RESEARCH Tectonic processes, from rifting to collision via subduction, in SE Asia and the western Pacic: A key to understanding

the architecture of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt

Koji Wakita1,*, Manuel Pubellier2,*, and Brian F. Windley3,*
1 2

DIVISION OF PHYSICS AND EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCES, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING, YAMAGUCHI UNIVERSITY, YOSHIDA 1677-1, YAMAGUCHI 753-8512, JAPAN UNIVERSITY TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS, UTP, PERAK, MALAYSIA, AND CNRS-UMR 8538, LABORATOIRE DE GOLOGIE DE LECOLE NORMALE SUPRIEURE, 24 RUE LHOMOND, 75231 PARIS, CEDEX 5, FRANCE 3 DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER, LEICESTER LEI 7RH, UK

ABSTRACT
We review the processes of accretion of continental blocks during the Tertiary in SE Asia and the western Pacic with the aim of better understanding the evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, which is a Neoproterozoic to mid-Phanerozoic orogenic collage surrounded by the East European, Siberian, Tarim, and North China cratons. In the western Pacic, there is abundant evidence of sequential plate-tectonic processes from accretion to continent-arc/continent collision, via exhumation and suprasubduction. Early processes involve seaoor spreading, subduction, accretion, arc formation, and back-arc extension. Two important types of tectonic setting and evolution are recognized along the present Pacic convergent margin: sediment/crust accretion and tectonic erosion. Five major accretionary complexes are well illustrated in the Japanese Islands. Tectonic erosion removes material by underscraping the lower part of the upper plate. Subduction is also associated with back-arc extension, particularly in Indonesia and the SW Pacic region. Arc-arc collisional complexes are present in Taiwan, the Philippines, and Japan. The geological record of SE Asia and the western Pacic provides a robust modern analogue for the geological and tectonic history of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, before it was affected by high-temperature metamorphism.

LITHOSPHERE; v. 5; no. 3; p. 265276 | Published online 20 March 2013

doi: 10.1130/L234.1

INTRODUCTION

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (or Altaids, 600250 Ma) is a ca. 1.0 Ga250 Ma tectonic collage of oceanic and continental fragments that includes ophiolites, island arcs, Andean-type magmatic arcs, subductionaccretion complexes, passive margins, seamounts, and microcontinents (engr and Natalin, 1996; Jahn, 2004; Krner et al., 2007; Windley, 2007; Wilhem et al., 2012). It also contains high-pressure (HP) blueschists and eclogites, high-temperature (HT) metamorphic rocks, postaccretionary granitic-alkaline-peralkaline rocks, and important mineral deposits of, for example, Au and porphyry Cu. The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (COAB) is widely regarded to have evolved in a tectonic setting like that of modern Indonesia (e.g., Xiao et al., 2010); however, because of the late HT overprint and the old age of the Central Asian Orogenic Belts construction, the original paleogeographic architecture and tectonic evolution are still poorly known. SE Asia and the western Pacic are no doubt the best world laboratory for understanding the geological and tectonic processes that take place in the oceans and during accretion (Fig. 1) before any continent-continent collision has occurred (Lallemand et al., 2001; Hall, 2002, 2010; Pubel*E-mails: k-wakita@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp; manupub.pubellier@gmail.com, brian .windley@btinternet.com. Editors note: This article is part of a special issue titled Comparative evolution of past and present accretionary orogens: Central Asia and the CircumPacic, edited by Robert Hall, Bor-Ming Jahn, John Wakabayashi, and Wenjiao Xiao. More papers on this subject will follow in subsequent issues, and these will be collected online at http://lithosphere.gsapubs.org/ (click on Themed Issues).

lier et al., 2005; Pubellier, 2008; Metcalfe, 2010; Yin, 2010). In order to help unravel the complex accretionary framework and evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, we review the modern analogue of the Phanerozoic geology of SE Asia and the western Pacic (Fig. 2). This paper relates the main tectonic processes that have taken place in the western Pacic through Phanerozoic time, from ocean formation and arc creation to subduction-accretion and the formation of suture zones, with those that probably took place in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt during the early Paleozoic. Hence, the examples selected hereafter are located between the Central Asian Orogenic Belt and the present-day plate boundary (Sunda Trench and India-Eurasia collision zone).
CONTINENTAL BREAKUP , DISPERSAL, AND FORMATION OF OCEANIC PLATES

Microcontinents, detached from Gondwana, moved northward to collide with the margins of the Asian continent, which became larger with time (Metcalfe, 2010). The early history of the breakup of Gondwana in the Devonian and the start of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean are recorded, for example, in Chiang Dao, north Thailand (Hara et al., 2010), where anoxic sediments were deposited in conned basins along the Gondwana margin (Fig. 3). Once the continental fragments detached and drifted away from Gondwana, oxidized seawater owed into the basins, enabling growth of small organisms such as plankton, radiolarian, and pelagic foraminifera. The rifting of an ocean is traditionally considered to be triggered by the subduction of an existing ocean. For example, Neo-Tethys opened

| Volume | 2013 Geological Society of America LITHOSPHERE For permission to copy, contact 5 | Number editing@geosociety.org 3 | www.gsapubs.org

265

WAKITA ET AL.

Figure 1. Major tectonic features in East Asia and the western Pacic (modied from Pubellier, 2008), (A) Cenozoic accretionary complexes, (B) PreCenozoic orogenic belts (terranes), Legend for Figures 1, 2, 5 and 6 is as follows. GrayProterozoic consolidated craton, YellowPliocene-Quaternary accretionary wedge or Fold-and-Thrust Belt (FTB), Light brownLate Neogene-accreted terrane, OrangeTertiary accretionary wedges or FTB, OchreAlpine/Himalayan-accreted terrane, GreenMesozoic Continental accreted terrane, Bluish-greenlate Mesozoic accretionary wedges or FTB, Mauve: Indonesian/Early Mesocoic-accreted terrane or FTB, BrownLate Paleozoic/Hercynian accreted terrane or FTB, BlueEarly Paleozoic/Caledonian-accreted terrane or FTB, Blackreported ophiolitic occurrences.

Figure 2. Comparison between Central Asian Orogenic Belt (A: left) and present tectonic setting of East Asia (B: right: top to the west) (modied from Pubellier, 2008).

266

www.gsapubs.org | Volume 5 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

Tectonic processes from rifting to collision via subduction

| RESEARCH

Figure 3. Initiation of Paleo-Tethys Ocean and its record in the stratigraphic column of northern Thailand (stratigraphic column after Hara et al., 2010).

in response to the subduction of Paleo-Tethys (engr, 1987). In modern examples, the trench pull is responsible for the formation of back-arc basins oored with a large oceanic crust in the upper plate (Karig and Sharman, 1975), or in the downgoing plate as observed for the South China Sea (Bnard et al., 1990; Pubellier et al., 2003). According to Stampi (2000) and Wang et al. (2010), the opening of Paleo-Tethys took place in the Late Ordovician and Silurian. On the other hand, Metcalfe (2010) suggested that several Chinese continental blocks, including Indochina, separated in the Late Devonian from Gondwana. The history of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean from birth to death is recognizable in the pelagic and hemiplegic sequences of ocean plate stratigraphy, which record the ridgetrench transition from the Devonian to the Triassic (Wakita and Metcalfe, 2005). The Cimmerian continent including the Sibumasu block collided with Indochina in Triassic time. However, the age of opening of PaleoTethys was not clear until Wonganan and Caridroit (2005) revealed the presence of a continuous ocean-oor sequence from the Lower Devonian to Lower Carboniferous in northern Thailand. The Thailand sequence is composed of Lower Devonian black shale and younger cherts (Fig. 3). The black shale contains Early Devonian

graptolites. In ascending order, the sequence consists of thinly bedded black shale, thinly bedded black siliceous shale, interbeds of black siliceous shale and white chert, and bedded white chert; the overall change from black shale to chert is gradual. The black shales decrease in thickness toward the stratigraphic top, as do the numbers of interbeds of black shale in bedded chert. This lithologic change from black shale to white bedded chert represents the biological recovery from anoxic to oxic conditions in the opening basin. Paleo-Tethys started to open, not in the Late Devonian, but in the Early Devonian. The sequence from northern Thailand to Peninsular Malaysia records the early stage of opening of Paleo-Tethys (Fig. 3), and the Lower DevonianLate Triassic stratigraphy represents the history of Paleo-Tethys from its opening to closure.
Ocean Plate Stratigraphy and the History of Paleo-Tethys

Ocean plate stratigraphy records the travel history of an oceanic plate from its birth at a mid-oceanic ridge to its death at a trench (Matsuda and Isozaki, 1991; Wakita and Metcalfe, 2005). Ocean plate stratigraphy is an idealized stratigraphic succession of an ocean-oor trench, obtained

LITHOSPHERE | Volume 5 | Number 3 | www.gsapubs.org

267

WAKITA ET AL.

from protoliths in ancient accretionary complexes. However, in some cases in SE Asia, the generally dismembered ophiolites and their overlying stratigraphic oceanic series may represent relicts of back-arc basins as demonstrated by their geochemical signature (Pubellier et al., 2004). In the Paleozoic, it is usually reconstructed by means of biostratigraphic relations of radiolaria, conodonts, and fusulinid microfossils. Radiolaria are the most useful because they occur throughout the Phanerozoic record and in various lithologies from argillaceous to siliceous and calcareous. Ocean plate stratigraphy commonly is composed of an upward tectonic succession of pillow basalt, limestone, chert, siliceous shale, and detrital turbidite (Fig. 4). Late Paleozoic basalt of a Jurassic accretionary complex in Japan was considered as normal mid-ocean-ridge basalt (N-MORB; Sano and Tazaki, 1989; Sano et al., 2000) or enriched (E) MORB (Jones et al., 1993). Recently, Ichiyama and Ishiwatari (2005) and Ichiyama et al. (2006, 2008) indicated that the basalt has high- basalt (HIMU)like and oceanic plateaulike geochemical signatures. On the other hand, Triassic to Jurassic basalts in Jurassic accretionary complexes in Japan are alkali basalts of oceanic island basalt (OIB) type (Hattori and Yoshimura, 1982; Wakita, 1984). The age range of chert within an ocean plate stratigraphy sequence documents the age, duration, and history of the ocean oor from ridge to the trench (Osozawa, 1994; Xenophontos and Osozawa, 2004). Volcanic islands, created near shallow oceanic ridges just after the oceanic plate was born, may be covered by reef limestone following subsidence below sea level as the plate spreads away from the ridge; this produces basalts overlain by reef limestones in the lower part of the succession (Sano and Kanmera, 1988). Siliceous mud overlying radiolarian cherts is deposited in the hemipelagic region just before the oceanic plate arrives at the trench. The oceanic plate, covered by radiolarian chert and siliceous mud, is then covered by trench-ll clastic sediments on its arrival in the trench. However, the complete oceanic crustal section is rarely preserved in accretionary wedges, and thus in accretionary orogens, because the ultramac rocks, gabbros, sheeted dikes, and most of the basalts are typically subducted, and only the upper basalts and the sediments are accreted (Kimura and Ludden, 1995). Moreover, the upper parts of the ocean plate stratigraphy are often scraped off at the toe of the accretionary wedge and stacked tectonically into the accretionary wedge; thus, the lower parts of the ocean plate stratigraphy are accreted into the accretionary wedge.

Also, when seamounts arrive at a subduction zone, their upper volcanic rocks and sediments are commonly scraped off along deep-seated dcollements. Many accretionary complexes in orogenic belts are composed of tectonically disrupted units of ocean plate stratigraphy, and their metamorphosed products. However, in many cases, relicts of small continental ribbons (typically 50 250 km in the case of the Sulu Ridge, the NW arm of Sulawesi, the Sula block, and the South Java block) are suspected and have been partly subducted, like in the Molucca Sea or Sumatra. Therefore, the ocean plate stratigraphy has to integrate small basins opened within the upper plate instead of a single subducted ocean.
Accretion and Disruption of Ocean Plate Stratigraphy

The accretionary complexes of Japan illustrate what happened during the long-lasting subduction-accretionary processes in the past. The rst evidence of accretion in Japan was at ca. 500 Ma (Isozaki et al., 2010). Accretionary complexes that developed in the Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous to Paleogene, and Neogene have a common structure that is younger oceanward and/or structurally downward. Detailed biostratigraphy and structural analyses have demonstrated that this structure was created by the tectonic stacking of ocean plate stratigraphy. Each packet of ocean plate stratigraphy consists of an upward lithologic sequence: pillow basalt, limestone, radiolarian chert, siliceous shale, and turbidite. The approximate thickness of each rock unit in the Jurassic accretionary complexes of Japan is 500 m for basalt, 500 m for limestone, 100 m for chert, 100 m for siliceous shale, and several hundreds of meters for turbidite. The age of the basal basalts and lowermost limestones and cherts indicates the approximate time of accretion at a mid-oceanic ridge, and the age of the uppermost clastic sediments (i.e., sandstone) indicates the time of arrival of the ocean plate stratigraphy in the trench and thus the age of accretion. The age ranges of accretion indicated by Japanese trench sediments are ca. 100 Ma (Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous) in Jurassic accretionary complexes, and ca. 70 Ma for Cretaceous accretionary complexes (Wakita, 1988). Radiolarian chert of the Jurassic accretionary complexes of Japan ranges in age from Middle Permian to Early Jurassic and indicates a long travel time of the oceanic plate in a pelagic environment of more than 100 m.y. (Wakita, 1988). Thus, the age span of the ocean plate stratigraphy provides critical evidence of the history and time span of the relevant

Figure 4. Formation of ocean plate stratigraphy (modied from Wakita, 2000a).

268

www.gsapubs.org | Volume 5 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

Tectonic processes from rifting to collision via subduction

| RESEARCH

ocean. The imbricated units of ocean plate stratigraphy form detached slices of oceanic crust in the trench, which are added to the base of a growing accretionary wedge, where they may be further dismembered by, for example, strike-slip transpressional deformation (Wakita, 1988, 2000a; engr and Natalin, 1996; Isozaki, 1997). The accreted sediments are normally detached along a dcollement that develops on rheologically weak, stratigraphic boundaries. Disruption and mixing occur rst along the dcollement and next along successively developed out-of-sequence thrusts. The sediments in the trench are saturated with cold water with an excess pore-uid pressure that reduces friction, with the result that they slide along thrusts on bedding planes, and in consequence are hardly recognizable in the eld. Mlanges form by several processes, such as debris ows on steep trench walls, in imbricated duplexes, and in sedimentary diapirs that interact with synsedimentary thrusts (Wakabayashi and Dilek, 2011). Similar accretionary complexes are widespread along the W/SW Pacic margins, e.g., the Philippines (Tsumanda, 1994; Zamoras and Matsuoka, 2001), and eastern Indonesia (Wakita et al., 1994a, 1994b, 1996, 1998; Wakita, 2000b). These complexes are more than 500 km long and 200 km wide, although they have been divided into several tectonic blocks by later tectonic events. Each ocean plate stratigraphic section of these complexes is several hundred meters in thickness, which is the same size as the Japanese example.
Structural Variations in Accretionary Wedges

Seamounts or crustal fragments, up to hundreds of kilometers long, may be subducted without changing the plate convergence, so creating a subduction jump (Cadet et al., 1985; Ranero et al., 1997), but they may cause a break in the evolution of the wedge. Sandbox analogs (Dominguez et al., 2000) have shown how a wedge becomes the backstop of a new wedge. In nature, this is illustrated by an unconformity sealing low-angle faults, a good example being on Nias Island in offshore Sumatra, where a Neogene wedge was deformed mostly prior to the late Miocene, meaning before the present-day accretionary wedge of the Sunda Trench (Pubellier et al., 1992), without any trace of the subducting asperity. Accretionary wedges do not remain in a steady state for long. They are easily destabilized by a variety of factors, such as material cohesion, subduction angle, velocity of the subduction, and basal friction. Commonly, the roughness (rugosity) of the downgoing plate is responsible for formation of unconformities and breaks in the development of the wedge. However, although a volcano can create a bulge in a wedge and a re-entrant of the trench, it stills goes into the subduction zone and does not create the unconformities and breaks (Ranero et al., 1997; Ranero and Reston, 1999). On the other hand, a major topographic morphostructure such as a crustal rift or a large intra-oceanic island arc may be responsible for moderate deformation in the accreting wedge, but such deformation is usually short-lived and lasts only for the duration of a subduction jump (Pubellier et al., 2003).
Tectonic Erosion

sediment accretion and tectonic erosion along the trenches of the circumPacic. However, in the western Pacic, the margins of the South China and Sunda plates underwent signicant extension in the Tertiary, resulting in the opening of deep rift basins oored with oceanic crust. The opening of these basins has extended the margin considerably toward the south and the southeast. Interestingly, it was the same subduction zone that later was responsible for closure of the basins and created margin shortening and mountain building. Recently, an event of nonaccretion without tectonic erosion was also reported in the Franciscan complex (Dumitru et al., 2010; Wakabayashi, 2011, 2012). In the Franciscan complex, Grove et al. (2008) explained the removal of a signicant (>100 km) width of the forearc region by subduction erosion. Yanai et al. (2010) estimated the amount of tectonic erosion of the forearc region of NE Japan as ~14 million km3, which is much more than the estimation of von Huene and Scholl (1991). On the other hand, nonaccretion without tectonic erosion was also proposed in the Franciscan complex based on the age gap between the initiation of subduction estimated by metamorphic rocks and the oldest accreted sediments (Dumitru et al., 2010; Wakabayashi, 2011, 2012). The accretion of sediments does not always lead to growth of the upper plate, because the basal part of that plate may be removed by tectonic erosion (von Huene and Lallemand, 1990; Lallemand et al., 2001; von Huene et al., 2004). The Japanese Islands were considered to have grown by continuous accretion along the Asian continental margin during the Phanerozoic. However, it is now known that whole arcs and accretionary complexes have been removed by tectonic erosion up to six times since 520 Ma (Isozaki et al., 2010; Suzuki et al., 2010). The most remarkable example of tectonic erosion is in NE Japan, where the Japan Trench cuts the trend of ancient geologic structures such as Jurassic accretionary complexes and Cretaceous volcanic fronts. Also, in Sumatra, the present-day volcanic arc lies anomalously on top of a former back-arc area (Lallemand et al., 2001), and on Sumba, EoceneOligocene volcanic occurrences were transferred northward onto the island of Flores in the late Miocene. Strike-slip truncation, proposed by Karig (1980) as an alternative to subduction erosion, has probably also occurred along many paleo-convergent margins. This is a possible mechanism to remove forearc and accretionary complexes in orogenic belts, particularly in orogens that include a history of ridge subduction. The collapse of the Philippine arc in Taiwan is a much debated example. Some ridge subduction events may have a California-style signature (Atwater, 1970), wherein subduction of the ridge results in a transition to a transform plate boundary, because the seaward side of the subducted ridge has a motion parallel/subparallel to the plate boundary. Shear partitioning along subduction zones has been widely documented, particularly in SE Asia (Fitch, 1972; Jarrard, 1986; McCaffrey, 1996). It is illustrated by transcurrent faults exceeding 1000 km, such as the Sumatra fault (2 cm/yr), the Sagaing fault in Myanmar (1.8 cm/yr), and the Philippine fault (3.8 cm/yr).
Ridge Subduction

Along a trench, an ocean plate subducts beneath a continental margin or an island arc (Karig and Sharman, 1975). Depending on geodynamic and rheological parameters (e.g., convergence velocity and obliquity, plate rugosity, subduction angle, etc.), oceanic plate subduction causes two major types of tectonic regime: accretion and erosion, which also depend on sediment supply, among other parameters (von Huene and Scholl, 1991). If sediment supply is sufcient and the ocean plate retreats oceanward, sediment accretion occurs in the trench. If sediment supply is poor and the continental margin shifts toward the continent, tectonic erosion may occur along the trench. Scholl and von Huene (2007) showed the distribution of

If ocean plate stratigraphy does record the transition of an ocean plate from a ridge to a trench, then sooner or later a mid-oceanic ridge will reach a trench and be subducted on one side of the ocean basin. Evidence of ridge subduction was rst discovered in Japan (e.g., Osozawa, 1992; Kiminami et al., 1994) from the decrease in age of offscraped oceanic crust toward the age of the ridge basalt, and its role in producing an orogeny was presented by Osozawa (1998). In Japan, biostratigraphic data indicate that ridge subduction has taken place every 100 m.y. during the past 450 m.y. The effect of putting a hot ridge under an accreted complex is to provide extra heat that helps to partially melt the lower crust, producing HT crustal melt granites, peralkaline granites, and sanukitoids (Maruyama,

LITHOSPHERE | Volume 5 | Number 3 | www.gsapubs.org

269

WAKITA ET AL.

1997). It also leads to sharp juxtaposition of low-grade against high-grade metamorphic rocks (Iwamori, 2000), such as in the Hidaka magmatic zone in Hokkaido (Maeda and Kagami, 1996), to emplacement of distinctive Alaska-type zoned mac-ultramac complexes, to suprasubduction ophiolites in ridge-affected forearcs (as opposed to back arcs), to progressively migrating igneous activity (Kinoshita, 1995), and to orogenic gold deposits that probably form above a slab window created by a subducting ridge (Sisson et al., 2003). This HT metamorphism occurred at 5650 Ma (Owada et al., 1991, 1997) and created a belt of HT metamorphic rocks that is 150 km long and 20 km wide in central Hokkaido. All these effects can be looked for in old ridge-affected accretionary orogens like the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Windley, 2007). However, ridge subduction is not the only process that can increase the temperature. The subduction of a crustal morphostructure associated with a simple subduction jump may either lead to slab breakoff (Nur and Ben-Avraham, 1982) or mantle delamination (Pubellier and Meresse, 2013).
High-Pressure Rocks

HP Emo metamorphic rocks, and overlies greenschist facies rocks (Lus et al., 2004). Although, the PNG ophiolite is one of the best examples of HT on HP rocks in the West Pacic, its mode of emplacement is much debated; derivation from the Pacic Ocean or from a Mesozoic back-arc basin (Monnier et al., 2000).
Early Subduction Jump and Arc-Continent Collision

Blueschists and eclogites provide evidence of subduction to HP depths in subduction zones and exhumation in extruded wedges or channels, and they are distinctive components of subduction-accretion complexes. The youngest western Pacic blueschists occur in the active Mariana forearc, having been brought up in serpentine mud volcanoes of Pleistocene age from a serpentinite seamount onto the ocean oor (Maekawa et al., 1993). Older blueschists in East Asia and the western Pacic occur in Sakhalin, Russia; Hokkaido, Kyushu, Honshu, and Shikoku in Japan; Taiwan; the Philippines; Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Timor, and Tanimbar in Indonesia; and New Caledonia (Maruyama et al., 1996). Blueschists were exhumed at 5.4 Ma (Berry and McDougall, 1986) following subduction of the Australian continent beneath the East Indonesian Islands (Kaneko et al., 2007), and the Cretaceous exhumation of blueschists and eclogites (113132 Ma) in Sulawesi, Indonesia, was caused by the buoyancy of microcontinents (Parkinson, 1998; Wakita, 2000b), or stacking of slices beneath a dcollement (Konstantinovskaya and Malavieille, 2011). The metamorphic belt in Timor is ~300 km long, while the Cretaceous metamorphic belt of central and southwest Sulawesi is ~800 km long. The Sanbagawa metamorphic belt in Japan is divisible into two, i.e., Sambagawa metamorphic belt of 110120 Ma, and Shimanto metamorphic belt of 6070 Ma (Aoki et al., 2008). Both belts extend for 800 km from Okinawa to the Kanto region. The Sanbagawa thrust sheet in Japan contains retrogressed eclogites in amphibolites, which were derived from a subducted oceanic plateau (Okamoto et al., 2004). When the extruded wedge reaches a high crustal level, it bends to become a subhorizontal tectonic sheet with a thrust on its lower boundary and an extensional fault on its upper boundary, as in the HP Sanbagawa belt (Okamoto et al., 2000). Apparent cross-sectional extrusion geometry, i.e., highestpressure rocks structurally interleaved between lower-pressure units, is recognized in many western Pacic and SE Asian HP belts, as documented by Maruyama et al. (1996), who also pointed out that similar structures with HP metamorphic rocks occur in various localities of the world (reafrmed by Agard et al., 2009). The HP rocks in SE Asia are mostly pre-Tertiary and are exposed over 5000 km2 in central Sulawesi, and they may be correlated with HP rocks in central Borneo and the north arm of Sulawesi (Parkinson et al., 2004), but the geodynamic framework of the emplacement of these rocks is unclear and predates the intense Neogene tectonics. The Mutis complex of Seram is only a few kilometers in size, but the larger Papua New Guinea (PNG) ophiolite, underlain by HT metamorphic rocks is tectonically in contact with the

Subduction jumps and reversals have been long described as a way to accrete slivers of crust or volcanic belts (several tens of kilometers by several hundreds of kilometers), and continue the subduction process, so that only the location of the megathrust actually changes. The time frame for the process of subduction blocking and shift of the megathrust is very short of the order of one to two million years as shown in the Philippines or Western Papua. The Sumba-Timor Islands (Fig. 5) illustrate the beginning of wedge shortening (Pubellier and Meresse, 2013). The northern margin of the Australian continent is being subducted beneath the Sunda arc. The Australian continent, being buoyant, moved upward after the subducted ocean plate was detached from the slab of the Australian continent. Following the arrival of the NW Australian continental margin at the trench, a collision zone developed and underwent a short period of intense shortening via thrusting, giving rise to an imbricated pile of sediments in a fold-and-thrust belt duplex on the Australian margin. The resulting accretionary wedge has incorporated fragments of the subduction backstop and back-thrusted sediments of the Australian shelf (e.g., Harris et al., 1998). In Sumba Island (Fleury et al., 2009), the shortening began only 1 m.y. ago, when a distal rifted block of the Australian margin entered the subduction zone. The consequence was doming of the forearc basin and an intense mass wasting at the receding side of the asperity. Taiwan is another example of arc-continent collision in East Asia (Huang et al., 2000; Lallemand et al., 2001). The collision occurred in Taiwan between the Eurasian continent and the Luzon volcanic arc a few millions years ago and is still active (Lin, 2002). Near Taiwan, the Philippine Sea plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian continent along the Ryukyu Trench, while the Eurasian plate is subducting beneath the Philippine Sea plate along the Manila Trench. Taiwan is an active orogenic belt where a preexisting accretionary complex was deformed and metamorphosed under HP conditions. Along the western margin of the Philippine arc, the South China Sea is being subducted beneath the arc, and the Palawan block is colliding with the Philippine arc (Zamoras et al., 2008; Yumul et al., 2003, 2009). The Palawan block is composed of Mesozoic accretionary complexes and a Cretaceous ophiolite. The collision has caused a volcanic arc gap in the Philippine arc and ophiolite emplacement in both the forearc and back arc (Yumul et al., 2009). The Palawan block, derived from the Asian continental margin, detached from mainland China during opening of the South China Sea. This is a collision zone between a volcanic arc and a detached continental margin, rather than a separate microcontinent. In Japan, many arc-continent collisions are well documented (Isozaki et al., 2010). The collision between the Chishima Arc and NE Japan occurred in Hokkaido in Miocene time when North Japan was the eastern margin of the Eurasian continent (Komatsu et al., 1994). Delamination split the Chishima arc into two parts. The upper part was thrusted over the Honshu arc, and high-grade and HT metamorphic rocks from the deep arc crust were exhumed to the surface in the Hidaka belt, which today has high topography created by the arc-arc collision. The Izu-Bonin arc collided into the Honshu arc and created the major curvature of the latter seen today (Ogawa et al., 1985; Arai et al., 2009). During the formation of the Philippine Sea plate, the Izu-Bonin arc and the Kyushu Palau Ridge split apart as a result of back-arc opening. First,

270

www.gsapubs.org | Volume 5 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

LITHOSPHERE | Volume 5 | Number 3 | www.gsapubs.org Tectonic processes from rifting to collision via subduction

Figure 5. Cross sections of the collision zone in SE Asia (modied from Pubellier and Meresse, 2012): (A) cross section between north Sulawesi and Sulu microcontinent, (B) cross section between South China Sea and north Kalimantan, and (C) cross section between the Sunda arc and the Australian continent. The buoyant continent/microcontinent pushed the collision zone upward after the breakoff of the oceanic plate. Note the subduction reversal that occurred just after the Australian margin entered the subduction zone in cross section C.

| RESEARCH

271

WAKITA ET AL.

the Izu-Bonin arc shifted from west to east, and then it collided with the Honshu arc, which was deformed by folding and thrusting. The collision zone was uplifted and eroded to supply sediments into the trench, which are a major component of the Holocene accretionary wedge of the Nankai Trough.
Subduction and Disappearance of Marginal Basins

Many marginal basins formed and are still open in Indonesia, but in the 50 m.y. history of Japan, there have been only a few marginal basins of minor importance (Maruyama, 1997). When an upper plate enters a compressional regime, shortening is best accommodated by subduction of a former back-arc basin. One of the best-documented back-arc basins is the Eocene Celebes Sea (Silver and Rangin, 1990), which was originally square shaped, although almost half of it has been subducted beneath its southern margin (Fig. 6). The northern arm of Sulawesi Island (Fig. 6) has rotated clockwise since ca. 8 Ma (Otofuji et al., 1981) and is still moving at a rate approaching 4.5 cm/yr along the Palu Koro fault (Walpersdorf et al., 1998). Accretionary wedges are well known for their current seismic activity, which usually involves subduction of the early deep-sea sediments from the former oceanic plate. As a continental margin enters the subduction zone, increasing amounts of proximal sediments and even continental shelf sediments are imbricated in the accretionary wedge. Finally, in the late stages of basin closure, crustal rocks may also be stacked into the wedge, thus exhuming metamorphosed basement rocks of the downgoing plate, and metamorphic sediments from the deep accretionary wedge. When highly metamorphosed, these sediments, which represent the cratonized rocks of orogenic wedges, may be difcult to distinguish from the old metasediments in the surrounding craton. In the continental Sunda plate, there is a record of complete closure of the protoSouth China Sea, which was a Late Cretaceous basin that had completely disappeared by mid-Miocene time; it is only represented today by a thick accretionary wedge that has been thrust over the opposite continental margin, part of which has been uplifted and currently con-

stitutes the Rajang-Crocker Mountains of Borneo (Bnard et al., 1990). Ophiolites derived from the disappeared marginal basin crop out north of Sabah in Malaysia and on Palawan Island in the Philippines. The relicts of the protoSouth China Sea do not contain any HP metamorphic rocks; if they formed, they must be still buried under the thick accretionary wedge. The Palawan (or Luconia) microcontinent collided with Sundaland during the formation of an accretionary complex along the northwestern margin of Borneo. The opening of the protoSouth China Sea caused the subduction zone along the western margin of Borneo and the Philippines to create the accretionary wedge of the Rajang-Crocker Mountains. At the same time, the Luconia microcontinent collided with Borneo (Hutchison, 2010; Metcalfe, 2010). The microcontinents of Indonesia may have separated by back-arc opening from the Eurasia/Sunda plate, or they may have been detached from Gondwana prior to collision along the convergent margin of Sundaland. If an exotic or rifted microcontinent is forced down a subduction zone, subsequent exhumation in an extrusion channel may expose ultrahigh-pressure to HP metamorphic rocks of continental origin (Wakita, 2000b). The HP rocks are typically peraluminous in composition and may include conglomerates. A classical example of such HP rocks is in central Sulawesi. The East Sulawesi block docked against the Sunda margin in the early Miocene, and this created ophiolite obduction and HP metamorphism (Parkinson, 1998).
Lateral Displacement of Accretionary Complexes

Lateral displacements on strike-slip faults are famous in the accretionary terranes in the North American Cordillera, where the translation of slivers within the upper plate along the active margin has been documented since Fitch (1972) and Jarrard (1986). In Indonesia, the best known examples are the Sumatra fault (McCaffrey, 1996) and the Philippine fault (Aurelio et al., 1991), which are associated with strain partitioning. In Japan, major lateral displacements took place in late Mesozoic time, along the Median tectonic line and the Tan-Lu fault. These trenchparallel displacements, which were of the order of several centimeters per year (e.g., the Philippine fault with 3.8 cm/yr), may create difculties when trying to unravel past accretion and tectonic erosion.
CENTRAL ASIAN OROGENIC BELT

Figure 6. Tectonic setting of Sundaland and the Celebes region (modied from Pubellier, 2008).

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt was as wide as it was long, lasted for some 750 m.y., and evolved from the closure of the paleoAsian Ocean (Mossakovsky et al., 1993; Jahn, 2004; Krner et al., 2007; Wilhem et al., 2012). The framework of this huge accretionary orogen has been worked out in terms of its interpreted plate-tectonic components, such as island and Andean-type arcs, ophiolites, subduction-accretion complexes, passive margins, seamounts, oceanic islands, and microcontinents (e.g., engr et al., 1993; Badarch et al., 2002; Buslov et al., 2004; Windley, 2007; Wilhem et al., 2012). Specic features of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, which have been widely reported, are: HP blueschists and eclogites (e.g., Volkova and Sklyarov, 2007; Hegner et al., 2010; tpsk et al., 2010; Qu et al., 2011), arc-continent collisions (e.g., Xiao et al., 2004, 2010), granitic magmatism and its sources (e.g., Jahn, 2004; Krner et al., 2007), ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism (e.g., Jiang et al., 2010), sedimentary basins in different tectonic settings (e.g., Carroll et al., 1995), strike-slip displacements of accretionary belts (e.g., engr and Natalin, 1996), and mineralization (e.g., Xiao et al., 2009; Wan et al., 2011). The tectonic evolution of the CAOB has been constrained against paleomagnetically determined paleo-geography of the western Pacic through the Paleozoic (Cocks and Torsvik, 2012).

272

www.gsapubs.org | Volume 5 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

Tectonic processes from rifting to collision via subduction

| RESEARCH

There has been little or no discussion on subjects such as: sediment accretion versus tectonic erosion, structural variations in different accretionary wedges, subduction of marginal basins, or subduction jumps or ips; such debates will inevitably arise when more is known about this vast accretionary orogen. Although island arcs and microcontinents are common and typical of the many terranes in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, we concentrate here on evidence for ocean plate stratigraphy and ridge subduction as two of the components most relevant for this review.
Ocean Plate Stratigraphy

Ridge Subduction

Recognition of ocean plate stratigraphy has had a profound inuence on plate-tectonic interpretations and evolution of large parts of Central Asia. Although engr et al. (1993) and Zorin (1999) well interpreted the Khangai-Khentey region of central Mongolia as containing a prominent accretionary wedge (but provided no eld data to support the idea), different interpretations were made by Gordienko (2006; a back-arc basin), Ruzhentsev and Mossakovsky (1996; a postorogenic successor basin on top of crystalline basement), and Badarch et al. (2002; coherent turbidites overlying cratonic basement). However, detailed eld studies by Kurihara et al. (2009) revealed that extensive regions south of the capital Ulaanbaatar are occupied by repeated, imbricated ocean plate stratigraphy, which means that these sediments cannot be underlain by continental basement. Specically, the Gorki Formation extends for more than 200 km along strike and has a present tectonic-stacking thickness of >20 km; the original stratigraphy is only retained in thin fault-bound slices several tens of meters thick. OIB-type basaltic lavas several meters thick and hyaloclastites and mac tuffs ~20 m thick are overlain successively by Devonian radiolarian red cherts up to 30 m thick, siliceous shales (up to 20 m), sandstone-shale turbidites (up to 20 m), and massive sandstones (up to 15 m). Kuzmichev et al. (2007) suggested that the Oka belt of southern Siberia and northern Mongolia contains similar lithological components of ocean plate stratigraphy as the Japanese Shimanto belt. A major contribution was made by Safonova (2009), who demonstrated that in the Gorny Altai and Altai-Sayan regions of Siberia and the Dzhida region of Mongolia, OIB-type alkali basalts that originally formed in oceanic islands, seamounts, and plateaus occur at the base of all ocean plate stratigraphy units. They are variably overlain by bedded and massive limestones (carbonate reef caps), and other ocean plate stratigraphy sediments such as siliceous and calcareous mudstones, micritic limestones, lime-volcaniclastics (hemipelagic slope facies), bedded/ ribbon/radiolarian cherts (pelagic facies), and terrigenous-clastic trench sediments. Individual units of ocean plate stratigraphy in different areas of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt range in age from Late Neoproterozoic to Early Silurian, but there are insufcient data to determine the age ranges of individual slices or imbricates. Safonova (2009) noted that the NeoproterozoicPaleozoic ocean plate stratigraphy units of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt are remarkably similar to equivalent Mesozoic ocean plate stratigraphy units in Japan. So far, no detailed studies have been made to assess the relative roles of nonaccretion versus subduction erosion in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. Clearly, substantial evidence has recently accrued on the considerable importance of subduction erosion in formation of accretionary complexes in the western Pacic, such as the Japanese Islands (e.g., Isozaki et al., 2010, 2011), and such an approach will in the future contribute to a better understanding of the rather more-complicated and far-less-studied huge Central Asian Orogenic Belt. It is suspected that detailed analysis of ocean plate stratigraphy will help to revolutionize understanding of the geology and tectonic evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt.

If subduction-accretion has been a major factor in controlling the growth of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, then the subduction of one or more mid-oceanic ridges is likely to have taken place (Sisson et al., 2003), especially in such a wide and long-lived accretionary orogen. In addition, subduction-accretion of small-scale crustal blocks may not leave much trace of deformation if subduction jump has taken place (Pubellier and Meresse, 2013). In the past few years, evidence has accrued for such ridge subduction, in particular from the associated diagnostic magmatism and metamorphism. Western Junggar in Xinjiang, China, is the most outstanding region where the effects of ridge subduction have been documented. From geochemical and isotopic evidence from different areas, Geng et al. (2009), Tang et al. (2010), and Zhang et al. (2011) suggested that coeval, high-Mg diorites, Nb-enriched basalts, adakites, and alkali-feldspar granites were most likely produced by an enhanced heat ux and asthenospheric upwelling through a slab window created by ridge subduction at ca. 305 Ma. Ma et al. (2012) reported from Western Junggar a swarm of high-Mg diorite dikes, comparable in composition to sanukitoids. To account for the high temperature required to generate such a HT magma, the authors proposed that asthenosphere upwelled through a slab window created by interaction with a ridge of a subducted slab in the Pennsylvanian, and the swarm of hot-magma diorite dikes was intruded through the slab window.
SUMMARY

The processes of plate accretion, subduction, tectonic erosion, arc collision, and microcontinent collision take place from the birth of an ocean to its closure and formation of a suture zone. The cycle has run to completion in Central Asia but is ongoing in the Pacic.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The tectonic processes documented in this paper result from the work of many earth scientists. We thank Wenjiao Xiao, John Wakabayashi, Robert Hall, and Bor-ming Jahn for the invitation to write this paper, and the reviewers for their comments on the manuscript.

REFERENCES CITED
Agard, P ., Yamato, P ., Jolivet, L., and Burov, E., 2009, Exhumation of oceanic blueschists and eclogites in subduction zones: Timing and mechanisms: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 92, p. 5379, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.11.002. Aoki, K., Itaya, T., Shibuya, T., Masago, H., Kon, Y., Terabayashi, M., Kaneko, Y., Kawai, T., and Maruyama, S., 2008, The youngest blueschist belt in SW Japan: Implication for the exhumation of the Cretaceous Sanbagawa high-P/T metamorphic belt: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 26, p. 583602, doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.2008.00777.x. Arai, R., Iwasaki, T., Sato, H., Abe, S., and Hirata, H., 2009, Collision and subduction structure of the Izu-Bonin arc, central Japan, revealed by refraction/wide-angle reection analysis: Tectonophysics, v. 475, p. 438453, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.05.023. Atwater, T., 1970, Implications of plate tectonics for the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of western North America: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, no. 12, p. 35133536, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1970)81[3513:IOPTFT]2.0.CO;2. Aurelio, M.A., Barrier, E., Rangin, C., and Mueller, C., 1991, The Philippine fault in the late Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the BondocMasbateN. Leyte area, central Philippines: Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, v. 6, p. 221238, doi:10.1016/0743-9547(91)90069-A. Badarch, G., Cunningham, W.D., and Windley, B.F ., 2002, A new terrane subdivision for Mongolia: Implications for the Phanerozoic crustal growth of Central Asia: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 21, p. 87110, doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00017-2. Bnard, F ., Muller, C., Letouzey, J., Rangin, C., and Tahir, S., 1990, Evidence of multiphase deformation in the Rajang-Crocker Range (northern Borneo) from Landsat imagery interpretation; Geodynamic implications: Tectonophysics, v. 183, p. 321339, doi:10.1016/00401951(90)90424-7. Berry, R.F ., and McDougal, I.A., 1986, 40Ar/39Ar and K/Ar dating evidence from the Aileu Formation, East Timor, Indonesia: Chemical Geology, v. 59, p. 4358, doi:10.1016/0168-9622(86) 90056-4. Buslov, M.M., Fujihara, Y., Iwata, K., and Semakov, N.N., 2004, Late Paleozoicearly Mesozoic geodynamics of Central Asia: Gondwana Research, v. 7, p. 791808, doi:10.1016/S1342937X(05)71064-9. Cadet, J. P ., Kobayashi, K., Aubouin, J., Boulegue, J., Dubois, J., Von Huene, R., Jolivet, L, Kanazawa, T., Kasahara, J., Koizumi, K., Lallemand, S., Nakamura, Y., Pautot, G., Suyehiro,

LITHOSPHERE | Volume 5 | Number 3 | www.gsapubs.org

273

WAKITA ET AL.

K., Tani, S., Tokuyama, H., and Yamazaki, T., 1985, De la fosse du Japon la fosse des Kouriles; premiers resultats de la campagne ocanographique franco-japonaise Kaiko (Leg III): Comptes Rendus de lAcadmie des Sciences, Srie 2, Mcanique, Physique, Chimie, Sciences de lUnivers: Sciences de la Terre, v. 301, p. 287296. Carroll, A.R., Graham, S.A., Hendrix, M.S., Ying, D., and Zhou, D., 1995, Late Paleozoic tectonic amalgamation of northwestern China: Sedimentary record of the northern Tarim, northwestern Turpan and southern Junggar basins: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 107, p. 571594, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1995)107<0571:LPTAON>2.3.CO;2. Cocks, L.R.M., and Torsvik, T.H., 2012, The dynamic evolution of the Palaeozoic geography of eastern Asia: Earth Science Reviews, v. 117, p. 4079, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.12.001. Dominguez, S., Malavieille, J., and Lallemand, S.E., 2000, Deformation of accretionary wedges in response to seamount subduction; Insights from sandbox experiments: Tectonics, v. 19, p. 182196, doi:10.1029/1999TC900055. Dumitru, T.A., Wakabayashi, J., Wright, J.E., and Wooden, J.L., 2010, Early Cretaceous (ca. 123 Ma) transition from nonaccretionary behavior to strongly accretionary behavior within the Franciscan subduction complex: Tectonics, v. 29, TC5001, doi:10.1029/2009TC002542. Fitch, T.J., 1972, Late convergence, transcurrent faults, and internal deformation adjacent to Southeast Asia and the western Pacic: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 77, p. 4432 4460, doi:10.1029/JB077i023p04432. Fleury, J.M., Pubellier, M., and de Urreiztieta, M., 2009, Structural expression of fore-arc crust uplift due to subduction asperity: Lithos, v. 113, p. 318330, doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2009 .07.007. Geng, H.Y., Sun, M., Yuan, C., Xiao, W.J., Xian, W.S., Zhao, G.C., Zhang, L.F ., Wong, K., and Wu, F .Y., 2009, Geochemical, Sr-Nd and zircon U-Pb-Hf isotopic studies of late Carboniferous magmatism in West Junggar, Xinjiang: Implications for ridge subduction?: Chemical Geology, v. 266, p. 364389, doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.07.001. Gordienko, I.V., 2006, Geodynamic evolution of Late Baikalides and Paleozoids in the folded periphery of the Siberian craton: Russian Geology and Geophysics, v. 47, p. 5370. Grove, M., Gehrels, G.E., Cotkin, S.J., Wright, J.E., and Zou, H., 2008, Non-Laurentian cratonal provenance of Late Ordovician eastern Klamath blueschist and a link to the Alexander terrane, in Wright, J.E., and Shervais, J.W., eds., Ophiolites, Arcs, and Batholiths: A Tribute to Cliff Hopson: Geological Society of America Special Paper 438, p. 223250. Hall, R., 2002, Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacic: Computer based reconstructions, model and animations: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 20, no. 4, p. 353431. Hall, R., 2010, AustraliaSE Asia collision: Plate tectonic and crustal ow, in Hall, R., Cottam, M.A., and Wilson, M.E.J., eds., The SE Asian Gateway: History and Tectonics of the Australia-Asia Collision: Geological Society of London Special Publication 355, p. 75109. Hara, H., Kurihara, T., Kuroda, J., Adachi, Y., Kurita, H., Wakita, K., Hisada, K., Charusiri, P ., Charoentitirat, T., and Chaodumrong, P ., 2010, Geological and geochemical aspects of a Devonian siliceous succession in northern Thailand: Implications for the opening of the Paleo-Tethys: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 297, p. 452464, doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.08.029. Harris, P .T., Taylor, F ., Pushina, Z., Leitchenkov, G., OBrien, P .E., and Smirnov, V., 1998, Lithofacies distribution in relation to the geomorphic provinces of Prydz Bay, East Antarctica: Antarctic Science, v. 10, no. 3, p. 227235, doi:10.1017/S0954102098000327. Hattori, I., and Yoshimura, M., 1982, Lithofacies distribution and radiolarian fossils in the Nanjo area in Fukui Prefecture, central Japan, in Nakaseko, K., ed., Proceedings of the 1st Radiolarian Symposium: News of Osaka Mircopaleontologists Special Volume 5, p. 103116 (in Japanese with English abstract). Hegner, E., Klemd, R., Krner, A., Corsini, M., Alexeiev, D.V., Iaccheri, L.M., Zack, T., Dulski, P ., Xia, X., and Windley, B.F ., 2010, Mineral ages and P-T conditions of late Paleozoic high-pressure eclogite and provenance of mlange sediments from Atbashi in the South Tianshan orogen of Kyrgyzstan: American Journal of Science, v. 310, p. 916950, doi:10.2475/09.2010.07. Huang, C.-Y., Yuan, P .B., Lin, C.-W., Wang, T.K., and Chang, C.-P ., 2000, Geodynamic processes of Taiwan arc-continent collision and comparison with analogues in Timor, Papua New Guinea, Urals and Corsica: Tectonophysics, v. 325, p. 121, doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(00) 00128-1. Hutchison, C.S., 2010, Oroclines and paleomagnetism in Borneo and Southeast Asia: Tectonophysics, v. 496, p. 5367, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2010.10.008. Ichiyama, Y., and Ishiwatari, A., 2005, HFSE-rich picritic rocks from the Mino accretionary complex, southwest Japan: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 149, p. 373387, doi:10.1007/s00410-005-0659-6. Ichiyama, Y., Ishiwatari, A., Hirahara, Y., and Shuto, K., 2006, Geochemical and isotopic constraints on the genesis of the Permian ferropicritic rocks from the Mino-Tamba belt, SW Japan: Lithos, v. 89, p. 4765, doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2005.09.006. Ichiyama, Y., Ishiwatari, A., and Koizumi, K., 2008, Petrogenesis of greenstones from the MinoTamba belt, SW Japan: Evidence for an accreted Permian oceanic plateau: Lithos, v. 100, p. 127146, doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2007.06.014. Isozaki, Y., 1997, Jurassic accretion tectonics of Japan: The Island Arc, v. 5, p. 289320. Isozaki, Y., Aoki, K., Nakama, T., and Yanai. S., 2010, New insight into a subduction-related orogen: A reappraisal of the geotectonic framework and evolution of the Japanese Islands: Gondwana Research, v. 18, p. 82105, doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.02.015. Isozaki, Y., Maruyama, S., Nakama, T., Yamamoto, S., and Yanai, S., 2011, Growth and shrinkage of an active continental margin: Updated geotectonic history of the Japanese Islands: The Journal of Geography, v. 120, p. 6599, doi:10.5026/jgeography.120.65. Iwamori, H., 2000, Thermal effects of ridge subduction and its implications for the origin of granitic batholiths and paired metamorphic belts: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 181, p. 131144, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00182-5. Jahn, B.-M., 2004, The Central Asian orogenic belt and growth of the continental crust in the Phanerozoic, in Malpas, J., Fletcher, C.J.N., Ali, J.R., and Aitchison, J.C., eds., Aspects of

the Tectonic Evolution of China: Geological Society of London Special Publication 226, p. 73100, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP .2004.226.01.05. Jarrard, R.D., 1986, Terrane motion by strike-slip faulting of forearc slivers: Geology, v. 14, p. 780783, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<780:TMBSFO>2.0.CO;2. Jiang, Y., Sun, M., Zhao, G., Yuan, C., Xiao, W.J., Xia, X., Long, X., and Wu, F ., 2010, The ~390 Ma high-T metamorphic event in the Chinese Altai: A consequence of ridge-subduction?: American Journal of Science, v. 310, p. 14211452, doi:10.2475/10.2010.08. Jones, G., Valsami-Jones, E., and Sano, H., 1993, Nature and tectonic setting of accreted basalts from the Mino terrane, central Japan: Journal of the Geological Society of London, v. 150, p. 11671181, doi:10.1144/gsjgs.150.6.1167. Kaneko, Y., Maruyama, S., Kadarusman, A., Ota, T., Ishikawa, M., Tsujimori, T., Ishikawa, A., and Okamoto, K., 2007, On-going orogeny in the outer-arc of the Timor-Tanimbar region, eastern Indonesia: Gondwana Research, v. 11, p. 218233, doi:10.1016/j.gr.2006.04.013. Karig, D.E., 1980, Material transport within accretionary prisms and the knocker problem: The Journal of Geology, v. 88, p. 2739, doi:10.1086/628471. Karig, D.E., and Sharman, G.F ., III, 1975, Subduction and accretion in trenches: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 86, p. 377389, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<377:SAAIT >2.0.CO;2. Kiminami, K., Miyashita, S., and Kawabata, K., 1994, Ridge collision and in-situ greenstones in accretionary complexes: An example from the Late Cretaceous Ryukyu Islands and southwest Japan margin: The Island Arc, v. 3, p. 103111, doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.1994.tb00098.x. Kimura, G., and Ludden, J., 1995, Peeling oceanic crust in subduction zones: Geology, v. 23, p. 217220, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0217:POCISZ>2.3.CO;2. Kinoshita, O., 1995, Migration of igneous activities related to ridge subduction in southwest Japan and the East Asian continental margin from the Mesozoic to the Paleogene: Tectonophysics, v. 245, p. 2535, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(94)00211-Q. Komatsu, M., Toyoshima, T., Osanai, Y., and Arai, S., 1994, Prograde and anatectic reactions in the deep arc crust exposed in the Hidaka metamorphic belt, Hokkaido, Japan: Lithos, v. 33, p. 3149, doi:10.1016/0024-4937(94)90052-3. Konstantinovskaya, E., and Malavieille, J., 2011, Thrust wedges with dcollement levels and syntectonic erosion: A view from analogue models: Tectonophysics, v. 502, no. 34, p. 336350, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.01.020. Krner, A., Windley, B.G., Badarch, G., Tomurtogoo, O., Hegner, E., Jahn, B.M., Gruschka, S., Khain, E.V., Demoux, A., and Wingate, M.T.D., 2007, Accretionary growth and crust formation in the Central Asian orogenic belt and comparison with the Arabian-Nubian shield, in Hatcher, R.D., Jr., Carlson, M.P ., McBride, J.H., and Martnez Cataln, J.R., eds., 4-D Framework of Continental Crust: Geological Society of America Memoir 200, p. 181209, doi:10.1130/2007.1200(11). Kurihara, T., Tsukada, K., Otoh, S., Kashiwagi, K., Chuluun, M., Byambadash, D., Boijir, B., Gonchigdorj, S., Nuramkhan, M., Niwa, M., Tokiwa, T., Hikichi, G., and Kozuka, T., 2009, Upper Silurian and Devonian pelagic deep-water radiolarian chert from the Khangai-Khentei belt of Central Mongolia: Evidence for middle Paleozoic subduction-accretion activity in the Central Asian orogenic belt: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 34, p. 209225, doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2008.04.010. Kuzmichev, A., Sklyarov, E., Postnikov, A., and Bibikova, E., 2007, The Oka belt (southern Siberia and northern Mongolia): A Neoproterozoic analog of the Japanese Shimanto belt?: The Island Arc, v. 16, p. 224242. Lallemand, S., Liu, C.S., Angeller, J., and Tsai, Y.B., 2001, Active subduction and collision in Southeast Asia: Tectonophysics, v. 333, p. 17, doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00263-8. Lin, C.-H., 2002, Active continental subduction and crustal exhumation: The Taiwan orogeny: Terra Nova, v. 14, p. 281287, doi:10.1046/j.1365-3121.2002.00421.x. Lus, W.Y., McDougall, I., and Davies, H.L., 2004, Age of the metamorphic sole of Papuan ultramac belt ophiolite, Papua New Guinea: Tectonophysics, v. 392, p. 85101, doi:10.1016/j. tecto.2004.04.009. Ma, C., Xiao, W.J., Windley, B.F ., Zhao, G.P ., Han, C.M., Zhang, J., Luo, J., and Li, C., 2012, Tracing a subducted ridge-transform system in a late Carboniferous accretionary prism of the southern Altaids: Orthogonal sanukitoid dyke swarms in Western Junggar, NW China: Lithos, v. 140141, p. 152165, doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2012.02.005. Maeda, J., and Kagami, H., 1996, Interaction of a spreading ridge and an accretionary prism: Implications from MORB magmatism in the Hidaka magmatic zone, Hokkaido, Japan: Geology, v. 24, p. 3134, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0031:IOA. Maekawa, H., Shozui, M., Ishii, T., Fryer, P ., and Pearce, J.A., 1993, Blueschist metamorphism in an active subduction zone: Nature, v. 364, p. 520523, doi:10.1038/364520a0. Maruyama, S., 1997, Pacic-type orogeny revised: Miyashiro-type orogeny proposed: The Island Arc, v. 6, p. 91120, doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.1997.tb00042.x. Maruyama, S., Liou, J.G., and Terabayashi, M., 1996, Blueschists and eclogites of the world and their exhumation: International Geology Review, v. 38, p. 485594, doi:10.1080 /00206819709465347. Matsuda,T., and Isozaki,Y., 1991, Well documented travel history of Mesozoic pelagic chert in Japan: From remote ocean to subduction zone:Tectonics, v. 10, p. 475499, doi:10.1029/90TC02134. McCaffrey, R., 1996, Slip partition at convergent plate boundaries of SE Asia, in Hall, R.E., and Blundell, D., eds., Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia: Geological Society of London Special Publication 106, p. 318, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP .1996.106.01.02. Metcalfe, I., 2010, Paleozoic-Mesozoic history of SE Asia, in Hall, R., Cottam, M.A., and Wilson, M.E.J., eds., The SE Asian Gateway: History and Tectonics of the Australia-Asia Collision: Geological Society of London Special Publication 355, p. 735. Monnier, C., Girardeau, J., Pubellier, M., and Permana, H., 2000, Lophiolite de la Chane Centrale dIrian Jaya (Indonsie): Evidences ptrologiques et gochimiques pour une origine dans un bassin arrire arc: Comptes Rendus de lAcadmie des Sciences Paris, v. 331, p. 691699. Mossakovsky, A.A., Ruzhentsev, S.V., Samygin, S.G., and Kheraskova, T.N., 1993, Central Asian fold belt: Geodynamic evolution and history of formation: Geotectonics, v. 6, p. 333.

274

www.gsapubs.org | Volume 5 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE

Tectonic processes from rifting to collision via subduction

| RESEARCH

Nur, A., and Ben-Avraham, Z., 1982, Oceanic plateaus, the fragmentation of continents, and mountain building: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 87, no. B5, p. 36443661, doi:10.1029 /JB087iB05p03644. Ogawa, Y., Horiuchi, K., Taniguchi, H., and Naka, J., 1985, Collision of the Izu arc with Honshu and the effects of oblique subduction in the Miura-Boso Peninsulas: Tectonophysics, v. 119, p. 349379, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(85)90046-0. Okamoto, K., Maruyama, S., and Isozaki, Y., 2000, Accretionary complex origin of the Sanbagawa high P/T metamorphic rocks, central Shikoku, JapanLayer-parallel shortening structure and greenstone chemistry: Journal of the Geological Society of Japan, v. 106, p. 7086, doi:10.5575/geosoc.106.70. Okamoto, K., Shinjoe, H., Katayama, I., Terada, K., Sano, Y., and Johnson, S., 2004, SHRIMP U-Pb zircon dating of quartz-bearing eclogite from the Sanbagawa belt, south-west Japan: Implications for metamorphic evolution of the subducted protolith: Terra Nova, v. 16, p. 8189, doi:10.1111/j.1365-3121.2004.00531.x. Osozawa, S., 1992, Double ridge subduction recorded in the Shimanto accretionary complexes, Japan, and plate reconstruction: Geology, v. 20, p. 939942, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1992) 020<0939:DRSRIT>2.3.CO;2. Osozawa, S., 1994, Plate reconstruction based upon age data of Japanese accretionary complexes: Geology, v. 22, p. 11351138, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<1135:PRBUAD> 2.3.CO;2. Osozawa, S., 1998, Ridge subduction-induced orogeny: A case study of the Cretaceous to Paleogene in southwest Japan, in Flower, E.J., et al., eds., Mantle Dynamics and Plate Interactions in East Asia: American Geophysical Union Geodynamic Monograph 27 , p. 331336. Otofuji, Y., Sasajima, S., Nishimura, S., Dharma, A., and Hehuwat, F ., 1981, Paleomagnetic evidence for clockwise rotation of the northern arm of Sulawesi, Indonesia: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 54, p. 272280, doi:10.1016/0012-821X(81)90010-8. Owada, M., Osanai, Y., and Kagami, H., 1991, Timing of anatexis in the Hidaka metamorphic belt, Hokkaido, Japan: Journal of the Geological Society of Japan, v. 97, p. 751754, doi:10.5575/geosoc.97.751. Owada, M., Osanai, Y., and Kagami, H., 1997, Rb-Sr isochron age for hornblende tonalite from the southeastern part of the Hidaka metamorphic belt, Hokkaido, Japan: Memoir of the Geological Society of Japan, v. 47, p. 2127. Parkinson, C., 1998, Emplacement of the East Sulawesi ophiolite; evidence from subophiolite metamorphic rocks: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 16, p. 1328, doi:10.1016/S0743 -9547(97)00039-1. Parkinson, C., Miyazaki, K., Wakita, K., Barber, A.J., and Carswell, D.A., 2004, An overview and tectonic synthesis of the pre-Tertiary very-high-pressure metamorphic and associated rocks of Java, Sulawesi and Kalimantan, Indonesia: The Island Arc, v. 7, p. 184200. Pubellier, M., 2008, Structural Map of Eastern Eurasia: Paris, Commission for the Geological Map of the World, scale 1:12,000,000. Pubellier, M., and Meresse, F ., 2012, Phanerozoic growth of Asia: Geodynamic processes and evolution: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (in press), doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.06.013. Pubellier, M., Rangin, C., Cadet, J.P ., and Tjashuri, I., 1992, L le de Nias, un dice polyphas sur la bordure interne de la fosse de la Sonde (Archipel des Mentawai Indonsie): Compte Rendu de lAcadmie des Sciences, v. 315, part II, p. 10191026. Pubellier, M., Ego, F ., Chamot-Rooke, N., and Rangin, C., 2003,The building of pericratonic mountain ranges: Structural and kinematic constraints applied to GIS-based reconstructions of SE Asia: Bulletin of Geological Society of France, v. 174, p. 561584, doi:10.2113/174.6.561. Pubellier, M., Monnier, C., Maury, R., Tamayo, R., 2004, Plate kinematics and the origin and tectonic emplacement of supra-subduction ophiolites in the SE Asian region, in Dilek, Y., ed., Ophiolite and Continental Margins of the Pacic Rim and the Caribbean Region: Tectonophysics, Special Issue, v. 392, p. 936. Pubellier, M., Rangin, C., Le Pichon, X., Ego, F ., Hai, T., Ngoc, N., Nielsen, C., Rabaute, A., Pagot, P ., Sun, D., and Tsang, H., 2005, Deep Offshore Tectonics of South East Asia: A Synthesis of Deep Marine Data in Southeast Asia: Nouvelle Srie, Memoires de la Socit Gologique de France 176, 32 p. and CD-ROM. Qu, J.F ., Xiao, W.J., Windley, B.F ., Han, C.M., Mao, Q.G., Ao, S.J., and Zhang, J.E., 2011, Ordovician eclogites from the Chinese Beishan: Implications for the tectonic evolution of the southern Altaids: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 29, p. 803820, doi:10.1111/j.15251314.2011.00942.x. Ranero, C.R., and Reston, T.J., 1999, Detachment faulting at ocean core complexes: Geology, v. 27, p. 983986, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0983:DFAOCC>2.3.CO;2. Ranero, C.R., Banda, E., and Buhl, P ., 1997, The crustal structure of the Canary Basin: Accretion processes at slow spreading centers: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 102, p. 10,185 10,201, doi:10.1029/97JB00101. Ruzhentsev, S.V., and Mossakovsky, A.A., 1996, Geodynamics and tectonic evolution of the Central Asian Paleozoic structures as the result of the interaction between the Pacic and Indo-Atlantic segments of the Earth: Geotectonics, v. 29, p. 294311. Safonova, I.Y., 2009, Intraplate magmatism and oceanic plate stratigraphy of the paleoAsian and paleoPacic Oceans from 600 to 140 Ma: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 35, p. 137154, doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2008.09.002. Sano, H., and Kanmera, K., 1988, Paleogeographic reconstruction of accreted oceanic rocks, Akiyoshi, southwest Japan: Geology, v. 16, p. 600602, doi:10.1130/00917613(1988)016<0600:PROAOR>2.3.CO;2. Sano, H., and Tazaki, K., 1989, Greenstones in the Tamba belt: Memoir of Geological Society of Japan, v. 33, p. 5367. Sano, H., Hayasaka, Y., and Tazaki, K., 2000, Geochemical characteristics of Carboniferous greenstones in the inner zone of southwest Japan: The Island Arc, v. 9, p. 8196, doi:10.1046/j.1440-1738.2000.00263.x. Scholl, D.W., and von Huene, R., 2007, Crustal recycling at modern subduction zone applied to the pastIssues of growth and preservation of continental basement, mantle geochemistry, and supercontinent reconstruction, in Hatcher, R.D., Jr., Carlson, M.P ., McBride,

J.H., and Martnez Cataln, J.R., eds., 4-D Framework of Continental Crust: Geological Society of America Memoir 200, p. 932, doi:10.1130/2007.1200(02). S engr, A.M.C., 1987,Tectonics of theTethysides: Orogenic collage development in a collisional setting: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 15, p. 213244, doi:10.1146 /annurev.ea.15.050187.001241. S engr, A.M.C., and Natalin, B.A., 1996, Paleotectonics of Asia: Fragments of a synthesis, in Yin, A., and Harrison, T.M., eds., The Tectonic Evolution of Asia: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, p. 486640. S engr, A.M.C., Natalin, B.A., and Burtman, V.S., 1993, Evolution of the Altaid tectonic collage and Palaeozoic crustal growth in Eurasia: Nature, v. 364, p. 299307, doi:10.1038/364299a0. Silver, E.A., and Rangin, C., 1990, Origins of the Celebes and Sulu seas: Results of ODP Leg 124: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 74, p. 1001. Sisson, V.B., Pavlis, T.L.K., Roeske, S.M., and Thorkelson, D.J., 2003, An overview of ridge-trench interactions in modern and ancient settings, in Sisson, V.B., Roeske, S.M., and Pavlis, T.L., eds., Geology of a Transpressional Orogen Developed during Ridge-Trench Interaction along the North Pacic Margin: Geological Society of America Special Paper 371, p. 118. Stampi, G.M., 2000, Tethyan oceans, in Bozkurt, E., Winchester, J.A., and Piper, J.D., eds., Tectonics and Magmatism in Turkey and Surrounding Area: Geological Society of London Special Publication 173, p.163185. tpsk, P ., Schulmann, K., Lehmann, J., Corsini, M., Lexa, O., and Tomurhuu, D., 2010, Early Cambrian eclogites in SW Mongolia: Evidence that the palaeoAsian Ocean suture extends further east than expected: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 28, p. 915933, doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.2010.00899.x. Suzuki, K., Maruyama, S., Yamamoto, S., and Omori, S., 2010, Have the Japanese Islands grown?: Five Japans were born, and four Japans subducted into the mantle: The Journal of Geography, v. 119, p. 11731196, doi:10.5026/jgeography.119.1173. Tang, G.J., Wang, Q., Wyman, D.A., Li, Z.X., Zhao, Z.H., Jia, X.H., and Jiang, Z.Q., 2010, Ridge subduction and crustal growth in the Central Asian orogenic belt: Evidence from Late Carboniferous adakites and high-Mg diorites in the western Junggar region, northern Xinjiang (West China): Chemical Geology, v. 277 , p. 281300, doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2010.08.012. Tsumanda, F ., 1994, Permian radiolaria from Busuanga Island, Palawan, Philippines: Journal of Geological Society of Philippines, v. 49, p. 119193. Volkova, N.I., and Sklyarov, E.V., 2007, High-pressure complexes of Central Asian fold belt: Geological setting, geochemistry and geodynamic implications: Russian Geology and Geophysics, v. 48, p. 8390, doi:10.1016/j.rgg.2006.12.008. von Huene, R., and Lallemand, S.E., 1990, Tectonic erosion along the Japan and Peru convergent margins: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 102, p. 704720, doi:10.1130/0016 -7606(1990)102<0704:TEATJA>2.3.CO;2. von Huene, R., and Scholl, D.W., 1991, Observation at convergent margins concerning sediment subduction, subduction erosion, and the growth of the continental crust: Reviews of Geophysics, v. 29, no. 3, p. 279316, doi:10.1029/91RG00969. von Huene, R., Ranero, C.R., and Vannucchi, P ., 2004, Generic model of subduction erosion: Geology, v. 32, no. 10, p. 913916, doi:10.1130/G20563.1. Wakabayashi, J., 2011, Mlanges of the Franciscan Complex, California: Diverse structural settings, evidence for sedimentary mixing, and their connection to subduction processes, in Wakabayashi, J., and Dilek, Y., eds., Mlanges: Processes of Formation and Societal Signicance: Geological Society of America Special Paper 480, p. 117141. Wakabayashi, J., 2012, Subducted sedimentary serpentinite mlanges: Record of multiple burial-exhumation cycles and subduction erosion: Tectonophysics, v. 568569, p. 230 247, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.11.006. Wakabayashi, J., and Dilek, Y., eds., 2011, Mlanges: Processes of Formation and Societal Signicance: Geological Society of America Special Paper 480, 277 p. Wakita, K., 1984, Geology of the Hachiman District: Tsukuba, Japan, Geological Survey of Japan Quadrangle Series, scale 1:50,000, 89 p. (in Japanese with English abstract). Wakita, K., 1988, Origin of chaotically mixed rock bodies in the Early Jurassic to Early Cretaceous sedimentary complex of the Mino terrane, central Japan: Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Japan, v. 39, p. 675757. Wakita, K., 2000a, Mlanges of the Mino terrane: Memoir of the Geological Society of Japan, v. 55, p. 145163. Wakita, K., 2000b, Cretaceous accretion-collision complexes in central Indonesia: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 18, p. 739749, doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(00)00020-1. Wakita, K., and Metcalfe, I., 2005, Ocean plate stratigraphy in East and Southeast Asia: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 24, p. 679702, doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.04.004. Wakita, K., Munasri Sopaheluwakan, J., Zulkarnain, I., and Miyazaki, K., 1994a, Early Cretaceous tectonic events implied in the time-lag between the age of radiolarian chert and its metamorphic basement in Bantimala area, south Sulawesi, Indonesia: The Island Arc, v. 3, p. 90102, doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.1994.tb00097.x. Wakita, K., Munasri Sopaheluwakan, J., and Widoyoko, B., 1994b, Cretaceous radiolarians from the Luk-Ulo mlange complex in the Karangsambung area, central Java, Indonesia: Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, v. 9, p. 2943. Wakita, K., Munasri Sopaheluwakan, J., Zulkarnain, I., and Miyazaki, K., 1996, Tectonic evolution of the Bantimala complex, south Sulawesi, Indonesia, in Hall, R., and Blundell, D., eds., Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia: Geological Society of London Special Publication 106, p. 353364. Wakita, K., Miyazaki, K., Zulkarnain, I., Sopaheluwakan, J., and Sanyoto, P ., 1998, Tectonic implication of new age data for the Meratus complex of south Kalimantan, Indonesia: The Island Arc, v. 7, p. 202222, doi:10.1046/j.1440-1738.1998.00163.x. Walpersdorf, A., Vigney, C., Subarya, C., and Manuning, P ., 1998, Monitoring of the PaluKoro fault (Sulawesi) by GPS: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 25, p. 23132316, doi:10.1029/98GL01799. Wan, B., Xiao, W.J., Zhang, L.C., Windley, B.F ., Han, C.M., and Quinn, C.D., 2011, Contrasting styles of mineralization in the Chinese Altai and East Junggar, NW China: Implications

LITHOSPHERE | Volume 5 | Number 3 | www.gsapubs.org

275

WAKITA ET AL.

for the accretionary history of the southern Altaids: Journal of the Geological Society of London, v. 168, p. 13111321, doi:10.1144/0016-76492011-021. Wang, Y., Zhou, L., Zhao, L., Ji, M., and Gao, H., 2010, Palaeozoic uplands and unconformity in the North China block: Constraints from zircon LA-ICP-MS dating and geochemical analysis of bauxite: Terra Nova, v. 22, p. 264273. Wilhem, C., Windley, B.F ., and Stampi, G.M., 2012, The Altaids of Central Asia: A tectonic and evolutionary innovative review: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 113, p. 303341, doi:10.1016/j. earscirev.2012.04.001. Windley, B.F ., 2007, Tectonic models for accretion of the Central Asian orogenic belt: Journal of the Geological Society of London, v. 164, p. 3147, doi:10.1144/0016-76492006-022. Wonganan, N., and Caridroit, M., 2005, Middle and Upper Devonian radiolarian faunas from Chiang Dao area, Chiang Mai Province, northern Thailand: Micropaleontology, v. 51, p. 3957. Xenophontos, C., and Osozawa, S., 2004, Travel time of accreted igneous assemblages in western Pacic orogenic belts and their associated sedimentary rocks: Tectonophysics, v. 393, p. 241261, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.07.037. Xiao, W.J., Windley, B.F ., Badarch, G., Sun, S., Li, J., Qin, K., and Wang, Z., 2004, Palaeozoic accretionary and convergent tectonics of the southern Altaids: Implications for the growth of Central Asia: Journal of the Geological Society of London, v. 161, p. 339342, doi:10.1144/0016-764903-165. Xiao, W.J., Windley, B.F ., Huang, B.C., Han, C.M., Yuan, C., Chen, H.L., Sun, S., Sun, J., and Li, J.L., 2009, End-Permian to mid-Triassic termination of the accretionary processes of the southern Central Asian orogenic belt: Implications for the geodynamic evolution, Phanerozoic continental growth, and metallogeny of Central Asia: International Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 98, p. 11891217, doi:10.1007/s00531-008-0407-z. Xiao, W.J., Mao, Q.G., Windley, B.F ., Han, C.M., Qu, J.F ., Zhang, J.E., Ao, S.J., Guo, Q.Q., Cleven, N.R., Lin, S.F ., Shan, Y.H., and Li, J.L., 2010, Paleozoic multiple accretionary and collisional processes of the Beishan orogenic collage: American Journal of Science, v. 310, p. 15531594, doi:10.2475/10.2010.12. Yanai, S., Aoki, K., and Akamhori, Y., 2010, Opening of Japan Sea and major tectonic lines of Japan: MTL, TTL and Fossa Magna: Journal of Geography, v. 119, p. 10791124, doi:10.5026 /jgeography.119.1079.

Yin, A., 2010, Cenozoic tectonic evolution of Asia: A preliminary synthesis: Tectonophysics, v. 488, p. 293325, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.06.002. Yumul, G.P .J., Dimalanta, C.B., Tamayo, R.A., and Bellon, H., 2003, Silicic arc volcanism in central Luzon, Philippines: Characterization of its space, time and geochemical relationship: The Island Arc, v. 12, p. 207218, doi:10.1046/j.1440-1738.2003.00393.x. Yumul, G.P .J., Dimalanta, C.B., Marquez, E., and Queano, K.L., 2009, Onland signatures of the Palawan microcontinental block and Philippine mobile belt collision and crustal growth process: A review: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 34, p. 610623, doi:10.1016/j .jseaes.2008.10.002. Zamoras, L.R., and Matsuoka, A., 2001, Malampaya Sound Group: A JurassicEarly Cretaceous accretionary complex in Busuanga Island, North Palawan block (Philippines): Journal of the Geological Society of Japan, v. 107, p. 316336, doi:10.5575/geosoc.107.316. Zamoras, L.R., Montes, M.G.A., Queano, K.L., Marquez, E.J., Dimalanta, C.B., Gabo, J.A.S., and Yumul, G.P ., 2008, Buruanga Peninsula and Antique Range: Two contrasting terranes in northwest Panay, Philippines, featuring an arc-continent collision zone: The Island Arc, v. 17, p. 443457, doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.2008.00645.x. Zhang, J., Xiao, W., Han, C., Mao, Q., Ao, S., Gio, Q., and Ma, C., 2011, A Devonian to Carboniferous intra-oceanic subduction system in western Junggar, NW China: Lithos, v. 125, p. 592606, doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2011.03.013. Zorin, Y.A., 1999, Geodynamics of the western part of the Mongolia-Okhotsk collisional belt, Trans-Baikal region (Russia) and Mongolia: Tectonophysics, v. 306, p. 3356, doi:10.1016 /S0040-1951(99)00042-6.

MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED 11 JUNE 2012 REVISED MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED 10 JANUARY 2013 MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED 13 JANUARY 2013 Printed in the USA

276

www.gsapubs.org | Volume 5 | Number 3 | LITHOSPHERE