 x 267.12 = 240.41
0
C

2.6.6 Heat transfer area

Heat transfer area can be obtained from this equation :
A
o
=
Q
U x T
m
(2.6)

=
17,228 10
3
500 240.41
= 143.32
2


2.6.7 Layout and tube size

For layout and tube size, acrylonitrile and byproducts is more corrosive and
toxicity compared to water. So put the acrylonitrile and byproducts through the tubes
and the water to the shell. The material used is stainless steel and using a split-ring
floating heat exchanger. Thermal conductivity of stainless steel material is 16 W/m.K.
Tubes were to be 23mm outside diameter (d
o
) and 19mm inside diameter (d
i
),
6m long tubes on a triangular pitch 1.25d
o
, which is 28.75mm.


71

2.6.8 Number of tubes

Area of tubes,

= 23 10
3
6 = 0.43
2


Number of tubes,
=

(2.7)
143.32
0.43
= 333.3 334

For 2 passes, tubes per passes,
334
2
= 167
Tube cross-sectional area =

2
=

4
19 10
3

2
= 0.0002835
2


Area per passes =
167 0.0002835 = 0.0473
2


Volumetric flow =
61.37

1
3
792.84
= 0.0774

72

Tube side velocity, =

=
0.0774
0.0473
= 1.64

The velocity is satisfactory, between 1 m/s to 3 m/s.

2.6.9 Bundle and shell diameter

From appendix B.2, for 2 tube passes, K
1
= 0.249 and n
1
= 2.207

=
0

1
(2.8)

= 23 10
3

334
0.249

1/2.285
= 0.54
From appendix B.3, for a split-ring floating heat exchanger the typical shell clearance is
59mm, so the shell diameter is,

= 0.54 + 0.059 = 0.60

2.6.10 Tube-side heat transfer coefficient

=

=
792.84 19 10
3
(1.64)
2.84 10
3

= 8698.91

Pr =
1.4036 x 10
3
2.48 x 10
3

4.59 x 10
2

= 75.84

73

=
6000
19
= 316
From appendix B.4,

= 2.9 10
3


= 2.9 10
3
8698.91 (75.84)
0.33
= 105.25

= 105.25
0.459
19 10
3
= 2542.62 W/m
2o
C


2.6.11 Shell-side heat transfer coefficient

For a first trial, take 100mm as the baffle spacing = D
s
/5.

=
28.75 10
3
(23 10
3
)
(28.75 10
3
)
0.60 0.1 = 0.012
2

=
1.10
(23 10
3
)
28.75 10
3

2
(0.91723 10
3

2
) = 0.0163

= 150

1
992.79
= 0.151

74

Shell-side velocity =

=
0.151
0.012
= 12.59 /

=

=
992.79 0.0163 (12.59)
1.01 x 10
1

= 2017.20

Pr =
4.214 x 10
3
1.01 x 10
1

0.625
= 680.98


From appendix B.5, segmented baffles with 25% cut are used,

= 1.3 10
2

=
0.625
0.0163
1.3 10
2
2017.20 (680.98)
1/3
= 8846.32 W/m
2o
C








75

2.6.12 Overall coefficient

The overall coefficient is given by:

1

=
1

+
1

ln(

)
2

+
1

(2.9)
Where

= overall coefficient based on outside area of tube, W/m

2o
C

= outside fluid film coefficient, W/m

2o
C

= inside fluid film coefficient, W/m

2o
C

= outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), W/m

2o
C

= inside dirt coefficient, W/m

2o
C

= thermal conductivity of the tube material, W/m

o
C

= tube inside diameter, m

= tube outside diameter, m.

1

0
=
1
2542.62
+ 0.00067
23 10
3
19 10
3
+
23 10
3
ln
23 10
3
19 10
3
2 16
+
1
8846.32

+0.0003
1

0
= 1.287 10
3
+ 1.373 10
4
+ 1.130 10
4
+0.0003 = 1.837 10
3


0
= 544.32 W/m
2o
C
=
544.32 500
544.32
= 8.14 %

So, the value can be accepted since the error below 30%.
76

2.6.13 Pressure drop at tube side

The tube-side pressure drop can be calculated from this equation :

+ 2,5

2
2
(2.10)
Where

= tube-side pressure drop, N/m

2

= number of tube-side passes

= tube-side velocity, m/s

L = length of one tube

334 tubes, 2 passes, tube d
i
19mm, u
t
1.64 m/s.
From appendix B.6,

= 5 10
3

= 2 8 5 10
3

6000
19
+2.5)
792.841.64
2
2




= 32.27





77

2.6.14 Pressure drop at shell side

The shell-side pressure drop can be calculated from this equation :


= 8

2
2
(

)
0.14
(2.11)
Where
L = tube length

= baffle spacing

Since

= 12.59 / and

= 0.60
From appendix B.6,

= 7.5 10
3

= 8 7.5 10
3

0.726
0.0163

2 6
100

992.79 12.59
2
2

= 25.23








78

2.6.15 Summary of Chemical Design
Description Cooler
Types of heat exchanger Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Orientation of tubes Horizontal
Operation Continuous
Duty 17, 228 kW
Log mean temperature different(T
lm
) .
0
C
Correction factor 0.9
True temperature different(T
m
) .
0
C
Overall heat transfer coefficient . W/m
2o
C
Heat transfer area . m
2



Tube side
Flow rate 61.37 kg/s
Inlet temperature 420
o
C
Outlet temperature 220
o
C
Outer diameter 23 mm
Inner diameter 19 mm
Thickness of tubes 4 mm
Length of the tubes 6 m
Number of tubes 334 tubes
79

Area of one tubes 0.43 m
2

Tube arrangement Triangular
Tube pitch, P
t
28.75 mm
Tube-side velocity 1.64 m/s
Tube side coefficient, h
t
. W/m
2o
C
Pressure drop, AP . kPa



Shell side
Flow rate 150 kg/s
Inlet Temperature 30
o
C
Outlet Temperature 57.28
o
C
Bundle diameter 540 mm
Shell diameter 600 mm
Shell-side velocity 12.59 m/s
Shell side coefficient, h
s
. W/m
2o
C
Pressure drop, AP . kPa




80

2.7 MECHANICAL DESIGN

The aspects of mechanical design are a particular interest to design a chemical
plant. The design method and data should be sufficient to check the feasibility of a
proposed equipment design as well as to estimate the cost of economic analysis.
Furthermore, mechanical design also important to determine equipments general
proportions and weight for plant layout purposes.

2.7.1 Design Pressure and Temperature

The design pressure is taken as 10% above the operating pressure,

= 1.1 2.5

= 2.75

= 0.275 /
2


Design temperature is taken as 420
o
C.


2.7.2 Material of Construction


Acrylonitrile and byproducts through the tubes are classified as corrosive and
toxicity components. So, the suitable material used to design the tubes is stainless
steel. Thermal conductivity of stainless steel material is 16 W/m.K. On the shell side,
water flows and the material used is carbon steel.


81

2.7.2.1 Design Stress (Nominal Design Stress)

From appendix B.7, the design stress () for the shell at 420
0
C is 70 N/mm
2
,
while its tensile strength is 360 N/mm
2
.



2.7.3 Minimum Thickness of the Shell Vessel


For a shell vessel the minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure
can be determined from the equation,

e =
P
i
D
i
2Jf P
i
(2.12)

Where;
P
i
= Design pressure
D
i
= Shell diameter
J = Joint factor (taken as 1 and figure 15)
f = Design stress (from figure 14)


The shell diameter, D
s
is 726 mm.

From equation above,
e =
2.75 x 726
(2 x 1 x 70) 2.75


e = 14.55 mm



82

Corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for
material lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling. For carbon and low-alloy steel, the
minimum allowance is 2 mm and should be increase to 4 mm. Adding a minimum
corrosion allowance of 4 mm,


e = 4 + 14.55 mm

e = 18.55 mm 19 mm



2.7.4 Minimum Thickness of Head


There are various shapes of closures used for vessel. The types used are flat
plates and formed flat ends, hemispherical heads, ellipsoidal heads, and torispherical
heads. Flat plates are commonly used as the channel covers of heat exchangers.
Torispherical heads are the most commonly used end closure for vessel up to
operating pressure of 15 bars while hemispherical head is the strongest shape and
used for high pressures. To decide which one to be choose as the head, calculation for
all types has been done.












83

Torispherical Heads


=

2 +

(

0.2)
(2.13)

Where;
C
s
= Stress concentration factor for torispherical head
R
c
= Crown radius
R
k
= Knuckle radius
J = Joint factor (assumed no joint in the head, thus J = 1)

=
1
4
3 +

The ratio of R
c
over R
k
should not be less than 0.06. The value is assumed to be 0.07
to avoid buckling.

So,

=
1
4
3 + 0.07 = 0.452


And the minimum thickness of the torispherical head is:

=
2.75 (726)(0.452)
2 701 + (2.75)(0.452 0.2)


= 6.41




84

By adding a minimum corrosion allowance of 4 mm,

e = 4 + 6.41 mm

e = 10.41 mm 11 mm


Ellipsoidal heads

e =
P
i
D
i
2Jf 0.2P
i
(2.14)

=
2.75(726)
2 70(1) 0.2(2.75)


= 14.32


By adding a minimum corrosion allowance of 4 mm,

e = 4 + 14.32 mm

e = 18.32 mm 19 mm


Although torispherical give less thickness compared to ellipsoidal, an ellipsoidal
head are chosen because the thickness is the same as the shell vessel. Hence, the
design will be more compatible and easier to design.







85

2.7.5 Minimum Thickness of the Channel Cover


The design used for channel cover of heat exchanger is flat plates. To
determine the thickness of flat ends, the design equation used is :

e = C
p
D
e

P
i
f
(2.15)

Where

C
p
= A design constant, depend on the edge constraint
D
e
= Nominal plate diameter
f = Design stress


The value of design constant and nominal diameter chosen is plates welded to
the end of the shell with a fillet weld, angle of fillet 45
o
and depth equal to the plate
thickness. C
p
taken as 0.55 and D
e
= D
i
.


Thus, from equation above

= 0.55 726

2.75
70


e = 79.14 mm 80 mm

86

2.7.6 Primary stresses

For longitudinal stresses

2
(2.16)

=
2.75(600)
2(6)

= 137.5 /
2



For circumferential stresses

4
(2.17)

=
2.75(600)
4(6)

= 68.75 /
2


2.7.7 Loads on Vessel

The vessel must be designed to withstand the worst combination of the load
likely to occur in the situation such as erection of the vessel or during normal operation.
There are five main sources of load to be considered which are pressure, dead weight
of vessel and contents, wind, earthquake, and external imposed by piping and attached
equipment.


i. Weight of shell

The approximate weight of a carbon steel cylindrical vessel with a domed end and
uniform wall thickness can be estimated from:

= 240

+ 0.8

(2.18)

87

Where;

W
v
= Total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, N
C
v
= 1.08 for vessels with only few internal fittings
H
v
= Length of the cylindrical section, m
t = Wall thickness, mm
D
m
= Mean diameter of vessel, (D
i
+ t x 10
-3
) m

D
m
= 0.019 + 12.42 x 10
3
= 0.03142 m


Total weight of the vessel:

W
v
= 240 1.080.03142 + 6 + 0.80.0314213

= 86.47 N = 0.865 kN


ii. Weight of tubes


Material used = Stainless steel
Thickness of tubes = 4 mm
Density of material (source : http://www.azom.com/Details.asp?ArticleID=965 (on-line))
= 8000 kg/m
3


Volume of tubes, V
t
=

(2.19)



= 0.023 0.019 0.0046



= 3.02 10
4

3



88

Thus, the tube weight is:

(2.20)

= 388 3.02 10
4
8000(9.81)

= 9196 = 9.196



iii. Weight of insulation

Material used = Foam glass insulation
Insulation thickness, t
i
= 0.075 m
Density of insulation = 150 kg / m
3



Approximate volume of insulation

=

(2.21)

= 0.726 6 0.075

= 1.026
3



Thus, the weight of the insulation:

= 1.026 150 (9.81)

= 1509.76
89

This value should be double to allow for fittings

Therefore,

= 2 1509.76

= 3019.52 = 3.019


Weight of content

a) Tube side


Volume of tubes,


=

= 0.023 0.019 0.004 6



= 3.02 10
4

3



Density of material = 391.66 kg/m
3


Thus, the tube content weight is:

= 388 3.02 10
4
(391.66) (9.81)

= 450 .2 = 0.450




90

b) Shell side

Shell radius = 0.363 m
Length of shell = 6 m
Density of material = 400 kg/m
3


The shell content weight is:

W
s
= r
2
L
m
g (2.22)

W
s
= x (0.363)
2
x 6 x 400x (9.81)

W
s
= 9746.39 N = 9.746 kN




2.7.8 Total Weight of Heat Exchanger

Total weight, W = 0.865 + 9.196 + 3.019 + 0.450 + 9.746
Total weight, W = 23.276 kN

91

2.7.9 Vessel Supports


The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape and weight
of the vessel, the design temperature and pressure, the vessel location and
arrangement and the internal and external fittings and attachments. Horizontal vessels
are usually mounted on two saddle supports. The support should be able to carry the
weight of the vessel and content and any superimposed loads. The support also should
be able to allow easy access to the vessel and fittings for inspection and maintenance.

Through saddles are the most commonly used support for horizontal cylindrical
vessel, legs can be used for small vessels. A horizontal vessel will normally be
supported at two cross section, if more than two saddle are used the distribution of the
loading is uncertain.



Figure 2.2 Horizontal cylindrical vessel on saddle supports( Source :
http://dedisumaha.blogspot.com/2010/07/support-on-pressure-vessel.html (on-
line))



92

The saddles must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of
the vessel and contents. They are constructed of bricks or concrete or are fabricated
from steel plate. The contact angle should not be less than 120
o
and will not normally
be grater 150
o
. Wear plates are often welded to the shell wall to reinforce the wall over
the area of contact with the saddle.














Figure 2.3 Standard steel saddles for vessel (Source : ( R.K. Sinnott, 1993)


The dimensions of a standard saddle design that can be used for the cooler are
shown in the table below. For vessel diameter = 0.752 m and 23.28 kN.

Table 2.9 Dimensions for the saddle support
Vessel
diameter
(m)
Max
Weight
(kN)
Dimensions (m) Dimension (mm)

V

Y

C

E

J

G

t
2


t
1

Bolt
diameter
Bolt
holes
0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5 20 25

(Source ;R.K Sinnot,2005)

93

2.7.10 Nozzle Diameters


a) Shell Side

Pipe size for fluid inlet:

For carbon steel pipes, the optimum diameter can be determined from equation:

= 293
0.53

0.37
(2.23)



Where; G = Mass flow rate, kg/s
= Density, kg/m
3



The optimum pipe size is,

= 293 (150)
0.53
(986.87)
0.37

325



Pipe size for fluid outlet:

The optimum pipe size is,

= 293 (150)
0.53
(998.7)
0.37

325




94

b) Tube Side

Pipe size for water inlet:

For stainless steel pipes, the optimum diameter can be estimated from equation:

= 260
0.52

0.37
(2.24)



Where; G = Mass flow rate, kg/s
= Density, kg/m
3


Thus, the optimum pipe size is

= 260 (61.37)
0.52
(812.87)
0.37

185


Pipe size for water outlet:

The optimum pipe size is,

= 260 (61.37)
0.52
(792.84)
0.37

187







95

2.7.11 Baffles

The design in heat exchanger will considered baffles which are used in the shell
to direct the fluid stream across the tubes, to increase the fluid velocity and to improve
the rate of transfer. The most commonly type of baffle is the single segmental baffle.

=


1 (2.25)

=
6
0.6
1

= 9


Shell and Bundle Geometry

(2.26)

Where

: Baffle cut height

: Shell diameter

: Baffle cut in fraction

= 600 0.25 = 150

Height from the baffle chord to the top of the tube bundle,

(0.5

)

Where

is bundle diameter

=
540
2
600 0.5 0.25 = 120

96

2.8 SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Design pressure 2.75 N/mm
2

Design temperature 420
0
C
Material of construction Carbon steel and Stainless steel
Design stress 70 N/mm
2

Tensile strength 360 N/mm
2

Thickness of shell 19 mm
Types of head and closure Ellipsoidal domed head
Thickness of ellipsoidal head 19 mm
Longitudinal stresses 137.5 N/mm
2

Circumferential stresses 68.75 N/mm
2

Weight of shell 86.47 N
Weight of tubes 9196 N
Weight of insulation 3019.52 N
Weight of content at tubes 450 N
Weight of content at shell 9746.39 N
Total weight of heat exchanger 23.276 N
Pipe size inlet at shell 325 mm
Pipe size outlet at shell 325 mm
Pipe size inlet at tube 185 mm
Pipe size outlet at tube 187 mm
Number of baffle 9
Baffle cut height 150 mm







97



























98

CHAPTER 3



ABSORTION COLUMN



3.1 INTRODUCTION

Absorption is one type of basic operations involve in separation process,
whereby they involve in separation of components of a gas mixture that contact with an
appropriate solvent. (Source: Geankoplis C.J( 2003))
In any mixture of gases, the degree to which each gas is absorbed is
determined by its partial pressure. Example a slightly soluble gas like oxygen requires a
much higher partial pressure of the gas in contact with the liquid to give a solution of a
given concentration. Also solubility of a gas is inversely proportional to the temperature
of the gas. Temperature should be sufficiently low for adequate degree of absorption.
An example with the liquid gas system is an absorption process where a soluble gas is
scrubbed from a mixture of gases by means of a liquid.
Absorption column is the chief method for controlling industrial air pollution,
and generally aims at separation of acidic impurities from mixed gas stream. The acidic
impurities include hydrogen sulphide, organic sulphur compound and the most acidic
impurities to be concern is the carbon dioxide. [Source: http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-
project/Available/E-project-042408-133605/unrestricted/Modeling_Absorption.pdf]

99

In considering the design of equipment to achieve gas absorption, the main
requirement is that the gas should be brought into intimate contact with the liquid and
the effectiveness of the equipment will largely be determined by the success with which
it promotes contact between the two phases.

3.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The gas liquid contact in packed bed column is continuously, not stage wise
as in plate column. In some gas absorption column co-current is used. Generally, the
packed tower operates in counter-current flow, where the liquid enters the systems
through the top and wets the surfaces of the packing, and the gas stream mixed with
the effluent enters the bottom. As the liquid and the gas are contacted with one
another, the components of the effluent can be absorbed into the liquid. The
performance of packed column is very dependent on the maintenance good liquid and
the gas distribution throughout the packed and this is an important consideration in
packed-column design. [Source: Richard & Coulson]

3.2.1 Absorber System Configuration

In the absorber system configuration section, state that the most common of
packed tower design is countercurrent and in the acrylonitrile plant also use the
countercurrent flow. Countercurrent designs provide the highest theoretical removal
efficiency because gas with the lowest pollutant concentration contacts liquid with the
lowest pollutant concentration. Countercurrent design usually requires lower liquid to
gas ratios than co-current and more suitable when the pollutant loading is higher.


100

The removal of one or more selected components from a mixture of gases by
absorption into a suitable liquid is the second major operation of chemical engineering
that is based on inter phase mass transfer controlled largely by rates of diffusion. Thus,
acetone can be recovered from acetone-air mixture by passing the gas stream into
water in which the acetone dissolves while the air passes out.
Similarly, ammonia may be removed from ammonia-air mixture by absorption
in water. In each of these examples, the process of absorption of the gas in the liquid
may be treated as physical process, the chemical reaction having no appreciable effect.
(Source: Coulson & Richardson, (2005))

3.2.2 Type of Gas Absorption Unit

For this acrylonitrile plant, packed tower is used as the gas absorption unit.
Basic design of this packed tower is consist of cylindrical column with a gas inlet and
distributing space at the bottom. This packed tower also adequate with a liquid inlet and
distributor at the top, while gas and liquid outlets at the top and bottom respectively.
The role of the column packing is to ensure intimate contact between the liquid and the
gas and there are packing support to give strength.
As the gas flow up the packed column it will experience a drop in its pressure
as it meet resistance from the packing material and the solvent flowing down. Pressure
drop in a column is a function of the gas and liquid flow rates and properties of the
packing elements such as surface area and free volume in the tower. A high pressure
drop results in high fan power to drive the gas through the packed tower and
consequently high cost needed. The pressure drop in a packed tower generally ranges
from 15 to 50 mm water per m packing.



101

For each column, there are upper and lower limit for solvent and vapor flow
rates that ensure satisfactory performance. The gas flow rate may become so high that
the drag on the solvent is sufficient to keep the solvent from flowing freely down the
column. Solvent begin to accumulate and block the entire cross section for flow, which
will increasing the pressure drop and present the packing from mixing the gas and
solvent efficiently. When all the free volume in the packing is filled with liquid and liquid
is carried back up the column, the absorber is considered to be flooded. Most packed
tower operate at 60 to 70 percent of the gas flooding velocity, as it is not practical to
operate a tower in a flooded condition. A minimum liquid flow rate is also required to
wet the packing material sufficiently for effective mass transfer to occur between the
gas and liquid.

3.2.3 Column Selection

Either plate column or packed column may be selected for gas absorption unit.
This selection can be made depends on several elements such as costing and the
efficiency of the column. However, the choice usually be made, on the basis of
experience by considering main advantages and disadvantages of each type. In this
case, we choose packed column and the considerations are as follows:

1. The pressure drop per equilibrium stage (HETP) can be lower for packing than
plates and packing should be considered for vacuum columns.
2. Packed columns are more suitable for handling foaming systems.
3. The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed column than a plate column.
This can be important when the inventory of toxic or flammable liquids needs to
be kept as small as possible for safety reasons.
4. For corrosive liquids a packed column will usually be cheaper than the
equivalent plate column.


102

3.2.4 Packed Column Design Procedure

The design of a packed column involves the following steps:
1. Packed column and size of packing.
2. Determination the column diameter
3. Determination the column height required for the separation
4. Selection and the design of column features, packing support and liquid distributor

3.2.5 Type of Packing

Gas absorption can be carried out in a packed column. There are two major
type of packing which are random packing and structured packing, while random
packing can be classified into two which are stacked and dumped. The selected type of
packing play major rules to make sure the process is operate at optimally. The
selection of the packing must base on the packing principle requirements. The
requirement should be considered are as follows:-

I. Provide a large surface area for better contact
II. Have an open structure for low resistance to gas flow
III. Promote uniform liquid distribution on the packing material
IV. Promote uniform vapour gas flow across the column cross section
V. Be chemically inert to fluid processed
VI. Have structural strength to permit easy handling and installation
VII. Represent low cost



103

Many diverse types and shapes of packing have been developed to satisfy
these requirements and there are Rschig ring, Pall ring, Bers saddle, Intalox saddle and
so on. Those packing are available in a variety of materials such as ceramics, metal,
plastic and carbon. The choice of material will depend on the nature of the fluids and
the operating temperature. Ceramic packing will be the first choice for corrosive liquids,
but ceramics are not suitable for use with strong alkalis.

3.2.6 Packed Tower Internal

Mist Eliminator Pad
Mist elimination, or the removal of entrained liquid droplets from a vapor stream,
is one of the most commonly encountered processes regardless of unit operation.
There are three general types of mist eliminators which are mesh, vane and fiber bed.

Liquid Distributor
Liquid distributors are used in packing towers above each bed of packing. The
liquid distributor is located above the bed usually 150 200 mm above the packing.
This provides sufficient space for the gas to disengage from the bed before it passes
through the distributor. Liquid can be applied by sprays, weirs or orifices. The
characteristic of ideal distributor are uniform liquid distribution, resistance to plugging or
fouling, proper turndown capability and low gas pressure drop, which affect the overall
performance of a packed tower. The selection of liquid distributor is depends on the
specific liquid load and the internal diameter of the column.




104

Bed Limiter
For metal and plastic random packings, bed limiters are recommended when
there is the potential for sufficient vapor load to fluidize the top of the bed. Bed limiter is
actually a basic way to prevent upward movement of random packing. A bed limiter
either sits directly on the packing or is attached to the vessel wall. The bed limiter acts
as a screen to confine the packing to the defined bed.

Packing Support
The function of the support plate is to carry the weight of the wet packing, while
allowing free passage of the gas and liquid. The best design of packing support is one
in which gas inlets are provided above the level where the liquid flows from the bed;
such as the gas injection type.













105

3.3 CHEMICAL DESIGN











Assumption:
1. Process at steady state condition.
2. Gas exists as Ideal.
3. Assume ratio liquid to gas flow to be 2.0
4. Assume percentage flooding to be 70%
5. Assume mG
m
/L
m
to be 0.75






106

Stream 5
Component Mixture CO
2
C
3
H
6
H
2
O O
2
N
2
HCN
Temperature (C) 120
Pressure (atm) 1.7
Mass Flow rate (kg/h) 153689.5920 5708.6700 302.3300 5118.2500 8803.0900 133469.1500 288.1020
Mass Fraction 1.0000 0.0371 0.0020 0.0333 0.0573 0.8684 0.0019
Molar Flow rate
(kmol/h)
5471.7380 129.7130 7.1846 284.0316 275.0966 4765.0536 10.6586
Mol Fraction 1.0000 0.0237 0.0013 0.0519 0.0503 0.8708 0.0019
MW (kg/kmol) 28.0879 44.0100 42.0800 18.0200 32.0000 28.0100 27.0300

Stream Water
Component Mixture CO
2
C
3
H
6
H
2
O O
2
N
2
HCN
Temperature (C) 25
Pressure (atm) 1.7
Mass Flow rate (kg/h) 500.000 - - 500.000 - - -
Mass Fraction 1.0000 1.0000
Molar Flow rate
(kmol/h)
27.7469 27.7469
Mol Fraction 1.0000 1.0000
MW (kg/kmol) 28.0879 44.0100 42.0800 18.0200 32.0000 28.0100 27.0300


107

Stream 7
Component Mixture CO
2
C
3
H
6
H
2
O O
2
N
2
HCN
Temperature (C) 100
Pressure (atm) 1.5
Mass Flow rate (kg/h) 151538.4500 5708.1000 302.3000 3270.0400 8802.2100 133455.8000 -
Mass Fraction 1.0000 0.0377 0.0020 0.0216 0.0581 0.8807
Molar Flow rate
(kmol/h)
5357.9973 129.7001 7.1839 181.4673 275.0691 4764.5769
Mol Fraction 1.0000 0.0242 0.0013 0.0339 0.0513 0.8892
MW (kg/kmol) 28.0879 44.0100 42.0800 18.0200 32.0000 28.0100 27.0300

Stream 8
Component Mixture CO
2
C
3
H
6
H
2
O O
2
N
2
HCN
Temperature (C) 60
Pressure (atm) 1.6
Mass Flow rate (kg/h) 2651.1404 0.5709 0.0302 2348.2100 0.8803 13.3470 288.1020
Mass Fraction 1.0000 0.0002 0.0000 0.8857 0.0003 0.0050 0.1087
Molar Flow rate
(kmol/h)
141.4876 0.0130 0.0007 130.3113 0.0275 0.4765 10.6586
Mol Fraction 1.0000 0.0001 0.0000 0.9210 0.0002 0.0034 0.0753
MW (kg/kmol) 18.7376 44.0100 42.0800 18.0200 32.0000 28.0100 27.0300


108

3.3.1 Estimation of Column Diameter

Flow Parameter, =

, (3.1)

Where
G
L
G
G
, The ratio of liquid to gas flow will be selected to give the required separation
with the most economic use of solvent. We select ratio liquid to gas flow of 2.0.

Density of Inlet Liquid (water at 25C),
L


L
1000 kg m
3


Density of Inlet Gas,

Table 3.1 Properties of Gas Inlet to Absorption Column
Component
Mass Fraction,x
i

(kg
i
/kg mix)
Molecular Weight,
MW
(kg/kmol)
Density
component,

(kg/m
3
)
CO
2
0.0371 44.01 2.3166
C
3
H
6
0.002 42.08 2.2151
H
2
O 0.0333 18.02 0.9486
O
2
0.0573 32.00 1.6844
N
2
0.8684 28.01 1.4722
HCN 0.0019 27.03 1.4228

(

)
1.9508


109

Assume that the gas is Ideal and using Ideal Gas Relation, = to get

(kmol/m
3
). Where;
R = 8314.34 m
3
.Pa/kmol.K.
P = 172 kPa
T = 393K

=
172 10
3
8314.34 393

= 0.0526 kmol/m
3


Times
n
V
(kmol/m
3
) with molecular weight (kg/kmol) to density of a component (kg/m
3
).

Density of gas mixture,

at 120C = 1.9508 kg/m

3


Flow factor,

=
G
L
G
G

L

= (2.0)1.9508 1000
= (2.0) (0.0442) = 0.0883

Select packing of 32 mm Metal Pall Rings (Pall and Raschig ring having same surface
area, but pall rings are 60% more efficient).

From Appendix C.1 , F
p
=92 m
-1

For

60;

is taken to as 2.0 in.

@ .

.

110

From appendix C.2 , Capacity parameter 1.62

Capacity parameter = v
G

G

0.5
F
p
0.5

0.005
(3.2)
Where;

= Superficial gas velocity, m/s

= Packing factor, m
1

= Kinematic Viscosity,
=
liquid inlet viscosity ,
L

liqui d inlet density ,
L
(3.3)

Liquid viscosity,
L
at 25C @ 278 K is 1.519 x 10
-3
Ns/m
2

=
1.519 10
3

1000
= 1.519 x 10
6

Therefore;
1.62 = v
G

G

0.5
F
p
0.5

0.005

1.62 = v
G
1.9508 1000 1.9508
0.5
92
0.5
1.519 x 10
6

0.005

v
G
= 7.4646 m/s

= 7.4646
m
s
1.9508
kg
m
3

= 14.5623 kg/m
2
s

111

Using 70% flooding velocity for design;
G
G
= 0.70 (14.5623)= 10.1936 kg/m
2
s
Also the liquid flow rate;
G
L
= 2.00 (10.1936)= 20.3872 kg/m
2
s

To calculate the tower pressure drop at 70% of flooding, G
G
= 10.1936 and G
L
=
20.3872, the new capacity parameter is; 0.70 (1.62) = 1.134Using this value of 1.134
(capacity parameter) and the same flow parameter, 0.0883, a value of 0.4 in. H
2
O ft @
33.33 mm H
2
O m is obtained from appendix C.2 .

The tower cross sectional area =
Inlet Gas ,V
in

G
G

=
42.6916 kg/s
10.1936 kg/m
2
s
= 4.1881 m
2
= 4 D
2

D =
4 4.1881

= 2.3092 m

Therefore ,the diameter is round off to 2.4 m

New column area:
=

4
2.4
2
= 4.5239 m
2
Packing size to column diameter ratio:
=
2.4 m
0.032 m
= 75

112

Percentage flooding at selected diameter:
= (70%)
4.1822 m
2
4.5239 m
2

= 64.71% 65%

3.3.2 Estimation of Height of Packed Bed (HTU)

Determination of the packed bed height, H
OG
is using Ondas Method. Height of packing
required, Z =

H
OG
=

(3.4)
Where;
Z = height of transfer unit, m
H
OG
= height of overall gas transfer unit, m
N
OG
= number of overall gas transfer unit
H
G
= height of gas transfer unit, m
H
L
= height of liquid transfer unit, m
m = slope of equilibrium line
G
m
/L
m
= slope of operating line





113

Height of gas and liquid transfer unit:
H
G
=

(3.5)
H
L
=

(3.6)
Where;
G
m
= molar gas flow rate per unit cross-sectional area, kmol/m
2
s
L
m
= molar liquid flow rate per unit cross-sectional area, kmol/m
2
s
k
G
= gas film mass transfer coefficient, kmol/m
2
s.atm or kmol/m
2
s.bar
k
L
= liquid film mass transfer coefficient, m/s

= effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume, m

2
/m
3

P = column operating pressure, bar
C
t
= total concentration, kmol/m
3
=

/ molecular weight solvent

Onda et al. (1968) published useful correlations for the film mass transfer
coefficients k
G
and k
L
and the effective wetted area of the packing

, which used to
calculate H
G
and H
L.
The equation of the effective area is:

= 1 exp1.45

0.75

0.1

0.05

0.2
(3.7)

and for the mass coefficient:

1/3
= 0.0051

2/3

1/2

0.4
(3.8)
114

=
5

0.7

1/3

2.0
(3.9)

Where;

= effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume, m

2
/m
3

= actual area of packing per unit volume, m
2
/m
3

= critical surface tension for the particular packing material given

below:
Material

(mN/m)
Ceramic 61
Metal (steel) 75
Plastic (polyethylene) 33
Carbon 56

= liquid surface tension, N/m

= liquid mass flow rate per unit cross sectional area, kg/m
2
s

= gas mass flow rate per unit column cross sectional area, kg/m
2
s
k
G
= gas film mass transfer coefficient, kmol/m
2
s.atm or kmol/m
2
s.bar
k
L
= liquid film mass transfer coefficient, m/s
D
L
= liquid diffusivity, m
2
/s
D
v
= gas diffusivity, m
2
/s
K
5
= 5.23 for packing sizes above 15 mm, and 2.00 for sizes below 15 mm
d
P
= packing size, m

115

Calculation of HTU, Z is begin with determining

.

Whereby,

= 1 exp1.45

0.75

0.1

0.05

0.2

= 75 mN/m
2
for metal packing.

= 74.906 x 10
-3
N/m

=
,

,
2
=
0.1389 /
4.5239
2
= 0.0307 kg/m
2
.s
= 128 m
2
/m
3

= 1.519 x 10
-3
Ns/m
2

= 1000 kg/m
3

= 9.81 m
2
/s
= 1 exp
1.45
75
74.906 103

0.75

0.0307
1281.519 103

0.1

0.0307
2
128
1000
2
9.81

0.05

0.0307
2
100074.906 103128

0.2
128

= 1 exp
1.45 1.0009
0.75
0.8315
0.1
2.4860
0.05
0.0397
0.2
108
a
w
= 14.3635 m
2
/m
3





116

Then, determine K
L
by using this equation;

1/3
= 0.0051

2/3

1/2

0.4
(3.10)

Where;

= 1000 kg/m
3

= 1.519 x 10
-3
Ns/m
2

= 9.81 m
2
/s

= 0.0307 kg/m
2
.s

= 14.3635 m
2
/m
3

= 128 m
2
/m
3

= 0.032 m

= Liquid diffusivity, where:

Liquid diffusivity,

=
1.173 10
13

0.5

0.6
(3.11)
= an association factor for the solvent, 2.6 for water.
T = 298 K
Mw = molecular weight, 18.02 kg/kmol (water)

= 1.519 x 10
-3
Ns/m
2

= molar volume of the solute at its boiling point,

m3/kmol. This can be estimated from group
contributions given in Table 2 below.
117


Figure 3.2 Structural contributions to molar volume, m
3
/kmol (Source: Gambil, 1958)

=
1.173 10
13
2.6 18.02
0.5
298
1.519 1030.0189
0.6
= 1.7039 x 10
-6
m
2
/s

1000
1.519 1039.81

1
3
= 0.0051
0.0307
14.36351.519 x 103

2
3


1.519 103
10001.7039 106

1/2
128 0.032
0.4

40.6373
1/3
= 0.0051 1.2557
2/3
1.0591
1/2
1.7577
0.4

= 0.0002934 m/s





118

Next determine

by using following equation;

=
5

0.7

1/3

2.0
(3.11)

Where;
R = 0.08314 bar.m
3
/kmol.K
T = 393K
K
5
= 5.23
= 128 m
2
/m
3

=
,

,
2

=
42.6916 /
4.5239
2

= 9.4369 kg/m
2
.s

= 1.0 x 10
-8
Ns/m
2

= 1.9508
kg
m
3

= 0.032 m

= gas diffusivity




119

=
1.013 10
7

1.75

+
1

1/2

1/3
+

1/3

2
(3.12)
T = 393 K
Ma = 18.02 kg/kmol (water)
Mb = 27.03 kg/kmol (HCN)
P = 1.7225 bars


,

= the summation of the special diffusion
volume for components a and b, given in
appendix C.3.

Water
Element

No of element

x No of element
H 1.98 2 3.96
O 5.48 1 5.48

9.44

Hydrogen Cyanide
Element

No of element

x No of element
H 1.98 1 1.98
C 16.5 1 16.5
N 5.69 1 5.69

24.17


120

=
1.013 10
7

1.75

+
1

1/2

1/3
+

1/3

2

=
1.013 10
7
393
1.75

1
18.02
+
1
28.0899

1
2
1.7225 9.44
1
3
+ 24.17
1
3

2

=
0.000162503
43.14423962
= 3.7665 x 10
-6
m
2
/s

128

0.08314393
2.38933 10
6

= 5.23
9.4369
1281.7632 10
5

0.7


1.7632 10
5
1.95083.76651 10
6

1
3

128 0.032
2.0

67772.5830 = 5.2364170.1456
0.7

0.1108
1
3

0.0596
2.0

= 0.0327 kmol/m
2
.s.bar




121

Then, find H
G
and H
L
by using,

H
G
=

and H
L
=

=
,

2
.
,/

=
10.1936

2
.
28.0894 /
= 0.3629 kmol/m
2
.s

= 0.0327 kmol/m
2
.s.bar

= 10.3635 m
2
/m
3

P = 1.7225 bars

H
G
=
0.3629
0.032710.36351.7225

= 0.4484 m
H
L
=

=
,

2
.
,/

=
0.0307

2
.
18.02 /
= 0.0017 m

= 0.0002934 m/s

= 10.3635 m
2
/m
3

=
,/
3
,/
=
1000 /
3
18.02 /
= 55.4939 kmol/m
3
122

H
L
=
0.0017
0.000293410.363555.4939

= 0.0073 m

By knowing the H
G
and H
L
, calculation of Z finished by;
Z =

H
OG
=

From material balance,

1

2
=
,
1
,
2

=
0.0019
1.29 10
5

= 148

= assume to be 0.75

From appendix C4 ; NOG = 14.5

H
OG
=

= 0.4484 + 0.75 (0.0073)
= 0.4539 m



123

Z =

= 0.4539 x 14.5
= 6.5813 m
7 m

3.3.3 Number of Packing

Volume of packed bed =

2

4

=
2.4
2
7
4
= 31.6673

Volume of one packing = Size
3

= (0.032)
3
= 3.2768 x 10
-5
m
3


Number of packing used =



=
31.6673
3.2768 10
5

= 966,409.3018
Take 966,410 packing used.




124

3.3.4 SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL DESIGN
Types of packing Metal Pall rings
Packing factor 92 m
-1

Packing size 32 mm
Number of packing used 966410
Height packing 7 m
Diameter packing 2.4
Solvent Water
Solute Hydrogen Cyanide
Material packing Metal












125

3.4 MECHANICAL DESIGN

For mechanical design, temperature and pressure are important properties in
evaluate the thickness and stress for the equipment. In addition, the safety factor also
need as precaution.

3.4.1 Column design

This column operates at 1.7 atm and 120C and the safety reason will be
taking as 10% above operating pressure.
Operating pressure = 1.7 atm = 172.25 kPa
Design Pressure; taken as 10% above operating pressure

,
= (0.1 x 172.25 kPa) + 172.25 kPa
= 189.475 kPa 190 kPa
= 0.19 N/mm
2

Design Temperature = 120C








126

3.4.2 Material construction

The material used is carbon steel due to corrosive material in stream. Design
stress and Tensile strength at 120C is obtained from Table 4.

Figure 3.1 Typical Design Stresses for Plate, Source Coulson & Richardsons,

Tensile Strength = 360 N/mm
2

Design stress, = 121 N/mm
2

Column Diameter, D
i
= 2.4 m = 2400 mm



127

3.4.3 Cylinder shell design

Determined minimum thickness required for pressure loading using equation as follow:
e =

Where;
e = minimum thickness required, mm
D
i
= internal diameter of column, mm
f = design stress, N/mm
2

P
i
= internal pressure, N/mm
2

e =
0.192400
2121 0.19
= 1.89 mm

Add corrosion allowance = 4 mm
e = 1.89 mm + 4 mm
= 5.89 mm ,Take e = 6 mm
Table 3.2 Minimum thickness required corresponds to vessel diameter
Vessel Diameter (m) Minimum thickness (mm)
1.0 5
1.0 to 2.0 7
2.0 to 2.5 9
2.5 to 3.0 10
3.0 to 3.5 12
(Source:R.K Sinnot,2005)
128

According to Coulson & Richardsons, Chemical Engineering, volume 6, page
814, the wall thickness of any vessel should not less than the given in the Table 5
above. As the vessel diameter calculated was 2.4 m, the minimum thickness required is
9 mm. So the thickness taken is 9 mm.

3.4.4 Dome head and closures design

The ends of a cylindrical column or vessel are closed by heads of various
shapes. They are including:
1. Flat heads
2. Ellipsoidal heads, and
3. Torispherical heads

Calculation is made to choose the most suitable head, as follows;

- Flat heads

The minimum thickness required is given by:

=

Where
C
p
= design constant, dependent on the edge constraint
D
e
= nominal plate diameter
f = design stress
129

By using bolted cover with full face gasket
C
p
= 0.4
D
e
= 2400 mm
= 0.4(2400)
0.19
121
= 38.04 mm

Add 4 mm for corrosion allowance:
e = 42.04 mm
Take 42 mm.

- Ellipsoidal heads

The minimum thickness required is given by:

=

20.2

Where;
J = joint factor, taken as 1 (no joints)
=
0.192400
211210.20.19
= 1.8846 mm

Add 4 mm for corrosion allowance:
e = 5.8846 mm ,Take 6 mm.



130

- Torispherical heads

The minimum thickness required is given by:

=

2 +

0.2)

Where;
C
s
= stress concentration factor for torispherical heads
=
1
4
(3 +

= crown radius = 2400 mm

= knuckle radius = 6% of

= 144mm
=
1
4
(3 +2400/144
= 1.771
J = joint factor, taken as 1 (no joints)

=
0.1924001.771
21211+ 0.19(1.771 0.2)
= 3.3330 mm

Add 4 mm for corrosion allowance:
e = 7.3330 mm , Take 8 mm.




131

Table 3.3 The Minimum Thickness for Three Types of Head
Type of Head
e, minimum thickness
Flat Head
42 mm
Ellipsoidal Head
6 mm
Torispherical Head
8 mm

By comparing the minimum thickness of these different type heads, can be
conclude that ellipsoidal head is the most suitable type of head to be choose due to
the economical factor since its requires less thickness compared to other two.

3.4.4 The design of column subject to combined loading

The main sources of load to be considered are dead weight and contents and wind.

DEAD WEIGHT LOADS
The major sources of dead weight loads are:
1) Vessel shell
2) Internal fittings: packed bed
3) External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping
4) Insulation




132

3.4.4.1 Dead Weight of Vessel, W
v

For steel vessel;

= 240

+ 0.8

Where;

= total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings

= factor to account for the weight of the internal supports

= 1.15 for absorption column

= height of cylindrical section

t = wall thickness

= mean diameter =

+ 10
3

= 2.4 m + (9 x 10
-3
)
= 2.409 m

= 240 1.15 2.409 7 + 0.8 2.409 0.009

= 53.4200 kN

3.4.4.2 Dead Weight of Packed Bed, W
p

Surface area of packing, = 128 m
2
/m
3


Approximation volume of packed bed, V
p
;
=

= 2.479 10
3
= 0.475 m
3

133

Area of packed bed, A
p
;
=

= 128 x 0.475
= 59.375 m
2


For vertical column, platform = 1.7 kN/m
2

Weight of packed bed,
W
p
= 1.7 kN/m
2
x A
p

= 1.7 x 59.375
=100.9375 kN

3.4.4.3 Weight of external fittings, W
fittings


External fitting used at the reactor is a plain steel ladder. From Nelson (1963),
weight of the ladder is estimated to be 150 N/m lengths.
Hence weight of external fittings, W
fittings
is;

W
fittings
= 150 N/m x 7 m
= 1050 N
= 1.05 kN



134

3.4.4.4 Weight of insulation, W
i


Density of wool is 130 kg/m
3
(Coulson and Richardsons, Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6, page: 839).The thickness of insulation, t
i
is 75 mm (typical
assumed value, Coulson and Richardsons, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page:
842).

Approximate volume of insulation;

= 2.4775 10
3

= 3.9584 m
3


Weight of insulation;

= (3.9584 x 130 x 9.81)
= 5048.1475 N
=5.0481 kN

Double this value to allow fittings, hence
W
i
= 10.096 kN



135

TOTAL OF DEAD WEIGHT LOADS = W
V
+ W
P
+ W
fittings
+ W
i

= 53.4200 + 100.9375 + 1.05 + 10.096
= 165.5035 kN

WIND LOADS

Wind loading will only be important on tall columns installed in the
open.Columns are usually free standing, mounted on skirt support and not attached to
structural steel work. Under this conditions the vessel under wind loading acts as
cantilever beam.
Take wind speed, U
w
= 160 km/h
To estimate the wind pressure, the following equation is used:
P
w
= 0.05 U
w
2

= 0.05(160.0)
2

= 1280 N/m
2
Effective column diameter, D
eff

D
eff
= D
c
+ 2(t
shell
+ t
insulation
)
= 2.4 + 2(0.009 + 0.075)
= 2.568 m
Loading per unit length of column, F
w
@ w
F
w
= P
w
x D
eff
= 1280 x 2.568
= 3287.04 N/m

136

Bending moment at bottom tangent line, M
x

x = distance measure from free end (28 m)
M
x
=
wx
2
2

=
3287.04(28)
2
2

= 1288519.68 N/m

3.4.5 Analysis of stress

At bottom tangent line,

Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure:

2

Where, P = operating pressure, N/mm
2

D
i
= column diameter, mm
t = thickness, mm

=
0.192.410
3

49

= 12.6667 N/mm
2


137

=
0.192.410
3

29

= 25.3333 N/mm
2


Dead weight stress

+

=
53420 N
2400+9 9

= 0.7843 N/mm
2


Bending stresses

D
o
= 2400 mm + (2 x 9mm)
= 2418 mm

I
v
=

64

4

=

64
2418
4
2400
4

= 4.9410 x 10
10
mm
4

2
+
=
1288519.68
4.9410 10
10

2400
2
+ 9
= 0.0315 N/mm
2


The resultant longitudinal stress is:

138

is compressive and therefore negative

= 12.6667 N/mm
2
- 0.7843 N/mm
2
+ 0.0315 N/mm
2

= 11.9139 N/mm
2

= 12.6667 N/mm
2
- 0.7843 N/mm
2
- 0.0315 N/mm
2

= 11.8509 N/mm
2


As no torsional shear stress, the principal stesses will
z
and
h

The radial stress is negligible (P
i
/2) = 0.095 N/mm
2


The greatest different between the principal stresses will be on the downwind side
= 25.3333 - 11.8509
= 13.4824 N/mm
2



Well below the maximum allowable design stress (135 N/mm
2
).

Check Elastic Stability (Buckling)

The critical buckling stress;

= 2 10
4

= 2 x 10
4
(9/2418)
= 74.4417 N/mm
2

When the vessel is not under pressure, the maximum compressive stress will occur:




139

Maximum stress =

= 0.7843 + 0.0315
= 0.8158 N/mm
2


The maximum stress is below critical buckling stress, thus the design is acceptable.


3.4.6 Design of vessel support (skirt design)

Type of support : Straight cylindrical skirt

s
: 90
0

Material construction : Carbon Steel
Design stress, f
s
: 135 N/mm
2
at ambient temperature, 27
0
C
Skirt height : 1.4 m
Young modulus : 200,000 N/mm
2

Total weight of vessel : 165.5035 kN
Wind loading : 3287.04 N/m





140

The maximum dead weight on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of water.
W
App
=

4

=
2.4
2
410009.81
4
= 177.5176 kN
Total weight:
W
Total
= W
Vessel
+ W
App

= 165.5035 + 177.5176 = 343.0211 kN

Bending moment at skirt base, M
s

M
s
=

2
2

= 3287.04
7+ 1.4
2
2
= 115.9668 kNm

Bending stresses in skirt,

As the first trial, take skirt thickness as the same as the thickness of the bottom
section of the vessel, t
s
= 9 mm.

=
4

=
4115.9668 10
6

2400+ 992418
= 2.8165 N/mm
2




141

Dead weight in the skirt,

() =
2

=
2177517.6
2418+ 99

= 5.1738 N/mm
2

() =
2

=
2165503.5
2418+ 99

= 4.8236 N/mm
2


The resulting stress in the skirt,

Maximum
s
(compressive);
=

()
= 2.8165 + 5.1738
= 7.9903 N/mm
2


Maximum
s
(tensile)
=

= 2.8165 + 4.8236
= 7.6401 N/mm
2


142

General Consideration for Skirt Design

Take joint factor, J = 0.85

<

sin
7.6401 N/mm
2
< 135 (0.85) sin 90
7.6401 N/mm
2
< 114.75 N/mm
2

< 0.125

sin
7.9903 N/mm
2
< 0.125 200000
9
2400
sin
7.9903 N/mm
2
< 93.75 N/mm
2

Both criteria are satisfied, add 2mm for corrosion, and give the design thickness:

= 9 mm + 2 mm
= 11 mm

3.4.7 Base ring and anchor bolts


Assume pitch circle diameter 2.2 m
Circumference of bolt circle = 2200 t
Recommended spacing between bolts = 600 mm
Minimum number bolts required, N
b
= 2200t/600 = 11.5
Closest multiple of 4, N
b
= 12 bolts
Bending moment at base skirt, M
s
= 115.9668
143

Total weight of vessel, W
t
= 165.5035 kN
Take bolt design stress, f
b
= 125 N/mm
2

The bolt area required is given by:

=
1

=
1
12(125)

4(343.0211 10
3
)
2.2
165.5035 10
3

= 305.4475 mm
2


Bolt root diameter, d
=
A
b
4

=
305.44754

d = 19.72 mm

Use bolts standard diameter = 30 mm

Use M24 bolts (BS4190:1967) root area = 353 mm
2


Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,

144

F

=
4

2
+

=
4343.0211 10
3

2.4
2
+
165.5035 10
3
2.4

= 75824.3106 + 21950.5834
= 97774.894 N/m

Based ring width, L
b

The minimum width of the base ring is given by:

1
10
3

Where;
L
b
= base ring width, mm
f
c
= maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete
foundation pad (typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm
2
)
bearing pressure, taking as 5 N/mm
2

=
97774.894
5

1
10
3

= 19.5550 mm


145

Therefore, the minimum width of the base ring, L
b
is 19.5550 mm.

From Fig.13.30, (Chemical Engineering Design, 4
th
Edition, Volume 6 Coulson &
Richardsons, R.K. Sinnott),

Use M24 bolts (BS 4190:1967)

A = 45, B = 76, C = 64, D = 13, E = 19, F = 30, G = 36
Actual width required,

L
b
= L
r
+ t
s
+ 50 mm
= 76 + 9 + 50
= 135 mm

Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

=
97774.894
135 10
3
= 0.724 /
2







146

Base ring thickness,

The required thickness for the base ring is found by treating the ring as cantilever
beam. The minimum thickness is given by:

Where f
c
= actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm
2

f
r
= allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm
2

= 76

30.724
140
= 9.466
round off to 10 mm

3.4.7 Piping and flanges design
Optimum diameter of flange can be calculating using equation:
d
optimum
= 293G
0.52

mix
0.37


Pipe Flow rate, G (kg/s) (kg/m)
Bottom Inlet 42.6315 1.9508
Top Inlet 0.1389 1000
Top Outlet 42.0942 1.7375
Bottom Outlet 0.7356 998

147

Bottom Inlet
G = 42.6315 kg/s, = 1.9508 kg/m
3
d
optimum
= 293(42.6315)
0.52
(1.9508)
0.37

d
optimum
= 1611 mm
Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange
Raised
face
Bolting
Drilling Neck
D b h d
4
F No. d
2
k d
3
h
2
r
1600 1620 1915 46 130 1760 5 M45 40 48 1820 1665 25 16

Nozzle thickness, t
n
=
P
s
D
opt
20 +P
s

Where, P
s
= operating pressure, N/mm
2
(0.17 N/mm
2
)
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
(135 N/mm
2
)
t
n
=
0.171611
20135 +0.17
= 0.1014 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm = 0.1014 + 4
= 4.1014 4.2 mm







148

Top Inlet
G = 0.1389 kg/s, = 1000 kg/m
3
d
optimum
= 293(0.1389)
0.52
(1000)
0.37

d
optimum
= 8.1484 mm
Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange Raised face
Bolting
Drilling Neck
D b h d
4
F No. d
2
k d
3
h
2
r
10 17.2 75 12 28 35 2 M10 4 11 50 26 6 4

Nozzle thickness, t
n
=
P
s
D
opt
20 +P
s

Where, P
s
= operating pressure, N/mm
2
(0.17 N/mm
2
)
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
(135 N/mm
2
)
t
n
=
0.178.1484
20135 +0.17
= 0.000513 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm = 0.000513 + 4
= 4.000513 4 mm







149

Top Outlet
G = 42.0942 kg/s, = 1.7375 kg/m
3
d
optimum
= 293(42.0942)
0.52
(1.7375 )
0.37

d
optimum
= 1670 mm
Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange
Raised
face
Bolting
Drilling Neck
D b H d
4
F No. d
2
k d
3
h
2
r
1800 1820 2115 50 140 1960 5 M45 44 48 2020 1868 30 16

Nozzle thickness, t
n
=
P
s
D
opt
20 +P
s

Where, P
s
= operating pressure, N/mm
2
(0.17 N/mm
2
)
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
(135 N/mm
2
)
t
n
=
0.171670
20135 +0.17
= 0.1051 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm = 0.1051 + 4
= 4.1051 4.2 mm







150

Bottom Outlet
G = 0.7356 kg/s, = 998 kg/m
3
d
optimum
= 293(0.7356)
0.52
(998 )
0.37

d
optimum
= 19.4 mm
Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange Raised face
Bolting
Drilling Neck
D b H d
4
F No. d
2
k d
3
h
2
r
15 21.3 80 12 30 35 2 M10 4 11 50 30 6 4

Nozzle thickness, t
n
=
P
s
D
opt
20 +P
s

Where, P
s
= operating pressure, N/mm
2
(0.17 N/mm
2
)
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
(135 N/mm
2
)
t
n
=
0.1719.4
20135 +0.17
= 0.00122 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm = 0.00122 + 4
= 4.00122 4 mm







151

SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
Types Packed Column
Design pressure 0.19 N/mm
2

Design Temperature 120C
Cylindrical
Material Carbon Steel
Tensile strength 360 N/mm
2

Design stress 121 N/mm
2

Types of head Ellipsoidal
Height head 0.5 m
Thickness 9 mm
Corrosion allowed 2 mm
Column weight
Dead weight 53.42 kN
Weight of insulation 10.096 kN
Weight of packed bed 100.9375 kN
Weight of external fittings 1.05 kN
Total weight 165.5035 kN
Wind loading
Loading 3287.04 N/m
Analysis stress
Dead weight stress 0.7843 N/mm
2

152

Bending stress 0.0315 N/mm
2

Critical buckling 74.4417 N/mm
2

Vessel supports
Straight cylindrical skirt 90
Material Carbon Steel
Design stress 135 N/mm
2

Skirt height 1.4 m
Total weight 343.0211 kN
Bending moment 115.9668 kNm
Thickness 11 mm
Anchor bolts
Bolts 12 bolts
Design stress 125 N/mm
2

Area 353
Bolts root diameter 30 mm
Types M24 bolts (BS4190:1967)
Piping sizing (Diameter Outer)
Bottom inlet 1620 mm
Top inlet 17.2 mm
Top outlet 1820 mm
Bottom outlet 21.3 mm

153


























154

CHAPTER 4


HYDROGEN CYANIDE RECOVERY COLUMN (DC3)


4.1 General view


Distillation column is design to separates different products into its
fractions according to their boiling points. A distillation column has different
chambers and low boiling point fractions (less volatile fraction) come into lower
side of column (bottom product) and higher boiling point fractions (more volatile
fraction) come into upper side of column (distillate product). It is constructed in
increasing order of boiling points from below to upper side of column.

A distillation column system normally consist a vapor condenser which
will be produce liquid (reflux) which is returned to the top, and a liquid heater
( reboiler ) is used to generate vapor for introduction at the bottom. Both
equipments are added to increase the ability of the distillation column.

In real industry distillation columns have a specific range of dimension
.For example range in diameter from a few inches to 40 ft (12 m) and in height
from 10 to 200 ft ( 3 to 60 m). it operate at pressures as low as a few
millimeters of mercury and as high as 3000 lb/in.
2
(2 MPa) at temperatures from
300 to 700F (180 to 370C) (source :
http://www.answers.com/topic/distillation-column-1 ).


155















In designing process, there are two different sections will be consider for detail
design of distillation column. They are chemical design and mechanical design.
Chemical design section would include the steps taken in determining the number of
theoretical, minimal and actual number of stages, column diameter, height and other
supporting parameters. The mechanical design however focuses more upon the
method in calculating various dimension of the column inclusive of several safety
aspects in designing the shell, head and closures, gasket, bolts, flange and skirt
support.





Figure 4.1 Distillation column schematics diagram
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_distillation(on-line))
156

4.2 COLUMN DESCRIPTION AND DESIGN ASSUMPTION

In this distillation column , 90 % hydrogen cyanide in a feed stream will be
removed as a distillate product .This column need to be used in this plant because
hydrogen cyanide has closest boiling point with acrolein. For this plant, the different
between hydrogen cyanide and acrolein is hydrogen cyanide considered as waste while
acrolein will be consider as by-product. Thus, acrolein is needed to be separate from
the hydrogen cyanide. Below is the diagram show all stream properties related to the
distillation column.













Figure.4.2 Distillation columns stream properties
157

To reduce difficulty level in designing this column . Several major assumptions
have been made while other assumptions were stated in the sample of calculation
section .The major assumptions are ( Source :W.L Luyben ,1990) :
1. The liquid in the reboiler and in the base of the column are perfectly mixed
together
2. Neglect any delay time (dead time ) in the vapor line from the top of the column
to the reflux drum and in the reflux line back to the top tray
3. Through the system , the vapor holdup of the vapor is assume to be negligible.
4. Vapor and liquid rate through the stripping and rectifying section will be constant
under steady state condition .( Equimolar flow)
5. The liquid on the trays protected is perfectly mixed and incompressible
6. Dynamic of the condenser and the reboiler will be neglected.

4.3 CHEMICAL DESIGN

There are following steps in designing distillation column (R.K. Sinnot, 2005):

- Specify the degree of separation required: set product specification
- Select the operating condition: batch or continuous; operating pressure
- Select the type of contacting device: plates or packing
- Determine the stage and reflux requirements: the number of equilibrium stages
- Size the column: diameter, number of real stages
- Design the column internals: plates, distributors, packing supports




158

4.3.1 Design parameter

The performance of the distillation column where measured by its dimension
and properties . Normally feed stream condition ,internal liquid and flow liquid condition
,column diameter, weather , and state and type of tray affecting the performance of the
column. Below are the listed parameter that also considered parameter that will affect
column performance :

4.3.1.1 Dew point and bubble point temperature

Bubble point is the point where first bubble of vapor is formed while the dew
point is the temperature to which a given parcel of humid air must be cooled (Wikipedia
,2011).Dew point and bubble point temperature can be calculate by using equation
below which from vapor-liquid equilibrium theory :

=
i
y

= 0 . 1
i i
x k
(4.1)

=
i
x

= 0 . 1 /
i i
k y
(4.2)

Relative volatility ( )is a measure comparing the vapor pressures of the
components in a liquid mixture of chemicals and describe how difficulty level of
separation to separate the mixture consist of more volatile component and less volatile
component ( Wikipedia,2011).The relative volatility for multi component can be
expressed as the ratio of light key K value to the heavy key K. relative volatility less
than 1aproching 0 indicate that the multi component is hard to separate while relative
volatility more than 1 indicate the component can be separate easily. Below is the
equation to calculate relative volatility .
Relative volatility , =
( Y
LK
/X
LK
)
(Y
HK
/X
HK
)
=
K
LK
K
HK
(4.3)

159

4.3.1.2 Key component

Key component is component are two component that need to be separated by
the difference in their relative volatility, or boiling points. It is also known as fractional
distillation or fractionation. These key components are divided into two components
which are light key and heavy key. Heavy key is the heavier component (less volatile) of
the two key components. Heavy key is collected at the bottoms. All non-key
components heavier than the heavy key are known as the heavy non-key components.
For light key ,the component is the lighter (more volatile) of the two key components.
Light key is collected at the distillate. All non-key components lighter than the light key
are known as the light non-key components.( Y.H chew and L.L Ai ,2007 ).Below is the
classification for all component in the feed stream.


Table 4.1 key classifications for all components in the feed stream
NO Component Type of key
1
Acrylonitrile (AN) Heavy non-key
2
Acetonitrile (ACN) Heavy non-key
3
Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)
Light key
4
Acrolein (ACR)
Heavy key
5
Water (H
2
O)
Heavy non-key
6
Propene (C
3
H
6
)
Light non key
7
Carbon Dioxide (C0
2
)
Light non key
8
Nitrogen (N
2
)
Light non key




160

4.3.1.3 Reflux ratio

Reflux ratio (R) is define as the quantity of liquid reflux per unit quantity of
product removed from the process unit. Normally it exists in rectifying section in
distillation column. Minimum reflux ratio (Rm) is the smallest reflux ratio in a two-
component liquid distillation system that will produce the desired overhead and bottom
compositions. Minimum reflux ratio for multi component can be determine by using
Colburn (1941) and Underwood (1948) .Hence reflux ratio can be determine by using
Ebar-maddox correlation .

4.3.1.4 Stages and plate

For multi component distillation number of minimum stages (N
min
) can be
calculate using Fenske equation and hengstebeck method .For this distillation column
hengstebeck method is not suitable to be used. This is because the presence of the
other components does give significantly affect the volatility of the key components, or
in other word , the presence of the non key component must not exceed 10% of the
total component.Hence the keys cant be treated as a pseudo-binary pair.(R.K
Sinnot,2005)








161

4.3.1.5 Weir

In distillation column ,weir is used to control the flow rate of the liquid phase by
detaining liquid to a certain level, in order to enhance the contact time between the
liquid and the vapor phases. The dimension of weir in the column will determine the
plate efficiency .Increasing weir height will increase the plate efficiency but at the
expense of a higher plate pressure drop. In real situation , For columns operating above
atmospheric pressure the weir heights will normally be between 40 mm to 90 mm (1.5
to 3.5 in.); 40 to 50 mm is recommended. For weir length ,will normally be between 0.6
to 0.85 of the column diameter. A good initial value to use is 0.77, equivalent to a down
comer area of 12 per cent (R.K Sinnot,2005).

















Figure 4.3 Weir in distillation column (Source :
http://www.globalspec.com/reference/81424/203279/chapter-3-how-trays-work-flooding-
downcomer-backup)

162

4.3.1.6 Weep point

Weep point is the lower limit of the operating range occurs when liquid leakage
and flows downward the plate holes becomes excessive. Normally vapor rises up
through the holes and contacts the liquid on the tray. If the vapor rate is too low the
liquid may be able to drop to the next stage through the holes, resulting in less than
optimal vapor/liquid contact (and therefore less than optimal separation).


4.3.2 Sample of calculation

All sample of calculation is made for acrylonitrile component













163

4.3.2.1 Raw material

Assumption: 1) 90% hydrogen cyanide will be removed from feed stream.
2) No reaction occur in the column


Table 4.2 Feed stream, top stream and bottom stream composition
No Component
Input stream
( kmol/hr)
Output stream
( kmol/hr)
S
9
S
17
S
18

1 Acrylonitrile (AN) 267.1083 0.2670 266.8412
2 Acetonitrile (ACN) 2.7292 - 2.7292
3 Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) 53.1947 47.8752 5.3195
4 Acrolein (ACR) 8.5476 0.0086 8.5390
5 Water (H
2
O) 166.0733 0.1660 165.9114
6 Propene (C
3
H
6
) 0.0007 0.0007 -
7 Carbon Dioxide (C0
2
) 0.0130 0.0130 -
8 Nitrogen (N
2
) 0.4765 0.4765 -
Total each stream flow 498.1000 48.8070 449.3403





164

Table 4.3 Mol fraction for feed stream ,distillate stream and bottom stream
No Component
Input stream
( mol fraction)
Output stream ( mol fraction)
S
9
S
17
S
18

1 Acrylonitrile (AN) 0.5362 0.0055 0.5939
2 Acetonitrile (CAN) 0.0055 - 0.0061
3 Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) 0.1068 0.9809 0.0118
4 Acrolein (ACR) 0.0172 0.0002 0.0190
5 Water (H
2
O) 0.3333 0.0034 0.3692
6 Propene (C
3
H
6
) 0.0000 0.0000 -
7 Carbon Dioxide (C0
2
) 0.0000 0.0002 -
8 Nitrogen (N
2
) 0.0010 0.0098 -
Total 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000



Table 4.4 Average molecular weight at feed stream
No Component X
i,f
Mw MW
ave

1 AN 0.53620 53.064
28.4529
2 ACN 0.00550 41.053
0.2258
3 HCN 0.10680 27.026
2.8864
4 ACR 0.01720 56.064
0.9643
5 H
2
0 0.33330 18.015
6.0044
6 C
3
H
6
0.00000 42.081
0.0000
7 CO
2
0.00000 44.01
0.0000
8 N
2
0.00100 28.02
0.0280
9 1
38.5618
(Source: Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6 4
th
Edition )

165

Table 4.5 Average molecular weight at distillate stream

(Source: Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6 4
th
Edition )


Table 4.6 Average molecular weight at bottom stream
no component X
i,B
Mw MW
ave

i (kg/m
3
)
X
i,D

i

1 AN 0.59390 53.064 31.5147 806 478.6834
2 ACN 0.00610 41.053 0.2504 782 4.7702
3 HCN 0.01180 27.026 0.3189 688 8.1184
4 ACR 0.01900 56.064 1.0652 839 15.941
5 H
2
0 0.36920 18.015 6.6511 998 368.4616
6 C
3
H
6
0.00000 42.081 0.0000 612 0
7 CO
2
0.00000 44.01 0.0000 777 0
8 N
2
0.00000 28.02 0.0000 805 0
9 1 39.8004 875.9746
(Source: Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6 4
th
Edition )






No Component X
i,D
Mw MW
ave

i (kg/m
3
)
X
i,D

i

1 AN 0.00550 53.064 0.2919 806 4.433
2 ACN 0.00000 41.053 0.0000 782 0
3 HCN 0.98090 27.026 26.5098 688 674.8592
4 ACR 0.00020 56.064 0.0112 839 0.1678
5 H
2
0 0.00340 18.015 0.0613 998 3.3932
6 C
3
H
6
0.00000 42.081 0.0000 612 0
7 CO
2
0.00020 44.01 0.0088 777 0.1554
8 N
2
0.00980 28.02 0.2746 805 7.889
9 1 27.1575 690.8976
166

4.3.2.2 Temperature at bubble and dew point

Using Antoine equation to find vapor pressure (P
A
*(T))

+

(4.4)


Where;
A, B and C = Antoine constant for each component
P
A
*(T) = Vapor pressure at T (mmHg)
T = Operating Temperature (
o
C)


Table 4.7 Antoine parameter for all component
no
Component A B C
1
AN
6.91630 1208.300 222.010
2
ACN
7.07350 1279.200 224.010
3
HCN
7.52823 1329.49 260.418
4
ACR
7.38041 1343.54 245.902
5
H
2
O
8.10765 1750.286 235.000
6
H
2
O
7.96681 1668.210 228.000
7
C
3
H
6

6.81960 785.000 247.000
8
C0
2

9.81060 1347.790 273.000
9
N
2
**

3.73620 264.651 -6.7888

(Source:http://www.engr.umd.edu/~nsw/ench250/antoine.dat (on-line))

** calculation need to be done in Kelvin for the unit of temperature
167

Calculation for temperature at dew point ,T
dp


Dew point theory

=
i
x

= 0 . 1 /
i i
k y


Trial 1
Temperature = 37
o
C Operating Pressure, P = 152.0 kPa


Calculation of vapor pressure of acrylonitrile

log
10
P
AN

T = A
B
T+ C

log
10
P
AN

37 = 6.91630
1208.3
37 + 222.010

log
10
P
AN

37 = 2.2512
P
AN

37 = 178.33 mmHg

Converting the vapor pressure from mmHg to KPa

Pressure in kPa =
101.325 KPa
760 mmHG
x 178.33 mmHg
= 23.775 KPa








168

Calculation of distribution coefficient , K
i
at dew point


Assumption : all gases following ideal liquid solution

K
AN
=
P
AN

T
P
T
=
23.775
152.0

K
AN
= 0.1564

Determination of mole fraction in liquid phase, X
AN

Since in equilibrium , X
i
= Y
i

X
AN
=
Y
AN
K
AN
=
0.0055
0.1757

X
AN
= 0.0313


Calculations are repeated for all components. By using goal seek from Microsoft
excel.dew point temperature are determined.





169







After trial and error calculation had been made , the temperature at dew point was determine at 39.98
o
C with x
i
= 0.99997
NO component AP X
i
=Y
i
P
I
*(T)-mmHG PI*(T)-Kpa
K
i
= (PI*(T)-
Kpa)/P
X
i
= Y
i
/K
i

1 AN 2.30430 0.00550 201.51312 26.86621 0.17675 0.03112
2 ACN 2.22787 0.00000 168.99498 22.53081 0.14823 0.00000
3 HCN 3.10248 0.98090 1266.12833 168.80323 1.11055 0.88326
4 ACR 2.68079 0.00020 479.50080 63.92818 0.42058 0.00048
5 H
2
0 1.74253 0.00340 55.27461 7.36934 0.04848 0.07013
6 C
3
H
6
4.08422 0.00000 12140.14631 1618.55306 10.64838 0.00000
7 CO
2
5.50430 0.00020 319370.95326 42579.29189 280.12692 0.00000
8 N
2
2.87229 0.00980 745.23384 99.35634 0.65366 0.01499



1.00000

0.99997
Table 4.8 Summary of calculations for temperature at dew point
170

Calculation for temperature at bubble point ,T
bp


Dew point theory

=
i
y

= 0 . 1
i i
x k

Trial 1
Temperature = 88.2
o
C Operating Pressure, P = 182.4 kPa


Determination of vapor pressure of acrylonitrile

log
10
P
AN

T = A
B
T+ C

log
10
P
AN

(88.2) = 6.91630
1208.3
88.2 + 222.010

log
10
P
AN

(88.2) = 3.0212
P
AN

(88.2) = 1050.02 mmHg

Converting the vapor pressure from mmHg to KPa

Pressure in KPa =
101.325 KPa
760 mmHG
x 1050.02 mmHg
= 139.99 KPa








171

Determination of distribution coefficient , K
i
at bubble point

Assumption : all gases following ideal liquid solution

K
AN
=
P
AN

T
P
T

K
AN
=
139.99
182.4

K
AN
= 0.7675

Determination of mole fraction in vapor phase, Y
AN

Since in equilibrium , Y
i
= X
i

Y
AN
= K
AN
X
AN
Y
AN
= 1.1759 x 0.5939
Y
AN
= 0.69836


Calculations are repeated for all components. By using goal seek from Microsoft excel.
bubble point temperature are determined.
.







172






After trial and error process has been made , the temperature at bubble point was determine at 101.88
o
C with y
i
=
1.000459162
NO component AP X
i
=Y
i
P
I
*(T)-mmHG PI*(T)-Kpa
K
i
= (PI*(T)-
Kpa)/P
Y
i
=K
i
X
i

1 AN 3.18574 0.59390 1533.69583 204.47596 1.12103 0.66578
2 ACN 3.14828 0.00610 1406.94512 187.57726 1.02838 0.00627
3 HCN 3.85865 0.01180 7221.87683 962.83772 5.27872 0.06229
4 ACR 3.51727 0.01900 3290.55136 438.70410 2.40518 0.04570
5 H
2
0 2.91211 0.36920 816.78697 108.89597 0.59702 0.22042
6 C
3
H
6
4.56956 0.00000 37115.70127 4948.35320 27.12913 0.00000
7 CO
2
6.21537 0.00000 1641969.75043 218911.29600 1200.17158 0.00000
8 N
2
3.62445 0.00000 4211.62883 561.50433 3.07842 0.00000
1.000 1.000459162
Table 4.9 Summary of calculations for temperature at bubble point
173

4.3.2.3 Relative volatility ( )

The relative volatility of two components can be expressed as the ratio of their K value
at feed stream:

=

(4.5)

Where, K
LK


= light components
K
HK
= heavy components

At dew point properties :

Temperature = 39.98
o
C
Pressure = 152 KPa

AN
=
K
AN
K
ACR


AN
=
0.17675
0.42058


AN
= 0.42025


Table 4.10 Summary of relative volatility
NO Component At dew point At bubble point Average
1 AN 0.4203 0.4661 0.4432
2 ACN 0.3524 0.4276 0.3900
3 HCN 2.6405 2.1947 2.4176
4 ACR 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
5 H
2
0 0.1153 0.2482 0.1817
6 C
3
H
6
25.3183 11.2795 18.2989
7 CO
2
666.0488 498.9953 582.5221
8 N
2
1.5542 5.1563 3.3553



174

4.3.2.4 Thermal condition (q) at feed

Since feed temperature is not at its boiling point, therefore thermal condition needs to
be recalculated.

q =

+
f fs
H H
(4.6)

= the molar of the latent heat of vaporization
H
fs
= the molar enthalpy of the feed at its boiling point
H
f
= the molar enthalpy of the feed

Feed stream properties :

Temperature = 106.2
o
C
Pressure = 187.5 KPa

Calculation of the molar latent heat of vaporization ,

Latent heat equation due to Haggenmacher (1946) is derived from the Antoine vapor
pressure equation:
L
v
=
2
2
) C T (
z BT 32 . 8
+
A
(4.7)
Where :
L
v
= latent heat at the required temperature, kJ/kmol
T = temperature, K
B, C = coefficients in the Antoine equation
Az= Z
gas
Z
liquid
(where z is the compressibility constant),
from equation:
5 . 0
3
r
r
T
P
1 z
(
(

= A
(4.8)

P
r
= reduced pressure
T
r
= reduced temperature

175

Determination of vapor pressure of acrylonitrile at feed steam properties

log
10
P
AN

T = A
B
T+ C

log
10
P
AN

(105.7) = 6.91630
1208.3
106.2 + 222.010

log
10
P
AN

(105.7) = 3.2348
P
AN

(105.7) = 1717.1791 mmHg

Converting the vapor pressure from mmHg to KPa

Pressure in KPa =
101.325 KPa
760 mmHG
x 1717.1791 mmHg
= 228.938 KPa

Table 4.11 Summary of vapor pressure at feed steam properties
NO component Ap P
I
*(T)-mmHG PI*(T)-Kpa
1 AN 3.23482 1717.17906 228.93838
2 ACN 3.19960 1583.43985 211.10795
3 HCN 3.90187 7977.50095 1063.57932
4 ACR 3.56464 3669.78572 489.26452
5 H
2
0 2.97786 950.28781 126.69462
6 C
3
H
6
4.59706 39542.41536 5271.88847
7 CO
2
6.25630 1804269.78697 240549.52127
8 N
2
3.02584 1061.31481 141.49700



176

5 . 0
3
1
(
(

= A
r
r
T
P
z
Calculation of pressure reduce at feed temperature

Pressure reduce (P
r
) =
P
AN

T
P
C
(4.9)
=
2.2894 bar
35.5000
= 0.0645

calculation of temperature reduce at feed temperature

Temperature reduce (T
r
) =
T
f
T
C
(4.10)
=
379.35
536.00
= 0.7077

Calculation of change of compressibility factor (Z) at feed temperature


Change of compressibility factor,



= 1
0.0645
0.7077
3

0.5


= 0.9044



Calculation of latent heat (L
v
) at feed temperature,

L
v
=
2
2
) C T (
z BT 32 . 8
+
A


L
v
=
8.32 x 1208.3 x 379.35
2
x 0.9044
378.85+222.01
2


L
v
= 3618.0100
Kj
Kmol
177



Table 1.12 Summary of latent heat calculation at feed stream properties
no component P (bar) Pc(bar) Tc (K) Pr Tr
3
Z L
v

1 AN 2.2894 35.5000 536.0000 0.0645 0.3545 0.9045 3618.3359
2 ACN 2.1111 48.3000 548.0000 0.0437 0.3317 0.9318 3920.2086
3 HCN 11.5805 53.9000 456.8000 0.2149 0.5727 0.7905 3074.2132
4 ACR 5.3272 51.7000 506.0000 0.1030 0.4214 0.8692 3576.4403
5 H
2
0 1.3795 220.5000 647.3000 0.0063 0.2013 0.9843 5465.4308
6 C
3
H
6
57.4015 33.9000 126.2000 1.6933 27.1608 0.9683 2319.8569
7 CO
2
2619.1587 73.8000 304.2000 35.4900 1.9393 neglected neglected
8 N
2
1.5407 33.9400 126.2000 0.0454 27.1608 0.9992 2280.9648
(Source: Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6 4
th
Edition (P: 1121-1147))

Therefore , L
v
feed = x
i
L
vi

L
v
feed = 1940.1517 + 21.5612 + 328.3260 + 61.5158 + 1821.6281 + 2.2810
L
v
feed = 4175.4638

178

Calculation of molar enthalpy of the feed at boiling point and at feed temperature


Molar enthalpy can be calculated using formula

Molar enthalpy (H) = C
p
dT (4.11)

But since to calculate thermal condition required H
fs
- H
f
,therefore equation above can
be simplified as below ;

Molar enthalpy (H
fs
- H
f
) = C
p
( T
bp
T
f
)

Determination of heat capacity ( C
p mixture
) ,
Molar enthalpy (H
fs
- H
f
) = C
p
( T
bp
T
f
)

Since required in unit KJ /kmol, therefore will be removed from the equation

(H
fs
- H
f
) = C
p
( T
bp
T
f
)
= 3.83 x 10
4
- 4.14 x 10
4

= -3100

179

Table 4.13 C
p
o
at feed temperature
no Component a b c d
Cp
o
(T)
1 AN 6.89E+00
2.52E-01
-2.33E-04 1.02E-07
3.10E+01
2 ACN 2.05E+01
1.20E-02
-4.49E-05 3.20E-09
2.12E+01
3 HCN 3.53E-02
2.91E-05
1.09E-08 -
3.85E-02
4 ACR 3.07E+04
8.10E+01
1.91E-01 -
4.14E+04
5 H
2
0 3.35E-02
6.88E-06
7.60E-09 -3.59E-12
3.43E-02
6 C
3
H
6
5.96E-02
1.77E-04
-1.02E-07 2.46E-12
7.72E-02
7 CO
2
3.61E-02
4.23E-05
-2.89E-08 7.46E-12
4.03E-02
8 N
2
2.90E-02
2.20E-06
5.72E-09 -2.87E-12
2.93E-02
9
4.14E+04


Table 4.14 C
p
o
at boiling temperature
no component a b c d Cp
o

1 AN 6.89E+00 2.52E-01 -2.33E-04 1.02E-07 2.53E+01
2 ACN 2.05E+01 1.20E-02 -4.49E-05 3.20E-09 2.11E+01
3 HCN 3.53E-02 2.91E-05 1.09E-08 - 3.77E-02
4 ACR 3.07E+04 8.10E+01 1.91E-01 - 3.83E+04
5 H
2
0 3.35E-02 6.88E-06 7.60E-09 -3.59E-12 3.40E-02
6 C
3
H
6
5.96E-02 1.77E-04 -1.02E-07 2.46E-12 7.29E-02
7 CO
2
3.61E-02 4.23E-05 -2.89E-08 7.46E-12 3.93E-02
8 N
2
2.90E-02 2.20E-06 5.72E-09 -2.87E-12 2.92E-02
9 3.83E+04

Therefore,
q =

+
f fs
H H

q =
4175.46383100
4175.4638

q = 0.2576
180

LK
LK
HK
HK
LK
m
b
x
x
d
x
x
N
o log
log
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
4.3.2.5 Minimum stage


By using Fenske equation (Fenske,1932 )



Minimum stage, (4.12)

=

.
.

.
.

.
= 15.68 stages


4.3.2.6 Minimum reflux

Minimum reflux ratio can be calculating using Underwood equation:

u o
o
i
d i
i
, x
= R
m
+ 1 (4.13)

Where,
i
o

= the relative volatility of component i with respect to some
Reference component, usually the heavy key
R
m
= the minimum reflux ratio
Xi,
d
= concentration of component i in the tops at minimum reflux








181

And u is the root of the equation:

u o
o
i
f i i
, x
= 1 q (4.14)

xi,
f
= the concentration of component I in the feed, and q depends on
the condition of the feed

u o
o
i
f i i
, x
= 1 q = 1 0.2576

u o
o
i
f i i
, x
= 0.7424

Determination of the root (u ) by using trial an error method


Table 4.15 Summary of the root calculation
No Component X
i,f

i
X
i.f

i
(1-q)i
1 AN 0.53620
0.46792
0.25090 0.40875
2 ACN 0.00550
0.43148
0.00237 0.00411
3 HCN 0.10680
2.17383
0.23217 0.10008
4 ACR 0.01720
1.00000
0.01720 0.01501
5 H
2
0 0.33330
0.25895
0.08631 0.21318
6 C
3
H
6
0.00000
10.77513
0.00000 0.00000
7 CO
2
0.00000
491.65535
0.00000 0.00000
8 N
2
0.00100
0.28920
0.00029 0.00066
9 1 0.74180

After using trial and error, it is founded that the root is u = -0.1459.



182

Determination of Minimum reflux ratio (R
m
) ,

u o
o
i
d i
i
, x
= R
m
+ 1
Table 4.16 summary of the minimum reflux ratio
No Component X
i,d
i X
i.d

i
i - (Rm +1)
i

1 AN 0.59390 3.6457 2.1652 3.7916 0.5710
2 ACN 0.00610 3.0574 0.0186 3.2033 0.0058
3 HCN 0.01180 22.9061 0.2703 23.0520 0.0117
4 ACR 0.01900 8.6749 0.1648 8.8208 0.0187
5 H
2
0 0.36920 1.0000 0.3692 1.1459 0.3222
6 C
3
H
6
0.00000 219.6333 0.0000 219.7792 0.0000
7 CO
2
0.00000 5777.8957 0.0000 5778.0416 0.0000
8 N
2
0.00000 13.4824 0.0000 13.6283 0.0000
9 1.0000 0.9295

Since
R
m
+ 1 = 0.9295
R
m
= 0.9295- 1
R
m
= -0.0705

Therefore

R
m
R
m
+1
=
0.0705
0.9295

= -0.0758



183

Assumption : taking
R
m
R
m
+1
= 0,

Determination of reflux ratio (R) ,


Specimen calculation , for R=2.0


R
R+1
=
2
3

= 0.666

From Erbar-Maddox correlation (Erbar and Marddox ,1961) in appendix A.1

= 0.85

Determination of ideal stage
N
m
N
= 0.85
15.68
N
= 0.85
N = 18.45 stages

Therefore the ideal stages of the column is 19 stages excluding reboiler.
At 19 ideal stages and 15.68 minimum stages. The N
m
/N is 0.825 , therefore R ideal is
1.7.


184

4.3.2.7 Overall column efficiency (E
o
)

A quick estimate of the overall column efficiency can be obtained from correlation given
by OConnell (1946);

) log( 5 . 32 51
0 a a
E o =
(4.15)

Where,
a
o = average relative volatility of the light key

a
= the molar average liquid viscosity, mNs/m
2


Viscosity at dependent temperature

Log (
a
) = [A] * [(
1

) (
1

)] (4.16)

Where,
A,B
= Constant in the viscosity at dependent temperature

T
= temperature in Kelvin (K)














185

Column properties ,

Temperature at top is 39.98
o
C and temperature at bottom is 101.88
o
C.Therefore the
average of the column temperature is 70.93
o
C or approximately 345 K.

Determination of viscosity of components at average temperature, 345 K,for constant A
and B,please refer to table 4.14 below.


Log (
AN
) = [A] * [(
1

) (
1

)]
Log (
AN
) = [343.31] x [ (
1
345
) (
1
210.42
) ]
Log (
AN
) = -0.6364

AN
= 0.231 mNs/m
2
186




Table 4.17 Summary calculation of viscosity
no component A B log () X
i,f
Xi,f
1 AN 343.3100 210.4200 -0.6364 0.2310 0.5362 0.1238
2 ACN 334.9100 210.0500 -0.6237 0.2379 0.0055 0.0013
3 HCN 194.7000 145.3100 -0.7755 0.1677 0.1068 0.0179
4 ACR 388.1700 217.1400 -0.6625 0.2175 0.0172 0.0037
5 H
2
0 342.7900 165.5400 -1.0771 0.0837 0.3333 0.0279
6 C
3
H
6
273.8400 131.6300 -1.2866 0.0517 0.0000 0.0000
7 CO
2
578.0800 185.2400 -1.4451 0.0359 0.0000 0.0000
8 N
2
406.2000 230.2100 -0.5871 0.2588 0.0010 0.0003
9 0.17497
(Source: Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6 4
th
Edition)

For feed composition, molar average viscosity is 0.175 mNs/m
2
.Therefore , from distillation column efficiencies (
bubble-caps)(after OConnel,1946) graph in appendix A.2 . The overall column efficiency will be 75%.




187

By taking safety margin as 1.5

The new E
0
is =
0.75
1.5
x 100% = 50 %

The number of ideal stages is 48, so the number of real stages is 38 stages


4.3.2.8 Feed stage


By using Kirkbride equation (1944):

Log
(

s
r
N
N
= 0.206 log
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
HK , d
LK , b
LK , f
HK , f
x
x
x
x
D
B
(4.17)


Where,
r
N

= number of stages above the feed, including any
partial condenser

s
N

= number of stages below the feed, including the
reboiler

HK , f
x

= concentration of the heavy key in the feed

LK , f
x = concentration of the light key in the feed

HK , d
x = concentration of the heavy key in the top product

LK , b
x = concentration of the light key if in the bottom
product
B = molar flow of bottom product
D = molar flow of top product



188

Log
(

s
r
N
N
= 0.206 log
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
9809 . 0
0118 . 0
1068 . 0
0172 . 0
8070 . 48
3403 . 449
=-0.7557

(

s
r
N
N
= 0.1755

Where real number of stages is 38,

s r
N N + = 38
0.1755N
s
+ N
s
= 38
N
r
= 5.67
N
s
=32.32

Therefore, the feed is at stages 6 from the top column.
189

4.3.2.9 Column diameter (D
c
)

The main factor affected the column diameter is the vapor flow rate. The
equation given below, will be used to calculate maximum superficial vapor velocity (U
v
)
and hence the column area and diameter:


By using Souders and Brown equation, Lowenstein (1961) equation ,

U
v
= (-0.171L
t
2
+ 0.27L
t
-0.047 )

1/2
(4.18)

Where, U
v
= maximum allowable vapor velocity, based on the gross (total)
Column cross-sectional area, m/s
L
t
= plate spacing, (range 0.5 1.0 m)

For first estimation plate spacing from 0.15 m to 1 m are normally used. The
spacing chosen will depend on the column diameter and operating conditions. For
columns above 1 m diameter, plate spacing of 0.3 to 0.6 m will normally be used, and
0.5 m can be taken as an initial estimate. This would be revised, as necessary, when
the detailed plate design is made.

For plate spacing (L
t
) at 0.5 m ,
U
v
= (-0.171(0.5)
2
+ 0.27(0.5)

-0.047 )
875.97461.5873
1.5873

1/2

U
v
= 1.062 ms
-1




190

Hence
Column diameter (D
c
)

=

4V
w

v
U
v
(4.19)

With V
w
= the maximum vapor rate, kg/s
V
w
= 131.7789
Kmol
hr
x
1
3600

hr
S
x 38.5618
Kg
Kmol

V
w
= 1.4116
Kg
s


Therefore

(D
c
)

=
4 (1.4116)
3.142 1.5873 (1.062)

(D
c
)

= 1.032 m or approximately 1.1 m


4.3.2.10 Column area (A
c
)

Area of the column (A
c
) =

2
4
=
(3.142 1.1
2
)
4

A
c
= 0.95 m
2




191

4.3.2.11 Plate design


Column diameter, D
c
= 1.1 m

Column area, A
c
= 0.9503 m
2


Down comer area, A
d
= At 12 % of column area
= 0.12 x 0.9503
= 0.1140 m
2


Net area, A
n
= A
c
- A
d

= 0.9503 -0.1140
= 0.8363 m
2


Active area, A
a
= A
c
2A
d

= 0.9503 2(0.1140)
= 0.7223 m
2


Hole area, A
h
= First trial = take 10% of A
a

= 0.07223 m
2



Calculation for weir length
=
A
d
A
c
x 100% =
0.1140
0.9503
x 100 %
= 12 %



192

From appendix A.8 ,

When WL = 12%, Iw/Dc = 0.77
Therefore weir length, I
w
= 0.77 x 1.1 m
I
w
= 0.847 m

Typical thickness for carbon steel plate is 5 mm ( R.K. Sinnot ,2005)

Take Weir height , h
w
= 50mm
Hole diameter, d
h
= 5mm
Plate thickness, t
p
= 5mm

Area of single hole,
A
h,1
=
D
h
2
4

A
h,1
=

22
7
5 x 10
3

2
4

A
h,1
= 1.9635 x 10
-5
m
2






193

Number of holes per plate
N
h
=
A
h
A
h
,1
=
0.07223
1.9635 x 10
5


N
h
= 3678.28 holes

4.3.2.12 Column Height


The equation below determines the height of the column without taking skirt or
any support into consideration .

Column height = (No of stages-1)(tray spacing) + (Tray spacing x 2) +
(No of Stages -1)(Plate thickness ) (4.20)
= (38-1)(0.5) + (0.5x 2) + (38 -1)(5 x 10
-3
)
= 19.685 m








194

4.3.2.13 Weir liquid crest

The height of the liquid crest over the weir can be estimated using the Francis
weir formula. For a segmental down comer this can be written as:

Height of the liquid crest ,H
ow
=750(
L
w

L
I
W

)
2/3
(4.21)

Where, l
W
= weir length
L
w
= liquid flow rate, kg/s

L
=liquid density

Maximum condition :
H
ow
= 750 (
0.8888
(875.9746 )0.847
)
2/3

= 8.454 mm liquid


Minimum condition :at minimum liquid rate = 70% turn down ratio
H
ow
= 750 (
0.6222
(875.9746 )0.847
)
2/3

= 6.6693 mm liquid

At minimum rate, clear liquid depth,

H
ow
+ H
w
= (8.454 + 50) mm liquid = 58.454 mm liquid


195

From appendix D

At H
ow
+ H
w
= 58.454 mm liquid , K
2
= 30.2

4.3.2.14 Weep point

By using Eduljee (1959) equation

U
h
=
K
2
0.9(25.4d
h
)

v
1/2
(4.22)
Where, U
h
= minimum vapor velocity through the holes based on the holes area
d
h
= hole diameter, mm h d
K
2
= a constant, dependent on the depth of clear liquid on the plate,

U
h
=
30.2 0.9(25.45)
(2.3184
0.5
)

U
h
= 7.776 ms
-1







196

4.3.2.15 Down comer design

Down comer pressure loss:

Height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate,h
ap


h
ap
= h
w
-10mm

h
ap
= 50-10 = 40 mm

Area under apron,
A
ap
= h
ap
(L
W
)
= 40 x10
-3
(0.847)
= 0.0339 m
2


Where A
ap
is the clearance area under down comer. As this is less than A
d
= 0.1104
m
2
, thus equation can be used to calculate the head loss in down comer :

h
dc
=166
L
Wd

L
A
m

2
(4.23)
Where, h
dc
= head loss in down comer, mm
L
Wd
= liquid flow rate in down, kg/s
A
m
= either the down comer area A
d
or the clearance area under the
down comer A
ap
; whichever is the smaller

h
dc
=166
(0.888)
(857.8258)(0.0339)

2

h
dc
=15.479 mm
197

Back up in downcomer, h
b



h
b
=(h
w
+ h
ow
)+h
t
+ h
dc

h
b
=(50+ 8.454)+73.64 + 15.479 = 147 .57 mm

For plate spacing 0.5 m,

h
b
< (plate spacing + weir height)
0.148 < 0.5(0.5 + 0.05)
0.148 m < 0.275 m

So, plate spacing of 0.5 m is acceptable.

4.3.2.16 Check residence time

For the entrained vapor to disengaged from the liquid stream, sufficient
residence time must be allowed in order to prevent heavily aerated liquid being carried
under the downcomer. Usually, a residence time of 3 seconds is recommended. The
equation to calculate downcomer residence time is given by:

tr=
A
d
H
bc

L
L
Wd

Where, tr = residence time, s

hbc = clear liquid back up, m


=
(0.1140)0.148( 857.8258)
(0.888)
= 16.3


Since t
r
> 3 s, then it is satisfactory.

198

4.3.2.17 Summary of chemical design

ITEM VALUE UNIT
Column Diameter 1.1 m
Column Height(Vessel only) 19.685 m
Average relative volatility 2.4176 -
Reflux ratio 1.7
Overall column efficiency 75 %
Feed stage 6
th
stage From the top column
No of Plates 38 -
Plate Spacing 0.5 m
Plate Thickness 5 mm
Plate Material Carbon steel -S 355 -
Down Comer Area 0.1140 m
2
Down Comer Material SS 304 m
2

Column Area 0.95 m
2
Net Area 0.8363 m
2

Active Area 0.7223 m
2
Hole Area 0.07223 mm
2

Hole diameter 5 mm
Number of Holes 3678.28 Per plate
Weir Length 0.847 m
Weir Height 50 mm
Resident Time 16.3 s

199

4.4 MECHANICAL DESIGN

4.4.1 Introduction

IN this chapter , HCN recovery column will be designed based on British
standard (BS) . British standard is the standards produced by BSI Group which is
incorporated under a Royal Charte in order to Set up standards of quality for goods and
services, and prepare and promote the general adoption of British Standards and
schedules in connection therewith and from time to time to revise, alter and amend
such standards and schedules as experience and circumstances
require.(Wikipedia,2011)
Typically ,several factors need to be considered in the mechanical design of
distillation column such as:

1. Design pressure
2. Design temperature
3. Material of construction
4. Design stress
5. Wall thickness
6. Welded joint efficiency
7. Analysis of stresses
8. Dead weight load
9. Wind load
10. Pressure stress
11. Bending stress
12. Vessel support
13. Insulation
14. Sizing of pipe
200

4.4.2 Material of construction

Material of construction can be divide into 5 major group which are steel
(carbon, low alloy, high alloy and clad with stainless steel etc), Non ferrous aluminum
(copper, nickel and their alloys), Non metallic (Plastics, concrete), Special purpose
metals (titanium, zirconium) and Metallic and non metallic protective coatings. The most
important characteristics to be considered when selecting a material of construction are
(R.K Sinnot, 2005):

1. Mechanical properties
(a) Strength tensile strength
(b) Stiffness elastic modulus (Youngs modulus)
(c) Toughness fracture resistance
(d) Hardness wear resistance
(e) Fatigue resistance
(f) Creep resistance
2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Any special properties required; such as, thermal conductivity, electrical resistance,
magnetic properties
5. Ease of fabrication forming, welding, casting
6. Availability in standard sizes plates, sections, tubes
7. Cost






201

4.4.2.1 Comparison between short listed material

For distillation column ,it is can be said that stainless steel and carbon steel are
the most common material to construct them. Below are the comparison among them.

Table 4.18 comparison between stainless steel and carbon steel
no properties Stainless steel Carbon steel
1 Mechanical properties
a ) Ultimate tensile strength (N/mm
2
) 520 490
b) Young modulus (N/mm
2
) 200 000 205 000
c) Elongation (%) 45 22
2 Chemical properties
minimum of 11%
chromium content
by mass
Carbon content
0.301.70% by
weight
3 Durability
Stainless steel
can be used down
to liquid nitrogen
temperatures and
up to about 1800
F.
Contains about
0.05% sulfur and
melts around
14261538 C
4 Corrosion resistance
Highly effective with
present of oxide
layer
Carbon steel have
good corrosion
resistance for all
listed component in
this plant
5 welding
Yes but required s
special technique
Yes

202

no properties Stainless steel Carbon steel
6 Availability
Supplier mostly
from
Malaysia,Singapore
and other asia
country.
Supplier mostly
from
Malaysia,Singapore
and other asia
country
7 Average Cost (US$/tonne) 813.000 3 749.000

Cost ( source : http://www.worldsteelprices.com/(on-line) )
Stainless steel ( Source : http://www.ssina.com/faq/index.html)
Corrosion factor (Source : http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/metal-corrosion-
resistance-d_491.html)



4.4.3 Design parameter and calculation

4.4.3.1 Design temperature

Mostly The strength of metals depend on the temperature .Strength of metal will
decreases with the increasing of temperature and hence will affect the design stress.
The design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be taken as the
maximum working temperature of the material.

Adding 15% allowance in the wall temperature prediction for safety purpose:
Design temperature, T
D
= 110
o
C x 1.15
T
D
= 126.5
o
C


203

4.4.3.2 DESIGN PRESSURE

The column must able to withstand the maximum pressure subjected to the
operating pressure .Generally, to avoid spurious operation during minor process
upsets, design pressure is taken as 5 to 10% above the operating pressure at the
bottom of column (R.K Sinnot, 2005).

Take design as 10% above operating pressure for safety purpose :

Design pressure, P
D
= 187.5 KPa x 1.1
P
D
= 206.25 KPa

4.4.3.3 DESIGN STRESS

In designing procedure , it is necessary to decide a value for the maximum
allowable stress (nominal design strength) that can be accepted in the material of
construction. This procedure need to be done to expect the maximum stress column
can the withstand without failure under standard test conditions .For material
construction that had been chosen, which is carbon steel , the design stress is 119.7
N/mm
2
at design temperature (R.K Sinnot, 2005).

.





204

4.4.3.4 MINIMUM PRACTICAL WALL THICKNESS

A minimum wall thickness is required to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently
able to withstand its own weight, and any incidental loads. As a general guide the wall
thickness of any vessel should not be less than the values given below; the values
include a corrosion allowance of 2 mm (R.K Sinnot, 2005):



























Figure 4.4 guideline for vessel thickness include corrosion allowance of 2mm (Source
;R.K Sinnot,2005)
205

4.4.3.4.1 MINIMUM THICKNESS FOR CYLINDRICAL SHELL


The minimum thickness for cylindrical shell can be calculate using equation below :

e =
P
i
D
i
2fP
i
(4.24)

Where, e = minimum thickness of the plate required
P
i
= internal pressure
D
i
= internal diameter
f = design stress

For this distillation column,
e =
P
i
D
i
2fP
i

e =
206250(1.1)
2(1.197 x 10
8
)206250

e = 9.485 x 10
-4
m = 0.9485 mm

when include a corrosion allowance , the minimum thickness will become 2.949
mm or approximately at 3 mm. But ,the minimum thickness will be consider as 7 mm
since the guideline required thicker than 7 mm.




206

4.4.3.5 Minimum thickness for head and closer

There are three type of common head for distillation column which are
ellipsoidal head (eqn 2.4), hemispherical head (eqn 2.3) and torispherical head(eqn
2,5).The type of head must be economical .Since the material used to made all the
head are same, therefore the only way to determine which head is better is by
determining the thickness of the head.Below are they equation to calculate Minimum
thickness for head and closer for :

Hemispherical head , e =
P
i
D
i
2fJ P
i
(4.25)

Ellipsoidal head , e =
P
i
D
i
2fJ 0.2P
i
(4.26)

Torisperical head , e =
P
i
R
C
C
s
2fJ P
i
( C
s
0.2)
(4.27)


s
=
1
4
3 +
R
C
R
K
(4.28)





207

Where e = minimum thickness of the plate required
P
i
= internal pressure
D
i
= internal diameter
f = design stress
J = Joint factor
R
C
= Crown radius
R
K
= Knuckle radius ( The ratio of knuckle radius to crown radius is
taken as 6% to avoid buckling )
C
s
= Stress concentration


4.4.3.5.1 Calculation for hemispherical head.

By assuming joint factor =1.0
Hemispherical head , e =
P
i
D
i
2fJP
i

e =
206250(1.1)
2(1)(1.197 x 10
8
)206250

e = 9.485 x 10
-4
m or 0.9485 mm




208

4.4.3.5.2 Calculation for ellipsoidal head.

Ellipsoidal head , e =
P
i
D
i
2fJ0.2P
i

e =
206250(1.1)
211.197 x 10
8
(0.2)206250

e = 9.478 x 10
-4
m or 0.948 mm

4.4.3.5.3 Calculation for torispherical head.

Torispherical head , e =
P
i
R
C
C
s
2fJP
i
( C
s
0.2)

C
s
=
1
4
3 +
R
C
R
K


For R
C
= Di=1.1m ,R
k
= 0.66 m
C
s
=
1
4
3 +
1.1
0.66

C
s
= 1.0727



209

e =
2062501.1(1.0127)
211.197 x 10
8
206250( 1.01270.2)

e = 1.0443 x10
-3
m or 1.04 mm

From the calculations, it is determined that torispherical is more thicker then
hemispherical and ellipsoidal head. But since the thickness of the torispherical is not
exceed the minimum wall thickness, therefore the type of torispherical head still
acceptable. Hence , the type of the head and closer is determine to be from ellipsoidal
head for aesthetic value with thickness same with wall thickness. Which is 7 mm
thickness.

4.4.3.6 Welded joint efficiency

The strength of welded joint will depend on the types of joint and the quality of
the welding. Take welding joint as 1.0 implies that the point is equally as strong as the
virgin plate; this is achieved by radio graphing the complete weld length, and cutting out
and remarking any.








210

4.4.3.7 Analysis of stresses

4.4.3.7.1 Pressure stress

The longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure can be calculated using
equation:
Longitudinal stress ,
L
=
PD
4t
(4.29)
Horizontal stress ,
H
=
PD
2t
(4.30)
Where , P = operating pressure
D = column diameter
t = thickness

Calculation for longitudinal stress ,
L

Longitudinal stress ,
L
=
PD
4t


L
=
206250(1.1)
4(7 x 10
3
)


L
= 8102.6786 KN/m
2



211

Calculation for horizontal stress ,
H

Horizontal stress ,
H
=
PD
2t


H
=
206250(1.1)
2(7 x 10
3
)
= 16205.3571 KN/m
2

2.9.2 DEAD WEIGHT STRESS

Dead weight stress,
w
=
w
v
D
C
+tt
(4.31)

w
=
(51.1399)
1.1+7 x 10
3
7 x 10
3


w
= 2100.7015 KN/m
2
( Compressive )

4.4.3.7.2 Bending stress

Bending stress,
b
=
M
I
V

2
+ (4.32)
With M = bending moment
I
V
= second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending
=

64
(D
o
4
D
i
4
) (4.33)
212

Calculation for second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending,
I
v
I
V
=

64
(D
o
4
D
i
4
)

I
V
=

64
((1.114)
4
(1.1)
4
)

I
V
= 3.7292 x 10
-3
m
4

Calculation for bending stress

Bending stress,
b
=
415.3079
3.7292 x 10
3

1.1
2
+7 x 10
3


b
= 62 031.1327 KN/m
2


Calculation for resultant longitudinal stress,

Since
W
is a compressive stress, therefore it possessed a negative sign.


Z
( Up-Wind)

=
L
-
w
+
b


Z
( Up-Wind)

= 8 102.6786

2 100.7015

+ 62 031.1327

Z
( Up-Wind)

= 68 033.1098 KN/m
2


213


Z
( Down-Wind)

=
L
-
w
-
b


Z
( Down-Wind)

= 8 102.6786

2 100.7015

- 62 031.1327

Z
( Down-Wind)

= -56 029.1556 KN/m
2

As there is no torsion shear stress, the principal stresses will be
Z
and
H
.

Z
= 68 033.1098 KN/m
2

KKN/m2KN/m2

H
= 16 205.3571 KN/m
2

KKN/m2KN/m2

H
= 16 205.3571 KN/m
2

KKN/m2KN/m2

Z
= -56 029.1556 KN/m
2

KKN/m2KN/m2
Up-Wind Down-wind
214

The difference between the principal stresses

=
H
-
Z

(Up-Wind ) = 16 205.3571 68 033.1098
(Up-Wind ) = -51 827.7527 kN/m
2


(Down-Wind ) = 16 205.3571 (-56 029.1556)
(Down-Wind ) = 72 234.5127 kN/m
2
(Down-Wind ) = 72. 2345 N/mm
2


Since the greatest different of principal stress (Down-wind) is < allowable stress,
the design stress is 119.7 N/mm
2
.Therefore, the stress analysis is allowable.










215

4.4.3.8 Dead weight of the vessel

W
v
= C
V
. .
m
.D
m
.g (H
v
+ 0.8 D
m
) t x 10
-3
(4.33)

Where , W
v
= total weight of shell, excluding internal fitting such as plate
C
v
= a factor to account for the weight of nozzle, and internal support.
(In this case for distillation column take C
v
as 1.15 for vessel with
plate)
D
m
= mean diameter of vessel (D
c
+ t x 10
-3
) ,m
H
v
= height or length between tangent lines, (the length of the cylindrical
section ) ,m
t = wall thickness, mm
g = gravitational acceleration ,9.81ms
-2

m
= Density of vessel material ,kg/m
3
.for carbon steel,
m
=7900
kg/m
3
(source: Http://www.suppliersonline.com/propertypages/A57250.asp)








216

Calculation for mean diameter

D
m
= mean diameter of vessel (D
c
+ t x 10
-3
) ,m
D
m
= (1.1 + 7 x 10
-3
) m
D
m
= 1.107 m

Calculation for cylindrical section height ,Hv

For towers that are at least 0.9 m in internal diameter,1 .2 m should be added to
the top for vapor release and 1.8 m should be added to the bottom to account for the
liquid level and reboiler return.(Source :Y.H. Chew and L.L Ai ,2008)


Hv = 19.685 + 1.2 + 1.8
Hv = 22.685 m

Calculation for total weight of shell, excluding internal fitting

W
v
= (1.15)(22/7)(7900)(1.107)(9.81) (22.685 + 0.8 (1.107)) 7 x 10
-3

W
v
= 2169.6490(23.5706)
W
v
= 51139.9287 N
W
v
= 51.1399 kN

217

Calculation for total weight of insulator

Since the operating temperature is higher from surrounding temperature,
therefore, the heat tend to release to surrounding .To avoid this, Insulator must coated
the column in order to maintain the temperature .

Assuming insulator have 75 mm thickness.

Mineral wool (insulator) density , = 130 kg/m
3

approximate volume of insulation ,V =
1.264
2
4

1.114
2
4
22.658
V = 6.3477 m
3

weight of the insulator = 6.3477 x 130 x 9.81
= 8095.1877 N

Double the weight to allow fitting = 8095.1877 x 2
= 16190.3753 N
= 16.1904 KN




218

Calculation for total weight of plate

Plate area, A
p
=
D
C
2
4
m
2
A
p
=
1.1
2
4

A
p
= 0.95 m
2


Weight of a single plate ,W
p
= factor for contacting plates x A
p
For steel including typical liquid loading in (Where
1.2 is factor for contacting plates, kN/m
2
)

W
p
= 1.2 x 0.95

W
p
= 1.1403 kN


Weight of a all plate = 38 plates x 1.1403
= 43.3351 kN

Calculation for total dead weight

Total dead weight = weight of shell + weight of insulator + weight of plate
= 51.1399 + 16.1904+ 43.3351
= 110.6654 kN

219

4.4.3.9 Wind loading

Take dynamic wind pressure as 1280 N/m
2
(R.K sinnot,2005).

Mean diameter, including insulation ,D
0
= 1.1 + 2(7 + 75) x10
-3
D
0
= 1.264 m


Loading (per linear meter), Fw = 1280 x 1.264
Fw = 1617.92 N/m

Bending moment at bottom tangent line, M
x
=
1617.92 x 22.658
2
2

M
x
= 415.3079 KNm










220

4.4.3.10 Design for the skirt support

Material of construction for skirt support is carbon steel.

Design stress = 119.7 N/mm2

Youngs modulus = 200000 N/mm2

Calculation for approximate weight and total weight

Approximate weight =
D
c
2
4
H
V
g
=
1.1
2
4
22.685 (875.9746)9.81
= 185 256.97 N
= 185.257 kN

Weight of vessel from previous calculation = 110.6654 kN

Total weight = 110.6654 + 185.257
Total weight = 295.9224 kN



221

Calculation for bending moment at base skirt

Wind loading from previous calculation = 1.618 kN/m
Take skirt support as 1.5 m height,
Bending moment at base skirt ,M
S
= 1.618
22.685 +1.5
2
2

M
S
= 473.1956 kNm

Calculation for bending stress at base skirt

The resultant stresses in the skirt support will be:

S
(tensile) =
bs
-
ws

S
(compressive) =
bs
+
ws

Where,

bs
= bending stress in the skirt

ws
= dead weight stress in the skirt







222

Calculation of bending stress in the skirt,
bs


bs
=
4Ms
D
S
+t
s
t
s
D
s

(4.44)

where , M
s
= maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt
(due to the wind, seismic and eccentric load).
D
s
= inside diameter of the skirt, at the base.
t
s
= skirt thickness

Assumption : Inside diameter of the skirt will have same dimension with internal
dimension of vessel and skirt thickness must thicker than vessel thickness .In this
skirt,assume t
s
=10mm.


bs
=
4(473.1956 )
1.1+0.0850.085( 1.1)


bs
= 5 427.770 kN/m
2






223

Calculation of dead stress in the skirt,
ws

ws
=
W
D
S
+t
s
t
s

where ,
W = weight of the skirt and dead weight ( test) or weight of the
dead weight (operating )
D
s
= inside diameter of the skirt, at the base.
t
s
= skirt thickness

ws
(test) =
110.6654
1.1+0.0850.085

= 349.7234 kN/m
2

ws
(operating) =
51.1399
1.1+0.0850.085

= 161.612 kN/m
2






224

Calculation for the resultant stresses in the skirt support

S
(tensile) =
bs
-
ws

= 5 427.770 161. 612
= 5266. 158 kN/m
2

S
(compressive) =
bs
+
ws

= 5 427.770 + 349.7234

= 5777.493 kN/m
2


Take joint factor , J=1 and = 90
o

S
(tensile) < f
s
.J.sin

5266. 158 kN/m
2
< (119700)(1)(sin 90
O
)

5266. 158 kN/m
2
< 119700 kN/m
2




S
(compressive ) < 0.125E (
t
s
D
s
)sin

5777.493 kN/m
2
< 0.125( 2 x 10
8
) (
0.085
1.1
)(sin 90
o
)
5777.493 kN/m
2
< 1 931 818.182 kN/m
2


Since both resultant stresses doesnt exceed the allowable stress, therefore the design
stress are acceptable .
225

4.4.3.11 Based ring and anchor boltz

Scheiman gives the following guide rules which can be used for the selection of the
anchor bolts. (R.K.Sinnot,2005)

1. Bolts smaller than 25 mm diameter should not be used.
2. Minimum number of bolts are 8
3. Use multiples of 4 bolts
4. Bolts pitch should not be less than 600 mm


Assume pitch circle diameter, D
b
= 1500 mm
Circumference of bolt circle, D
b
= 1500
Take Bolt stress design, f
b
= 125 N/mm2 (Scheiman, 1963)
Minimum recommended spacing between bolts = 600 mm
Minimum number of Bolt required , N
b
= 1500 /600
= 7.85
Closest to multiple of 4 = 8 bolts
Take Bolt stress design, f
b
= 125 N/mm2 (Scheiman, 1963)





226

Bending moment at base skirt. M
s
= 492.9635 kNm
Total weight of vessel, W
t
= 110.6654 kN

The bolt area required is given by:
Bolt area ,A
b
=
1
N
b
f
b

4M
s
D
b
W (4.45)
A
b
=
1
8(125)

4(492.9635 10
6
)
1500
110.6654 10
3

= 1203.90 mm
2

Bolt diameter required ,d =
A
b
4

=
1203.904

= 39.15mm

Use M48 bolts (BS4190:1967) root area=1470 mm
2
(R.K.Sinnot ,2005)

Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,

base ring per unit length, F

=
4

2
+

=
4(492.9635 10
3
)
(1.1)
2
+
110.6654 10
3
(1.1)

F

= 550 751.336

227

Based ring width, L
b

The minimum width of the base ring is given by:

1
10
3

Where, L
b
= base ring width, mm
f
c
= maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete foundation
pad (typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm
2
)

Taking the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm
2
,

=
550 751.336
5

1
10
3
= 110.15

Therefore, the minimum width of the base ring, L
b
is 110.15 mm.










228

4.4.3.12 PIPE SIZE

Material construction for pipe = stainless steel
Optimum diameter ,d optimum = 260G
0.52

-0.37

Where;
d = diameter of pipe
G = mass flow, (kg/s)
= density of mixture, kg/m3

Calculation of optimum pipe diameter at feed stream.

Mass flow, G = 498.10
kmol
hr
x
1 hr
3600 s
x
38.6618 kg
1 kmol

G = 5.3355
kg
s

Density of mixture , =

38.5618
kg
kmol
22.4
m
3
kmol
x
273.15 K
379.35 K
x
1.8745 bar
1.0 bar

= 2.2932
kg
m
3



229

hence
feed stream optimum diameter ,d
f
optimum = 260G
0.52

-0.37

d
f
optimum = 260(5.3355)
0.52
(2.2932)
-0.37

d
f
optimum = 456.8157 mm, 0.4568 m ,take 0.4572 or 18 in .
Pipe thickness
t
n
=
P
s
D
opt
20+P
s

Where, P
s
= operating pressure, N/mm
2
(0.1875 N/mm
2
)
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
(for stainless
stell(304) design stress is 143.14N/mm
2
)(Source :R.K Sinnot )

t
n
=
0.1875456.82
20143.14+0.1875
= 0.03 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 2 mm = 0.03 + 2
= 2.03 2 mm

Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange Raised face
Bolting
Drilling
D b h1 d
4
f No. d
2
k
450 457.2 595 24 65 520 4 M20 16 22 550
(Source :R.K Sinnot ,2005)



230

Calculation of optimum pipe diameter at distillate stream.

Mass flow, G = 0.3411
kg
s

Density of mixture , = 1.5865
kg
m
3

hence
distillate stream optimum diameter ,d
d
optimum = 260G
0.52

-0.37

d
d
optimum = 260(0.3411)
0.52
(1.5865)
-0.37

d
d
optimum = 125.2879 mm , 0.1253 m ,take 0.127 or 5 in.

Pipe thickness , t
n
=
0.1520125.2879
20165+0.1520
= 0.006 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 2 mm = 0.006 + 2
= 2.006 2 mm

Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange Raised face
Bolting
Drilling
D b h1 d
4
f No. d
2
k
125 139.7 240 18 48 178 3 M16 8 18 200
(Source :R.K Sinnot ,2005)



231

Calculation of optimum pipe diameter at bottom stream.

Mass flow, G = 4.9678
kg
s

Density of mixture , = 2.3296
kg
m
3

hence
bottom stream optimum diameter ,d
b
optimum = 260G
0.52

-0.37

d
b
optimum = 260(4.9678)
0.52
(2.3296)
-0.37

d
b
optimum = 437.6073mm ,0.4376 m take 0.4572m or 18 in .

Pipe thickness , t
n
=
0.1824125.2879
20165+0.1824
= 0.006 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 2 mm = 0.006 + 2
= 2.006 2 mm

Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange Raised face
Bolting
Drilling
D b H1 d
4
f No. d
2
k
450 457.2 595 24 65 520 4 M20 16 22 550
(Source :R.K Sinnot ,2005)



232

4.4.3.13 SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
ITEM VALUE UNIT
Design pressure 206.25 kPa
Design temperature 126.5
o
C
Design stress 119.7 N/mm
2

Material of construction Carbon steel -S 355
Type of tray Sieve tray
Welded joint efficiency 1.0
Column height 22.685 m
Shell thickness 7 mm
Material of construction (skirt) Carbon steel -S 355
Skirt thickness 85 mm
Skirt diameter 1.1 m
Skirt heigth 1.5 m
Skirt type Straight(90
o
)

Insulation material Mineral wool

Insulation thickness 75 mm
Weight of shell 51.1399 kN
Weight of plate 43.3351 kN
Weight of insulation 16.1904 kN
Total weight of dead load 110.6654 kN
Wind loading 1617.92 kN



233
























234

CHAPTER 5



DISTILLATION COLUMN (DC5)


5.1 Introduction

Distillation is the most important separation process in most chemical industries.
The separation of liquid mixtures depends on the difference of their relative volatility
and boiling points. In most cases, distillation is the most economical separating method
for liquid mixtures but it can be energy intensive. Apart of distillation method other
alternative process that can be used are such as solvent extraction, membrane
separation or adsorption process. But these processes require higher investment costs.
Therefore, distillation remains the main option in the industry especially in large-scale
application (Chew & Ai L. Ling , 2007).
Thermodynamics of the vapor and liquid phases must be well understood in
order to design a distillation column. The vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) is vital in order
to determine the minimum number of stages required in achieving the separation
needed and the minimum reflux ratio also depends on the VLE data of the mixture (R.K
Sinnott, 2005).
In distillation column design, the selection of column internals is very critical and
need to be done carefully because there is wide variety of trays and packing provided
in the market and each type has its own weaknesses and strengths. Column internals
are being equipped into distillation column in order to provide better mass and heat
transfers between the vapor and liquid phases in the column. Intimate contact between
both phases is promoted by the column internals. Trays and packing are two main
types of column internals that will be considered in the design (R.K Sinnott, 2005).
235

5.2 CHEMICAL DESIGN

5.2.1 Distillation column description (DC5)

Figure 5.1: Schematic diagram of DC5
Distillation column C5 is used to separate to separate the byproduct acetonitrile
(ACN), and other component which are acrolein, HCN, oxygen and water. The water at
the bottom column that has been purified and separated from other components is then
recycled to be used back in the process. Acrolein, acetonitrile, oxygen and HCN are
collected at the top of the column.





H20
ACN
ACR
O2
HCN
H20
ACN
ACR
O2
HCN
H20
T = 75
0
C
P = 1.194 atm
T = 88.04
0
C
P = 1.1 atm
T = 105.2
0
C
P = 1.2 atm
C5
236

Assumptions made in designing the distillation column:
1) No chemical reactions occur, only separation is carried out in this process.
2) Only 83% of water is recycled to the wastewater treatment and the remaining
will be recovered together with other by-products (ACN, ACR, O
2
, HCN)
3) The system is ideal.
4) Constant molal overflow.
5) The separation is essentially taking place between the light component and the
heavy key component. The light key in this system is ACN where as the heavy
key is water.


5.2.2 General Design Consideration

The design of a distillation column can be divided into the following steps (R.K Sinnott,
2005):
1) Specify the degree of separation required (set the product specifications)
2) Selecting the operating conditions (operating pressure, batch or continuous)
3) Select the type of contacting device (plates or packing)
4) Determine the stage and reflux requirements
5) Sixing of the column (diameter, number of real stages)
6) Design of column internals (plates, distributors, packing supports)
7) Mechanical design (vessel and internal fittings)

The primary step will be determination of the stage and reflux requirements. Since
the distillation column to be designed is involving multi components, thus it will be more
difficult task as compared to binary mixture (R.K Sinnott, 2005).
237



Figure 5.2: Schematic Diagram for Distillation Column
(Source: http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/distil/distileqp.htm(online))


5.2. 3 Reflux Considerations


The number of stages required in the separation process will depends on the
reflux ratio used. Total reflux is the condition where all the condensate is returned to
the column as a reflux (there is no product taken off and there is no feed). The number
of stages required at total reflux for a given separation is the minimum at which it is
theoretically possible to achieve the separation needed (R.K Sinnott, 2005).

Practical reflux ratios will lie between the minimum for the specified separation
and total reflux. A value at which the specified separation is achieved at minimum cost
must be selected by the designer. Higher reflux ratio will reduce the number of stages
required and the capital cost but the service requirements such as steam and water
(operating costs) will increase (R.K Sinnott, 2005).



238

5.2.4 Feed Point Location


The number stages required for a specified separation and the operation of the
column is affected by the feed point location. The feed should enter the column at the
point that gives the best match between the feed composition and the vapour and liquid
streams in the column. In this design, an estimate can be made by using Fenske
equation to calculate the number of stages (R.K Sinnott, 2005).


5.2.5 The Selection of Column Internals


The choice of column internals (trays and packing) of which to utilize dependent on
(Chew & Ai L. Ling (KLM Technology Group), 2007):
1) Pressure
2) Fouling potential
3) Liquid to vapour density
4) Liquid loading
5) Life cycle cost


There are many categories of trays which include baffle trays, dual flow trays,
conventional trays, high capacity trays and downcomer trays. Based on some rules of
thumb, trays are selected if (Chew & Ai L. Ling (KLM Technology Group), 2007):

a) The compounds contain solids or foulants
b) There are many internal transitions
c) Liquid loads are high
d) Lack of experience in the service
e) Vessel wall needs periodic inspection
f) Multiple liquid phases


239

For packing, it can be divided into grid packing, random packing, conventional
structured packing, and high capacity structured packing. The rules for selecting
packing are (Chew & Ai L. Ling (KLM Technology Group), 2007):

a) The compounds are temperature sensitive
b) Pressure drop is important
c) Liquid loads are low
d) Towers are small in diameter
e) Highly corrosive service
f) The system is foaming
g) The ratio of tower diameter to random packing is greater than 10



5.3 APPROXIMATE COLUMN SIZING

Once the number of real stages required for the separation is known, an
approximate estimate of the overall column size can be done. This step is needed as to
make a rough estimate of the capital cost for project evaluation (R.K Sinnott, 2005).

5.3.1 Plate Spacing

The overall height of a column is dependent on the plate spacing. The plate
spacing often used ranging from 0.15 m to 1 m and it will depend on the column
diameter and operating conditions. Usually, for column above 1 m diameter, plate
spacing of 0.3 m to 0.6 m is used (R.K Sinnott, 2005).




240

5.3.2 Column Diameter

Vapour flow rate is the main factor that determines the column diameter. The
vapour velocity must be below that which would cause excessive liquid entrainment or
a high-pressure drop (R.K Sinnott, 2005).

5.3.3 Height of Column

The height of column in the distillation column is calculated by knowing the
number of actual stages. Theoretical stages from manual calculations were used to
obtain the number of actual stages required. The height of the column can be
calculated by multiplying the number of the actual stages with tray spacing value (R.K
Sinnott, 2005).


5.3.4 Operating Range.

This is the most significant factor. By operating range is means the range of
vapor and liquid rates over which the plate will operate satisfactorily (the stable
operating range). Some flexibility will always be required in an operating plant to allow
for changes in production rate, and to cover start up and shutdown conditions. The
ratio of the highest to the lowest flow rates is often referred to as the turn-down ratio.
Bubble cup plates have a positives liquid seal and can therefore operate efficiently at
very low vapor rates. While, sieve plate rely on the flow of vapor through the holes to
hold the liquid on the plate, and cannot operate at very low vapor rates. But, with good
design, sieve plates can be designed to give a satisfactory operating range; typically,
from 50% to 120% of design capacity (R.K Sinnott, 2005).





241

5.3.5 Plate Contactors

The most common type of plate contactor used in distillation columns is the
cross-flow plates. This type of plate contactor, the liquid flows across the plate and the
vapor up through the plate. The flowing liquid is transferred from plate to plate through
vertical channels called downcomers. An outlet weir retains the pool of liquid on the
plate. There are three principal types of cross flow tray used and they are classified
according to the method used to contact the vapor and liquid. The three principles are
namely sieve plate (perforated plate), bubble-cap plates and valve plates (floating cap
plates) (R.K Sinnott, 2005).
Table 5.1: Differences between types of plates
Types Sieve plate Bubble-cap plates Valve plates
Characteristics

- Simplest type
- Vapor passes up
through
perforations in the
plate
- Liquid is retained
on the plate by the
vapor flow
- No positive vapor
liquid seal
- At low flow rates
liquid will weep
through the holes
which hence
reducing the plate
efficiency
- The perforations
are usually small
holes
- Traditional,
oldest type
- Vapor passes
up through
short pipes
(risers), covered
by a cap
- Used risers that
ensure the level
of liquid is
maintained on
the tray at all
vapor flowrates.
- Proprietary
designs
- Essentially
sieve plates
with large
diameter holes
covered by
movable flaps
- As the area for
vapor flow
varies with the
flow rate, valve
plates can
operate
efficiently at
lower flow rates
than sieve
plates

242

Types Sieve plate Bubble-cap plates Valve plates
Cost C Cheapest

Mo Most expensive Mo Cheaper than
bubble-caps but
more expensive
than sieve.
Operating range Rely on the flow of
vapor through the
holes to hold the
liquid on the plate,
and cannot operate
at very low vapor
rates
Operate efficiently
at very low vapor
rates (have a
positive liquid seal)
Intended to give
greater flexibility
than sieve plates at
a lower cost than
bubble-caps
Efficiency

The Murphree efficiency of the three types of plate will be
virtually the same when operating their design flow range. No
real distinction can be made between them.
Pressure drop Lowest Highest

Higher than that of
sieve but lower than
that of bubble-cap
Summary Cheapest and
most satisfactory
for most
applications
Should only be used
where very low vapor
(gas) rates to be
handled and a
positive liquid seal is
essentials at all flow
rates
Should be
considered if the
specified turn-down
ratio cannot be met
with sieve plates.






243

5.4 PLATE DESIGN PROCEDURE

In plate design, a trial and error approach is necessary and it started with a rough
plate layout, checking key performance factors and revising the design as necessary
until a satisfactory design is achieved. A typical design procedure is shown as follow
(R.K Sinnott, 2005):
1) The maximum and minimum vapor and liquid flow rates for the turn down ratio
is calculated.
2) The system physical properties is estimated or collected.
3) Trial plate spacing is selected.
4) The column diameter is estimated based on the flooding considerations.
5) The liquid flow arrangement is decided.
6) Trial plate layout is made which include the downcomer area, active area, hole
area, hole size and weir height.
7) Weeping rate is checked.
8) Plate pressure drop is checked.
9) Downcomer back-up is checked (if too high, step 6 or 3 is repeated).
10) Plate layout details are decided (calming zones, unperforated areas). The hole
pitch is checked and step 6 is returned if it is unsatisfied.
11) Entrainment is checked (if too high, return to step 4).
12) Design optimization: steps 3-12 is repeated to find the smallest diameter and
plate spacing acceptable (lowest cost).
13) Design finalization: the plate specification is drawn up and the layout is
sketched.






244

5.5 SAMPLE OF DESIGN CALCULATION

5.5.1 Calculation of Dew Point and Bubble Point Temperature

Table below shows the flow rate and mole fraction for each component in the feed
stream, distillate stream and bottom stream.





Feed (S12)
Component
Flow rate
(kmol/hr)
Mole Fraction
O
2
0.0275
0.0003
ACN 10.92
0.1182
H
2
O 81.36
0.8804
HCN 0.107
0.0012
ACR 0.0171
0.000185
TOTAL 92.4145
1



Distillate (S15)
Component
Flow rate
(kmol/hr)
Mole Fraction
O
2
0.0275
0.0011
ACN 10.92
0.4385
H
2
O 13.83
0.5554
HCN 0.107
0.0043
ACR 0.0171
0.0007
TOTAL 24.9016
1
245





Using Antoine equation to find vapor pressure (P
o
)

) C T (
B
A LogP
0
+
=


Where;
A, B and C = Antoine constant
P
o
= Vapor pressure at T (mmHg)
T = Operating Temperature (C)
P = Operating Pressure (mmHg)
LK = Light key component
HK = Heavy key component









Bottom (S16)
Component
Flow rate
(kmol/hr)
Mole Fraction
O
2
0
0
ACN 0
0
H
2
O 67.52
1
HCN 0
0
ACR 0
0
TOTAL 67.52
1
246

Table 5.2: List of constants in the Antoine equation
Component A B C
O
2

7.96681 1668.21 228
ACN (LK)
7.0735 1279.2 224.01
H
2
O(HK)
8.10765 1750.286 235
HCN
7.52823 1329.49 260.418
ACR
7.38041 1343.54 245.902

P
P
K
0
i
=


5.5.1.1 Calculation of Dew Point

=
i
x

= 0 . 1 /
i i
k y

Temperature = 98.9C Operating Pressure, P = 912 mm Hg

Table 5.3: Calculation of composition, x
i
to determine dew temperature
Component y
i
= x
i
Log P
i
*
P
i
*
(mmHg) K
i
(P
i
o
/P) y
i
/K
i

O2
0.0011
2.864295 731.63591 0.802232 0.001371
ACN (LK)
0.4385
3.1125003 1295.6876 1.42071 0.308648
H2O(HK)
0.5554
2.866312 735.04169 0.805967 0.68911
HCN
0.0043
3.8285919 6738.9455 7.389195 0.000582
ACR
0.0007
3.484293 3049.9521 3.344246 0.000209
Total
1.0 0.999921
247


By performing Goal Seek Method using Excel, the dew point temperature that gives
yi/ki close to 1.0 is 98.9C.




5.5.1.2 Calculation of Bubble Point of the Feed

=
i
y

= 0 . 1
i i
x k

Temperature = 105C Operating Pressure, P =912 mm Hg

Table 5.4: Calculation of composition, y
i
to determine bubble temperature
Component y
i
= x
i
Log P
i
*
P
i
*
(mmHg) K
i
(P
i
o
/P) y
i
/K
i

O
2

0
2.95717 906.57284 0.994049 0
ACN (LK)
0
3.185472 1533.3976 1.681357 0
H
2
O(HK)
1
2.95975 911.97691 0.999975 1.000025
HCN
0
3.889958 7764.473 8.513677 0
ACR
0
3.551592 3562.5438 3.906298 0
Total

1.000025

The
i i
x k value is close to 1.0, therefore this temperature is accepted.
So, bubble temperature is at 105C.




248

5.5.2 Relative Volatility

In general form, the greater relative volatilities is the easier way for separation to
take place. The light key component is the one to be kept out of the bottom stream
according to some specification. The heavy key component is the one to be kept out of
the top stream according to some specification. The relative volatility of two
components can be expressed as the ratio of their K value. The determination of
relative volatility, of the components can be determined as the ratio between K values
of light key component to heavy key component (R.K Sinnott, 2005).

The relative volatility of two components can be expressed as the ratio of their K value:

j
i
j
K
K
i = o
Where, K
i
= light components
K
j
= heavy components

Table 5.5: Value of relative volatility at the top and bottom column
Component
Bottom

Top

Average

Feed

O
2

0.99408 0.99539
0.9947
0.99908
ACN (LK)
1.6816 1.76467
1.7231
2.156831
H
2
O (HK)
1 1
1
1
HCN
8.51546 9.18396
8.8497
12.67601
ACR
3.90698 4.1552
4.0311
5.396135







249

5.5.3 Calculation to find q, the Thermal Condition at Feed


q =

+
f fs
H H

= the molar of the latent heat of vaporization
H
fs
= the molar enthalpy of the feed at its boiling point
H
f
= the molar enthalpy of the feed

At temperature = 348 K

Table 5.6: List of heat capacities constant for each component












P
C
(kJ/kmol.K)
Component a b c d
O
2

29.1x 10
-3
1.158 x 10
-5
-0.6076 x 10
-8
1.311 x 10
-12

ACN
1.2838 0.0004369 -5.3125 x 10
-6
0
H
2
O
75.4 x 10
-3
0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
HCN
35.3 x 10
-3
2.908 x 10
-5
-1.092 x 10
-8
0
ACR
11.97 0.2106 -1.071 x 10
-4
1.906 x 10
-8

250

Specific heat capacity, Cp
0
:

P
C
0
= aT + (1/2)bT
2
+ (1/3)cT
3
+ (1/4)dT
4

P
C
0
(O
2
) = 29.1 x 10
-3
T +[ (1.158 x 10
-5
/2) (T)
2
] + [ (-0.6076 x 10
-8
/ 3) (T)
3
]
[(1.311x 10
-12
/4) (T)
4
]
= 29.1 x 10
-3
(348) +[ (1.158 x 10
-5
/2) (348)
2
] + [ (-0.6076 x 10
-8
/ 3)
(348)
3
] +[(1.311x 10
-12
/4) (348)
4
]
= 10.1268 + 0.7012 0.08536 + 0.004807
= 10.7474 kJ/kmol
P
C
0
(ACN) = 1.2838 T +[ (0.0004369/2) (T)
2
] + [ (-5.3125 x 10
-6
/ 3) (T)
3

= 1.2838 (348) +[ (0.0004369/2) (348)
2
] + [ (-5.3125 x 10
-6
/
3) (348)
3

= 446.7624 + 26.4552 74.6303
= 398.5873 kJ/kmol

P
C
0
(H
2
O) = 75.4 x 10
-3
T
= 75.4 x 10
-3
(348)
= 26.2392 kJ/kmol

P
C
0
(HCN) = 35.3 x 10
-3
T +[ (2.908 x 10
-5
/2) (T)
2
] + [ (-1.092 x 10
-8
/ 3) (T)
3

= 35.3 x 10
-3
(348) +[ (2.908 x 10
-5
/2) (348)
2
] + [ (-1.092 x
10
-8
/ 3) (348)
3

= 12.2844 +1.7609 - 0.1534
= 13.8919 kJ/kmol

P
C
0
(ACR) = 11.97 T +[ (0.2106/2) (T)
2
] + [ (-1.071 x 10
-4
/ 3) (T)
3
] +
[(1.906x 10
-8
/4) (T)
4
]
= 11.97(348) +[ (0.2106/2) (348)
2
] + [ (-1.071 x 10
-4
/ 3) (348)
3
] +
[(1.906x 10
-8
/4) (348)
4
]
= 4165.56 + 12752.2512 1504.5477 + 69.8843
= 15483.1478 kJ/kmol

251

At mean boiling point: 370.75 K


P
C
0
= aT + (1/2)bT
2
+ (1/3)cT
3
+ (1/4)dT
4

P
C
0
(O
2
) = 29.1 x 10
-3
T +[ (1.158 x 10
-5
/2) (T)
2
] + [ (-0.6076 x 10
-8
/ 3) (T)
3
]
[(1.311x 10
-12
/4) (T)
4
]
= 29.1 x 10
-3
(370.75) +[ (1.158 x 10
-5
/2) (370.75)
2
] + [ (-0.6076 x
10
-8
/ 3) (370.75)
3
] + [(1.311x 10
-12
/4) (370.75)
4
]
= 10.7888 + 0.7959 0.1032 + 0.006193
= 11.4877 kJ/kmol

P
C
0
(ACN) = 1.2838 T +[ (0.0004369/2) (T)
2
] + [ (-5.3125 x 10
-6
/ 3) (T)
3

= 1.2838 (370.75) +[ (0.0004369/2) (370.75)
2
] + [ (-5.3125
x 10
-6
/ 3) (370.75)
3

= 475.9689 + 30.0272 90.0622
= 415.9339 kJ/kmol

P
C
0
(H
2
O) = 75.4 x 10
-3
T
= 75.4 x 10
-3
(370.75)
= 27.9546 kJ/kmol

P
C
0
(HCN) = 35.3 x 10
-3
T +[ (2.908 x 10
-5
/2) (T)
2
] + [ (-1.092 x 10
-8
/ 3) (T)
3

= 35.3 x 10
-3
(370.75) +[ (2.908 x 10
-5
/2) (370.75)
2
] + [ (-1.092 x
10
-8
/ 3) 370.75)
3

= 13.0875 +1.9986 0.1855
= 14.9006 kJ/kmol

P
C
0
(ACR) = 11.97 T +[ (0.2106/2) (T)
2
] + [ (-1.071 x 10
-4
/ 3) (T)
3
] +
[(1.906x 10
-8
/4) (T)
4
]
= 11.97(370.75) +[ (0.2106/2) (370.75)
2
] + [ (-1.071 x 10
-4
/



252

3) (370.75)
3
] + [(1.906x 10
-8
/4) (370.75)
4
]
= 4437.8775 + 14474.0707 1819.3309 + 89.7874
= 17182.4047 kJ/kmol

Specific heat,
P
C

= (0.0003 x 11.4877 ) + (0.1182 x 415.9339) +
(0.8804 x 27.9546) + (0.0012 x 14.9006) +
(0.000185 x 17182.4047)
= 76.9747 kJ/kmol





Latent heat equation due to Haggenmacher (1946) is derived from the Antoine vapor
pressure equation (R.K Sinnott, 2005):
L
v
=
2
2
) C T (
z BT 32 . 8
+
A


Where
L
v
= latent heat at the required temperature, kJ/kmol
T = temperature, K
B, C = coefficients in the Antoine equation
Az = Z
gas
Z
liquid
(where z is the compressibility constant),
From equation:
5 . 0
3
r
r
T
P
1 z
(
(

= A
P
r
= reduced pressure
T
r
= reduced temperature





253


Feed composition:

Component C
T (K)
z P(bar) C
P (bar)
P
C
P
r
T
r

O
2
154.4 0.999 1.21 50.5 10.7474 0.024 2.2539
ACN 545.35 0.9507 1.21 48.332 398.5873 0.025 0.6381
H
2
O 646.95 0.9822 1.21 220.6 26.2392 0.00549 0.5379
HCN 456.6 0.9744 1.21 53.905 13.8919 0.0224 0.7622
ACR 527 0.9570 1.21 49.953 15483.1478 0.0242 0.6603


Table 5.7: List of constants in the Antoine equation
Component A B C
O
2

7.96681 1668.21 228
ACN (LK)
7.0735 1279.2 224.01
H
2
O(HK)
8.10765 1750.286 235
HCN
7.52823 1329.49 260.418
ACR
7.38041 1343.54 245.902





Component
Mole
Fraction MW T
bp
(K) L
v

O
2

0.0003
32.00
89.9
18289.9604
ACN
0.1182
41.05
354.6
13705.4195
H
2
O
0.8804
18.02
373
18024.6722
HCN
0.0012
27.03
299
11601.9619
ACR
0.000185
56.06
325.5
12580.5464
254


Feed is liquid at temperature 348 K:


Mean molecular weight = (0.0003 x 32) + (0.1182 x 41.05) + (0.8804 x
18.02) + (0.0012 x 27.03) + (0.000185 x 56.06)
= 20.7693 kg/kmol
.
Mean boiling point = (0.0003 x 89.9) + (0.1182 x 354.6) + (0.8804 x
373) + (0.0012 x 299) + (0.000185 x 325.5)
= 370.75 K



Specific heat,
P
C

= (0.0003 x 10.7474) + (0.1182 x 398.5873) +
(0.8804 x 26.2392) + (0.0012 x 13.8919) +
(0.000185 x 15483.1478)
= 73.0983 kJ/kmol

Latent heat, = (0.0003 x 18289.9604) +(0.1182 x 13705.4195) +
(0.8804 x 18024.6722) + (0.0012 x 11601.9619) +
(0.000185 x 12580.5464)

= 17510.6387 kJ/kmol

fs
H = 76.9747 kJ/kmol


f
H = 73.0983 kJ/kmol




255


Therefore,

=
+

=
17510.6387 +76.9747 73.0983
17510.6387
= 1.0002

So, since the liquid is inliquid phase, q = 1.0002


5.5.4 ESTIMATION OF MINIMUM REFLUX RATIO FOR MULTICOMPONENT
DISTILATION

For multicomponent distillation, two pinch point or zones of constant composition
occur; one in the section above the feed plate and another below the feed tray. The
rigorous plate-by plate stepwise procedure for calculating minimum reflux ration, R
m
is
trial and error and it can become extremely tedious for manual calculations. R
m
is
calculated using Underwood equation. There are two equations need to be solved in
order to determine the minimum reflux ratio which shown below (R.K Sinnott, 2005):
1 q =

u o
o
i
f i i
x ,

R
m
+ 1 =

u o
o
i
d i
i
, x


Where,

i
o

= the relative volatility of component i with respect to some
reference component, usually the heavy key
R
m
= the minimum reflux ratio
X
iD
= concentration of component i in the tops at minimum reflux
x
if
= the concentration of component i in the feed, and q depends on
the condition of the feed
256

To solve for R
m
, value of u
is first obtained by trial and error. This value lies
between the
relative volatility value of the light key and the heavy key, which is 1.0.
The temperature of the top column (dew point) and bottom column (bubble
point) that has been calculated previously is useful in order to calculate the minimum
reflux ratio. New K
i
and relative volatility for each component is calculated based on the
average temperature between the top column (98.9 C) and the bottom column (105
C) which is 101.95 C. Table below shows the K
i
values,
i
values and distillate and
feed compositions:

Component X
iF
X
iD

K
i
(101.95 C)

i

(101.95 C)

X
iW

O
2
0.0003
0.0011
0.89303 0.99474
0
ACN (LK) 0.1182
0.4385
1.5456 1.72163
0
H
2
O(HK) 0.8804
0.5554
0.89775 1
1
HCN 0.0012
0.0043
7.93123 8.83452
0
ACR 0.000185
0.0007
3.61431 4.02595
0
Total
1
1 1

1 = 1 1 = 0
=
0.00030.99474
0.99474
+
0.11821.72163
1.72163
+
0.88041
1
+
0.00128.83452
8.83452

+
0.000185(4.02595)
4.02595




257

Trial and error is conducted by assuming value and Goal Seek method in
Excel until the summation of the above equation is equal or nearly zero. The value of
that gives the summation near to zero is 1.586.

(assumed) O
2
Acetonitrile H
2
O HCN ACR Sum
1.58600885 -0.0005 1.500478854 -1.50237 0.001463 0.000305254 -0.000624427

The final value = 1.586 is then substituted into the second equation of the
underwoods equation:
R
m
+ 1 =

u o
o
i
d i
i
, x

+1 =
0.00110.99474
0.99474 1.586
+
0.43851.72163
1.72163 1.586
+
0.55541
1 1.586
+
0.00438.83452
8.83452 1.586

+
0.0007(4.02595)
4.02595 1.586


Solving,

+1 = 4.623

= 3.623

+1
=
3.623
1 +3.623
= 0.7837

Specimen calculation, for R = 2.0

( +1)
=
2
(2 +1)
= 0.6667





258

From Erbar Maddox correlation (in Appendix), value of Nm/N can be determined.

By taking value of R varies from 2 until 5, here the table that shows relation between R
and N

Table 5.8: Relation R and N
R 2 3 4 5
R/(R+1) 0.666667 0.75 0.8 0.833333
N
m
/ N Not available Not available 0.4 0.48
N Not available Not available 41 34



Minimum number of stages can be calculated using Fenske Equation:

LK
LK
HK
HK
LK
m
b
x
x
d
x
x
N
o log
log
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

X
LK,D
= 0.4385 X
LK,W
= 0.0001
X
HK,D
= 0.5554 X
HK,W
= 0.9999

LD
= 1.7647

LW
= 1.6816

L,av
= [(
LD
) (
LD
)]
0.5

L,av
= [(1.76467) (1.6816)]
0.5
= 1.7226





259

=
[(
0.4385
0.5554
)(
0.9999
0.0001
)
log(1.7226)


N
m
= 16.5 theoretical stages
Since

= 0.48
16.5

= 0.48


Thus, the theoretical stages N = 34. This gives 34.0 1.0 (reboiler) or 33 theoretical
trays.

5.5.5 Overall Column Efficiency


A quick estimate of the overall column efficiency can be obtained from correlation given
by OConnell (1946);
) log( 5 . 32 51 E
a a 0
o =


Where,
a
o = average relative volatility of the light key

a
= the molar average liquid viscosity, mNs/m
2

Temperature = 371.9 K (top column)
= 378 K (bottom column)

Average temperature = (371.8+ 378) K = 374.9 K
Viscosity of components at average temperature, 374.9 K:
Log () = A x
1

260

Table 5.9: List of constant in the liquid viscosity equation and value of viscosity:










Log () = (85.68) x [ (1/374.9)-(1/51.50)]
Log () = - 1.4351
= 0.0367

Table 5.10: Summary calculation of viscosity and composition:

F
x
T
= 1.7232 x 0.08517
= 0.1468


To determine the distillation column efficiencies (bubble-caps) (after OConnell, 1946)
(Refer Appendix A.2),
E
o
= 76%
Component A B log
O
2

85.68 51.50
-1.43515 0.036716
ACN
334.91 210.05
-0.7011 0.199022
H
2
O
342.79 165.54
-1.15639 0.069761
HCN
194.7 145.31
-0.82056 0.151163
ACR
388.17 217.14
-0.75225 0.176908
Component x
i

i
x
i
*
i

O
2

0.0003
0.036716 1.10147E-05
CAN
0.1182
0.199022 0.023524431
H
2
O
0.8804
0.069761 0.061417529
HCN
0.0012
0.151163 0.000181395
ACR
0.000185
0.176908 3.2728E-05
Total 1

0.08517
261

The number of ideal stages is 34, so the number of real stages is
=
34
0.76


= 44.7 45


Therefore, the number of real stages is 45 stages.

5.5.6 Calculation to Determine Feed Plate Location


An estimate can be made by using the Fenske equation to calculate the number of
stages in the rectifying and stripping section separately, but this requires an estimate of
the feed-point temperature. An alternative approach is to use the empirical equation
given by Kirkbride (1944):

= 0.206 log

2


Where, N
e
= number of theoretical stages above the feed plate
N
s
= number of theoretical stages below the feed plate
(including reboiler)

,

= concentration of the heavy key in the feed

,
= concentration of the light key in the feed

,
= concentration of the heavy key in the top product

,
= concentration of the light key if in the bottom
product

W
= molar flow of bottom product
D = molar flow of top product

= 0.206 log
0.8804
0.1182

67.52
24.9016

0.0001
0.5554

2


262

= 0.532

Where actual number of stages is 45,

N
e
+ N
s
= 45

0.532 N
s
+ N
s
= 45
N
s
= 42.7

N
e
= 15.6


Therefore, the feed is at stages 16 from the top column.



5.5.7 Calculation to Design the Plate


Maximum feed rate = 1,918.91 kg/hr

By taking 70% of the maximum flow rate at feed,
Minimum Feed rate = 0.7 x 1918.91
= 1343.237 kg/hr

Number of ideal stages = 34
Reflux ratio = 5
MW feed = 20.7693 kg/kmol
Feed, kmol/h = 92.4145 kmol/h


Top product, D (kmol/h) = 24.9016





263

Mass balance on top of distillation column gives:
Liquid flow rate, L
m
(kmol/h) = R x D = 5 x 24.9016 = 124.508
Vapor rate, V
m
(kmol/h) = D + L
m
= 24.9016 + 124.508 = 149.41

An overall mass balance gives:
Bottom product, B(kmol/h) = 92.4145 - 24.9016 = 67.513

Mass balance on bottom of distillation column gives:
Liquid flow rate, L
n
(kmol/h) = (R x D) + F = (5 x 24.9016) + 92.4145 = 196.9225
Vapor rate, V
n
(kmol/h) = L
n
- B = 196.9225 - 67.513 = 129.41


Physical Properties:

Number of ideal stages = 34
Bottom pressure, bar = 1.22


From steam tables, base temperature 378 K (105
0
C)

L
(density of water)(kg/m
3
) = 964.12

V
(density of vapor)(kg/m
3
) = 0.7047
Surface tension, N/m = 0.070507
Molecular weight = 18.02

Top temperature, 371.9 K (98.9
0
C)

L
(density of water)(kg/m
3
) = 959.23

V
(density of vapour)(kg/m
3
) = 0.5762
Molecular weight = 53.06
Surface tension, N/m = 0.05112





264

5.5.8 Calculation for column diameter

Top liquid vapor flow factor, F
LV
:

=
124.508
149.41

0.5762
959.23
= 0.0204


Bottom liquid vapor flow factor:

=
196.9225
129.41

0.7047
964.12
= 0.0411


Try plate spacing = 0.50 m

From (R.K. Sinnott, 2005) refer figure in Appendix A.3:
Top K
1
= 0.072
Bottom K
1
= 0.05

Correction for surface tension,


1
=

0.02

0.2

1


1
=
0.05112
0.02

0.2
0.072 = 0.0869


265


1
=

0.02

0.2

1


1
=
0.070507
0.02

0.2
0.05 = 0.0643

From (R.K. Sinnott, 2005),

,

=
1

= 0.0869

959.23 0.5762
0.5762
= 3.545 /


,

=
1

= 0.0643

964.12 0.7047
0.7047
= 2.377 /



Design for 85% flooding at maximum flow rate:
Top
V
= 0.85 u
f
= 0.85 x 3.545 = 3.013 m/s

Base
V
= 0.85 u
f
= 0.85 x 2.377 = 2.02 m/s

Maximum volumetric flow rate:

=

=
149.41 53.06
0.5762 3600
= 3.8218
3


=

=
129.41 18.02
0.7047 3600
= 0.9192
3

266

Net area required =
V
u
rate flow volumetric Maximum

=
3.8218
3.013
= 1.2684
2


=
0.9192
2.02
= 0.455
2


Take downcomer area as 12% of total:


Column cross sectional area
=

0.88
=
1.2684
0.88
= 1.4414
2


=

0.88
=
0.455
0.88
= 0.517
2



Column Diameter:
=

1.4414 4

= 1.3547

=

0.517 4

= 0.8113


Therefore, the column diameter, D
c
ia taken approximately 1.4 m since the top column
diameter calculated is higher than that of the bottom column.




267

5.5.9 Liquid Flow Pattern

Maximum volumetric liquid rate =
V
n

L
=
129.41 18.02
964.12 3600
= 0.000672 m
3
s

The plate diameter is outside the range (refer to Appendix A.4), but it is clear that a
single pass plate can be used.

Provisional Plate Design

Column Diameter, D
c
= 1.4 m
Column Area, A
c
= 1.5 m
2

Downcomer Area, A
d
= 0.12 A
c
(at 12 per cent)
= 0.12 x 1.5 = 0.18 m
2
Net Area, A
n
= A
c
A
d

= 1.5 0.18 = 1.32 m
2

Active Area, A
a
= A
c
2A
d

= 1.5 2(0.18) = 1.14 m
2

Hole area, A
h
(take 10% A
a
as first trial)

= 0.1 x 1.14 = 0.114 m
2

Weir length (refer to Appendix A.5)
A
d
/A
c
=12
I
w
/D
c
=0.77
I
w
= 1.078 m
Take,
Weir height, h
w
= 50 mm
Hole diameter = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm (carbon steel)






268

5.5.10 Check weeping

Maximum liquid rate, L
w
=
196.9225 x 18.02
3600
= 0.9857 kg/s
Minimum liquid rate at 70% turn-down = 0.7 0.9857
= 0.67 kg /s

From (Chemical Engineering Design, 4
th
Edition, Volume 6 Coulson & Richardsons,
R.K. Sinnott):
h
ow
= 750
L
w

L
x I
w

2
3

Maximum h
ow
= 750
0.9857
964.12 x 1.078

2
3

= 7.24 mm liquid

Minimum h
ow
= 750
0.67
964.12 x 1.078

2
3

= 5.6 mm liquid


At minimum rate, h
w
+ h
ow
= 50 + 5.6
= 55.6 mm

From Chemical Engineering Volume 6, (Figure 11.30)
K
2
@ h
w
+ h
ow
= 30.2

h
(min) =
K
2
0.90(25.4 d
h
)

v
0.5
=
30.2 0.90(25.4 5)
(0.7047)
0.5

h
(min) =14.1 m/s




269

Actual minimum vapor velocity =
minimum vapor rate
A
h
=
0.7 x 0.9192
0.114
= 5.6442 m/s

Since
h
(min) >
a
, therefore minimum operating rate will be well above weep point.


5.5.11 Plate Pressure Drop


Maximum vapor velocity through holes;

h
=
0.9192
0.114
= 8.0632 m/s

By referring to Appendix A.6,

Assumption: Plate thickness/hole diameter = 1

100%

100%
% 100 % 100 ~
a
h
p
h
A
A
A
A

Percent perforated area = 10%
Orifice coefficient, C
O
= 0.84

Dry plate drop, h
d
= 51
u
h
C
o

L
= 51
8.0632
0.84

2
0.7047
964.12


h
d
= 3.4348 mm liquid
Residual head,
h

=
12.5 10
3

=
12.5 10
3
964.12

h

= 12.9652

270

Total pressure drop,


h
t
= h
d
+(h
w
+h
ow
) +h
r

h
t
= 3.4348 +50 +7.24 +12.9652 = 73.64 mm liquid



5.5.12 Downcomer Liquid Backup


Downcomer pressure lose
Take h
ap
= h
w
10
= 50 10
= 40 mm
Clearance area under the downcomer, A
ap
= h
ap
l
w

= (40 x 10
-3
) x 1.078
= 0.0431 m
2

Since A
ap
is less than A
d
(0.18 m
2
), equation 11.92(R.K. Sinnott) is used to estimate the
head loss in the downcomer:

h
dc
= 166

2
= 166
0.9857
964.120.0431

2


h
dc
= 0.0934 mm
Then take h
dc
= 0.1 mm








271

Back up in downcomer, h
b


h
b
= (h
w
+ h
ow
) +h
t
+h
dc


h
b
= 50 +7.24 + 73.64 +0.0934 = 130.9734 mm
h
b
= 0.131 m

For plate spacing 0.5 m,

h
b
< (plate spacing + weir height)
0.131 < 0.5(0.5 + 0.05)
0.131 m < 0.275 m

So, plate spacing of 0.5 m is acceptable.


5.5.13 Check residence time


For the entrained vapor to disengaged from the liquid stream, sufficient residence
time must be allowed in order to prevent heavily aerated liquid being carried under the
downcomer. Usually, a residence time of 3 seconds is recommended.

The equation to calculate downcomer residence time is given by:

Where, t
r
= residence time, s
h
bc
= clear liquid back up, m

=
0.18 0.131 964.12
0.9857
= 23.1

Since t
r
> 3 s, then it is satisfactory.

272

5.5.14 Check entrainment

u

=
u
max
A
n
=
0.9192
1.32
= 0.6964 m/s

=

=
0.6964
2.377
100% = 29.3 %

F
LV
= 0.0411, refer to Appendix A.7

= 0.0028, well below 0.1, thus it is satisfactory.



5.5.15 Perforated Area


At I
w
/D
c
= 0.77, by referring to refer to Appendix A.8, thus

c
= 101

Angle subtended at plate edge by unperforated strip = 180 - 101 = 79
o


Mean length, unperforated edge strips = (1.4 0.05) () (79/180)
= 1.8614 m

Area of unperforated edge strips = h
o
x mean length

= 0.05 x 1.8614
= 0.09307 m
2






273

Mean length of calming zone, approximate = weir length + width of imperforated strip
= 1.078 + 0.05 = 1.128 m

Area of calming zone = 2(1.128 x 0.05) = 0.1128 m
2


Total area available for perforations;

A
p
= 1.14 - 0.09307 0.1128 = 0.9341 m
2

=
0.114
0.9341
= 0.122

Then by referring to the figure in Appendix A.9,

l
p
/ d
h
= 2.75

The l
p
/ d
h
value is satisfactory because it is within the range (2.5 4.0)



5.5.16 Number of holes

Area of holes =
4
2
d
t
= 1.964 10
-5
m
2

Number of hole =
A
h
1.964 10
5
=
0.114
1.964 10
5
= 5804 holes





274

5.5.17 Column height


Number of trays, N = 45
Plate thickness = 5 mm
Total thickness of plate = 2.25 m
Single plate spacing = 0.5 m
Number of spacing = (N-1) = 44
Tray stack = 25 m
Disengagement space (top & bottom) = (1.2 +1.8) = 3.00 m
Total height of the column = 28.00 m























275

5.6 SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL DESIGN


ITEM VALUE UNIT
Column Diameter 1.4 m
No of Plates 45 -
Reflux ratio 5
Column efficiencies 76 %
Feed stage 16 (from top column) -
Plate Spacing 0.5 m
Plate Thickness 5 mm
Total Column Height 28 m
Plate Pressure Drop 73.64 mm
Plate Material Carbon steel -
Down Comer Area 0.18 m
2
Down Comer Material SS 304 m
2

Column Area 1.5 m
2
Net Area 1.32 m
2

Active Area 1.14 m
2
Hole Area 0.114 mm
2

Number of Holes 5804 -
Hole diameter 5 mm
Weir Length 1.078 m
Weir Height 50 mm
Resident Time 23.1 s








276

5.7 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN (DC5)


Column Design

Operating pressure = 1.2 atm
Operating temperature = 105C

Take design pressure 10% above the operating pressure for safety reason.
Design pressure, P
i
= 1.2 atm
101325 N
atm. m
2

m
2
1000 mm
2
1.1 = 0.1337 N/mm
2


Design temperature, T = 105 x 1.1 = 116C


5.7.1 Material Construction


The material of construction used is stainless steel. The design stress for this material
at 116C is obtained from Appendix A.10.

Design stress, f = 121.8 N/mm
2
Tensile strength, D
i
= 360 N/mm
2

Vessel diameter, D
c
= 1.4 m = 1400 mm

Minimum thickness required for pressure loading is determined by below equation:

e =
P
i
D
c
2f P
i

Where,
e = minimum thickness required, mm
D
c
= internal column diameter, mm
F = design stress, N/mm
2

Pi = internal pressure
277


e =
0.13371400
2121.8 0.1337
= 0.77 mm

Corrosion allowance = 4 mm

By taking into consideration of the corrosion allowance, e = 0.77 mm + 4mm = 4.77 mm
Although the calculated vessel thickness is approximately 5 mm, the minimum
thickness required is assumed to be 7 mm because the guidelines stated that for a
vessel with a diameter more than 1 meter, a thickness 7 mm is the minimum.


5.7.2 Design of Domed Ends


There are many types of head including hemispherical, ellipsoidal, and torispherical
and flat ends. Below shows the calculation to compare which type of head is suitable.

1) Torispherical Head
e =
P
i
R
c
C
s
2fJ + P
i
(C
s
0.2)

where C
s
= stress concentration factor for torispherical heads =
1
4
(3 +

R
c
= crown radius
R
k
= knuckle radius
Take R
c
= D
c
= 1.4 m
R
k
= 6% from R
c
= 0.06 x 1.4 = 0.084 m

= 0.253 +

1/2

= 0.253 +
1.4
0.084

1
2
= 1.7706
278

By taking J=1 (no joints), thus the minimum thickness,
e =
0.13371.4 x 1000(1.7706)
21(121.8) + 0.1337(1.7706 0.2)
= 1.36 mm
Add 4 mm for corrosion allowance:
e = 1.36 mm + 4 mm = 5.36 mm (approximately 6 mm)

2) Ellipsoidal head

Take R
c
= D
c
= 1.4 m
By taking J=1 (no joints), thus the minimum thickness,
e =
P
i
D
i
2Jf 0.2P
i

e =
0.1337(1.4 x 1000)
2121.8(1) 0.2(0.1337)
= 0.77 mm
Add 4 mm for corrosion allowance:
e = 0.77 mm + 4 mm = 4.77 mm (approximately 5 mm)








279

3) Flat end

The minimum thickness required is given by:
=

Where C
p
= design constant, dependent on the edge constraint
D
e
= nominal plate diameter
f = design stress

By using full gasket, C
p
= 0.4 and D
e
approximate 1.7 m.
e = 0.4(1.7 x 1000)

0.1337
121.8

e = 22.53 mm
Add 4 mm for corrosion allowance:
e = 22.53 mm + 4 mm = 26.53 mm (approximately 27 mm)

Table 5.11 : The Minimum Thickness for Torispherical, Ellipsoidal and Flat End
Type of head Torispherical Ellipsoidal Flat End
Min thickness, e (mm) 6

5

27



280

From the above table which shows the comparison of the minimum thickness of
different type of head, it can be concluded that ellipsoidal head is the most suitable type
of head to be chosen due to economical factor and it requires less thickness compared
to the other head type.

5.7.3 Design of Column Subject to Combined Loading

5.7.3.1 Weight Loads

The major sources of dead weight loads are (R.K. Sinnott, 2005):
5) Vessel shell
6) Vessel fittings: manways, nozzles
7) Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates); heating and cooling coils
8) External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping
9) Auxiliary equipment which is not self-supported; condensers, agitators
10) Insulation
11) The weight of liquid to fill the vessel.


5.7.3.2 Dead Weight of Vessel, W
V

For a steel vessel, W
v
= 240 C
v
D
m
(H
v
+ 0.8D
m
)t
where D
m
= mean diameter, m (D
c
+ t)
C
v
= a factor, take 1.15 for distillation column
H
v
= height between tangent lines (length of cylindrical section), m
t = wall thickness, m
281

Therefore,
D
m
= D
c
+ t = 1.4 + 0.007 = 1.407 m
W
v
= 240 x (1.15) x (1.407) x (28 + 0.8(1.407))(0.005)
W
v
= 56.552 kN


5.7.3.3 Weight of Plates, W
p

Plate area =
D
2
4
=
(1.4)
2
4
= 1.5394 m
2

Take contacting plates = 1.2 kN/m
2

Weight of plate = 1.2 x 1.5394 = 1.8473 kN
For 45 plates = 45 x 1.8473
= 83.1285 kN


5.7.3.4 Weight of Insulation

Assume material is mineral wool with 75 mm thick.
Density,
wool
= 130.0 kg/m
3
Volume of insulation = t x D
m
x H
v
x thickness of insulation
= t (1.407) (28) (0.0075)
= 0.928 m
3
282

Weight of insulation, W
I
= volume of insulation x
wool
x g
= 0.928 x 130 x 9.81
= 1183.4784 N @ 1.1835 kN
Double the weight to allow for fittings = 2.367 kN

The total weight of vessel, W
T
= W
v
+ W
p
+ W
I

W
T
= 56.552 +83.1285 + 2.367 = 142.0475 kN

5.7.3.5 Wind Loading

A column must be designed carefully so that to withstand the highest wind
speed that can be encountered at the plant site. The probability of a given wind
speed occurring can be predicted by studying the meteorological records of the
plant location. A wind speed of 160 km/h usually used in preliminary design studies
and it is equivalent to a wind pressure of 1280 N/m
2
.
Take wind speed, U
w
= 160 km/h
To estimate the wind pressure, the following equation is used:
P
w
= 0.05U
w
2
= 0.05(160.0)
2
= 1280 N/m
2
Effective column diameter, D
eff
= D
c
+ 2(t
shell
+ t
insulation
)
= 1.4 + 2(0.007 + 0.075)
= 1.564 m



283

Loading per unit length of column, F
w
= P
w
x D
eff
= 1280 x 1.564
= 2001.92 N/m
Bending moment at bottom tangent line:
x = distance measure from free end (28 m)
M
x
=
wx
2
2
=
2001.92 (28)
2
2
= 784752.64 N/m

5.7.4 Analysis of Stress

At bottom tangent line,
Pressure stresses:
,

4

,

2

Where, P = operating pressure, N/mm
2

D
i
= column diameter, mm
t = thickness, mm

4
=
0.1337(1.4 10
3
)
4(7)
= 6.685 /
2

=
0.1337(1.4 10
3
)
2(7)
= 13.37 /
2


284

5.7.4.1 Dead Weight Stress,
w

+
=
142.0475 10
3

1400 +77

= 4.591 /
2


5.7.4.2 Bending Stress,
b

=
M
I
v

D
i
2
+t

64
(
0
4

4
)

Where, M = total bending moment at the plane
I
v
= second moment of area of the vessel

D
0
= 1400 + 2(7) = 1414 mm
D
i
= 1400 mm

64
1414
4
1400
4
= 7.657 10
9

=
784752.64
7.657 10
9

1400
2
+7

= 0.0725 N/mm
2



285

The resultant longitudinal stress is:

z
=
L
+
W

b

W
should be counted as positive if tension and negative if compressive.

z
(Upwind) = 6.685 4.591 +0.0725 = 2.1665 N/mm
2

z
(Downwind) = 6.685 4.591 0.0725 = 2.0215 N/mm
2

The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the downwind side.
13.37 2.0215 = 11.3485 /
2

It is well below the maximum allowable design stress (121.8 N/mm
2
)


5.7.4.3 Check Elastic Stability (Buckling)

,

= 2 10
4

= 2 10
4

7
1414
= 99.01 /
2

The critical buckling stress is 99.01 N/mm
2

When the vessel is not under pressure, the maximum compressive stress will occur:
Maximum stress =
W
+
b
= 4.591 + 0.0725
= 4.6635 N/mm
2
The maximum stress is below critical buckling stress, thus the design is acceptable.
286

5.7.5 Design of Vessel Support (Skirt Design)

Try a straight cylindrical skirt (
s
= 90) of plain carbon steel with:
Design stress, f
s
= 121.8 N/mm
2

Young Modulus, E = 200000 N/mm
2
(at ambient temperature)
Skirt height = 1.4 m
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of water.
,

=

=
1.4
2
2810009.81
4
= 422.837

Weight of vessel = 142.0475 kN
W
total
= 422.837 + 142.0475 = 564.8845 kN
Wind load, F
w
= 2001.92 N/m = 2.0019 kN/m
Bending moment at skirt base, M
s
= F
w

H
v
+H
skirt

2
2

M
s
= 2.0019
28 +1.4
2
2
= 865.181 kNm




287

5.7.5.1 Bending Stress in Skirt,
bs

bs
=
4M
s
(D
s
+ t
s
)t
s
D
s

Where, M
s
= maximum bending moment at the base of the skirt
t
s
= skirt thickness
D
s
= inside diameter of the skirt (1.4 m)

As a first trial, take the skirt thickness 7 mm
Bending stress in the skirt,

bs
=
4(865.181)10
6
1400 + 77(1400)
= 79.89 N/mm
2


5.7.5.2 Dead weight stress in the skirt,
ws

For test,
W = 564.8845 kN

ws
=
W
(D
s
+ t
s
)t
s

ws
(test) =
564.8845 10
3
1400 + 77
= 18.2565 N/mm
2




288

For operating.
W = 142.0475 kN

ws
operating =
142.0475 10
3
1400 + 77
= 4.591 N/mm
2

Thus, the resulting stress in the skirt, o
s
:
Maximum o
s
(compressive) = o
bs
+ o
ws
(test)
=79.89 + 18.2565
= 98.1465 N/mm
2

Maximum o
s
(tensile) = o
bs
- o
ws
(operating)
= 79.89 4.591
= 75.299 N/mm
2
Take the joint factor, J as 0.85.
Criteria for design:
o
s
(tensile) > f
s
J sin
s
o
s
(compressive ) > 0.125

sin

Where, fs = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material,
normally taken at ambient temperature, 20C
J = weld joint factor

s
= base angle of a conical skirt (normally 80 to 90)



289

The above design criteria are not exceeded for the skirt thickness should be such that
under the worst combination of wind and dead weight loading.

o
s
(tensile) > 121.8 (0.85) sin 90
75.299 > 103.53

o
s
(compressive ) > 0.125 200000
7
1400
sin 90

98.1465 > 125
Both criteria are satisfied, and 2 mm allowance for corrosion is added, which gives
design thickness of 9 mm.

5.7.6 Base ring and anchor bolts

Assume pitch circle diameter 2.2 m
Circumference of bolt circle = 2200 t
Recommended spacing between bolts = 600 mm
Minimum number bolts required, N
b
= 2200t/600 = 11.5
Closest multiple of 4, N
b
= 12
Bending moment at base skirt. M
s
= 865.181
Total weight of vessel, W
t
= 142.0475 kN
Take bolt design stress, f
b
= 125 N/mm
2
The bolt area required is given by:
A
b
=
1
N
b
f
b

4M
s
D
b
W
290

=
1
12(125)

4(865.181 10
3
)
2.2
142.0475 10
3

= 954.01 mm
2

Bolt root diameter, d =

A
b
4

954.01 4

d = 34.85 mm
Use M42 bolts (BS4190:1967) root area = 1120 mm
2
(Appendix A.11)


Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,
F
b
=
4M
s
D
s
2
+
W
D
s

F
b
=
4(865.181 10
3
)
(1.4)
2
+
142.0475 10
3
(1.4)

F
b
= 594328.4875
N
m








291

5.7.6.1 Based ring width, L
b

The minimum width of the base ring is given by:
L
b
=
F
b
f
c

1
10
3

Where, L
b
= base ring width, mm
f
c
= maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete foundation pad
(Typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm
2
)

Taking the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm
2
,

L
b
=
594328.4875
5

1
10
3
= 118.87 mm
Therefore, the minimum width of the base ring, L
b
is 118.87 mm.
From figure in Appendix A.10,
Use M42 bolts (BS 4190:1967)
A = 60, B = 102, C = 76, D = 16, E = 32, F = 48, G = 54
Actual width required, L
b
=L
r
+ t
s
+ 50 mm =102 + 7+ 50 = 159 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

f
c
=
F
b
actual width
=
594328.4875
159 10
3
= 3.738 N/mm
2




292

5.7.6.2 Base ring thickness
The required thickness for the base ring is found by treating the ring as cantilever
beam. The minimum thickness is given by:
t
b
= L
r

3f
c
f
r

Where f
c
= actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm
2

f
r
= allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm
2


t
b
= 102

33.738
140
= 28.87 mm

round off to 29 mm











293

5.7.7 Piping Design
For material used in piping, stainless steel is chosen.

For stainless tell, the optimum diameter of flange can be calculating using
equation below:

d
optimum
= 260G
0.52

mix
0.37


Pipe Flow rate, G (kg/s) (kg/m)
Feed 0.5332 0.881
Top 0.1951 0.5762
Bottom 0.3380 0.7092


5.7.7.1 Feed Inlet
G = 0.5332 kg/s, = 0.881 kg/m
3
d
optimum
= 260(0.5332)
0.52
(0.881)
0.37

d
optimum
= 196.5 mm
Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange Raised face Bolting Drilling
D b h d
4
F No. d
2
k
200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280
Refer to Appendix A.11
Nozzle thickness, t
n
=
P
s
D
opt
20 +P
s

Where, P
s
= operating pressure, N/mm
2
(0.1337 N/mm
2
)
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
(121.8 N/mm
2
)
294

t
n
=
0.1337196.5
20121.8+0.1337
= 0.011 mm

Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm = 0.011 + 4
= 4.011 4 mm

5.7.7.2 Top Column Outlet
G = 0.1951kg/s, = 0.5762 kg/m
3
d
optimum
= 260(0.1951)
0.52
(0.5762)
0.37

d
optimum
= 136.3 mm
Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange Raised face Bolting Drilling
D b h d
4
F No. d
2
k
150 168.3 300 28 75 218 3 M24 8 26 250
Refer to Appendix A.11

Nozzle thickness, t
n
=
P
s
D
opt
20 +P
s


Where, P
s
= operating pressure, N/mm
2
(0.1337 N/mm
2
)
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
(121.8 N/mm
2
)
t
n
=
0.1337136.3
20121.8+0.1337
= 0.0075 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm = 0.0075 + 4
= 4.0075 4 mm
295

5.7.7.3 Bottom Column Outlet
G = 0.3380 kg/s, = 0.7092 kg/m
3
d
optimum
= 260(0.3380)
0.52
(0.7092)
0.37

d
optimum
= 167.97 mm

Nom.
Size
Pipe
o.d. d
1

Flange Raised face Bolting Drilling
D b h d
4
F No. d
2
k
200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280
Refer to Appendix A.11
Nozzle thickness, t
n
=
P
s
D
opt
20 +P
s


Where, P
s
= operating pressure, N/mm
2
(0.1337 N/mm
2
)
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
(121.8 N/mm
2
)
t
n
=
0.1337167.97
20121.8 +0.1337
= 0.0092 mm
Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm = 0.0092 + 4
= 4.0092 4 mm





296

5.8: SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
ITEM VALUE UNIT
Operating pressure 1.2 atm
Operating temperature 105 C
Design pressure 0.1337 N/mm
2

Design temperature 116 C
Material of construction Carbon steel -
Design stress, f 121.8 N/mm
2

Minimum thickness of column 7 Mm
Dead weight of vessel, W
v
56.552 kN
Weight of plates, W
p
83.1285 kN
Weight of insulation 2.367 kN

Material of insulation Mineral wool -
Total weight of vessel 142.0475 kN
Effective column diameter, D
eff
1.564 m
Loading per unit length of column, F
w
2001.92 N/m
Bending moment at tangent line, Mx 784752.64 N/m
Circumferential pressure stress,
L
6.685 N/mm
2

Longitudinal pressure stress,
H
13.37 N/mm
2

Dead weight stress,
w
4.591 N/mm
2

Bending stress,
b
0.0725 N/mm
2

Critical buckling stress,
c
99.01 N/mm
2

Type of skirt design Straight cylindrical skirt -
Skirt height 1.4 m
Maximum dead weight load, W
app
422.837 kN
W
total
564.8845 kN
Wind load, F
w
2.0019 kN/m
Bending moment at skirt base, M
s
865.181 kNm
Bending stress in the skirt,
bs
79.89 N/mm
2

Skirt thickness 9 mm

297

ITEM VALUE UNIT
Pitch circle diameter 2.2 m
Circumference of bolt circle 2200 t -
Spacing between bolts 600 mm
Minimum number bolts required, N
b
12 -
Bolt design stress, f
b
125 N/mm
2

Bolt area, A
b
961.15 mm
2

Bolt root diameter, d 34.85 mm
Compressive load on the base ring per unit
length
594328.4875 N/m
Bearing pressure 5 N/mm
2

Actual bearing pressure on concrete
foundation
3.738 N/mm
2

Base ring width (minimum) 118.87 mm
Actual ring width 159 mm
Base ring thickness 29 mm












298

CHAPTER 6



PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTION



6.1 INTRODUCTION

Process control is concerned with maintaining process variables at some
desired operating value. Changes in process are always occurred since the processes
are dynamic in nature. Therefore, if actions are not taken in response, the important
process variables will not achieve design condition and may affect those related safety,
product quality and production rates. The process variable included temperature,
pressure, flows, and level. Set point is the desired value of the controlled variable.
Thus, the job of a control system is to maintain the controlled variable at its set point.
The objectives of control system may be grouped into the following areas (source:
fisher rosemount system, 2006):
i. Economic incentive
ii. Safety
iii. Equipment protection





299


Various techniques may be used to improve the control of a process. As the
complexity of the control system increases, the cost for operator training and
maintenance also increased. The cost of the control system should be balanced with
the benefits provided. The benefits of control improvement may be influenced by
market conditions such as value of product, cost of feedstock, and energy cost.

6.1.1 Typical control measurement system

Temperature Control

Temperature control is a process in which change of temperature is measured.
In the process of acrylonitrile production, this measurement is applied in reactor, heat
exchanger, absorber, and distillation column. Temperature is the most important
process variable because it provides a critical condition for chemical reaction,
distillation, and concentration. Poor temperature control can cause major safety,
quality, and productivity problems. The input and output temperature stream are
measured to maintain the phase of components and to ensure that reaction is
completely done at desired condition. Although highly desirable, it is often difficult to
control the temperature. (Source: http://www.cybosoft.com)







300

Pressure Control

Similar to temperature, pressure is another key process variable because
pressure provides a critical condition for boiling, chemical reaction, and distillation. Poor
pressure control also can cause major safety, quality, and productivity problems. Overly
high pressure inside a vessel can cause an explosion. Therefore, it is highly desirable
to keep pressure in good control and maintained within its safety limits. (Source:
http://www.cybosoft.com)


Flow Control

Flow control is probably the least difficult to control but has the largest number
of loops because a continuous process is about moving material flows from the
beginning of the process to the end. It is relatively easy to control a flow loop because it
is naturally a first-order process with a small delay time. Since the flow loops are the
foundation of a process control system which is typically used as the inner loop of a
cascade control system, their control performance is critical. The quality criteria for the
flow loop is how fast the process variable reach the set point and how fast process
variable can settle within a desired range. (Source:
http://www.cybosoft.com/solutions/flowcontrol.html)






301

Level Control

Level is another process variable to be controlled. The level loop is controlled by
manipulating the inflow or outflow of the operating unit, and is considered an easy loop
to control. Overly tight level control will result in too much movement of the flow loop,
which can cause excessive disturbances to the downstream operating unit. In addition,
oscillations in level can cause the process to swing, which also results in a lower yield.
(Source: http://www.cybosoft.com/solutions/levelcontrol.html)

6.1.2 Piping and instrumentation symbols

A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is a diagram which shows the
interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the
process (Source: Wikipedia, 2011). Most industries have standardized the symbols
according to the international Society of Automation (ISA) Standard S5.1
Instrumentation Symbol Specification. The P&ID shows a graphical representation of
process in a plant and the corresponding measurement device, controller, and the
control loops.

Table 6.1 Basic symbol used to show the instrument and control loop.

Element

Symbol

Description

Transmitter






TT

Temperature transmitter
PT

Pressure transmitter
LT

Level transmitter
FT Flow transmitter
TT
302


Element

Symbol

Description

Controller

TC

Temperature controller
PC

Pressure controller
LC

Level controller
FC

Flow controller

Valve




Control valve


Transmission line






Pneumatic signal




Electrical signal


6.1.3 Control configuration selection

Each chemical process may have different control configuration. A control
configuration is used to connect the particular measurements to the manipulated
variables. Generally, there are four types of control configuration and the selection
becomes an important for a quality control system design. The types of control involved
are feedback control, cascade control, feed forward control, and ratio control.


TC
303

Table 6.2 The summary of each types of control system design
Descriptions Advantages Disadvantages
Feedback
Control
A method of control
that the action taken
is based on past
result.
Simple design and
easy to tune for
linear, fast and short
dead-time process.
Slow recovery for slow
process. A process with
long dead-time may exhibit
oscillatory process
response with long setting
time.
Cascade
Control
A method of control
which the inner loop
controller obtains its
setpoint from an
outer loop controller.
Faster recovery time
as compared to
feedback control.
Controllability will be worst
if both controllers were not
properly tuned.
Feed-forward
Control
A method of control
based on process
model.
Faster recovery than
cascade control.
Compensate for
disturbances before
they affect the
controlled variable.
Cannot work if any of the
sensors fails especially
load variable and require
process model in order to
design.
Ratio
Control
A method which
keeps a flowrate in
proportion to another
flowrate.
Keep two flows in
proportion.
Inherits PID characteristics.








304

6.1.4 Instrumentation in a control system

Every control system must perform three basic operations which are
measurement (M), decision (D), and action (A). These three operations are always
present in every type of control system and it is imperative that they be in a loop.
Measurement of variable to be controlled is completed by combining the sensor and
transmitter in a process. Decision is on the basis of the measurement, the controller
decides what to do to maintain the variable at desired value. As a result of the
controllers decision, the system must take an action that usually accomplished by the
final control element.
Control system is basically divided into two system which is closed loop control
system and open loop control system. The closed loop control system is the most
common control configuration in chemical plant because it gives more stability in the
process.











Figure 7.1 General Control Loop Block Diagram (Source:
http://www.controlguru.com/2007/020507.html (ON-LINE) )

Manipulated
variable
Controller
output signal
Process
Final Control
Element (FCE)
Controller
Measurement
Sensor/Transmitter
Measured process
variable signal, PV
Process
variable
Disturbance
Set point, SP
305

6.2 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR FLUID BED REACTOR

In order to avoid any explosion and achieve a high conversion of propylene to
acrylonitrile , Several factor in the reactor need to control .From the literature review
that have be made , the fluidized reactor operate at low pressure with high temperature
and produce 1 product and 4 side product. Since the conversion of propylene was
strongly affected by temperature, therefore temperature is among the actor that need to
be controlled .Below are listed all the factor that need to be control.

Table 6.4 summary of control analysis for heat exchanger
no
Controlled
Variable
Manipulated
Variable
Disturbances
Type of
Controller
Set point

1

Reactor inlet
flowrate

Flowrate if
stream 1

-.

Feed forward
controller.


F= 220,931.02
kg/h

2

Composition of
stream 2 and
column
temperature

BFW flowrate

Raw material
temperature

Cascade
controller
The set point
value was
determine by
80.1% conversion
of propylene








306

6.2.1 FLUID BED REACTOR P&ID DIAGRAM


Figure 6.2 fluid bed reactor P&ID diagram

307

6.3 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR HEAT EXCHANGER

The control system for heat exchanger is designed to control outlet temperature
of process fluid stream at desired operating condition. The temperature need to be
maintained is at 220
o
C. The concept of cascade control is applied in this system.
The outlet temperatures of stream 2 need to be controlled. Cascade control
starts with a sensor-transmitter measures the outlet temperature or known as controlled
variable and generates signal proportional to it. The signal then sent to the controller
where it is compared to the set point. The controller then calculates an output signal
between the measurement and set point. This temperature controller output signal is
sent to the flow controller if there is any deviate of temperature at the outlet stream.
Water control valve will control the amount of water flow into the heat exchanger to
ensure the temperature outlet is at desired temperature. Besides, there is also flow
control at the steam inlet. The flow transmitter is used in order to detect if there is any
deviation from the steam inlet.
.
Control objective:
i. Control the outlet temperature of stream 2.
Table 6.4 summary of control analysis for heat exchanger
no
Controlled
Variable
Manipulated
Variable
Disturbances
Type of
Controller
Set point

1

Control stream
2 temperature

Flow of water
stream (cold
fluid).

Flow rates of
inlet stream 2
and temperature
of inlet stream 2.

Cascade
controller.


T= 220
o
C
(If temperature
exist 10% of
set point,
temperature
alarm high/low
will be activated.

308

6.3.1 HEAT EXCHANGER P&ID DIAGRAM


Figure 6.3 heat exchanger P&ID diagram

309

6.4 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR ABSORBER

The control system for absorber are designed to control the flow rate of gas inlet by
manipulate the flow rate of inlet liquid to make sure the ratio of L/V is comply the
desired value. The value of ratio L/V is important to be observed in order to make sure
that the absorption column runs optimally.
Other than that, level of liquid in the column also must be controlled by manipulating
the bottom liquid outlet to make sure the absorber efficiency is achieved. Level indicator
is used to indicate the level of the liquid in the absorption column.
Another control parameter that needs to be controlled in order to achieve
maximum absorption of gases is the operating pressure of the column. To control the
pressure of the column, the flow rate of outlet gas need to be regulated. The pressure
indicator is used to indicate the pressure in the column.

Control objectives:
1. To control the inlet gas flow rate into the column at desired level.
2. To control the pressure in the column at desired level.
3. To control the liquid in the column at desired level.







310

Table 6.5 summary of control analysis for absorber column
No Controlled
Variable
Manipulated
Variable
Disturbance
Type of
Controller
Set Point

1

Inlet gas flow
rate

Inlet liquid flow
rate

Inlet gas flow
rate

Ratio control

L/V = 2
(if the ratio of L/V exist
in the column 10%
greater or smaller than
the set point, alarm
will be activated)

2

Pressure
column

Outlet gas flow
rate

Inlet gas flow
rate



Feedback
control

P = 1.9 bars
(if the pressure exist
10% higher or lower
than the set point,
alarm will be
activated)

3

Liquid level

Outlet liquid flow
rate

Inlet liquid
flow rate

Feedback
control

H = 0.67 m
(if the level exist 10%
higher or lower than
the set point, alarm
will be activated)







311

6.4.1 ABSORBER P&ID DIAGRAM


Figure 6.4 Absorber column P&ID diagram

312

6.5 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR DISTILLATION COLUMN ,C3

The function of this distillation column is to separate components between the
hydrogen cyanide gas and acrolein. The level of separation can be affected by factors
such as feed properties, reflux rate and the like. Therefore to obtain the desired
separation, all the properties involved must be controlled and maintained. In this
distillation column, there are 3 main parts need to be controlled. Column section
requires controlling the pressure only. The reflux rate is not being controlled because
composition of the hydrogen cyanide is controlled at the condenser section. It is known
that reflux rate will affect the purification process. Therefore by controlling the HCN
composition, the control of the column reflux rate no longer required and so does level
control in the condenser.


CONTROL SYSTEM INVOLVED:


Column section :
1. Control the top pressure in the column.
2. Control the inlet flow rate
3. Control the column temperature

Reboiler section :
1.Control the liquid level in the reboiler

Condenser section :
1. Control the hydrogen cyanide composition




313


Table 6.6 Summary of control analysis for distillation column, DC3
NO
Measured
variable
Manipulated variable Disturbance
Type of controller
system
Set point

1 Pressure in the
column
Flow rate of the cooling
water into the
condenser
Feed properties,
flow rate and
column
temperature
Feedback control
system
P= 190 kPa
Alarm will be activated when
deviation of this setpoint occurs

2
Temperature in
the column
Steam flow rate into the
reboiler
Feed flow rate
Cascade control
system
T=150
o
C
Alarm will be activated when
deviation of this setpoint occurs

3
Amount of feed
flow
Feed flow rate -
Feed forward
control system
F= 498.1kmol/h

4
HCN purity in
the stream 17
Reflux flow rate into
column
Column
temperature
Feedback control
system
C
HCN
= 90 %

5
Liquid level in
reboiler
Flow rate of the bottom
stream (stream 18)
Column
temperature
Feed forward
control system
L=90% from the volume of the
reboiler







314

6.5.1 DISTILLATION COLUMN (C3) P&ID DIAGRAM
Figure 6.5 Distillation column (C3) P&ID diagram

315

6.6 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR DISTILLATION COLUMN, C5

The control objectives of distillation column C5 are as follows:
1) To control the flow rate of the feed to the column at set point.
2) To control the composition of the acetonitrile in the stream 15
3) To control the column pressure
4) To control the bottom flow rate (stream 16)

The purpose of this distillation column is to separate water that need to be
recovered and recycled back to the process from other chemical components which are
acetonitrile, hydrogen cyanide, acrolein and oxygen. Water is collected as a product at
the bottom of the column whereas the other components are collected at the top
column as distillate. It is important to install a control strategy such as flow, pressure,
level and temperature controller in the column in order to achieve the desired
separation.

316

Table 6.7 Summary of control analysis for Distillation column, DC3
No

Control objective

Manipulated
variable

Disturbance


Type of
controller

Set Point

1

Control flow rate of
feed

Feed flow rate

Temperature and
pressure of the feed
stream

Feedback

Feed flow rate:
92.4145 kmol/hr

2

Control pressure of
the column

Flow rate of
cooling water

Feed stream flow rate
and properties

Feedback
P=1.2 atm
alarm will be activated if
column pressure exceed
this set point

3

Control ACN
composition

Reflux rate

Column temperature

Feed Forward

Composition of ACN must
higher than 65%

4

Control stream 16
flow rate

Flow rate of
bottom

Feed flow rate to the
column.

Feedback

Avoid flooding (If liquid
level is deviates from set
point, alarm will be
activated)
317

6.6.1 DISTILLATION COLUMN (C5) P&ID DIAGRAM
Figure 6.6 Distillation column (C6) P&ID diagram

318

6.7 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR ALL EQUIPMENT
319

CHAPTER 7



PLANT SAFETY AND LAYOUT



7.1 INTRODUCTION

In chemical plant, safety issues are the major element need to be understood and
implemented well. The obvious reason why safety is important in a chemical plant is the
fact that it is full with many potential hazards that could cause accidents, death and
disaster if they are not treated well. In acrylonitrile plant the raw materials, by-products
and even the product desired is categorized as potential hazards and most of the
chemical involves in the process is a toxic. Since potential hazards cannot be avoided,
there is no doubt that workers or personnel who are working in a chemical plant have
high potential to be suffered from illness, injuries and even death.
There are many reasons which explain the importance of safety in a chemical
plant. Some of the importances are ( L. Nulhakiem, 2005)
a) To protect workers and employers in the plant including outsiders from injuries,
illness or death.
b) To ensure the survival of the companys business.
c) To prevent damages of property and facilities.
d) To enhance the companys reputation.
e) To teach people in the plant on how to work safely for their own good and also
for the company itself.
320

f) To help the company to achieve their targets and objectives.
g) To avoid the company from being fined and getting law suits.
h) To keep and increase customers confidence to do business with the company.
i) To prevent interruption and shut down of production process.
j) Cost effective decision for the company.

Disaster such as explosion and fire are the most terrified situations that every
company of chemical plant does not want to face. Thus, it is better to prevent this from
occurring by implement a thoroughly and understandable safety procedure and expose
it to all the people involves in the chemical plant operation.

7.2 SAFETY OPERATING PROCEDURE

7.2.1 General Overview

Safe operating procedures are written guidelines for procedures and tasks
involving recognized hazards. It provides the tools to teach people on how to work
consistently with a maximum degree of efficiency and safety. Safety operating
procedure will let the workers in the plant know their roles and responsibilities in doing
their job correctly and in a safe manner. This also will communicate to the workers what
proper tools, materials and equipment they will need for the job and use them safely.
Safety operating procedure should be written for jobs that relate to these following
considerations:
a) High risk jobs in which accidents may have the potential to result in serious
injuries.
b) Where any part of a hazard assessment or risk analysis shows a high or
sufficient risk to workers.
c) Incidents occur in frequent basis.

321

d) Where jobs are new or jobs where new equipment has been installed.
e) Where a job required detailed tasks.
f) Where there are two or more workers who must perform specific tasks at the
same time.
g) Where jobs are done infrequently or on a seasonal basis.
Safe operating procedures is a controlled document and covered under the companys
quality system and thus it must be fully up to date. Any changes that have been made
should be fully controlled and documented and must be subjected to company change
procedures.

7.2.2 Developing, Implementing and Using Safety Operating Procedures

An easy way to develop safety operating procedure is by dividing the task into
small steps and for each step it is important to determine the hazards and provide
solutions to correct the hazards. This is called as hazard identification or hazard
assessment. Once hazard assessment is completed, the first step to develop safety
operating procedure is done. Besides hazard assessment, risk assessment also one of
the element need to be performed in order to develop the safety operating procedure.
The next step is to review the list and hazard assessment or risk assessment.
The jobs which require a safety operating procedure is determined as the result of this
assessment. Then, writing the procedures to meet specific job requirements can be
made. This action will ensure that workers and supervisors or management are
involved together in this development phase. Once the procedures already been
completed, it is then can be forwarded to the management for review and approval.
This is vital in order to ensure that they are accurate and will not cause any problems or
hazards to the work process.


322

After the procedures have been approved, it then can be communicated to the
workers. Supervisors are responsible in ensuring that all individuals who will be
involved in the work at the site that covers the scope of the safety operating procedure
are aware of its contents. Besides, all the safety operating procedure should be
compiled and kept on site in to ease the access for workers.
The safety operating procedure in a chemical process plant generally includes hazard
identification, risk assessment and as well as risk control.

7.2.3 SOP Involves in Acrylonitrile Plant

The items that usually consist in SOP are:
- Description of process, hazardous chemical, or hazard class
- Potential hazards
- Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
- Engineering Controls
- Special Handling and Storage Requirements
- Spill and Accident Procedures
- Decontamination Procedures
- Waste Disposal Procedures
- Material Safety Data Sheet Location

7.2.3.1 Description of Process, Hazardous Chemical and Hazard Class
In acrylonitrile production, the hazardous chemicals involves are such as hydrogen
cyanide, acetonitrile, acrylonitrile, ammonia, propylene and acrolein. Table below
shows the characteristic and hazard class for each chemical in the plant:


323

Table 7.1 Characteristic and hazard class for each chemical
Hazardous chemical
Hazard class
Physical Health

Acrylonitrile
Common name: Vinyl
Cyanide or Propenitrile

Fire and explosion hazards in
presence of various substances

Absorption through the skin, toxic to
blood, kidneys and central nervous
system.

Ammonia


Toxic and corrosive hazards

Causes burns, toxic by inhalation, risk
of serious damage to eyes

Propylene

Fire hazards

Toxic by inhalation, can effect the
respiratory system

Hydrogen cyanide

Flammable liquid and vapor, fire
hazards

Toxic by inhalation

Acetonitrile

Fire and explosion hazards

Hazardous in case of skin contact, eye
contact and may be toxic to
reproductive system. Repeated
exposure may produce general
deterioration of health by an
accumulation in one or many human
organs.


Acrolein

Fire and explosion hazards

Hazardous in skin contact, eye
contact, of ingestion and of inhalation.
Repeated exposure may produce
general deterioration of health by an
accumulation in one or many human
organs.


324

7.2.3.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

To prevent contact of any hazards in a chemical plant, it is very important for the
worker or personal to be provided with certain PPE. This equipment will form a barrier
between the toxic and route of entry. The principle of using of PPE is to prevent contact
between the hazard and the internal or external part of body. PPE comprise of
respirator, protective clothing, gloves, apron, goggles and shoes and safety helmet.
The selection of PPE should meet these following criteria:
- PPE must give an adequate protection against the specific hazard such as the
right type and model.
- Should be easily fitted and removed.
- Not restrict movement or sensory perception essential to the job.
- Easily worn and supported by body.
- Will not introduce additional hazards.
- Made to acceptable standards.
- Easily undergone maintenance.
- Be replaced when necessary.

7.2.3.2.1 Types of PPE

1. Hearing protection
- Must be worn by anyone who is likely to be exposed to noise at or above
the standard level.
- Main types are earmuffs/defenders which completely cover the ear,
earplugs (which are inserted into the ear canal) and semi-inserts or
canal-caps (which cover the entrance to the ear canal)


325

2. Head protection
- A protective helmet (hard hat) must be worn when working in areas
where there is the potential for injury from falling objects or exposed
energized electrical conductors that could contact the head.


3. Eye and face protection
- Safety glasses, goggles and face shields are appropriate face and eye
protection that must be used to protect against hazards associated with
flying particles, liquid chemicals, acids and caustic liquids, chemical
gases and vapors.

4. Foot protection
- This type of protection must be worn in areas where there is the
potential for foot injuries from falling or rolling objects or from exposed
energized electrical conductors that could contact the feet.
- Types of foot protection are such as safety boots, wellington boots (can
be supplied with steel toe-caps), and anti-static and conductive footwear.
Where there is a risk of slipping that cannot be avoided or controlled by
other measures, attention must be given to the slip resistance of soles
and replacement before the tread pattern is overly worn.

5. Hand and arm protection
- This must be used or worn to protect against hazards of skin absorption
of harmful substances, severe abrasions, punctures, chemical burns,
thermal burns or harmful temperature extremes.
- These type of protection comes in variety of forms such as gloves and
gauntlets, wrist cuffs and armlets and also barrier cream may sometimes
be used where gloves cannot practicably used.





326

6. Respiratory protection
- It may be used to protect against inhalation hazards when engineering
and administrative controls are not feasible or adequate.
- There are two main types of respiratory protective equipment:
(a) Respirators that filter contaminated air or clean it as it is breathed in
(b) Respirators that supply clean air from an independent source.

7. Body protection
- Workers who face bodily injury during performing their jobs need the
appropriate type of body protection. Hazards that can contribute to the
need for this protection are such as weather extremes, impacts from tool
or machinery, chemicals, and also hot splashes from liquids.
- Types of body protection include aprons, clothing to cold, heat and bad
weather, high visibility clothing, life jackets and back supports.

7.2.3.2.2 Information, Instruction and Training on PPE Use

Every worker in the Acrylonitrile plant required to use PPE must receive training in the
following aspects:
- How to wear PPE in a proper manner?
- What types of PPE provide protection against the hazards identified during the
assessment?
- When are the right time PPE must be used, the proper care and useful life of
PPE.
- Proper disposal of damaged PPE.




327

Information and instruction should cover:
(a) The risks present and why PPE is needed.
(b) The operation (including demonstration), performance and limitations of the
equipment.
(c) Use and storage (how to put PPE on, how to adjust and remove it)
(d) Any testing requirements before use.
(e) Any user maintenance that can be carried out (hygiene or cleaning procedures)
(f) Factors that can affect the performance of the equipment.
(g) How to recognize defects in PPE and reporting them.
(h) Where to obtain replacement for the damaged PPE.


7.2.3.2.3 Maintaining PPE
Maintenance of PPE is essential in order to make sure that the equipment
continues to provide the degree of protection for which it is designed. The
manufacturers maintenance schedule must always be followed. Maintenance may
include cleaning, examination, repair and testing.

7.2.3.2.4 Duties of Employees Regarding PPE
Work Regulations in workplace states the duties on employees to take
reasonable steps to ensure that PPE provided is properly used. It includes:
- PPE must be worn and used in accordance with the instructions provided to
them.
- Employees must take all reasonable steps to ensure that PPE is returned to the
accommodation provided for it after it has been used.
- PPE must be examined before used.
- Any loss or obvious defect must be reported immediately to the supervisor.
- Employees must take reasonable care for any PPE provided to them and not
carry out any maintenance unless trained and authorized.
328

7.2 The aspects of SOP for every hazardous chemical involves in the process:
Hazardous
chemical
Engineering control Waste disposal
Special handling and
storage requirements
Spill and accident
procedures

Acrylonitrile


Provide exhaust ventilation or
other engineering controls to
keep airborne concentrations
of vapors below their
respective threshold limit
value. Ensure that eyewash
stations and safety showers
are proximal to the work-
station location.

Waste must be disposed of in
accordance with federal, state
and local environmental control
regulations.

Keep locked up, keep away
from heat and sources of
ignition. All equipment
containing this material
should be grounded.
Suitable PPE must be worn.
In case of insufficient
ventilation, wear suitable
respiratory equipment. For
storage, store in light-
resistant containers,
segregated and approved
area. Keep container in a
cool, well-ventilated area
and ensure it is tightly closed
and sealed.

Small spill: Absorb with
an inert material and put
the spilled material in an
appropriate waste
disposal.
Large spill: Stop leak if
without risk. Absorb with
dry earth, sand or other
non-combustible
material. Do not get
water inside container.
Prevent entry into
sewers, basements or
confined areas; dike if
needed. Use water spray
to reduce vapors.


329

Hazardous
chemical
Engineering control Waste disposal
Special handling and
storage requirements
Spill and accident
procedures

Ammonia


Ensure ventilation is
adequate to maintain air
concentration below
Exposure Standards. Use
with local exhaust ventilation
or while wearing air supplied
mask. Ammonia gas is
generally lighter than air and
will disperse under normal
conditions. However when
ammonia liquid contacts air,
the gas produced may be
heavier than air. Prevent
concentration in hollow or
sumps. Do not enter confined
spaces where vapor may
have collected.


Close valves of empty
containers. Empty containers
should be returned to supplier
using the same precautions as
with filled containers.

Keep container in a well
ventilated place. Keep away
from sources of ignition (i.e
smoking). Wear suitable
protective clothing, gloves
and eye/face protection.

Stop leak if possible
without risk. Absorb with
vermiculite, dry sand or
earth and place into
containers. Flush with
plenty of water to clean
spillage area. Do not
contaminate water
sources or sewer.

330

Hazardous
chemical
Engineering control Waste disposal
Special handling and
storage requirements
Spill and accident
procedures

Propylene

Good industrial hygiene
practice requires that
engineering controls be used
when feasible to reduce
workplace concentrations of
hazardous materials. Use
adequate ventilation to keep
gas and vapor concentrations
of this product below the
occupational exposure and
flammability limits, particularly
in confines spaces. Use
mechanical ventilation that is
explosion proof.

Waste must be disposed of in
accordance with federal, state
and local environmental control
regulations.

Handling precautions: Keep
away from flame, sparks and
excessive temperatures. Use
only well-ventilated areas.
Storage: store in a cool, dry,
well-ventilated area away
from sources of ignition,
strong oxidizers or other
incompatible materials.

Evacuate area of all
unnecessary personnel.
Remove or shut off all
sources of ignition and
ventilate the area
thoroughly.

Hydrogen
cyanide

Provide local exhaust or
process enclosure ventilation
system. Ensure compliance
with applicable exposure
limits.

Waste must be disposed of in
accordance with federal, state
and local environmental control
regulations.

Store with flammable liquids.
Avoid heat, flames, sparks
and other sources of ignition.

Do not touch spilled
material. If possible stop
the leak without personal
risk. Remove source of
ignition. Do not get water
directly on material. Stay
331

Hazardous
chemical
Engineering control Waste disposal
Special handling and
storage requirements
Spill and accident
procedures

upwind and keep out of
low areas. Evacuation
radius must be at least in
150 feet.


Acetonitrile


Facilities storing or utilizing
this material should be
equipped with an eyewash
facility and a safety shower.
Local exhaust ventilation may
be necessary to control any
air contaminants to within
their threshold limit value
during the use of this product.

Waste must be disposed of in
accordance with federal, state
and local environmental control
regulations.

Handling precautions: keep
away from heat and sources
of ignition. Wear suitable
protective clothing. In case
of insufficient ventilation,
wear suitable respiratory
equipment. Keep away from
oxidizing agents, reducing
agents and moisture.
Storage: Store in a
segregated and approved
area. Keep container in a
cool, well-ventilated area. Do
not store above 23C.

Small spill: dilute with
water and mop up, or
absorb with an inert dry
material and place in an
appropriate waste
disposal container.
Large spill: keep away
form sources of ignition.
Absorb with dry earth,
sand or other non-
combustible material.
Use water spray to
reduce vapor. Call for
assistance on disposal.

332

Hazardous
chemical
Engineering control Waste disposal
Special handling and
storage requirements
Spill and accident
procedures

Acrolein


Provide exhaust ventilation or
other engineering controls to
keep the airborne
concentrations of vapors
below their respective
threshold limit value.

Waste must be disposed of in
accordance with federal, state
and local environmental control
regulations.

Handling precautions: keep
away from heat and sources
of ignition. Bo not breathes
gas or fumes/vapor. Never
add water to this product. If
ingested, seek medical
advice immediately and
show the label of this
chemical.
Storage: store in segregated
and approved area. Keep in
a cool, well-ventilated area.
Do not store above 8C.

Small spill: dilute with
water and mop up, or
absorb with an inert dry
material and place in an
appropriate waste
disposal container.
Large spill: keep away
from sources of ignition.
Absorb with dry earth,
sand or other non-
combustible material.
Use water spray to
reduce vapor. Call for
assistance on disposal.


333

7.2.4 Hazard Identification
Large variety of hazards can be found in every chemical processing plant.
Hazard is a chemical or physical condition that has a potential to cause accident
that brings damage to people, property or environment. Hazard can be classified
into toxic hazard, fire hazard and explosion hazard. In acrylonitrile plant, majority of
the products shows toxicity hazard and this included acrylonitrile, HCN, acrolein and
acetonitrile (Crowl & Louvar, 2002).
Hazard identification is essential to be performed because of these reasons (Crowl
& Louvar, 2002):
a) To improve safety reliability and operability of a project by recognizing and
eliminating potential hazards at the design stage as well as the whole project
lifecycle.
b) To avoid endangering the health and safety of the plant employees and also
public.
c) To avoid loss of properties and production which will cause serious financial
and economics loss.
In acrylonitrile production plant, hazards that have the potential to cause
accident are comprised of the product itself, raw material and its by-products. Below
are the chemical compounds and the explanation about their hazard identification
based on information given in each of the chemicals MSDS.

7.2.4.1 Acrylonitrile
Acrylonitrile which is the product being produce can brings potential acute
health effects. It is categorized as very hazardous if any skin contact, ingestion or
inhalation occurs. If it is severely over-exposed, it could result in death. Besides,
continuous exposure to this chemical can cause potential chronic health effects and
this include carcinogenic effects, mutagenic effects, developmental and toxicity
which affect female reproductive system. This substance also occur to be a toxic to
humans in which blood, kidneys, liver, cardiovascular system and central nervous
system could be seriously affected and may cause death if it is being exposed
repeatedly.
334

7.2.4.2 Ammonia
One of the raw materials in acrylonitrile production is ammonia gas. It is
classified as a flammable material and inhalation of this substance can be toxic to
human and it also shows toxicity towards aquatic organisms. Ammonia also can be
poisonous and can causes burns. In order to keep safety in dealing with this
substance, it must be stored in a well ventilated place and always ensure that any
source of ignition is avoided from being in close contact. As ammonia is a
combustible gas, it can react with air and produce a flammable vapour mixture. If
this substance is handled in accordance with the Safety Data Sheet, adverse health
effects can be avoided. However, continuous exposure may cause long term effects
such as pneumonitis and kidney damage.

7.2.4.3 Propylene
This substance is extremely flammable and explosive and at high
concentrations it acts as a simple asphixiant by diluting and replacing oxygen,
particularly in confined spaces. If such oxygen has been replaced, death may be
occurring due to oxygen depletion. It can cause potential health effects by
inhalation, contact to eyes, skin and ingestion. At high concentrations, propylene
significantly shows toxicity and prolonged exposure may cause chronic diseases or
disorders to the human respiratory system.

7.2.4.4 Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
This substance is a colourless liquid in which could cause fatal if inhaled or
swallowed, affect respiratory tract irritation and eye irritation. Because of its
flammable characteristic, vapour of this substance may cause flash fire it is in
contact with air, heat, light or water. Short term exposure to this substance can
cause rash, nausea, chest pain, blindness, lung congestion, paralysis, coma and
even death. Because of it can polymerize with evolution of heat, contact with air,
light, water and incompatible material must be strongly avoided.

335

7.2.4.5 Acetonitrile
This substance is hazardous in case of skin contact, eye contact, ingestion
and inhalation. If one is severely expose to acetonitrile, it may cause death. It is also
toxic to blood and reproductive system, kidneys, liver, upper respiratory tract, and
central nervous system. Acetonitrile is highly flammable in presence of open flames
and sparks, heat or oxidizing materials. In order to take serious precautions, this
material must be stored in segregated and approved area and it also must be well-
ventilated.

7.2.4.6 Acrolein
Like other materials, acrolein also can cause potential acute and chronic
health effects. Skin contact may produce burns whereas inhalation of the spray mist
may produce severe irritation of respiratory tract and this can be characterized by
coughing, choking or difficulty in breathing. Toxicity of this material may produce
general deterioration of health by an accumulation in human organs if one is
repeatedly exposed to this substance. Because of its flammable characteristics, it
must be keep away from any source of heat, flames or sparks. It also shows fire
hazard characteristic as vapours may form explosive mixtures with air. When
heated to decomposition, toxic fumes of carbon monoxide and peroxides will be
emitted.









336

7.2.5 Risk Assessment

Risk assessment includes incident identification and consequences analysis.
Incident identification is frequently includes an analysis of the probabilities and it
describe how an accident can occur. Expected damages are the result of
performing consequence analysis and this includes loss of life (death), damage to
the environment and capital of equipment in the plant. Event tree analysis and fault
tree analysis are two probabilistic methods can be used in order to do risk
assessment but there are also many other methods can be used. Risk assessment
is the step to be performed after hazard has been identified (Crowl & Louvar, 2002).

7.2.6 Risk Control

Risk control is a measure in which elimination or control risk shall be developed
in the following order of controls, known as the hierarchy of controls.
1) Elimination complete removal of the hazard or risk of exposure.
2) Substitution Involves replacing the hazardous plant, equipment, substance
or work process with a less hazardous means.
3) Isolation through distance or enclosure
install guard on machines where there is risk of a person being
trapped in machine.
4) Engineering includes redesigning the work area, fixing guards or
maintenance.
5) Administrative includes standard operating procedure, supervision and
training.
6) Personal protective equipment includes safety shoes, goggles, safety
glasses and gloves.


337

7.3 EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLAN

Prompt and effective emergency response plan is vital in every chemical
plant because it can reduce accidental losses and the consequences of natural as
well as man-made disasters. The party who is responsible for emergency planning
is the top management and this is done under the guidance of the safety, health,
and environmental protection sector of the organization. The emergency response
plan must be focused in protecting the health and safety of workers and the public,
property, environment and the restoring the plant normal operations after an
incident occurred (Crowl & Louvar, 2002).
Since there is insufficient time to do decision on who is in charge, to survey
outside agencies and identify sources for help, or to train people for emergency
response during an emergency, thus emergency response plan must be determined
and prepared prior to an emergency.
A comprehensive emergency response plan should cover natural disaster,
fires, explosion, chemical spills and other dangerous incident. Developing a good
plan requires knowledge of the resources, operations that being conducted and
capabilities of the facility and the surrounding area. The general emergency plan
establish evacuation procedures, assign responsibilities to specific people, provide
information to outside agencies, establish channels of communication, provide
emergency response inside the plant site and prepare the facility for other effective
actions (Wentz, 1998).
The plan must be applicable to all probable emergencies and adapted to the
needs of the organization. Local services such as the fire department, police and
hospitals are the teams which included in the emergency response plan and they
have been trained in such emergencies. The contents and complexity of an
emergency response plan depend on the size of the organization, type of facilities
and operations, and the location of the operation related to the public and
employees (Crowl & Louvar, 2002).



338

7.3.1 Types of Emergencies

The planning for the identified emergency response should be based on the
potential disaster and its threats to people, property, and the environment. The
types of emergencies that can occur in a chemical plant is shown at table below:

Table 7.3 Type of emergency
Types of emergencies Examples
Natural disaster Flood
Earthquake
Hurricane
Chemical release Vapor cloud
Liquid spill
Fire

Chemical
Ordinary structural
Electrical
Transportation

Airplane crash
Truck accident
Mobile equipment accident
Explosion

Compressed gas
Containerized liquid
Facility failure Roof collapse
Structural cracking
Air pressure system
Utility failure

Gas
Electricity
Cooling water
Civil disturbance Bomb
Threat
Sabotage
Vandalism
(Source: Practical Guide to Industrial Safety Methods for Process Safety
Professionals,Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff, 2001)

339

7.3.1.1 Emergency Action Plan

A written action plan must be developed with facility personnel and outside
agencies after potential emergencies has been identified. The items to be
considered in an emergency action plan should consist of (Wentz, 1998):
- Emergency organization chart with all their phone numbers and addresses
- Risk assessment of expected emergencies
- Facility layout map
- Identification of location for key emergency equipment, supplies, shelters,
assembly areas, evacuation routes and communications and command
center
- List of outside agencies with their phone numbers and addresses
- Identification and location of alarm systems
- Shut-down and start-up procedures
- Control of visitors and news media

All personnel in a plant should be able to respond positively under high stress
condition of a situation and the command for the emergency plan should be as short
as possible. The top management which is the director should be familiar with the
facility and its operation running, key employees and the local community as well.
The director has high responsibility to train personnel in emergency control and
response (Wentz, 1998).
The communications and command center should have important things
such as maps, alarms, telephones, two-way radios, public address systems, and
emergency power and lighting. The written shutdown and start-up procedure must
always be readily accessible to all the personnel at the center (Wentz, 1998).
One of the most important elements which are the fire and alarm systems
should have signals that can be recognized easily to all employees. Besides, they
must also interact with the local fire and police departments whenever it is
appropriate. The top management is responsible in providing a secure workplace
and surrounding area. A good relationship with the local police, well-trained security
force, and communication and training of employees is also required (Wentz, 1998).

340

7.3.1.2 Alarm Systems

When an emergency is occurring, the alarm system must be activated to alert
all the employees in the affected area. The alarm system is an indicator where
evacuation process is on progress. The personnel or employees around the works
need to know how to raise the alarm, to declare an emergency and implementation
of evacuation. One of the most characteristic of an alarm signal is that, it should be
receivable in all parts of the working area. The signal is usually a local audible
signal but in noisy areas or areas outside the building may be inaudible and further
audible alarms or visual signals may be needed (Wentz, 1998).
It is not practical to have too many different types of alarm but it seems sensible
to have for works to use different alarms for different emergency encountered such
as alarm for flammable and toxic release. This is because different type of
emergency has its own emergency response. Public address messages may be
more effective than fire bells.

7.3.1.2 Training and Rehearsals for Emergencies

Emergency plans must be implemented so that all employees are familiar and
understand with their use. All employees must be well-trained in the emergency
procedures and this will include recognition of alarm signals and their action towards
the instruction to evacuate the affected area. Types of training or exercise can be
developed and implemented are such as (Wentz, 1998):
1) Drills is practiced in order to lessen incidents and this include fire drills,
alarm testing, practices of communications, personnel availability checks,
spillage control and recovery, load and vehicle recovery and mobilizing other
mutual aid centers.
2) Table-top exercise which is carried out in an appropriate model room. The
participants respond and react verbally to the information provided.
3) Control-post exercises which locate the participants as they would in a real
accident. The accident scene is made as realistic as possible.

341

7.3.2 Emergency Response in Occurrence of Fire
Fire emergency is the most common emergency that can occur in a chemical plant.
Once a fire is discovered in the plant, these actions must be taken:
1) Alert the people in the area of the need to evacuate.
2) The fire alarm needs to be activated.
3) Call outside agency such as fire department.
4) Immediately eliminate the ignition sources.
5) Evacuation from the fire area should be immediately done. All the workers
and visitors in the site should instructed and follow the appropriate
evacuation procedures and routes.
6) An adequate supply of water must be ensured in order for fire fighting takes
place.
7) Use the necessary firefighting equipment and personal protective equipment
(PPE).
8) Roads should be controlled and must be accessible to the emergency team.
9) If a building fire alarm is activated or notification of a fire emergency is
received:
- Feel the door or doorknob to the hallway with the back of your hand.
If it feels hot, do not open it. If you are trapped, put a cloth or towel
under the door to prevent the entry of smoke.
- Call the appropriate authority if you are trapped in the room and need
rescue. Stay on the phone until given further instruction.
- If the door is not hot, open it slowly. If the hallway is clear of smoke,
walk to the nearest fire exit and evacuate via the nearest stairwell to
the street.
- Do not attempt to use elevators.
- Assemble at the designated area and remain there until instructed by
the Public safety or fire department that it is safe to enter the
building.






342

10) If you have been trained to use a fire extinguishers:
- Alert people in the area.
- Activate the fire alarm
- Smother the fire or use the correct type of fire extinguisher. The
extinguisher must be aimed at the base of the fire.
- Avoid smoke and fumes.
- Remain available to answer questions from the safety department or
fire department.
- Report all fires to the supervisor or people who is in charge.

7.3.3 Emergency Response in Occurrence of Chemical Spill

In the event of chemical spill in acrylonitrile plant, these actions should be followed:
1) Alert the workers and supervisor at the area affected in the site immediately
and evacuate the area.
2) Call the designated emergency response number (999) and activate the
alarm.
3) Shut down all the equipment in the pant.
4) Restrict any entry to the affected area.
5) Attend or help any people who may be contaminated. Remove contaminated
clothing and rinse contaminated skin, eyes, or hair with water for not less
than 15 minutes.
6) If a volatile, flammable material is spilled, warn everyone at the affected area
immediately. Control the sources of ignition and ventilate the area.
7) When reporting you should provide information such as your name, name of
spilled substance (if known), approximate amount of splilled substance,
exact location of spill and actions taken.
8) Use personal protective equipment as appropriate to the hazards. Material
Safety Data Sheet can be referred for information.
9) Consider the need for respiratory protection. The use of respirator requires
specialized training and medical surveillance. Never enter a contaminated
atmosphere without protection or use a respirator without training.

343

10) Protect the floor drains or other means for environmental release.
Adsorbents may be placed around drains as needed.
11) Do not return to an evacuated building unless authorized by the safety
personnel or fire department.

7.3.4 Evacuation Plan

An evacuation plan includes a description of the system used to alert
personnel or workers that an evacuation is in progress. The designated assembly
points is the place where all the workers and visitors will report and head count
procedure is taking place to determine is all the employees have been safely
evacuated. The assembly points are determined based on few factors such as the
identification of thermal radiation of the area and overpressure effects on a works
plan. Each assembly point area must be marked and identified and must also have
communication facilities with the emergency control centre (Wentz, 1998).
More than one assembly point is necessary by considering the possibility
of toxic release. Besides that, it may also be necessary to provide refuge rooms at
the assembly points. The criteria of an assembly point are defined which specify
under what circumstances evacuation of the site should be carried our or sheltering
should occur. A number of different routes should be specified to provide for
different scenarios and weather (Wentz, 1998)
The general evacuation procedures when an emergency is occurring are as follows:
1) Workers in all sector in the plant site must leave the building and go to the
nearest marked exit and alert others to do the same.
2) Assist those who need help exiting the building. Elevators are strictly prohibited
to be used in cases involving fires. Once outside, people must proceed to a
clear area that does not block emergency response personnel.
3) You should know the exact assembly points.
4) Do not return to an evacuated building unless told to do so by the fire
department personnel, police or the Environmental Health and Safety Officer.
5) After an evacuation, report to your designated assembly point.
6) Remain at the assembly point until head count is taken.

344

7.4 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)

A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is a structured or existing process
or operation in order to identify and evaluate problems that may represent risks to
personnel or equipment, or prevent ecient operations. This procedure is well
accepted by the chemical industry. The HAZOP procedure is quite popular because
of its ease of use, the ability to organize and structure the information, minimal
dependence on the experience of the analysts, and the high level of results. It
provides a more complete identification of the hazards, including information on how
hazards can develop as a result of operating procedures and operational upsets in
the process, hence the incorporation of the word operability in the name. A
complete HAZOP study requires a large investment in time and effort, but the value
of the result is well worth the effort. (Source
:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_and_operability_study (on-line).

The objectives of HAZOP study are:

1. To identify hazard and potential operability problems.
2. To identify and study features of the design that influences the probability of
a hazardous incident occurring.
3. To familiarize the study team with the design information available
4. To coordinate various discipline involved in the project and provide a means
for systematic analysis of the system.








345

7.4.1 Reactor
Table 7.4 HAZOP analysis for Fluidized bed reactor
Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 1 of 3
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Fluidize bed reactor Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

1A

Flow

No Flow
- Inlet valve not function
- Plugging or leakage at inlet
pipe
- The reactor is empty
- No reaction occur
- Rate of reaction decrease
- Stop the flow in and out of
the reactor and check the
valve and pipeline
- Stop operation and
troubleshooting of the
problem

1B

Less Flow
- Valve not operate properly
- Pipe plugging
- Raw materials cannot be
transferred to the reactor
- Rate of reaction reduces
- Production is less
- Perform periodic
inspection , maintenance
of piping system

1C

More flow
- Control valve failure


- Excessive output from the reaction
- Less effective to enter next
equipment
- Regular inspection and
maintenance on the valve
- Training the operator
346




Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 2 of 3
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Fluidize bed reactor Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

2A

Pressure

Low pressure
- Pipe leakage - Production is less

- Regular inspection and
maintenance on the valve
and piping

2B

More
pressure
- Control valve at stream inlet
are not working properly
- Pressure relief valve are not
working properly

- Increase the pressure in the
reactor
- Explosion will occur if the
pressure exceeds the maximum
pressure inside the reactor
- Shut down the process
- Check the pressure valve






347



Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 3 of 3
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Fluidize bed reactor Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

3A

Temperature

Low
temperature
- Failure of temperature
controller

- Incomplete reaction
- Less conversion
- Higher amount of by products

- Observe reactor
temperature closely
during operation

3B

High
temperature
- Failure of pressure controller

- Explosion
- Desired conversion cannot be
achieved
- Damage to reactor material
- Perform maintenance
periodically on pipe line
and reactor

348

7.4.2 Heat Exchanger

Table 7.5 HAZOP analysis for Heat exchanger
Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 1 of 2
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Heat exchanger Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

1A

Temperature

Low
temperature

- Failure of cooling water valve.


- Temperature of process fluid is
too low

- Install temperature
indicator before and after
process fluid line.
- Instruct operators and
update procedures

1B

High
temperature

- Failure of cooling water valve.
- Pipe blockage.

- Temperature of outlet stream
remains high

- Install high temperature
alarm.
- Do maintainance of the
pipe.



349




Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 2 of 2
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Heat Exchanger Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

2A

Pressure

Low
pressure

- Tube leakage and
cooling water goes in.

- Temperature required does not
achieved.
- wasting utilities.


- Instruct operators and
update procedures.
Install low pressure alarm/
pressure indicator.

2B

More
pressure

- Failure of process fluid valve.
- Fouling in tube

- Bursting of tube.
- Reduce the efficiency of heat
exchanger.

- Install high temperature
alarm.
- Do cleaning heat
exchanger during shut
down time.



350

7.4.3 Absorption Column

Table 7.6 HAZOP analysis for absorption column
Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 1 of 3
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Absorption Column Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

1A

Level

No level
- Pipe leakage.
- Pipe plugging.

- Operation failure

- Shut Down the process
- Do the maintenance of
the pipe.
1B
Low Level
- Pipe leakage at water inlet
stream.

- the efficiency of the column will
reduce and thus reduce the
purity of the product at the outlet
stream.
- Shut down the process
and do maintenance of
the pipe.
1C
High Level
- Control valve at stream H
2
O
is not working

- Level in the column will increase
and overflow at the top of the
column will occur.
- Do maintenance of the
control valve



351

Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 2 of 3
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Absorption Column Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

2A

Pressure

Low pressure
- Pipe leakage - Separation process inside the
column will be less and
decrease the quality of the
process and product
- Shut down the
process and do some
maintenance at the
pipe leakage.

2B

High
pressure

- Control valve at stream 5
are not working properly.
- Pressure relief valve are
not working properly.
- Increase the pressure in the
column.
- Explosion will occur if the
pressure exceeds the
maximum pressure inside the
column.
- Do maintenance at
control valve and
pressure relief valve.




352

Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 3 of 3
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Absorption Column Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

3A

Temperature

Low
temperature
- Low steam pressure
- Loss of heating
- Less steam flow
- Failure of reboiler
- Desired product output
cannot be achieved
- Thermal runaway
- Ineffective separation
process
- Install low temperature
alarm
- Install temperature
indicator
- Do periodic maintenance
of the control valve which
supply the steam


3B



High
temperature
- Control valve failed open
- Failure of previous
equipment

- Flooding in the column occur
- Increase of level in the
column
- Changes of product
composition
- Desired separation product
output is not achieved
(ineffective separation)
- Install control valve failed
close
- Install flow controller
- Install high alarm for flow
353

7.4.2 Distillation column ,C3 &C5
Table 7.7 HAZOP analysis for distillation column C3&C5
Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 1 of 2
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Acidic Quench ( R2) Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

1A

Flow

No Flow
- Broken pipe
- Pipe plugging
- Control valve failed close
- Failure of previous
equipment

- No feed to the column
- Failure of operation
- Separation desired cannot be
achieved
- Increase in pressure and
temperature
- Doing regular
maintenance on the
piping system
- Install failed open
control valve
- Install flow controller
- Shutdown the plant

1B

More flow
- Plugging and broken pipe
- Failure of previous
equipment

- Loss of feed to the column
- Separation process is running but
desired separation output is not
achieved
- Decrease of level in the column
- Unstable pressure or temperature
- Install low alarm for
flow
- Shutdown the plant
- Install failed open
control valve
354



Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 2 of 3
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Distillation column,C3&C5 Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

2A

Pressure

Low pressure
- Failure of pressure controller
- Leakage of column
- Pressure of the feed is
dropped

- Off-specification of product
- Dent of vessel column due to
less internal pressure than that
of the atmospheric pressure
- Install low pressure
alarm
- Shutdown the plant
- Install pressure relief
valve

2B

High
pressure

- Pressure rise in the feed
- Failure of pressure controller
- Off-specification of product
- Pressure build-up
- Damage and rupture of column
wall
- Install pressure relief
valve
- Install high pressure
alarm
- Shutdown of plant



355

Project name : Acrylonitrile plant Date : 07 MARCH 2011 Page: 3 of3
Process : Acrylonitrile production
Section : Distillation column,C3&C5 Reference drawing :
Item
Process
Parameter
Deviation
Possible
Action required
causes Consequence

3A

temperature

Low
temperature
- Low steam pressure
- Loss of heating
- Less steam flow
- Failure of reboiler
- Desired product output cannot be
achieved
- Thermal runaway
- Ineffective separation process
- Install low temperature
alarm
- Install temperature
indicator
- Do periodic maintenance
of the control valve which
supply the steam


3B

High
temperature

- Valve is not functioning
- More steam flow
- Desired product output cannot be
achieved
- Thermal runaway
- Ineffective separation process
- Install temperature
indicator
- Install high temperature
alarm
- Heat input and output
control

356

7.5 Plant Start-up and Shut Down Procedures


Safe procedures must be well known for the start up and shut down of plant
and deviations from normal operating conditions. Whenever process conditions are
changed, opportunities are presented for hazardous situations to arise. Building up
the process consistency may reduce the investigating breakdown and malfunction,
availability, the design cycle, operability, flexibility including blending and recycling
experience and known how personnel.

The start-up and shutdown of the plant must proceed safely and easily, yet
be flexible enough to be carried out in several ways. The operating limits of the plant
must not exceed and dangerous mixtures must not be formed because of abnormal
states of concentration, temperature, phase, reactant, catalyst and products.

During plant start-up, the operating limits of the plant must not be exceeded
and exposed risk to the employees and public. Sampling, indicators reading are
analyzed to determine the stability of the plant, whether it has reach steady stage or
not. Control element in this stage is very important, due to the control of flow,
temperature, pressure, and level to the operating ranges.
Some typical errors that could occur during start-up of the plant include:

1. Wrong routing, involving failure to ensure that correct valves are closed.
This is especially crucial in the adsorption section where three different
processes are occurring at any one time.
2. Drain valves are left open resulting in loss of material and possibly
endangering the lives of workers.
3. Valves left closed resulting in over pressure in the vessel
4. Failure to complete purging cycle before admission of fuel air mixture.
5. Backflow of material from high pressure to low pressure system.
6. Setting of wrong valves for operating parameters such as jacket
temperature in the reactor and reflux in the distillation column.




357

7.5 1 Normal Start up and Shut down the Plant


The study of the plant start up and shut down must include investigation of the
operating limits, transient operating conditions, process dynamics, contamination
and added material, emissions, hot standby and emergency shutdown with plant
protection control systems and alarms.

1) Operating Limits

The operating limits of the plant are imposing by mechanical, electrical, civil
and process design. Where necessary, it has to be introduced additional
equipment, sampling points, instrumentation and lines, and identify their use on
the engineering line diagram.

2) Transient Operating and Process Dynamic

The transient operating conditions must be studied to save time and
operating cast. The process dynamics that to be investigated includes excessive
heat transfer when more or less flow in either energy exchanging streams
through activations and warming of catalyst when the flow of reactant starts to
entrance of contamination and others.

3) Plant start-up

Plant should undergo a few testing before it can be declared to be safe
enough to operate throughout the years. A few important tests will be
discussed are as follow;
i. Hot test
The purpose of this test, to determine the leak-tightness of the
equipment at high temperature and after temperature reversals.
Temperature reversal is the condition at which the temperature changes
rapidly from hot to cold and otherwise.


358

ii. Pressure test
This test is needed to determine the mechanical strength and adequacy
of joints of the pipeline and equipment.
iii. Dry run testing of the power equipment
It is include mechanical testing of equipment such as pumps,
compressor, furnace and other power equipments. Usually done by
manufacturer but in presence of the operation teams member who familiar
with the equipment operation and someone that applicable on judging the
adequacy of the test.
iv. Solvent fluid testing
Closed loop testing of process equipment using safe solvent or the
solvent to be used in the process and performed at condition almost identical
to the exact operating conditions.
v. Closed loop dynamic testing with safe fluids
This test includes the operation of the equipment or systems with air,
water, inert gas or similar safe fluids. These tests will determine the first
dynamic test of the plant, allow flow testing of equipment, and give the first
indication of the response of control loops and familiarizing the operators
with the equipment in the plant to the introduction of hazardous chemicals.


4) Type of plant shutdown

There are three type of plant shutdown as listed as below;
i. Short shutdown
Temporary shutdown for a short duration, normally one day for repair and
maintenance works for non-essential equipment or instruments, which can be
done in shorter period of time. After the repair and maintenance works are
complete, the plant must be start-up as soon as possible in order to reduce loss
in production.

359

ii. Plant annual shutdown

Longest period of shutdown is under annual plant shutdown. In this cyclohexane
plant, plant annual shutdown going to take 1 month. During the plant annual
shutdown, all the main equipments and instruments are to be prepared and
serviced. The modification is also to be done in order to improve the performance of
the plant. All manholes are opened for vessel and tank. All bearing also must be
changed and instruments are calibrated to maintain the accuracy
iii. Emergency shutdown
Emergency shut is required when the system tripped or the main equipments
encounter serious problems that cause abnormal condition to the hold process of
the plant. The failure to implement the emergency shutdown may cause a hazard
and explosion at the plant.

General Shutdown Procedures of the Plant
1. Confirm with authorized person, supervisor or manager and also person in
charge at local site with walkie-talkie for shutdown preparation.
2. Production rate is slowly down to minimum capacity
3. Shutdown target at Digital cellular screen (DCS) screen is activated and
the systems will automatically shutdown the plant by the sequence.
4. Chemical charge is stopped. This is ensuring by setting up the entire
charge valve to fully closed.
5. Confirmation of control system. Ensure that there is no flow of any material
into the system and check with control room and local panel mounted at
the local site.
6. Finally stop all equipments.








360

5) Maintenance Consideration

During the maintenance period, Lock out Tag Out procedure is implemented
in order to avoid miscommunication during repairing and services of the equipment.
The procedures are as follow;
1. Turn power switch off to machine
2. Turn off power to main breaker on wall
3. Put your own lock into the lock out hole, and place tag with lock
4. Check the power is now off first by turning on the furnace, then with a volt
meter check there is no power at the terminal
5. Perform maintenance or change coil
6. Once maintenance is complete remove lock and tag and turn on main
breaker


6) Start up and Shut down Procedure for the Main Equipment.


A. Reactor

During the start up of the reactor, some of guide as below should be following;
a. It is recommended that the internal reactor vessel measurements (ID, Bed
Depth not the overall vessel height, etc.) be verified, so that product
loading is consistent with the "Estimated Performance Sheet" (EPS).
b. Prior to any loading, it is necessary to make an internal and external
inspection of the reactor vessel. In other words, there should not be any
pipes or hollow devices in the vessel, which could allow the gas to travel
without contacting the product.
c. There are two vessel types of bed supports that can be used; (1) has a
support grid permanently installed about 2 inches below the throat of the
lower man way; or (2) uses a level bed of washed gravel, ceramic balls,
or pawl rings. The bed support must be leveled.



361

d. Close and secure the bottom man way
Through the top man way, load the remaining feed to level as stated in
the EPS. During the latter stages of loading level off the cone of the filled
product bed and continue loading until finished.
e. Close and secure the top man way.
Upon operational start-up, record the required measurements
temperature, pressure, and flow rate - from each bed (if applicable). This
data should be kept on some routine basis (daily, weekly bi-weekly, etc.)
so that any problems that might develop can be identified and corrected.


The reactor shutdown procedure will depend on the type of reactor and the process
chemistry. Steps taken in a reactor shutdown include;
a. Shutting off one or more of the reactant feeds to stop reactions and heat
generation
b. Shutting off heating or cooling to the reactor, or the feed preheat system
c. Cooling and flushing products from the reactor by recirculating one of the
feeds
- no reactions can take place when the other reactant flow is stopped
When the reactor has been flushed and cooled;
a. All feed and product flows are stopped
b. Agitators are stopped








362

B. Heat Exchanger

The startup procedure of the heat exchanger is as follow;
a. Open the vent connections.
b. Slowly start circulates the cold medium.
c. Make sure that the entire cold side of the exchanger is completely flooded
before closing its vents.
d. After that, hot medium gradually introduced until all passages are filled with
fluid.
e. Finally, close the hot side vents and slowly bring the unit up to its
operating temperature
The shut down procedure of the heat exchanger is as follow;
a. Firstly, stop the supply of the hot fluid
b. If it is necessary to stop the circulation of the cold fluid, the hot medium
should also be stopped by by-passing the heat exchanger.

C. Distillation Column


The startup procedure of the distillation column is as follow;
a. Pressurize the column to the operation pressure
b. Open the control valve to allow the product stream feed into the column.
c. Build up the bottom liquid level slowly
d. Allow the cooling water to flow into the upper condenser until the drum level
built up.
e. Switch on the level controller of the drum and the upper drum is started to
allow for total reflux to the column in order to build up to the liquid level in the
bottom of the distillation column.
f. When the liquid in the column is built up to the desired level, switch on the
level controller of the column and the bottom pump.
g. Open the control valve to start the steam supply to the reboiler.
h. Switch on the column pressure controlling system.
i. Switch on the composition controller or temperature controller to control the
upper product rate.
363

The shut down procedure of the distillation column is as follow;

a. The system is brought down to the minimum load.
b. Switch off the composition controller or the temperature controller.
c. Stop the steam supply to the reboiler.
d. Switch off the level controller and pump out all the liquid slowly to dry
the bottom liquid level.
e. Switch off the pressure controller and drum level controller.
f. Dry the drum level, by maximizing the upper product rate control
valve.
g. Close the control valve to stop the cooling water supply to the
condenser.
h. Switch off the top and bottom pumps.

364

7.6 Plant Layout

Tanjung Langsat is chosen as a site to build a plant of acrylonitrile. Many
factors must be considered when selecting a suitable plant. To design a plant, plant
layout must be done to make sure the plant is well planned and designed with
maximum usage. Plant Layout is the physical arrangement of equipment and
facilities within a plant. Optimizing the layout of a plant can improve productivity,
safety and quality of products. The criterias for determining a good plant layout
included(source :
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Discuss_the_principles_of_a_good_plant_layout_What_a
re_its_objectives_Mention_the_factors_affecting_a_plant_layout (on-line) ) :

i. Integration
Integrates of peoples, materials, and equipments and support services to get
the optimum output of resources.

ii. Minimum distance
The total distance travel of people and material should be minimized as
much as possible and straight line movements are preffered.

iii. Maximum accessibility
All servicing and maintenance points should be readily accessible.
Equipment should not be placed against a wall because necessary servicing
or maintenance cannot be carried out easily.

iv. Safety security
Due consideration to industrial safety methods is necessary. Care must be
taken not only of the persons operating the equipment, but also of the
passes-by, who may be required to go behind equipment as the back of
which may be unsafe.





365

v. Minimum handling
Minimum and reduce material handling. Material being worked on should be
kept at working height and never have to be placed on the floor if it is to be
lifted later.

7.6.1 Non Process Area

Non-process area is area that excluded from processing area. The distance
from the processing area should be far enough to avoid any incident due to
chemical explosion or fires. This area included administration building, canteen, and
guard house

7.6.2 Process Area

Process area generally the most hazardous operations in a plant, since
production of acrylonitrile is categorized as operation that having high explosion
hazard and moderate to heavy fire hazard. This can be considered as the
dangerous place due to the involvement of highly exothermic or potential runaway
reactions and high hazard products handling.
Different process areas should be kept separated in order to avoid domino
effects. Domino may be by fire, explosion (pressure wave and missiles) or toxic gas
cloud.
Keeping overcrowding to a minimum is also important. Examples of equipments
in process area are reactor, distillation column, heat exchanger, absorption column,
storage tank, utilities, control room, wastewater treatment plant, laboratory, and
ware house. Equipment should be laid out in a sequence to suit the process flow
and keep the length of the piping to minimum. Here are some recommendations in
placing the equipment;


366

1. Equipment that considered a possible source of hazard should preferably be
grouped and located separately, if possible and economic.
2. The minimum distance between the equipment containing flammable or
combustible materials at any fixed source of ignition should be 15 m.
3. If increase spacing for very high hazard equipment susceptible to
explosions, such as reactors, is not possible, separate them from others
areas by blast resistant walls.
4. Equipment handling acids or other toxic materials which could cause
damage or danger by spillage should be grouped and contained within a
bunded area.
5. Columns are usually self supporting which mean without external structures.
Circular or segmental platforms with ladders are supported by the shell.
Maximum allowable straight run of ladder before a break platform should not
exceed 9 meters.
6. All operational valves and instruments should be accessible and where
necessary platforms should be installed.
7. Locate storage tanks at a lower elevation than other occupancies to prevent
liquid or gases from flowing toward equipment or buildings and exposing
them.
8. All piping within a process area should usually be run above grade.
9. Trenched piping to be avoided.
10. Pipe racks and supports to be of the simplest form. Pipe racks may contain
two layers of pipe work. Avoid triple layer of pipe ways except for very short
run.
11. Run piping external to the process area at grade on sleepers (30mm high).
12. Do not group pumps and compressors handling flammable products in one
single area.


367

7.6.3 Others factors to be considered in designing plant layout:
Fences

Low maintenance polyvinyl chloride (PVC) dipped wire-mesh is preferred
and the vertical part of the fences should be at a minimum of 2 m above the ground
level.

Assembly Area
There are two assembly area are identified in this plant layout. These areas
are whereby every personnel to gather in case of emergency occur and the
assembly areas are located near both process area and non process area. First
assembly area which located near the non process area is actually in front of the
canteen and beside car park. While the other assembly area located in centre of the
plant layout. However, control room is the best assembly area since it is built with
special safety features with thick concrete wall and non explosive door.

Emergency Exit
Emergency exit is the alternatives way to exit from the chemical plant and
this is common. Emergency exit gate shall be away from the main gate and always
be available for use for personnel. Total exit gate for this acrylonitrile plant layout is
three.

Control Room
Traditionally, control rooms were located at edge or within the process unit,
but technological developments have allowed a more remote location. The control
room is essential element in the process control where its location and construction
should allow operators to safely shut down units under emergency conditions. The
control room should be unexposed by fires or explosions; otherwise the control
building should design to withstand potential explosion overpressure.

368

Waste Treatment Plant and Utilities

Waste treatment facilities comprise of wastewater treatment, sludge disposal
area. Waste treatment facilities will be located behind the main process area for
comfortable of the residence of the plant. This is due to the bad odor presence from
the reaction occurring in the wastewater treatment plant.

Storage Tank

To ensure maximum protection from possible incidents occurs, storage tank
should be divided into independent risks area. Some of the primary requirements for
the layout of storage tank are as follows:
1. Suitable roads should be provided in the storage tank farm (area) for
at least two sides for easily approach by the mobile firefighting
equipment.
2. An adequate fire fighting water system should be laid out.
3. Tank should have bunded for minimize damage when spillage is
occurs.
4. Tank farm should be located lower level than the others process
units to prevent spillages from flowing toward them or any source of
ignition.

Flare Stack

Flares stack should be built in an open area. A sterile area is required
around an elevated flare whereby, only equipment and piping related to the flare
and vent systems is allowed and all other equipment, pipe racks and road should be
outside of this circle. The radius should be 60-100 m. This is due to the heat
intensity and the smoke produced.
369

Further Expansion

In this project designed, certain area is located for future planning purpose. It is
proposed that in the future the company will increase the production of the
acrylonitrile and because of this the empty area beside the current process area
indicated the area for future further expansion. This future plant expansion is
suggested if there are increases of acrylonitrile demand and for sure to gain more
profit from the additional investment.


















370

7.6.4 Plant layout


371

CHAPTER 8



ECONOMIC ANALYSIS



8.1 INTRODUCTION

Generally, the goal of any chemical process industry is to make money or
profit and worth as the investment is large. This is realized by producing products
with high market value from raw materials with a low market value. Cost estimation
is an important aspect before the economic feasibility of a proposed process can be
assessed hence estimation of profit collected year by year. This is a particular
chapter; the acrylonitrile production plants feasibility will be analyzed through
profitability analysis. This is just to ensure this production plant achieved the general
goal of any chemical process industry.

8.2 CAPITAL COST ESTIMATION

Capital cost estimates are essentially paper and pencil studies whereby it is
indicates the personnel hours required in order to complete the estimates. There are
trend between accuracy of an estimate and the cost of the estimate which if greater
accuracy is required in the capital cost estimate, then more time and money must
expended in conducting the estimate.



372

8.2.1 Purchase cost of equipment

8.2.1.1 Reactor

log
10

=
1
+
2
log
10
+
3
log
10

2


From Appendix D1, the values of K
1
, K
2
and K
3
are 3.4974, 0.4485 and 0.1074
respectively.
So, C
p
o
= $ 31933.48 Or,
From Appendix D8, at volume equal to 170 m
3
,

= 680

170
3
= 680
$

= $ 115600

The bare module cost, C
BM
for reactor is given equation as follow:

1
+
2

The values of B
1
and B
2
for process vessel (vertical) from Appendix D5 are 2.25 and
1.82, respectively.




Pressure factor for process vessels is obtained using equation:
373

,
=
+1
2850 0.6 +1
+ 0.00315
0.0063

> 0.0063
Where,
D = 3.78 m
P = 2.5 bar
So, F
p,vessel
= 1.74
From Appendix D3, for process vessel (vertical including tower) the material factor,
F
BM
is 3.1. Substituting the data into equation above,

1
+
2

= 115600 2.25 +1.82 3.1 1.74
= $ 1394954 (Cost in year 2001)

Cost in year 2010 = Cost in year 2001 x
cost index in year 2010
cost index in year 2001

= $ 1394954 x
556.4
397

= $ 1955043.843
Cost in MYY = (Cost in $ x 3.0605) = RM 5,983,411.68







374

8.2.1.2 Heat Exchanger

The data for the purchased cost of heat exchanger, at ambient operating
pressure and using stainless steel construction, C
o
p
, was fitted to the following
equation. Calculation based on year 2001.Average CEPCI of 397. (R.Turton ,et al ,
2002) :

10

=
1
+
2

10
+
3

10
()
2

Where

= Purchased cost of the equipment

1
,
2
,
3
= Maximum and minimum values used in the correlation
= Capacity or size parameter for the equipment

From Appendix D1, equipment of heat exchanger with floating head gives,

1
= 4.8306
2
= 0.8509
3
= 0.3187



The heat transfer area for heat exchanger is 165.42m
2
.

10

= 4.8306 +0.8509
10
165.42 +(0.3187)
10
(165.42)
2

10

= 4.512

= $ 32,471.58

The pressure factor, F
p
for heat exchanger is given by the equation:

10

=
1
+
2

10
+
3
(
10
)
2


375

Where

= Pressure factor

1
,
2
,
3
= Pressure ratings
= Operating pressure

From Appendix D2, heat exchanger with fixed tube sheet and floating head gives

1
,
2
,
3
equal to zero. The equation becomes:

10

= 0 + 0
10
+ 0(
10
)
2

10

= 0

= 1

The material factors, F
M
, for heat exchanger obtained from identification
number listed in Appendix D4. For heat exchanger with fixed tube sheet and floating
head, the identification number with material of construction of carbon steel and
stainless steel is 4. From Appendix D3, the identification number of 4 will gives
material factor, F
M
= 1.8.

The bare module factors for heat exchanger are given by the following equation:

(
1
+
2

1
and
2
is constant.

1
= 1.63
2
= 1.66

= 32,471.58 (1.63 +(1.66) (1.8) (1))

= $ 149,953.75


376

Cost index for latest year (Jun 2010) is 556.4
Cost in year 2010 = cost in year 2001 x
cost index in year 2010
cost index in year 2001

Cost in year 2010 = 149,953.75 x
556.4
397

Cost in year 2010 = $ 210,161.88
Cost in MYR = (Cost in $ x 3.0605) = RM 643,200.43



9.1.1.3 Absorber

This calculation is based on year 2001 with CEPCI value of 397. The data
for the purchased cost of absorber (packing), at ambient operating pressure and
using carbon steel construction, C
o
p
, was fitted to the following equation:

10

=
1
+
2
+
3

10

2


where

= Purchased cost of the equipment

1
,
2
,
3
= Maximum and minimum values used in the correlation
= Capacity or size parameter for the equipment

From Appendix D1, equipment of packing with loose (for towers) gives maximum
and minimum values in the correlation as follows:

1
= 2.4493

2
= 0.9744

3
= 0.005
377

The volume of the packing tower, A is 31.667m
3
.

10

= 2.4493 +0.9744
10
31.6673 +(0.005)
10
(31.6673)
2

10

= 3.9239

= $ 8,392.67

For tower packing with material construction of metal gives identification of material
factor of 66 from identification number listed in Appendix 7.With identification of
material factor of 66 gives material factor, F
BM
= 7.1 from Appendix D6.

The bare module costs for packing tower are given by the following equation:

= $ 59,587.96 (Cost in year 2001)

Cost index for latest year (Jun 2010) is 556.4
Cost in year 2010 = cost in year 2001 x
cost index in year 2010
cost index in year 2001

Cost in year 2010 = 59,587.96 x
556.4
397

Cost in year 2010 = $ 83,513.20
Cost in MYR = (Cost in $ x 3.0605) = RM 255,592.15





378

8.2.1.4 Distillation Column 3

The data for the purchased cost of distillation column, at ambient operating
pressure and using stainless steel construction, C
o
p
, was fitted to the following
equation. Calculation based on year 2001.Average CEPCI of 397. (R.Turton ,et al ,
2002) :

log
10
C
o
p
= K
1
+ K
2
log
10
(A) + K
3
[ log
10
(A) ]
2


Where:




8.2.1.4.1 Column

The cost of the tower and trays are calculated separately and then added together
to obtain the total cost.
Volume of column = D
2
L/4 = (22/7) (1.1)
2
(22.85)/4 = 21.715 m
3

From Appendix D1 , for tower (tray and packed ) (R.Turton ,et al , 2002) :

K
1
= 3.4974, K
2
= 0.4485 and K
3
= 0.1074;




Cp
o
= purchase cost of the equipment at ambient operating pressure
A = Capacity or size parameter
K
1
K
2
K
3
= Correlation from Appendix 1
379

Hence , with A = volume for tray tower, m
3
.
log
10
C
o
p
= 3.4974 + 0.4485 log
10
(21.715) + 0.1074 [log
10
(21.715)]
2

log
10
C
o
p
= 4.2889
C
o
p
= $ 19477.01

The pressure factors, F
p
, for the remaining process equipment are given by the
following general form:
For t
vessel
> 0.0063 m, corrosion allowance >0.00315m, weld efficiency >0.9,

F
p,Vessel
=
P+1D
2[8500.6P+1]
+0.00315
0.0063


P = 1.0625 barg and D = 1.1 m;

,
=
1.0625 +1(1.1)
2[850 0.61.0625 +1]
+0.00315
0.0063
= 0.712

From AppendixD4
Identification number for carbon steel vertical vessel = 18,
From Appendix D3, F
M
= 1.0
From Appendix D5, B
1
= 2.25, B
2
= 1.82;

F
BM
= B
1
+ B
2
F
M
F
P

F
BM
= 2.25 + 1.82(1.0) (0.712) = 3.546
C
BM
= C
o
p
F
BM

C
BM, tower
= ($19 477.01) (3.546) = $ 69 062.36
380

8.2.1.4.2 Trays

Tray (tower) area = D
2
/4 = (22/7) (1.1)
2
/4 = 0.950 m
2

From Appendix 1, for sieve trays
K
1
= 2.9949, K
2
= 0.4465 and K
3
= 0.3961;


Hence with A = area for sieve tray, m
2
.
log
10
C
o
p
= 2.9949 + 0.4465log
10
(0.950) + 0.3961[log
10
(0.950)]
2

log
10
C
o
p
= 2.985
C
o
p
= $ 966.38

The pressure factors, F
p
, for the remaining process equipment are given by the
following general form:
log
10
F
p
= C
1
+ C
2
log
10
(P) + C
3
[log
10
(P)]
2


From Appendix D7, identification number for carbon steel trays and demister pads =
60,
From Appendix D6, F
BM
= 1.0

In for sieve trays equation to determine bare module cost as follows:

C
BM
= C
o
p
N F
BM
F
q

Where
N = the number of trays (38 stages),
F
q
= quantity factor for trays



381

Since N 20, F
q
=1 ,
C
BM
= C
o
p
N F
BM
F
q
= ($ 966.38)(

38)(1)(1)

C
BM
= 36 722.44



Tower plus trays:
C
BM
= $ 69 062.36+ $ 36 722.44= $ 105 784.8
In Ringgit Malaysia, the bare module cost for multi-component distillation column in
production of Acrylonitrile is RM 317 883.32.


Cost index for latest year (Jun 2010) is 556.4.
Cost in year 2010 = cost in year 2001 x
cost index in year 2010
cost index in year 2001

= RM 317 883.32 x
556.4
397

= RM 445 517.08














382

8.2.1.5 Distillation Column 5

Sizing Data:

Vessel operating pressure 1.18 bar
Column height 28 m
Inside diameter 1.4
Number of trays 45
Sizing Orientation Vertically oriented
Material of Construction Carbon steel


Economic Data:

CE Cost Index Year 2010 556.4
CE Cost Index Year 1982 397

Calculation for cost of tower

Equation below is used to calculate the purchased cost of equipment:

10

0
=
1
+
2

10
+
3

10

2


Where,
A = capacity of size parameter for equipment


383

For the tower, volume of the column needs to be calculated because it is the size
parameter used.

=

4


=
1.4
2
(28)
4
= 43.1027
3


From Appendix D1, the data K
1
, K
2
, and K
3
is determined by referring to process
vessels in vertical:
K
1
= 3.4974
K
2
= 0.4485
K
3
= 0.1074
A = 43.1027 m
3


Above data is used and fitted in equation as follow:

10

0
= 3.4974 +0.4485
10
43.1027 + (0.1074)
10
43.1027
2

0
= $ 32923.05


The bare module cost is calculated by using this equation:

1
+
2

Where,
C
BM
= bare module cost
B
1
and B
2
= constants
F
M
= material factors
F
P
= Pressure factors
384

Value of constants B
1
and B
2
is obtained by referring to Appendix 5,
B
1
= 2.25, B
2
= 1.82

The identification number for vertical tower (carbon steel) is determined in Appendix
4, which are 18.

By referring to the identification number, F
M
= 1 (Appendix 3)

Pressure factor, F
P
is calculated using this equation:

=
+1
2850 0.6( +1)
+ 0.00315
0.0063

=
1.22 +1(1.4)
2850 0.6(1.22 +1)
+ 0.00315
0.0063

= 0.7907

= ($ 32923.05)2.25 +1.821(0.79

= $121413.62

2010 = $121413.62

2010

2003

2010 = $170162.56

2010 = 518248.81



385

Calculation for Cost of Tray Stack (Sieve trays)

For the tray, area of the tray needs to be calculated because it is the size parameter
used.
=

2
4


=
1.4
2
4
= 1.5394
2


From Appendix D1, the data K
1
, K
2
, and K
3
are:
K
1
= 2.9949
K
2
= 0.4465
K
3
= 0.3961
A = 1.5394 m
2


Above data is used and fitted in Equation below:

10

0
= 2.9949 +0.4465
10
1.5394 + (0.3961)
10
1.5394
2

0
= $ 1237.54
The bare module cost is calculated by using this equation:

Where,
C
BM
= bare module cost
N = number of trays
F
q
= quantity factor for tray


386

The identification number for sieve tray (carbon steel) is determined in Appendix D7,
which are 60.

By referring to the identification number, F
BM
= 1 (Appendix D6)

Since the number of tray, N is 45, F
q
= 1

= 1237.54451(1)

= $78049.20

2010 = $78049.20

2010

2003

2010 = $78049.20
556.4
397

2010 = 237707.43

Total cost of distillation column (tower + tray)
= 518248.81 + 237707.43
= , .


Summary of cost of each equipment at as follows:




Table 8.1 Purchase Equipment Cost
387

Equipment Unit Cost per unit Total
Reactor 1 5,983,411.68 5,983,411.68
Quench 1 1,640,551.38 1,640,551.38
Compressor 2 5,422,603.46 10,845,206.92
Decanter 3 128,754.84 386,264.52
Absorption Column 1 255,592.15 255,592.15
Stripping Column 1 255,592.15 255,592.15
Distillation Column 3 1 445,517.08 445,517.08
Distillation Column 4 1 755,956.24 755,956.24
Distillation Column 5 1 755,956.24 755,956.24
Distillation Column 6 1 755,956.24 755,956.24
Heat Exchanger 4 643,200.43 643,200.43
Storage Tank 3 184,794.53 554,383.58
Purchase Equipment Cost (PCE) RM 25,217,181.56












388

8.2.2 Fixed Capital Cost, Land Cost, Working Capital Cost, and Waste
Treatment Cost

Table 8.2 Physical Plant Cost (PPC)
Physical Plant Cost (PPC) Factor

1
Equipment Erection 0.4

2
Piping 0.7

3
Instrument 0.2

4
Electrical 0.1

5
Buildings 0.15

6
Utilities 0.5

7
Storage 0.15

8
Site Development 0.05

9
Ancillary Building 0.15

Physical Plant Cost = ( 1 +
1
+
2
+
3
+
4
+
5
+
6
+
7
+
8
+
9
)
= RM 25,217,181.56
1 +0.4 +0.70 +0.20 +0.10 +
0.15 +0.50 +0.15 +0.05 +0.15

= 85,738,417.30








389

Table 8.3 Fixed Capital Cost (FCC)
Fixed Capital Cost (FCC) Factor

10
Design & Eng 0.3

11
Contractor's Fee 0.05

12
Contingencies 0.1

Fixed Capital Cost = ( 1 +
10
+
11
+
12
)
= RM 85,738,417.30 1 +0.3 +0.05 +0.10
= RM 124,320,705.09

Table 8.4 Land Cost
The land at Tanjung Langsat, Johor RM 13 / ft
2

The size of land required 30 acres
Total Land Cost RM 5,178,063.78

Total Fixed Capital Cost (TFCC) = Fixed Capital Cost + Land Cost
= RM 124,320,705.09 + RM 5,178,063.78
= RM 129,498,768.87

Working Capital Cost (WCC) = 10% of Total Fixed Capital Cost (TFCC)
= 0.1 x RM 129,498,768.87
= RM 12,949,876.89

Waste Treatment Plant Cost (WTP) = RM 1,838,384.55

390

8.2.3 Fixed Capital Investment

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = TFCC + WCC + WTP
= RM 129,498,768.87 + RM 12,949,876.89 +
RM 1,838,384.55
= RM 144,287,030.31

8.2.4 Cost of Manufacturing

Manufacturing cost is the total cost to making the product. This cost of
manufacturing comprise of expenses associated with raw material, labor cost,
utilities and waste treatment. Since the goal of this acrylonitrile production is to
making profit by selling manufactured goods, pay close attention to the overall
manufacturing cost is very important.

The cost of manufacturing (COM) is determined by equation follow:

COM = 0.28 FCI + 2.73 COL + 1.23 (CUT + CWT + CRM)
where;
FCI = Fixed Capital Investment (RM144,287,030.31)
COL = Cost of Labor
CUT = Cost of Utilities
CWT = Cost of Waste Treatment
CRM = Cost of Raw Material


391

Table 8.5 Cost of Manufacturing (COM)
Cost of manufacturing Cost
Cost of Operating Labor RM 1,400,000.00
Cost of Utilities RM 1,743,824.00
Cost of Waste Treatment RM 1,838,384.55
Cost of Raw Material RM 784,162,532.47
Cost of Manufacturing (COM) RM 1,013,148,399.94


8.3 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS

Profitability is a general term for measurement of profit. This shows that
profitability is the common denominator for all business activities. There are five
sentimental values in determining the profitability of the project, which are:

1. The non-discounted Cash Flow
2. Net Present Value
3. Internal Rate of Return
4. Payback Period
5. Sensitivity Analysis








392

8.3.1 NON-DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW

This is an evaluation method used to estimates the economically
attractiveness of the investment.

Table 8.6 Year Sales Revenue
Product Sale Year Sales Revenue
Acrylonitrile RM 982,680,000.00
Acetonitrile RM 18,060,846.44
Hydrogen Cyanide RM 54,114,354.00
Total Year Sales Revenue RM 1,054,855,200.44


8.3.1.1 Calculation for Non-Discounted After-Tax Cash Flows

Table 8.7 Data for Non-Discounted After-Tax Cash Flows calculation.
Cost of Land RM 5,178,063.78
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) RM 144,287,030.31
FCI ( Year 1) RM 86,572,218.18
FCI (Year 2) RM 57,714,812.12
Working Capital RM 12,949,876.89
Year Sales Revenue RM 1,054,855,200.44
Cost of Manufacturing RM 1,013,148,399.94
Tax rate 0.45
Salvage Value of Plant RM 5,178,063.78

393

Assumptions:
1. Plant start up at the end of Year 2
2. 10 years project life after start-up
3. Taxation rate = 45%
4. Method of depreciation is MARCS for equipment with a 9.5 years class life
and a 5 years recovery period.

Table 8.8 Depreciation Schedule for MACRS method
Year Depreciation Allowance (% of Capital Investment)
1 20.00
2 32.00
3 19.20
4 11.52
5 11.52
6 5.76


Symbols used in Table 9.9
1. d
k
= Depreciation
2. FCI = Fixed Capital Investment
3. R = Revenue per year
4. COM = Cost of Manufacturing
5. t = Tax rate
6. k = End of year


394

Table 8.9 Non-Discounted After-Tax Cash Flows (unit in RM million)
End of Year (k) Investment d
k
FCI
L
- d
k
R COM
d
(R-COM
d
-d
k
) x (1-t)+dk NDCF NDCCF
0 (5.18)

144.29 - - - (5.18) (5.18)
1 (86.57)

144.29 - - - (86.57) (91.75)
2 (70.66)

144.29 - - - (70.66) (162.41)
3

28.86 115.43 1,054.86 1,013.15 35.92 35.92 (126.49)
4

46.17 69.26 1,054.86 1,013.15 43.72 43.72 (82.77)
5

27.70 41.55 1,054.86 1,013.15 35.41 35.41 (47.37)
6

16.62 24.93 1,054.86 1,013.15 30.42 30.42 (16.95)
7

16.62 8.31 1,054.86 1,013.15 30.42 30.42 13.47
8

8.31 0.00 1,054.86 1,013.15 26.68 26.68 40.15
9

0.00 1,054.86 1,013.15 22.94 22.94 63.09
10

0.00 1,054.86 1,013.15 22.94 22.94 86.02
11

0.00 1,054.86 1,013.15 22.94 22.94 108.96
12 18.13

0.00 1,060.03 1,013.15 25.79 43.91 152.88
395

8.3.2 NET PRESENT VALUE

Net present value (NPV) is the cumulative discounted cash position at the
end of the project. This Net present value (NPV) also known as NPW which is Net
Present Worth. NPV is used in capital budgeting to analyze the profitability of an
investment or project. NPV compares the value of a currency today to the value of
that same currency in the future, taking inflation and return into consideration. If the
NPV of respective project is positive, it should be accepted. While, if the NPVs
project is negative, the project should probably be rejected since the cash flows will
also be negative means not making profit.

The NPV can be obtained by using following equation:

1 +

=
=1

where r is the discount rate. Take as minimum of 10% for this acrylonitrile project.













396

Table 8.10 Net Present Value (NPV) at 10% Interest Rate
Year
Non-
Discounted
Cash Flow
Discounted Cash Flow
Cumulative
Discounted Cash
Flow
0 (5.18) (5.18) (5.18)
1 (86.57) (86.57)/1.1 = (78.70) (83.88)
2 (70.66) (70.66)/1.1
2
= (58.40) (142.28)
3 35.92 35.92/1.1
3
= 26.99 (115.29)
4 43.72 43.72/1.1
4
= 29.86 (85.43)
5 35.41 35.41/1.1
5
= 21.98 (63.45)
6 30.42 30.42/1.1
6
= 17.17 (46.28)
7 30.42 30.42/1.1
7
= 15.61 (30.67)
8 26.68 26.68/1.1
8
= 12.45 (18.22)
9 22.94 22.94/1.1
9
= 9.73 (8.49)
10 22.94 22.94/1.1
10
= 8.84 0.35
11 22.94 22.94/1.1
11
= 8.04 8.39
12 43.91 43.91/1.1
12
= 13.99 22.38

The NPV is RM 22,380,000 which is greater than zero. Therefore, this project is
acceptable and can be considered as attractive.








397

8.3.3 INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN

The internal rate of return (IRR) is defined to be the interest rate at which all
the cash flows must be discounted in order for the net present value of the project to
be equal to zero. IRR is also known as DCFROR which is Discounted Cash Flow
Rate of Return. Generally, the higher a projects internal rate of return, the more
desirable it is to undertake the project. Clearly, if the IRR is greater than the internal
discount rate as stated before which is 10%, then this acrylonitrile project is
considered to be profitable. In determining the IRR, NPVs for several different
discount rates were calculated and the results are shown below:

Table 8.11 Net Present Value as a Function of Discount Rate
Interest @ Discount Rate NPV (RM million)
0% 152.88
10% 22.38
11% 14.92
12% 8.10
13% 1.88
14% (3.82)
15% (9.04)

The internal rate of return can be determined exactly by interpolation of NPV values
of discount rate at 0.

13%
14%13%
=
0 1.88
3.82 1.88


IRR = 13.33%

398

Since the IRR is greater than the internal discount rate (10%), this project is
considered to be profitable.

8.3.4 PAYBACK PERIOD

Payback period is the time required for the return on investment to repay the
sum of the original investment. Payback period of this acrylonitrile plant can be
obtained by comparing the (Land Cost + Working Capital) to the negative side of the
cumulative cash flow. (Land Cost + Working Capital) for acrylonitrile plant is
RM18.13 million.
Table 8.12 Simple payback period extract from table 9.9 (Non-Discounted Cash
Flow) and from table 9.10 (Discounted Cash Flow)
Year
Non-
Discounted
Cash Flow
Non-
Discounted
Cumulative
Cash Flow
Discounted
Cash Flow
Discounted
Cumulative
Cash Flow
0 (5.18) (5.18) (5.18) (5.18)
1 (86.57) (91.75) (78.70) (83.88)
2 (70.66) (162.41) (58.40) (142.28)
3 35.92 (126.49) 26.99 (115.29)
4 43.72 (82.77) 29.86 (85.43)
5 35.41 (47.37) 21.98 (63.45)
6 30.42 (16.95) 17.17 (46.28)
7 30.42 13.47 15.61 (30.67)
8 26.68 40.15 12.45 (18.22)
9 22.94 63.09 9.73 (8.49)
10 22.94 86.02 8.84 0.35
11 22.94 108.96 8.04 8.39
12 43.91 152.88 13.99 22.38
399

Payback Period for Non-Discounted Cash Flow
The (Land Cost + Working Capital) lays in between year 5 and 6.
PBP = 5 + [
47.37+18.13
(47.37+16.95)
]
PBP = 5.96 years
5 years and 11 months


Payback Period for Discounted Cash Flow (at 10% discount rate)
The (Land Cost + Working Capital) lays in between year 8 and 9.
DPBP = 8 + [
18.22 +18.13
(18.22 +8.49)
]
DPBP = 8.01 years
8 years and 1 month


Figure 8.1 Cumulative Cash Flow Diagram


(200.00)
(150.00)
(100.00)
(50.00)
-
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

C
a
s
h

F
l
o
w

(
R
M

m
i
l
l
i
o
n
)
Time (Year)
Cumulative Cash Flow Diagram
Non-
Discounted
Cumulative
Cash Flow
Discounted
Cumulative
Cash Flow
PBP
DPBP
400

8.3.5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

Sensitivity analysis is a way of examining the effects of uncertainties in the
forecast on the viability of a project. In this analysis, the change in manufacturing
cost, fixed cost and sales price will be examined in order to see which factor is the
most sensitive factor in reducing the annual cash flow.
Effect to be examined, If:
1. Total revenue reduce by 5% due to low pricing value after 7 years of
operating
2. Manufacturing cost is 5% higher due to increasing in cost of raw material
after 7 years operation
3. Fixed cost is 5% higher due to change in equipment.



401

Table 8.12 Effect of Revenue, Expenses and Fixed Cost to Cumulative Cash Flow
Year
Revenue 5%
after 7 years
operation
Cumulative Cash
Flow
Expenses + 5%
after 7 years
operation
Cumulative Cash
Flow
Fixed cost + 5%
Cumulative Cash
Flow
0 - (5.18) - (5.18) (5.18) (5.18)
1 - (91.75) - (91.75) (90.90) (96.08)
2 - (162.41) - (162.41) (73.55) (169.63)
3 1,054.86 (126.49) 1,013.15 (126.49) (133.70)
4 1,054.86 (82.77) 1,013.15 (82.77) (89.99)
5 1,054.86 (47.37) 1,013.15 (47.37) (54.58)
6 1,054.86 (16.95) 1,013.15 (16.95) (24.16)
7 1,054.86 13.47 1,013.15 13.47 6.25
8 1,054.86 40.15 1,013.15 40.15 32.93
9 1,054.86 63.09 1,013.15 63.09 55.87
10 1,002.11 57.02 1,063.81 58.16 78.81
11 1,002.11 50.95 1,063.81 53.24 101.75
12 1,007.03 65.71 1,063.81 69.29 18.13 145.66
402


Figure 8.2 Graph of Sensitivity Analysis of Selected Variables

Based on this sensitivity analysis graph, expenses (cost of manufacturing) and
revenue (selling price) gives greatest effect on the company annual income. This is because
based on the analysis after 7 years operation, the expense and revenue changes give the
lowest amount of income to the company.











-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

C
a
s
h

F
l
o
w

(
R
M

M
i
l
l
i
o
n
)
Time (Year)
Graph of Sensitivity Analysis of Selected
Variables
Revenue
5% after 7
years
operation
Expenses +
5% after 7
years
operation
Fixed cost +
5%
403

CHAPTER 9


PROCESS INTEGRATION AND PINCH TECHNOLOGY



9.1 INTRODUCTION

Process integration techniques based on pinch technology represent a new and
powerful way to optimize process design and yielding results superior to those achievable
using conventional methods. Pinch technology enables the design of an optimum interface
between the process and the utility systems. The term "Pinch Technology" was developed by
Bodo Linnhoff to represent a new set of thermodynamically based methods that guarantee
minimum energy levels in design of heat exchanger networks. The term derives from the fact
that in a plot of the system temperature versus the heat transferred.(Source : http://www.emt-
india.net/process/pulp_paper/pdf/Process%20Integration%20Through%20Pinch%20Analysis
.pdf(on-line))
These new techniques can track the energy flows in a manufacturing process more
clearly and to modify the process to reduce energy consumption. Beside that, the benefits
include correct integration of steam turbines, co-optimization of energy and capital cost,
identification of the most appropriate process changes and increased plant flexibility. This
approach provides overall process designs that are intrinsically environmentally friendly.






404

With the help of the First and Second Law of Thermodynamics, pinch technology
become a simple methodology for analysing chemical process and the surrounding utility
system. The First Law of Thermodynamics provide equations to calculate the enthalpy
changes in the stream passing through the heat exchanger. The Second Law of
Thermodynamics determines the direction of heat flow. Pinch Analysis is used to identify
energy cost and heat exchanger network (HEN) capital cost targets for a process and
recognizing the pinch point. Thus, the prime objective of pinch analysis is to achieve financial
savings by better process heat integration in maximizing process-to-process heat recovery
and reducing the external utility loads.

9.2 PROCEDURES OF HEAT INTEGRATION

The Maximum Energy recovery (MER) target are determined in term of minimum hot
and cold utility and the process composite curve was constructed. For maximum heat
recovery and minimum use of utilities :
i. Do not transfer heat across the pinch
ii. Do not use hot utilities below the pinch
iii. Do not use cold utilities above the pinch

The heat integration of this plant can be described through the pinch analysis as follows :
i. Identify hot and cold streams.
ii. Assume T
min
= 10
o
C since the temperature difference between the streams will not
be less than 10
o
C for any of the exchangers used in the network.
iii. Construct the problem table.
iv. Determination of the maximum energy recovery (MER) target.
v. Process heat cascading to determine MER target.
vi. Stream matching through the network design above and below the pinch.
vii. Comparison of heat utilization efficiency before and after heat integration.
viii. Design heat exchanger network.
405

9.3 PINCH TECHNOLOGY

All hot and cold streams were identified from the flow sheet diagram. The pinch and
the minimum utility requirement for the streams are determined from the set out table below
with minimum temperature difference of 10
o
C.


Number

Stream Number

Type

Heat Capacity
(kW/
o
C)
Source
Temperature
(
o
C)
Target
Temperature
(
o
C)
1 2 - 2 Hot 1.40 420 220
2 3 - 3 Hot 1.78 220 30
3 4 - 4 Hot 4.17 30 5
4 5 - 5 Hot 4.21 103.6 30
5 DC3
(Condenser)
Hot 1.35 46.92 30
6 DC4
(Condenser)
Hot 51.07 118 112
7 DC5
(Condenser)
Hot 1.62 100 87.93
8 DC6
(Condenser)
Hot 1.40 85 71.26
9 1 - 1 Cold 1.37 30 420
10 DC3
(Reboiler)
Cold 2.68 87.36 95
11 DC4
(Reboiler)
Cold 75.73 100 115
12 DC5
(Reboiler)
Cold 4.21 98 105
13 DC6
(Reboiler)
Cold 2.43 70 80.08


406

9.3.1 Determination of T
min

The actual temperature are converted into interval temperature by substracting half
the minimum temperature difference from the hot stream temperatures, and by adding half to
the cold stream temperature. The equation of temperature interval of hot stream and cold
stream become :
Hot stream T
int
= T
act

T
min
2
(8.1)
Cold stream T
int
= T
act
+
T
min
2
(8.2)

The use of the interval temperature rather than the actual temperatures allows the
minimum temperature difference to be taken into account. The minimum temperature
difference considered in this caculation is, T
min
= 10
o
C.
Number
Stream
Type
Actual Temperature,
o
C Interval Temperature,
o
C
Source Target Source Target
1 Hot 420 220 415 215
2 Hot 220 30 215 25
3 Hot 30 5 25 0
4 Hot 103.6 30 98.6 25
5
Hot
46.92 30 41.92 25
6
Hot
118 112 113 107
7
Hot
100 87.93 95 82.93
8
Hot
85 71.26 80 66.26
9 Cold 30 420 35 425
10
Cold
87.36 95 92.36 100
11
Cold
100 115 105 120
12
Cold
98 105 103 110
13
Cold
70 80.08 75 85.08

407



Figure 9.1 Hot and Cold Stream Composite Curve







0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
40.4 63.34 119 391.6 588
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

o
C
Enthalpy, kW
Temperature vs Enthalpy
Hot Stream
Cold Stream
PINCH T = 10
o
C
408

9.3.2 Problem Table Analysis

Proble table is a numerical method for determining the pinch temperatures and the minimum
utility requirements.

Table 9.1 Interval temperature for T
min
= 10
o
C
Number
Stream
Type
Heat
Capacity
(kW/
o
C)
Actual Temperature,
o
C Interval Temperature,
o
C
Source Target Source Target
1 Hot 1.40 420 220 415 215
2 Hot 1.78 220 30 215 25
3 Hot 4.17 30 5 25 0
4 Hot 4.21 103.6 30 98.6 25
5 Hot 1.35 46.92 30 41.92 25
6 Hot 51.07 118 112 113 107
7 Hot 1.62 100 87.93 95 82.93
8 Hot 1.40 85 71.26 80 66.26
9 Cold 1.37 30 420 35 425
10 Cold 2.68 87.36 95 92.36 100
11 Cold 75.73 100 115 105 120
12 Cold 4.21 98 105 103 110
13 Cold 2.43 70 80.08 75 85.08





409

Next, the interval temperatures are ranked in order of magnitude. The duplicated
temperatures only showing once in the calculations.

Table 9.2 Ranked order of interval temperatures
Rank Interval
T
n
o
C
Streams in interval
425
415 10 9
215 200 9 1
120 95 9 1 2
113 7 9 2 11
110 3 9 2 6 + 11
107 3 9 2 6 + 11 + 12
105 2 9 2 + 11 + 12
103 2 9 2 + 12
100 3 9 2
98.6 1.4 9 2
95 3.6 9 2 + 10 4
92.36 2.64 9 2 7 5
85.08 7.28 9 2 4 7
82.93 2.15 9 2 4 7 + 13
80 2.93 9 2 4 + 13
75 5 9 2 4 + 13
66.26 8.74 9 2 4 8
41.92 24.34 9 2 4
35 6.92 9 2 5
25 10 9 2 5
0 25 -3
410


425 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
415 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
215 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
120 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
113 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
110 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
107 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
105 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
103 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
98.6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
95 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
92.36 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
85.08 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
82.93 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
80 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
75 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
66.26 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
41.92 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
35 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Interval 3
Interval 1
Interval 2

Interval 21
Interval 20
Interval 19
Interval 18
Interval 17
Interval 16
Interval 15
Interval 14
Interval 13
Interval 12
Interval 11
Interval 10
Interval 9
Interval 8
Interval 7
Interval 6
Interval 5
Interval 4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
411

The heat balance for the streams falling within each temperature interval also carried out.

= (

) (

) (9.1)
Where

= net heat required in the nth interval

= sum of heat capacities of all the cold streams in the interval

= sum of heat capacities of all the hot streams in the interval

= interval temperature difference

Interval Interval
temperature, (
o
C)
T
n

(C)
CP
c
CP
h

(kW/
0
C)
H
n

(kW)
Surplus/Deficit
425
1 415 10 1.37 13.7 D
2 215 200 -0.03 -6 S
3 120 95 1.81 -171.95 S
4 113 7 75.32 527.24 D
5 110 3 24.25 72.75 D
6 107 3 28.46 85.38 D
7 105 2 79.53 159.06 D
8 103 2 3.8 7.6 D
9 100 3 -0.41 -1.23 S
10 98.6 1.4 -0.41 -0.57 S
11 95 3.6 -1.94 -6.98 S
12 92.36 2.64 -6.24 -16.47 S
13 85.08 7.28 -6.24 -45.43 S
14 82.93 2.15 -3.81 -8.19 S
15 80 2.93 -2.19 -6.42 S
16 75 5 -2.19 -10.95 S
17 66.26 8.74 -6.02 -52.61 S
18 41.92 24.34 -4.62 -112.45 S
19 35 6.92 -1.76 -12.18 S
20 25 10 -1.76 -17.6 S
21 0 25 -4.17 -104.25 S
412

Cascading the heat from one interval to the next indicates that the temperature
difference is such that the heat can be transferred between the hot and the cold streams. A
negative value in the column indicates the temperature gradient is in the opposite direction
and that the exchange is not thermodynamically possible.

Table 9.3 Heat Cascade
Interval
temperature, (
o
C)

H
n

(kW)

Cascade

425 - 0 687.78
415 13.7 -13.7 674.08
215 -6 -7.7 680.08
120 -171.95 164.25 852.03
113 527.24 -362.99 324.79
110 72.75 -435.74 252.04
107 85.38 -521.12 166.66
105 159.06 -680.18 7.6
103 7.6 -687.78 0
100 -1.23 -686.55 1.23
98.6 -0.57 -685.98 1.8
95 -6.98 -679 8.78
92.36 -16.47 -662.53 25.25
85.08 -45.43 -617.1 70.68
82.93 -8.19 -608.91 78.87
80 -6.42 -602.49 85.29
75 -10.95 -591.54 96.24
66.26 -52.61 -538.93 148.85
41.92 -112.45 -426.48 261.30
35 -12.18 -414.3 273.48
25 -17.6 -396.7 291.08
0 -104.25 -292.45 395.33


413

9.3.3 Cascade Diagram


414

9.3.4 Pinch Temperature

So, the hot utility requirement is 687.78 kW and the cold is 395.55 kW which
obtained from the bottom value in the column of cascade table. The pinch occurs where
the heat transferred is zero, which is at the interval of 103
o
C.
The pinch hot streams will be at :
103 + 5 = 108
o
C
The pinch cold streams will be at :
103 5 = 98
o
C

9..3.5 Network design above the pinch

For maximum energy recovery, the best performance obtained if no cooling is used
above the pinch. By applying this condition, stream 1 can be matched with stream 11,
but not with 9.
=

1 = 1.40 420 108 = 436.8
11 = 75.73 115 98 = 1287.41




415

Stream 2 can be matched with stream 11, whilst satisfying the heat capacity restriction.
1 = 1.40 420 108 = 436.8

Stream 6 also can be matched with stream 11. Transferring the full amount to bring
stream 11 to the pinch temperature :
6 = 51.07 118 108 = 510.7

So a heater will have to be included to provide the remaining heat load.

= 1287.41 436.8 +199.36 +510.7 = 140.55

Include a heater on stream 9 to provide heat load required.

= 1.37 420 98 = 441.14

9.3.6 Netwok design below the pinch

Stream 2 can be matched with stream 13 according to above condition.
2 = 1.78 108 30 = 138.84
13 = 2.43 80.08 70 = 24.49


416

Stream 2 will need further cooling to bring to its target temperature. So a cooler must
be included.

= 138.84 24.49 = 114.35

Match stream 3 with stream 10 and transfer 20.48 kW that satisfies stream 3.
3 = 4.17 (30 5) = 104.25
10 = 2.68 95 87.36 = 20.48
Provide a cooler on stream 1 to bring it to target temperature, cooling needed :

= 104.25 20.48 = 83.77

Stream 4 can be matched with stream 9 that satisfied the heat capacity restriction.
4 = 4.17 (103.6 30) = 309.86
9 = 1.37 (98 30) = 93.16

So, a cooler will have to be included to provide the remaining heat load.

= 309.86 93.16 = 216.7

Stream 5 and stream 8 cannot be match at the pinch. A cooler is included in each
stream to provide heat load required.
5 = 1.35 (46.92 30) = 22.84
8 = 1.40 (85 71.26) = 19.24

The hot stream must use the utilities to ensure the stream can achieve the target
temperature. A cooler need to be installs to reduce the heat from the stream.

417

9.3.7 Minimum Number of Heat Exchanger

To find optimum design it will be necessary to cost a number of alternative
designs, seeking a compromise between capital costs and determined by the number
of size of the heat exchangers and the utility costsare determined by the heat recovery
achieved.For simple network Holmann (1971) has shown the minimum number of
exchanger. It can be obtained from :

1
Where
Z = Minimum number of heat exchanger needed, including heaters and
coolers.
N = The number of streams, including the utilities.

For complex network a more general expression is needed to determine the minimum
number of exchangers :

+ 1
Where
L = The number of internal loop present in network.
S = The number of independent branches (subsets) that exist in the network.

Above pinch :

= 2 + 1 1 = 2

Below pinch :

= 6 + 2 2 = 6


418

9.3.8 Comparison Before and After Integration

The network was designed to give the maximum heat recovery, and therefore give the
minimum consumption, and cost of the hot and cold utilities.

Table xxx Differences between before and after integration
Before Heat Integration After Heat Integration
Number of heat exchanger 13 8
Hot Utility 687.78 kW 581.69 kW
Cold utility kW 456.38 kW
Total utility 1083.11 kW 1038.07 kW

Therefore, energy can be saved :
( 1083.11 1038.07 )
1083.11
= 4.2 %








419

9.3.9 Process flow diagram before pinch analysis

420

9.3.9 Process flow diagram after pinch analysis
421


CHAPTER 10



ENVIRONMENT, WASTE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT




10.1 INTRODUCTION

Effects to the environment is the most important aspect need to be considered
when setting up or run a chemical processing plant. As we know, every chemical
processing plant contains hazardous and toxic substances that need to be controlled in
order to prevent pollution from occurring. In acrylonitrile plant, the raw material, by-
products and the product itself are classified as hazardous and can cause harm to the
environment if it is not treated in a well manner. In order to meet the regulations that
have been set by the Department of Environment (DOE), all the wastes produced in
this plant must undergo specific treatment to avoid water and air pollution. Before can
be emitted to the environment the gaseous waste or liquid waste must be monitored
whether its level is acceptable according to the standards guidelines.
The safest way to avoid pollution or harm to the environment is waste prevention
which mean waste is prevented from being generated. But there is no way that a
chemical plant can escape from not generating any waste. Various types of waste
treatment technology are the only solution to treat any waste that has been generated.
There are many types of waste treatment can be adopted and it is depending on the
suitability of the waste need to be treated. In acrylonitrile plant, the gaseous waste
produced will be undergoing incineration process while the waste water is treated in an
activated sludge system. Nowadays, there are also advanced method which combines
different technologies and are more cost-effective.
422

Although waste treatment may be costly to a chemical processing plant, it must
come into the managements mind that the environment must be put as the first priority.
The money invested in the waste treatment installation is worth it as it will ensure that
the environment is always protected and free from any danger that can cause harm to
human and nature.


10.2 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974

Since 1974, the government has taken an action by introducing a legislation called
the Environmental Quality Act 1974. This act is introduced that time in order to give
more attention to environmental issues. The main objective of this act is to prevent,
abate and control pollution as well as to further in enhancing the quality of the
environment in Malaysia. This legislation is administered by the Department of
Environment (DOE) to ensure that the environment in this country will always be in a
safe condition and to reduce the pollution which could affect the health of community
and nature (Shafari Che Hashim, 2001).

Since the Third Malaysian Plan (1976 1980), the overall environmental policies
objectives in Malaysia is intended to balance the goals of socio-economic development
and by considering the need to bring benefits of the development to the nation and
population. Through the DOE, Malaysian Government has created its own vision which
is to contribute towards nation building in attaining a better level of health, safety and
quality of life. This can be achieved by conducting a conservation and preservation
efforts, prevention and control of pollution as well as protecting and promoting the wise
use of natural resources towards sustainable development for present and future
generations (Shafari Che Hashim, 2001).


423

In order to achieve the national environmental objectives, the Department of
Environment (DOE) has adopted a strategy based on pollution control and prevention.
The pollution control and strategy approach is implemented through the enforcement of
the Environmental Quality Act, 1974. This act is the most comprehensive legislation
today for pollution prevention and control as well as for environment enhancement. The
enforcement of this act and the accompanying 16 sets of Regulations and Orders have
played a significant role in the management of the environment, and in particular, with
respect to pollution control (Shafari Che Hashim, 2001).
Below are the main regulations that have been introduced and strictly enforced
under the Environment Quality Act, 1974 (Shafari Che Hashim, 2001).
1) Control of Agro Based Water Pollution
2) Control of Municipal and Industrial Waste Water Pollution
3) Control of Industrial Emissions
4) Control of Motor Vehicle Emissions
5) Control of Toxic and Hazardous Wastes
6) Integration of Environment and Development
7) Control of Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer

In order to minimize the environmental impacts and to improve environmental
quality, the DOE has adopted a preventive method and approach. Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) is a useful and mandatory tools used in any decision-making
of a project and in assisting to determine site suitability and the necessary
environmental control and mitigation measures for a proposed project. On going
environmental programs which include training, new program formulation, inter-agency
and federal state cooperation and coordination supports the pollution control and
prevention strategy.




424

Regulations in Environmental Act 1974 Related to Acrylonitrile Plant
Regulations Description

Environmental
Quality
(Scheduled
Wastes)
Regulations 2005
- Scheduled wastes shall be disposed at prescribed
premises only.
- Scheduled wastes shall, as far as is practicable, render
innocuous prior to disposal.
- The treatment and recovery of material or product from
scheduled wastes shall be done at on-site treatment
facilities or on-site recovery facilities only.
- The residuals from treatment and recovery of material or
product from scheduled wastes shall be treated or
disposed of at prescribed premises.
- Every waste generator shall ensure that scheduled
wastes generated by him are properly stored, treated on-
site, recovered on-site for material or product from such
scheduled wastes or delivered to and received at
prescribed premises for treatment, disposal or recovery of
material or product from scheduled wastes.
- Every waste generator shall ensure that scheduled
wastes that are subjected to movement or transfer be
packaged, labelled and transported in accordance with
the guidelines prescribed by the Director General.
- Scheduled wastes shall be stored in containers which are
compatible with the scheduled wastes to be stored,
durable and which are able to prevent spillage or leakage
of the scheduled wastes into the environment.
- Incompatible scheduled wastes shall be stored in
separate containers and such containers shall be placed
in separate secondary containment areas.
- Containers containing scheduled wastes shall always be
closed during storage except when it is necessary to add
or remove the scheduled wastes.
425

- Areas for the storage of the containers shall be designed,
constructed and maintained adequately in accordance
with the guidelines to prevent spillage or leakage of the
wastes into the environment.
- Any person may store scheduled wastes generated by
him for 180 days or less after its generation provided that
the quantity of the wastes accumulated on site shall not
exceed 20 metric tonnes.
- The date when the scheduled wastes are first generated,
name, address and telephone number of the waste
generator shall be clearly labelled on the containers that
are used to store the wastes.
- A waste generator shall keep accurate and up-to-date
inventory in accordance with the categories and
quantities of scheduled wastes being generated, treated
and disposed of.
- Every waste generator shall provide information of the
scheduled wastes transported outside waste generators
premises.
- In the event of any spill or accidental discharge of any
scheduled wastes, the contractor responsible for the
waste shall immediately inform the Director General of
the occurrence and do anything practicable to contain,
cleanse or abate the spill or accidental discharge and to
recover substances involved in the spill or accidental
discharge.
Environmental
Quality
(Sewage and
Industrial
Effluents)
Regulations 1979
- No person without prior written permission of the director
General shall carry out any work on any premises that
may result in a new source of effluent discharge or cause
a material change in the quantity or quality of the
discharge from an existing source.
- No person shall discharge or cause or permit the
discharge of any inflammable solvent, tar or other liquids
426

immiscible with water, garbage, timber, human or animal
waste or solid matters into any inland waters.
- The effluent discharged into any inland waters shall be
analyzed in accordance with the nineteenth edition of the
methods specified in the Second Schedule or in
accordance with such other methods of analysis as the
Director General thinks fit.
- No person shall discharge effluent which contains
substances in concentrations greater than those specified
as parameter limits of stated in Standard A and Standard
B guidelines.
- No person shall discharge or cause or permit the
discharge of any effluent in or on any soil or surface of
any land without the prior written permission of the
Director General.
- No person shall discharge or cause or permit the
discharge of any solid waste or sludge that is generated
from manufacturing processes or from any effluent
treatment plant in or on any soil or surface of any land
without written permission.
- In accordance with the provisions of section 25(1) of the
Act, application for a license may be made for the
purposes of the breach of acceptable conditions of
effluent discharge.
- The Director-General may refuse to grant the application
for a license if he is satisfied that the approval of
application for such a license is likely to cause a
worsening of condition in the inland waters or cause
pollution to the environment.
- The point or points of discharge of effluent shall be
determined by the Director-General.
- The position and design of the outlet at the point or points
of discharge of effluent into any inland waters or onto any
427

land shall not be altered or changed without the prior
written approval from the Director-General.
- Any occurrence of spillage or accidental discharge of
effluent which either directly or indirectly gains or may
gain access into any inland waters should be informed
immediately to the Director-General.
- The person who is responsible for the occurrence of the
spill or accidental discharge shall contain, cleanse or
abate the spillage or to recover substances involved in a
manner satisfactory to the Director-General.
- A person who discharges effluent into any inland waters
or onto any land shall, install such sampling test point or
points, inspection chambers , flow meters, and recording
and other apparatus as the Director-General may require
from time to time.
Environmental
Quality (Clean Air)
Regulations 1978
- No owner or occupier of industrial or trade premises, shall
burn or cause to be burnt combustible materials, refuse
and produce or waste except in an incinerator of such
type and design approved by the Director-General.
- No person shall erect, construct, install, resite or alter any
incinerator without prior written approval from the
Director-General.
- Every application for written approval to erect, construct,
install, resite or alter any incinerator shall be
accompanied by:
(a) Site plans of approved scale indicating clearly the
location of the proposed incinerator and buildings
within 100 metres of the proposed incinerator.
(b) Proposed construction drawings of the incinerator,
method of charging and control equipment, and
calculations and design parameters prepared by a
qualified engineer.
(c) Type and quantity of waste to be disposed of in the
428

incinerator and if so directed by the Director-General,
a combustion report on the waste sample certified by
a qualified chemist.
- The occupier of any industrial or trade premises shall not
cause, suffer, allow or permit smoke emissions of any
colour from any new facility.
- The occupier of any industrial or trade premises in or on
which any smoke emitting facility, including industrial
plant or fuel burning equipment is situated, shall if so
directed by the Director-General provide a means to the
satisfaction of the Director-General whereby any person
in charge of such facility may at all times readily ascertain
without leaving the control room whether or not smoke is
discharging from any chimney on such premises. Such
means may include:
(a) A smoke density indicator and alarm, installed so as
to indicate adequately in the control room the density
of smoke being discharged.
(b) A window or other opening through which an
unobstructed view of the top of the chimney may be
obtained from the control room.
(c) A closed circuit television installation with the receiver
located in the control room.
(d) One or a series of mirrors so placed as to reflect the
top of the opening or chimney, which reflection shall
be visible from the control room.
- No person shall cause, allow or permit the emission of
particles of unburnt waste or ash from any incinerator
which are individually large enough to be visible while
suspended in the atmosphere.
- Unless the director-General in special circumstances
allows, no facilities shall be operated without the control
equipment in proper operation.
429

- Sampling point:
(a) A point for measuring the concentration of air
impurities shall be such point as may be determined
by the Director-general or any authorised officer.
(b) Such point may be situated at the fixed point of
emission of the air impurities or in any flue, duct or
chimney located in the premises at some place other
than the final point of emission of air impurities.
(c) Results of all tests conducted on boilers, incinerators
shall be expressed on the basis of flue gas containing
12% by volume of carbon dioxide.

(Source: http://www.doe.gov.my/old/?q=en/content/environmental-quality-act-1974
(ON-LINE) )

10.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

EIA is a study in which used to identify, predict, evaluate and communicate
information about the impacts on the environment of a proposed project and also to
detail all the mitigating measures prior to project approval and implementation. EIA is
vital to be implemented and conducted as it is a planning mechanism to prevent
environmental problems due to irresponsible actions. This assessment will ensure that
potential problems can be detected and addressed at the very early stage in the project
planning and design. This action will then can avoid mistakes in the implementation of a
project. Mistakes can be costly because it can cause damages to the environment that
are likely to arise during project implementation and because of modifications that may
be required to be done in order to make the action environmentally acceptable (DOE,
2008).
In Malaysia, EIA is required under section 34A, Environmental Act, 1974. When
integrated to the existing planning and decision-making structure, it provides additional
information towards better decision making (DOE, 2008).
430

The EIA procedure adopted in Malaysia consists of three major steps:

1) Preliminary EIA

Relate to the initial assessment of the impacts due to those activities that are
prescribed. It is the stage of the EIA procedure that should normally be initiated at the
pre-feasibility study stage of the development of an activity. Any significant
environmental impacts are made known and identification of project options is made.
Technical committee in the DOE are responsible in reviewing the preliminary report but
assistance from other government and non-government agencies can be sought if
expertise within DOE is lack (DOE, 2008).


2) Detailed EIA

This procedure is undertaken for those projects with major or significant impacts
to the environment that has been predicted in the preliminary assessment. Assessment
should continue during project feasibility and the detailed EIA report must be submitted
to the Director General of Environmental Quality prior to the giving of approval by the
relevant Federal or State Government authority for the implementation of the project
(DOE, 2008).

3) Review of EIA Reports

This step is carried out internally by the DOE for preliminary assessment reports
and by an ad hoc Review Panel for detailed assessment reports. Through the review,
recommendations that are arise transmitted to the relevant project approving authorities
for consideration in decision-making on the project. The normal duration allocated for a
review of preliminary assessment report is one month while for a detailed assessment,
two months is allocated (DOE, 2008).

431

Authorities approve the activities is government agencies that have the power to
decide whether an activity carried out or not. The agencies include are (DOE, 2008):
a) National Development Planning Committee (JPPN), for activities funded by the
Federal Government.
b) State Executive Council (MMKN), for activities funded by the State.
c) Local Authority (LA) or Regional Development Authority (LKW) for approval of
the plan in their each area.
d) Ministry of Trade and Industry or MIDA of industrial activities.

There are nineteen (19) categories of activities is subjected to EIA and those
are stated in Environmental Impact Assessment Order 1987. Those nineteen
categories of activities include the matter related to agriculture, airports, irrigation and
drainage, land reclamation, fisheries, forestry, housing, industry, infrastructure, ports,
mining, petroleum, power generation and transmission, quarrying, train, transport,
recreation and resort developers, treatment and disposal of waste and water. Activities
related to nineteen (19) categories defined by the size of the project (the area) or
quantum (quantum) and there are also other activities that are not stated by any unit of
measurement.


Aspects that are identified can generate impact during the construction phase is
the quality of water, air and noise, transportation, shipbuilding materials, employee
safety, solid waste, scheduled waste, and employment opportunities directly or
indirectly. Impacts from development on the environment can be minimized with the
implementation of mitigating measures as recommended by the consultant firm. The
balance can be controlled by monitoring the impact on water quality, air quality and
noise levels.
In acrylonitrile plant, two most important aspects need to be monitored are the
water and air quality as waste water and gas emission is produced. Guidelines that
have been set must be satisfied in before any emission can be released to the
environment.


432

10.3.1 Air Quality Monitoring

Air quality in this country is monitored continuously and manually to detect any
changes in the ambient air quality status that may harm to human health and
environment. Air Pollutant Index (API) used to describe the air quality in Malaysia and
is an indicator of air quality which was developed based on scientific assessment to
indicate in an easily manner the presence of pollutants and its impacts (DOE, 2008).
Table below shows the API scale and the terms used in describing the air quality levels:

Table 10.1 API scale for air quality
API scale Air quality
0 50 Good
51 100 Moderate
101 200 Unhealthy
201 300 Very unhealthy
301 and above Hazardous
(Source: http://www.doe.gov.my/old/?Q=en/content/air-pollutant-index-api-reading-
0(on-line))
5 major pollutants in the ambient air namely suspended particulate matters (PM10),
sulphur dioxide (SO
2
), nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
), carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone
(O
3
) are measured by the Continuous Air Quality Monitoring (CAQM) in 51 stations
all over Malaysia. These concentrations are measured continuously on hourly basis.
Below are the standard guidelines for air quality in Malaysia:




433

Table10.2 Malaysia guideline for air emission
POLLUTANT
AVERAGING
TIME
MALAYSIA GUIDELINES
ppm g/m
3

Ozone
1 hour
0.10 200
8 hours 0.06 120
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
1 hour 30 35
8 hours 9 10
Nitrogen dioxide ( NO
2
)
1 hour
0.17
320
24hours 0.04
Sulphur Dioxide
1 hour
0.13 350
24hours 0.04 105
Particulate Matter
( PM
10
)
24 hours - 150
1 years - 90
Total suspended
Particulate ( TSP)
24 hours - 260
1 years - 90
(Source: http://www.doe.gov.my/dmdocuments/Udara/3%20RMAQG.pdf (on-line))








434

10.3.2 Water Quality Monitoring

The National Water Quality Standards is applied to surface waters. Standard
values of 72 parameters in six water use classes are established. The goal is to
improve water quality gradually in order to meet standards of the better water class
than the actual. Water quality monitoring conducted in order to assess wastewater
quality in compliance with Standard B of the Environmental Quality (Sewage and
Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979. Table below shows the water use classes (DOE,
2008):
Table 10.3 Water use classes
Class Uses
CLASS I
Conservation of natural environment water supply 1 practically no
treatment necessary.
Fishery 1 very sensitive aquatic species
CLASS IIA
Water supply II conventional treatment required
Fishery II sensitive aquatic species
CLASS IIB Recreational use with body contact
CLASS III
Water supply III extensive treatment required
Fishery III common, of economic value and tolerant species livestock
drinking
CLASS IV Irrigation
CLASS V None of the above
(Source: http://www.wepa-db.net/policies/law/malaysia/eq_surface.htm(on-line))


435

Table 10.4 DOE Water Quality Index Classification
PARAMETER UNIT
CLASS
I II III IV V
Ammoniacal
Nitrogen
mg/l < 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 0.9 2.7 > 2.7
Biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD)
mg/l < 1 1 - 3 3 - 6 6 12 > 12
Chemical oxygen
demand
mg/l < 10 10 -25 25 -50 50 - 100 >100
Dissolved oxygen mg/l > 7 5 - 7 3 - 5 1 - 3 <1
pH - >7 6 - 7 5 - 6 <5 >5
Total suspended
solid
mg/l < 25 25 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 > 300
Water quality index
(WQI)
- < 92.7 76.5 92.7 51.9 76.5 31.0 51.9 > 31.0
(Source: http://www.wepa-db.net/policies/law/malaysia/eq_surface.htm(on-line))








436

10.4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITY
In real industry situation, 100% separations are considered as totally
impossible. Therefore, some of the component will be exist in the stream with certain
amount. This component can be considered as waste and need to be treated. Below
does the characteristic of the component exist in the plant if it exist in the waste stream.
Table 10.5 Component characteristic

COMPONENT
CHARACTERISTIC
STABILITY TOXICOLOGY
Acetonitrile

- Reactive with oxidizing and
reducing agents, acids, alkalis,
moisture.
- Non-corrosive in presence of
glass.
- Strongly reactive.
- High polarity.
- Polymerization will not occur.

- Toxic by inhalation, ingestion or skin
absorption.
- May cause damage to reproductive
system
- Material is irritating to mucous
membranes and respiratory tract.
Acrylonitrile

- Instable in the presence of
heat, ignition sources, light.
- Highly reactive with oxidizing
agents, acids, alkalis
- Reactive with metals
- Highly corrosive in presence of
aluminium of copper

- Very hazardous in case of skin contact
(irritant), digestion and inhalation
- Skin irritation
- Causes moderate eye irritation
- Inhalation of high concentrations may
affect behavioral or central nervous
system and respiration.
Nitrogen

- Stable


- Nontoxic, but may cause shortage of
oxygen concentration in air decreased
which can results in certain
circumstances.
437


COMPONENT
CHARACTERISTIC
STABILITY TOXICOLOGY
Propylene

- Stable
- Reactive with strong oxidizers
such as nitrates, perchlorates,
chlorine and fluorine.
- Instable in the presence of
heat, sparks and flame.

- An anesthetic and is mildly irritating to
the mucuous membranes.
- At high concentrations, it acts as a
simple asphixiant without significant
potential for systematic toxicity.
- High concentrations can cause death
due to oxygen depletion.
Oxygen

- Stable

- Concentrations between 25 and 75
molar percent present a risk of
inflammation of organic matter in the
body.
- Persons in ill health where such illness
would be aggravated or irritated by
exposure to oxygen should not be
allowed to work or handle this product.
Carbon dioxide

- Stable
- Incompatible with certain
reactive metals.
- Passing carbon dioxide over a
mixture of sodium peroxide
and aluminium or magnesium
may explode.

- Inhaling large concentrations causes
rapid circulatory insufficiency leading to
coma and death.Chronic, harmful effects
are not known fro repeated inhalation of
low (3 to 5 molar percent)
concentrations.




438

10.5 WASTE PLANT


10.5.1 Process synthesis and description of the gas waste plant

Incineration is the chosen method to treat the gaseous waste. This is because
incineration is capable of destroying the organic compounds found in the gaseous
wastes. There are many type of incinerator used in industries. For our plant, we choose
direct flame thermal incinerator. Temperature and retention time are significant
parameters that should be considered when dealing with an incineration system. These
parameters play great role in ensuring complete combustion of waste.

For this direct flame incineration plant, the combustion chamber temperature is set at
1200
o
F based on the waste constituents. Burning at 1200F in the combustion
chamber, without heat recovery, the exiting stream will be at 1200F. All of the products
of combustion must be brought to this temperature.






439

Table 10.6: National ambient air quality standard

POLLUTANT
STANDARD VALUE STANDARD TYPE
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
8-hour average 9 ppm (10mg/m
3
)** Primary
1-hour average 35 ppm (40mg/m
3
)**
Primary
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO
2
)
Annual Arithmetic Mean 0.053 ppm (100g/m
3
)** Primary & Secondary
OZONE (O
3
)
1-hour average* 0.12 ppm (235g/m
3
)** Primary & Secondary
8-hour average* 0.18 ppm (157g/m
3
)** Primary & Secondary
LEAD (Pb)
Quarterly average 1.5 g/m
3
Primary & Secondary
PARTICULATE < 10 MICROMETERS (PM-10)
Annual Arithmetic Mean 50 g/m
3
Primary & Secondary
24-hour average 150 g/m
3
Primary & Secondary
PARTICULATE < 2.5 MICROMETERS (PM-2.5)
Annual Arithmetic Mean 15 g/m
3
Primary & Secondary
24-hour average 65 g/m
3
Primary & Secondary
SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO
2
)
Annual Arithmetic Mean 0.03 ppm (80 g/m
3
)** Primary
24-hour average 0.14 ppm (365 g/m
3
)** Primary
3-hour average 0.50 ppm (1300 g/m
3
)** Secondary
(Source: Environment Quality Act 1974)
440

* The ozone 1-hour standard applies only to areas that were designated non-
attainment when the 8-hour standard was adopted in July 1997. This provision allows
a smooth, legal and practical transition to the 8-hour standard.
** Parenthetical value is an approximately equivalent concentration.


Table10.7: European guideline for pollutant emission
Pollutant
Malaysian guidelines
Averaging
time, h
Country
mg/m
3
STP ppm
Ammonia 0.2 0.28 24 U.S.S.R.
Propylene 3 1.5 24 U.S.S.R.
Carbon
monoxide
33 30 8 USA, New York
Carbon
monoxide
(combustion)
11,000 10,000 - Paris, France
Nitrogen dioxide .085 0.045 24 U.S.S.R.
Hydrocarbon
(Incineration)
- 50 -
Bay Area
A.P.C.D.



441

10.5.1.1 Waste stream composition

There are five main waste streams identified in our plant, which is the top product of
absorber which is vapor phase
Table10.8: Waste Stream Composition (Data generated from HYSYS)
Phase
Vapor
Components Flowrate (kmol/hr) Mass flowrate (kg/hr)
Unconverted propylene 10.662 302.30
Nitrogen 471.888 133455.80
Oxygen 311.300 8802.21
Carbon dioxide 201.996 5708.10
Water 115.7327 3270.30
TOTAL
5357.9973 15153.845

These gaseous wastes will create air pollution. Although it consist only small
amount but it exceeds the allowable amount that was restricted by the local authority
and therefore it must be treated.









442

10.5.1.2 Mass balance in incinerator

These assumptions are made:
- All hydrogen present is converted to water vapor, H
2
O, unless otherwise noted
below.
- All carbon is converted to carbon dioxide, CO
2
.
- All nitrogen from the waste, the fuel or air, will take the form of diatomic
molecules.
- Complete combustion reactions

I. Combustion reactions in the incinerator
Propylene :
3

6
+
9
2

2
3
2
+ 3
2

Nitrogen :
2
+ 2
2
2
2


For propylene
,

6
=
42

1
3

6
= 42
3

6

,

2
=
32

4.5 = 144
2


2
=

6
= 3.4286

6


For nitrogen
,

2
=
28

1
2
= 28
2

,

2
=
32

2 = 64
2


2
=

2
= 2.2857

2


443

II. Total stoichiometric oxygen requirement

2
= (
2
)

2
(10.1)
= 10.66 4.5 +471.88 2 32 /
= 31736 /

III. Excess oxygen requirement

2
=

2

2
(10.2)
= 31736

8%
= 2539 /

IV. Total oxygen required

2
=
2
+
2

(10.3)
= 31736 +2539
= 34275 /

V. Air requirement
For air requirement, the composition of O
2
in the air is 21% (10.4)
=
2539 100
21
= 12090 /


444

For a possible complete combustion, 8% of excess oxygen is needed. This
means that 80% of excess air than stoichiometric requirement.

Total stoichiometric oxygen requirement = 31736 kg/hr
8% excess oxygen requirement = 2539 kg/hr
Total oxygen required = 34275 kg/hr
Air requirement = 12090 kg/hr
Total air requirement (80% excess) = 1.8 (12090) kg/hr
= 21763 kg/hr

10.5.1.3 Direct flame thermal incineration calculations

The calculation procedure shown below is based on the outlines given (C. David
Cooper and F. C. Alley, 1986).

The enthalpies of gaseous components are assumed similar to those of pure air










m
BA
, h
BA
, T= 212
o
F (100C)

m
W
, h
W
,
T= 212
o
F (100C)
m
F
, h
F
, T= 212
o
F (100C)
m
E
, h
E
,
T= 1200
o
F
INCINERATOR
T= 1200
o
F (650C)
445

Where:
m
BA
, m
W
, m
F
and m
E
= mass flow rate in lb
m
/hr
h
BA
, h
W
, h
F
and h
E
= enthalpy of streams in Btu/lb
m

BA = Burner air
W = Waste gaseous
F = Fuel gas
E = Exhaust gaseous

From the diagram:
Total flow rate of waste emission, m
W

= 15153.8
kg
hr
= 33408
Ibm
hr
(10.5)

Temperature, T
w
= 100C

Total heat content of waste emission, h
w

h
w
=
1.111 x 10
6
kJ
hr

1000J
kJ

1 Btu
1055.06 J

hr
33408 Ibm
(10.6)
= 31.52 Btu/lbm
Total flow rate of burner air, m
BA

m
BA
= 479979
lbm
hr
= 21763
kg
hr

(10.7)


Assume: T
BA
= T
F
= 212
0
F (100C) (10.8)


From the above we can find total flow rate of fuel gas is calculated by using equation
below by assuming:
- The conversion (X
i
) of gaseous components is 100%,
- Heat loss or fractional loss (f
L
) is 0.3 and -AH
C
= 23215.6086 Btu/hr therefore:
Em
VOCi
(-AH
C
)
VOCi
X
i
(1-f
L
) = -70.558 x 10
6
kJ/hr = -66.875 x 10
6
Btu/hr (10.9)

m
F
=
m
w
h
E
h
w
+ m
BA
h
E
h
BA
m
VOCi
H
c
V
OCi
X
i
(1f
L
)
H
c

F
1f
L
(h
E
h
F
)
(10.10)
446

= 3877

Overall mass balance of combustion chamber:
Output = Input (10.11)
m = m
F
+ m
W
+ m
BA
(10.12)
= (3877 + 33408 + 47979) lbm/hr
= 85264 lbm/hr


Combustion Chamber Dimension
The following parameters are assumed

@ ,

= 0.0808 /
3

, = 0.75
=

3
0.0808
(10.13)
= 1055247
3


(
1200
)

= (

+460)/460 (10.14)
= 3.808 10
6

= 107831

=
1200


(10.15)
= 793
3
= 22.46
3



Height can be determine by diameter ratio = 3:1
=

2
3 (10.16)
=
3
3
4

=
3
3
4


The diameter of chamber must be determine by rearrange the equation above
447


, =

4
3
3

(10.17)
= 6.96 = 2.12

= 3 = 20.87 = 6.36 (10.18)



Efficiency of Incineration

Incineration efficiency =
W
in
W
out
W
in
100 (10.)

Where:
Win = mass feed rate of principal organic hazardous constituent to incinerator
Wout = mass emission rate of principal organic hazardous constituent in the stack

= 38675 / (10.)

=
1200

1200
= 2577 / (10.19)

Incineration efficiency =
W
in
W
out
W
in
100 = 93%

Note: Density at 1200F can be determined in Table (US Environmental Protection
Agency, 2010)


Table10.9: Air density at common temperature at standard pressure

Temperature,F Density, kg/m
3

500 0.0413
600 0.0374
800 0.0315
1000 0.072
1200 0.0239

448

10.5.1.4 Stack dimension

The stack height should be enough so that the gas emission will not effect to the
environment and surroundings. The stack design must be high and designed 2 to 2.5
with higher structure in the plant (Howard S. Peavy et. al. 1985). The purpose is to
make sure the plume to upward level. The efficient height design of stack, H is the most
important element where the H value also involving the physical height of the stack.
The design of large stacks poses considerable engineering challenges. Vortex
shedding in high winds can cause dangerous oscillations in the stack, and may lead to
its collapse. The use of helical faring is common to prevent this process occurring at or
close to the resonant frequency of the stack.









Figure10.1: Effective stake height




h
h
H
449

In the acrylonitrile plant the highest structure is distillation column (C3) with height 28
m.
so, h = 28 m x 2
= 56 m
, =

1.5 +
2.6810
2

(10.20)
Assumed wind speed, u = 160 km/hr

Where
h = Plum increment above stake, m
V
s
= Gas velocity for stake, m/s
d = Internal stake diameter = 1 m
u = wind velocity = 44.44 m/s
P = atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa
T = Gas temperature in stake (air temperature) = 550 K
T
s
= temperature of gas in stake, 1200F = 923 K

The equation is used for neutral condition. For unstable condition, h have to be added
with a factor, 1.1-1.2 and for the stable condition, h have to be substrate with a factor
between 0.8-0.9. The calculation for effective stake for gas waste treatment in a
processing plant is:



450

= 107831

65
100
(10.21)
= 70090
3
/
,

=
70090

1
2
4
3600
(10.22)
= 24.79 /

So Plum height, h
=
24.79 1
44.44
1.5 +
2.68 10
2
100 550
923
= 1.73

Thus, the efficient stake height, H = 56m (standard stack height) + h
= 56 + 1.73
= 57.73 m







451

10.5.2 Process synthesis and description of the wastewater plant

Activated sludge is a mixed culture of microorganisms cultivated under non-
sterile conditions on organic substances present in wastewaters. This system start with
stream 14 which consist 100 000 kg/h of wastewater entering the mixer 1 along with
stream O. Both streams which consist of acetonitrile and other component will be
channeled to the clarifier tank 1 (S1) as stream A.In that tank, with an adequate
detention time, two layers of liquid are formed. The first layer is call as light water which
contain water and the second layer ,call as heavy water or sludge .Basically, this two
layer was formed due to different of density among them. For this wastewater system,
this tank separate mostly contaminated component in the wastewater and channeled
the sludge in stream B.

From first clarifier tank, the light water will be channeled to aeration tank .For
this plant , the type of aeration tank selected to be used is diffused aeration system.
The mechanism of this equipment are air is introduced near the tank bottom through
diffusers producing either coarse or fine bubbles. The efficiency depending on whether
the air bubbles are fine or coarse large bubbles. This rectangular aeration tank will
remove BOD up to 90% with retention time of 6 hours and capacity of space loading is
0.6 kg BOD
5
/day-m
3

In this equipment , Acinetobacter or Nocardia from gram positive bacteria group
will be introduce to the aeration process as a nutrient or cell that will consume the
biodegradable organic substances in the wastewater ( acetonitrile ). The organic
substances that are consumed by the bacteria are important for their growth, energy
and reproduction in the presence of oxygen (UNEP, 2008). Both bacteria are chosen
because it may involved in carbon oxidizer,nitrogen oxidizer,floc-former,non-floc
former,predators,nuisance organism and classified as aerobes and facultative
anaerobs. All the listed characteristics listed above are important because ,for example
floc-forming characteristic, it help biodegradable organic substances be separated from
the treated water or can colloidal sized organic pollutant (A.Kamarulnajuib,2007).

452

For the biological reaction in the aeration , carbon dioxide, water and ammonia
are releases due to endogenous respiration who takes place with new cells begin to
consume their own cell tissue to obtain energy for their cells maintenance and
simultaneously. During respiration process, large compounds of high-energy content
are broken down to small molecules of low energy content. The respiring organisms
capture much of the energy lost by the large compounds (A.Kamarulnajuib,2007) .The
overall reaction are stated below:

Organic + O
2
+ nutrient +bacteria CO
2
+ H
2
O + NH
3
+New Biomass +Other end
product

After having reaction in the aeration tank , all the biomass ,other end product,
sludge and nutrient or bacteria will be channeled to the second clarifier tank for next
separation process .Same mechanism with clarifier tank 1,the sediment will be
removed (stream F) to the cell separator while the light water will be channeled back to
the main acrylonitrile process as recycled treated water (stream E). In the cell
separator ,it is determined that the ratio of recycled activated sludge to feed wastewater
into aeration tank is 0.8 with mean cell residence time (
c
) is 10 days
(A.Kamarulnajuib,2007).
All sludge are next channel to the third clarifier and next to the dry .This step are
required because first is to reduce the amount of water losses since the all clarifier are
using gravity as source to separated the sludge and second to reduce the weight of the
sludge that need to be storage or sent to Quality Alam .






453

10.5.3 Activated Sludge

Completely mixed reactor


This calculation are based on range given ( Source:
http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/CE/mhmalack/CE%20370%2020Activated%20Sludge%20P
rocesses.pps(on-line))
For the completely mixed reactor design range :
- F/M = 0.1=0.6 (Kg BOD
5
/Kg MLSS=day)
- Space loading = 0.8-2.0 (Kg BOD5/day-m3)
- C= 5 to 30 days
- retention time (aeration tank) = 3- 6 hour
- MLSS = 2500 4000 mg/l
- Recycle ratio (R/Q) = 0.25-1.5
- BOD removal = 85 to 95 %




V, X, S
Q
O
, S
O
, X
O

Secondary
Clarifier
Effluent
Sludge
Underflow
Sludge
Return
Sludge
Waste
Q
U
, X
U

Q
W
, X
U

Q
R
, X
U

Q
O
+ Q
R

X, S
454

For waste flow, Q
O
= 100 000 kg / hr 2400 m
3
/day

Assumed values:
X
U
= 6500 mg / L
Influent BOD, S
O
= 180 mg / L
Effluent BOD, S = 10 mg / L

Cell Yield coefficient, 7 . 0 = =
utilized BOD kg
biomass kg
Y kg/kg
Endogenous decay coefficient, k
d
= 0.05 d
-1

Mean cell residence time (MCRT),
C
= 10 d
Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid (MLSS), X = 3000 mg / L
Influent BOD,
3
3 6
18 . 0
1
1000
10
1 180
m kg
m
L
mg
kg
L
mg
S
O
= =
Effluent BOD,
3
3 6
01 . 0
1
1000
10
1 10
m kg
m
L
mg
kg
L
mg
S = =
3
3 6
5 . 6
1
1000
10
1 5500
m kg
m
L
mg
kg
L
mg
X
U
= =






455

Volume of aeration tank

( )
d
O
C
k
VX
S S QY 1

=
u


( )( )( )
( )
3
3
1
1
3
1
1
3
3 3 3
67 . 634
2 . 95
15 . 0
05 . 0
2 . 95
10 . 0
05 . 0
3
01 . 0 18 . 0 7 . 0 2400
10
1
m V
V
d m
d
d
V
d m
d
d
m kg V
m kg m kg d m
d
=
=
=

the hydraulic retention time, range from 3 to 5 hours,
Check for :

Q
V
= u
= 388.57 /2400 = 0.162 d
= 3.88 hr , So, this value is satisfactory

At equilibrium condition;






( )
d m
m kg
d kg
Q
m kg SinceX
d kg
d
m kg m
X Q
X Q
VX
waste solids of mass
reactor in solid of mass
W
U
U W
U W
C
/ 29 . 249
/ 5 . 6
/ 4 . 190
/ 5 . 6
4 . 190
10
3 67 . 634
3
3
3
3 3
= =
=
=
=
= = u
456

Sludge recycle ratio
rate flow water waste
rate flow recycle
Q
Q
R
=

Mass balance around the aeration tank;
( ) ( )
U W R e W R O
X Q Q X Q Q X Q Q ) ( + + = +

Assumption: Effluent biomass concentration is negligible compared to the effluent and
underflow.
( )
( )
d m
m kg m kg
m kg d m d kg
X X
X Q X Q
Q
X Q X Q X X Q
X Q X Q X Q X Q
U
O U W
R
O U W U R
U W U R R O
3
3 3
3 3
74 . 2002
50 . 6 3
3 2400 4 . 190
=

=
=
+ = +

83 . 0
2400
74 . 2002
3
3
=
=
d m
d m
Q
Q
R








457

10.5.4 Process flow diagram for wastewater treatment

458


10.6 WASTE PLANT EQUPIMENT SIZNG AND COSTING

Equipment involves in the waste treatment are clarifier tank, aeration tank, mixer,
sludge dryer for waste water treatment and incinerator for gaseous waste treatment.

1) Clarifier Tank
Material of construction = Epoxy coated steel body with plastic plates
Total volume clarifier tank = 150 m
3
/hr
Typical Diameter = < 45 m
Typical Depth = 3 - 5 m
Cost of construction and material = RM 114988.17
Total cost for 3 clarifier tank = RM 344964.51


2) Aeration tank
Material for construction aeration tank = Reinforced Concrete
Typical depth = 5 7 m
Cost of construction and material = RM 65000


3) Mixer
Material of construction = Stainless steel
No of mixer = 3
Cost for each mixer = RM 20000
Total cost for mixer = RM60000



459



4) Sludge dryer
Type = Rotary drying equipment
Cost of construction and material = RM 30260.04

5) Incinerator
Type = Direct flame thermal incinerator
Cost of construction and material = RM 1338160


Table 10.10 Summary of costing for waste treatment
Equipment Unit
Cost (RM)
Clarifier Tank 3
344964.51
Aeration Tank 1
65000
Mixer 3
60000
Sludge dryer 1
30260.04
Incinerator 1
1338160
TOTAL
1838384.55






460