Keralas Developmenta feminist perspective

Workshop Report

March 23rd, 24th and 25th , 2004 r!ani"ed #$

%akhi reso&rce center for Women

'en&e: Science and Technology Museum Hall, PMG Junction, Trivandrum

Keralas Development- a feminist perspective

Workshop (March 23rd, 24th and 25th ,2004

Report
Introduction
The wor shop on !erala"s #evelopment $ a %eminist perspective was conducted %rom &'rd to &(th March, &))*+ Representatives %rom di%%erent ,G-"s, women"s groups, academic institutions and people"s movements participated in the wor shop+ .leyamma /i0ayan, #irector, Sa hi welcomed the gathering and outlined the o10ectives o% the wor shop+ This wor shop is organi2ed with a view to assessing !erala"s development %rom a %eminist perspective and through this process intends to evolve perspectives %or %uture programmes+ The word 3development4 1rings to our mind diverse meanings+ 5or many, development means destruction o% their livelihoods, environment and so on+ The development path which the state has %ollowed is one which did not, in any way sustain li%e or livelihood+ In !erala, at this point o% time, we are e6periencing the result o% such a development process $ the drought and conse7uent destruction o% crops, %armers committing suicide etc+ 8hen such issues were raised 9) $ 9: years 1ac , we were called anti development groups 1ut the same people are now %orced to rethin their positions+ Is there a gender perspective on development; #o we need one; Such 7uestions are relevant here+ -n March <th, International 8omen"s #ay, we had a poster e6hi1ition on 3women and water at the secretariat++ . young women 0ournalist was surprised that a %eminist organi2ation had ta en up such an issue and not the so called women"s issues o% violence, dowry and se6uality+ The commonly held perception is that women"s organi2ations are concerned only a1out women speci%ic issues+ =ut women are also citi2ens o% this state, o% this country and every single issue is a women"s issue+ There is a %eminist perspective and approach to each and every issue+ -% all movements o% our times the women"s movement is the most inclusive+ 8omen are now active in peace movements, anti nuclear movements, against 1ig dams and so on+ It is women who are most a%%ected 1y the glo1ali2ed economic policies and development approaches+ 5or 7uic pro%its, aggressive and over e%%icient ways o% >e6ploitation" o% nature and its resources are pursued+ The immediate and 1est e6ample is the coco?cola plant at Plachimada. In a short time, an entire region was destroyed and the local people were deprived o% their li%e and livelihood 0ust to ma e pro%its %or a multi national company+ 8e have several such e6amples in !erala+ ,ationally too we can %ind similar e6amples+ .long with all this, militari2ation and sale o% arms too is increasing+ 8e are witnessing the masculine paradigms o% development i+e+ an aggressive destructive

paradigms o% development+ 8e do not appreciate li%e styles that sustain livelihoods+ =ut in the days to come, we will have only those people who are in the so called su1sisting economy to depend %or water, pure air and healthy %ood+ .nother side o% this destructive development is the polari2ation on the 1asis o% religion+ .gain we are trying to suppress diversity and >homogeni2e" everything $ culture, values etc+ @et us e6amine speci%ic conte6t o% !erala with all this as 1ac ground+ Aven now, nationally and internationally !erala is still a >model o% development" $ there is such a myth around this idea+ =ut those o% us who live in !erala now very well a1out the un? sustaina1lity o% this model+ 8e are %acing the reality o% high rates o% unemployment, migration, suicides, consumerism, high dowry, increasing violence against women, rampant destruction o% environment, lac o% %ood security, high alcoholic consumption and so on+ 8e have a responsi1ility to analy2e why in spite o% all the positive indicators such things happen; 8e have to analy2e development strategies 1ased on a di%%erent perspective that values li%e and livelihoods 8hat is the %eminist perspective o% development; #on"t we need to 7uestion the approach o% integrating women into development; 8hen a capitalist development path is aggressively pursued, will it 1e possi1le to eradicate poverty through micro $ %inancing; 8hat is the use o% the small loans that women get when on one side the government is selling o%% our water and other natural resources to multinational companies, and privati2ing our common resources li e sea and %orests, The mushrooming o% sel%?help group is a phenomenon in !erala, as it is else where in India+ It may have 1rought women out o% their homes into the pu1lic realm+ =ut is it enhancing their sel%?image; #oes it increase their access to and control o% the resources that will help in their livelihood and provide them employment; The high literacy levels have not helped us+ It has only >domesticated" women+ 8e have to care%ully e6amine whether a similar process o% >domestication" is going to happen through SHG"s+ .re these women going to 1e >tools" %or political parties during election; 8hat are the deep implications o% this so?called revolution; How do we see the lin ages 1etween capitalism and patriarchy; It is very important that we also thin o% alternatives+ How do we retain control o% our resources; How do we develop and 1roaden a perspective, which respects diversity o% nature, li%e and %aith; I hope these thoughts and concerns will 1e uppermost in the deli1erations in the coming days o% the wor shop+

)he Ke$ note address Session 9 *ender and Development in Kerala + Which ,a$ for,ardDr.*ita %en+ At the outset Dr.Gita Sen expressed her happiness to be back in Kerala where she had spent almost 10 ears !in "0#s$ at %enter &or Development studies. She said she had learned a 'reat deal about development &rom that time in (rivandrum) but little about 'ender in a sociall developed and advanced societ . *deas &rom those times have continued to &uel her own understandin' o& the relationships between Gender and development. (hinkin' about &eminism and links between Gender and Development has in &act become much stron'er in Kerala now than it was durin' ears when she was here. And this workshop or'ani+ed b Sakhi on Kerala#s development &rom a &eminist perspective is ver much an evidence and indication o& that) she said !erala, and its development concerns are and have 1een o% interest since the B)"s? 1ecause it was in the middle 9CB) that people 1ecame aware o% development parado6?how to com1ine social development with economic growth+ It can 1e said that two 7uestions evolved %rom the 9CB)"s in the !erala"s conte6t which have 1een important, not only %or !erala 1ut %or larger development de1ates+ The 7uestions are How to com1ine social development with economic growth and poverty reduction How to com1ine social development and growth with gender e7uality+ =oth these sets o% 7uestions are e6tremely important in the larger conte6t 1eyond !erala itsel% in connection with the development de1ate+ The connection 1etween these three things is important+ #evelopment parado6 and gender parado6 are typically viewed as distinct 1ecause those who tal a1out development parado6 hardly ever mention gender parado6 and people who tal a1out gender parado6 do spea a1out the development issues 1ut there are still matters that needs to 1e raised to get the connections 1etween these+ #o they really interact with each other; .re they in the sense o% parallel trac s that one can 0ust consider as unrelated things and very importantly %or the present historical times, historical movement in !erala, what does it say a1out the %uture and what potential is there+

8e now that all attention to the development parado6 in !erala 1egan actually with middle 9CB)"s+ .ttention to !erala as a model %or social development was drawing %rom the early Denter %or development studies ED#SF and a lot o% literature and research that %ollowed therea%ter which pointed to the %act that in a relatively low per capita income and relatively slow economic growth conte6t, it had 1een possi1le in !erala to achieve levels and indicators %or health, %or education, %ertility decline and so onG which were in many instances superior to similar indicators %or countries with much higher levels o% income+ (his evidence then seem to point in the direction that rapid economic 'rowth is not necessar &or stron' social development to take place + Strong social development per%ormance can occur even with out rapid economic growth and !erala seemed point very much in that direction+ This middle 9CB)"s wor 1y D#S is then o% course pic ed 1y people li e .martya Sen+ and then in the glo1al conte6ts the human development reports and so on+ 8hen di%%erent pattern %or social development indicators and human wel%are indicators are studied it is seen that there are two di%%erent paths o% growth %ocused development $ one %actor primarily %ocusing on economic growth and the other 1eing structural ad0ustment programmes o% the =retton 8ood institutions o% the 9C<)"s+ The Sen"s thesis on the 1asis o% human development report put emphasis on social development 1eing the %ocus o% the state policy and not relying on a tric led down e%%ect %or economic growth would 1e e6tremely important %or human wel%are+ .nd in that conte6t Sen+ and others pic ed up !erala as a 1ig e6ample o% that and also a num1er o% other countries+ Sri @an a was one, Dosta Rica was another Mauritius was yet another and a num1er o% others that has 1een enumerated and loo ed at in this conte6t+ It was di%%icult to raise 7uestions a1out what did this model mean %or gender and %or gender e7uality at that time+ =y the latter part o% the 9C<)"s and certainly continuing in to the 9CC)s"there was a growing recognition that this development parado6 really did need to 1e addressed+ It is not possi1le any longer to pretend that it was not a pro1lem+ High rates o% economic growth may not 1e necessary %or strong social developmentG 1ut strong social development 1y itsel% does not necessarily lead to high growth per%ormance or to sustain poverty eradication+ That is where the de1ate a1out the development parado6 came up+ 8here it is going; How %ar it is sustaina1le; ,ot only this 1ut also that poor economic growth per%ormance can constrain what you can do with social development+ That social development 1ecomes un? sustaina1le with out economic growth over time and it certainly limits whatever %urther improvements may 1e possi1le+ That is you can not 0ust %ocus on one leg and leave the other leg hal% %unctional 1ecause you may actually slide 1ac in terms o% even that one leg that you tried to stand up +It may not 1e sustaina1le and it certainly will 1e very di%%icult to move it %orward 1ecause the 1ul o% your state 1udget is already going to the teacher"s salaries and wel%are provisions+

This leaves very little room %or moving %orward, ma ing additional changes possi1le+ The third implication o% the development parado6 is at high social development indicators unmatched 1y growth per%ormance may limit the state"s capacities to promote growth itsel%+ So strong social development 1y itsel% does not lead to high economic growth, secondly poor economic growth may limit whatever social development you have achieved and whatever %uture social development you thin is necessary Thirdly high social development can actually limit the %urther capacity %or poverty eradication and growth+ This is 1ecause the %ocus is on social development with out ade7uate attention to the issues o% economic growth and there is the ina1ility to use the resources e%%ectively 1y paying su%%icient attention to the re7uirements? ina1ility 1ecause you are not paying attention to the re7uirements and possi1ilities o% economic growth itsel%+ There is no attention 1eing paid to the possi1ilities created 1y the social development itsel% and the resources thus created+ 5or e6ample, !erala is relatively slow in recogni2ing the potentials o% a relatively highly educated la1or %orce 1eyond sending them out as migrants+ .nother e6ample may 1e really to recogni2e or to ta e advantage o% the %act that !erala is one o% India"s ma0or places o% .yurveda, which is 1ecoming a ma0or glo1al industry in the conte6t o% 1iotechnology+ So the inabilit to see Kerala#s own resources) potentials) possibilities as well as the risks o& not pa in' attention to the situations comes &rom an approach which does not su&&icientl pa attention to the problems o& economic 'rowth + ,ow this was the nature o% development parado6 as it is 1rought out and de1ated so %ar+ How do we see this in the international conte6t; + These pro1lems o% so?called development parado6 are not uni7ue to !erala+ -ther countries have %aced similar pro1lems and have come up with di%%erent ways o% resolving those pro1lems and it is in that conte6t that we need to loo at where !erala stands today and how it is li ely to move %orward+ .nd there are three countries that I want to highlight little 1itG one very large country and two 7uite small ones, which are si2e wise not that di%%erent %rom !erala+ The most important country in which the development parado6 has emerged in the last couple o% decades is Dhina itsel%+ Dhina during the Mao"s period, in %act had all o% the elements in it that we would thin o% as associated with the social development %irst path+ . second e6ample is the e6ample o% Sri @an a+ Sri @an a and !erala has 1een spo en a1out almost in the same way many times in these discussion on the social development model+ . third one is Mauritius+ It is again li e !eralaG there was lot o% attention to social developments as !erala and Sri @an a has done 1ut certainly has ta en slightly di%%erent approach %rom 1oth o% these+ How did each

o% these countries e6perience the development parado6 and how has it handled them; .nd in this conte6t we also to understand the implications %or genderG o% the way in which the development parado6 is e6perienced and addressed in each o% these situations+ In terms o% the elements o% development parado6 present in Dhina in 9CBC, when it em1ar ed on its li1erali2ation re%orms it is in very similar ways+ This is a large economy that during the Mao"s period had really almost done away with the institutional private property+ It had paid signi%icant attention to improving health and education ?%rom the 1are %oot doctors to ensuring that every1ody went to school and did so with the strong e7uality %ocus which is very important +It is as well during that MaoHs period the call to gender$e7uality was made+ . range o% direct and indirect methods were developed which had an impact on improving the institutions that supported movements towards gender e7uality+ . work point system in agriculture was developed which gave importance to every1ody"s wor + It gave signi%icant importance to the wor that women did on %arms and in agriculture collectives, so that women"s wor got valued which was very di%%erent %rom the I,?systems o% satellite accounts+ =ut it is certainly important in ma ing women themselves valued as wor ers, valued as contri1uting to collective wor points and valued There%ore as ma ing it possi1le %or the collective to gain more %rom the larger system?a1ility to access depended upon how much women were putting in as much as men+ This o% course have a very important indication as well %or the ind o% son pre%erence during the MaoHs period in Dhina+ There is no dou1t that the son pre%erence which in Dhina has as long a 1itterer history as it is had in most o% India and particularly in ,orth India and in num1er o% other parts o% .sia really did go down during this period+ =ecause girls and women were as valued %or their contri1ution and this was important at the local levels and then at the regional and national levels+ + This o% course was a period when the Dhinese popular %amily planning programmes was very much in the old Mar6ist anti Malthusian law, which regarded population as non?pro1lematic+ So they did not provide much %or %amily planning services+ Then coming out o% wea ness o% this period, you had the cra2iness o% this one child policy+ =ut this one child policy in Dhina is not really the reason %or the decline in Dhinas" %ertility+ .lready the paces in social development had 1een laid +So 1y the time 1etter %amily planning services were provided, the demand was already there, and people started using them+ #espite o% all these advances and despite Mao"s attempts during the Dultural Revolution to deal with the limitations, this approach had signi%icant limits, which 1egan to 1e %elt in the economy+ 5irst o% all it was important that although agriculture was productive, there were constraints emerging on %ood security that had to 1e met+ Secondly rural and ur1an insipient migration 1ecause o% unemployment and under employment was signi%icant and growing underemployment in rural areas was li e a 1om1 waiting to e6plode+ There was very strong and draconian policy a1out migration %rom the rural areas during that period+ =ut it was clear that there was more and more people to wor who did not had very much to do in the rural areas+ =y the middle seventies you could

see all these pro1lems in Dhina li e the importance o% maintaining the rural ur1an trans%er o% surplus, maintaining the political sta1ility etc+ Going 1eyond the ideological issues o% socialism and Dommunism, there was some deeper issues having to do with the constraint o% a particular approach to development, which in %act Dhina was 1eginning to %eel at that time and which certainly lay 1ehind the possi1ilities o% the revolution or the counter revolution+ Here we are not loo ing at the implication o% the de1ate on ideology 1ut the 7uestion is what ind o% meaning does it have %or the lin s 1etween the development and growth+ Aconomic re%orms in Dhina too a particular path, which lin ed Dhina in a strong way into the glo1ali2ed economy+ .t the same time this created ine7ualities, corruption and political disenchantment with in Dhina itsel%+ Gender ine7uality rose in a signi%icant way not 1ecause o% son pre%erence 1ut 1ecause now the woman"s wor no longer got valued which in turn lead to a non?pre%erence %or girl children+ So the reversal o% what has 1een done during the Mao"s period in terms o% reducing some pre%erence actually too place during this period, which o% course sur%aced, in the worsening se6 ratios that Dhina also had seen during the period a%ter the #eng siao ping"s re%orms+ Many o1servers claim that in spite o% all o% these Dhina is relatively politically sta1le+ The group 1ehind Tianmen s7uare uprising was a small group and there is no huge support %or, against or in %avor o% the direction that has 1een pushed at that time in the countryside+ 8omen played a signi%icant role in these re%orms+ #ue to the rise o% new economic 2ones, which were, the 1asis o% Dhina"s economic growth the entire Shangai area went to very rapid economic growth in which the modern industrial wor played a dominant role+ The women %ormed the dominant part o% Dhinese modern industrial wor %orce that lies 1ehind Dhina"s very dramatic per%ormance in terms o% economic growth+ So growing gender ine7uality com1ined with economic changes drew women more and more into a la1or %orce and connected to the glo1alised mar et economy in which Dhina has 1ecome so very success%ul+ Dhina is now called as the wor shop o% the world 1ecause o% Dhinas" per%ormance and 1ecause o% the cheapness o% Dhinese la1or %orce and 1ecause o% the conditions under which they wor + =ad wor ing conditions, horrendous wor ing hours, lac o% sa%ety and all other things we now are associated with this ind o% wor + So Dhina too a particular approach to deal with its development parado6+ Sri @an a is smallG it has an economy that is small and there %ore a little 1it more variety than the !erala economy+ Here however migration has largely 1een ta en the %orm o% %emale migration+ The Sri @an an development parado6 was e6perienced almost a1out the same time as the parado6 has 1een e6perienced in Dhina, and also in !erala+ The Sri @an an >re%orms" also are around the same period as the Dhinese re%orms E9CBB?+BCF+ It was during this time that Sri @an a

started going 1ac on its social development primarily approach, and moving towards lin ing up with the glo1al economy+ Sri @an a"s lin ing up with the glo1al economy was 1y setting up special economic Jones and so onG and this o% course Dhina had also done, 1ut also %emale migration on a very large scale+ 8omen wor ing out side Sri?@an a contri1uted nearly 9+& 1illion dollars, which amounts to a huge proportion o% %oreign e6change+ These women go primarily as domestic wor ers, under di%%icult wor ing conditions, great deal o% a1use, se6ual e6ploitation and violence+ 8omen"s wor has 1een Sri @an a"s sa%ety valve to prevent the development parado6 in Sri @an a %rom e6ploding+ =ut the Sri @an an re%orms li e the Dhinese re%orms had similar implications in terms o% growing ine7uality including gender ine7uality+ Sri @an a tries to address pro1lems and manages at least to eep themselves %rom 1ecoming a total disaster area through in%low o% money %rom outside+ The third e6ample is Mauritius, which has a small economy again 1ut relatively %ew resources+ This country also made lin s to Glo1ali2ation+ =ut the methods adopted 1y them were neither li e Dhina nor li e Sri @an a+ =ut they did through integration into %inancial mar ets? ma ing itsel% into ma0or %inancial trans%er and resource center+ So the 0o1s that got created again were heavily %or women 1ut not e6clusively %or women+ These are women now who are wor ing in the 1an s and in the %inancial companies, in the insurance industries?whole lot o% those ind o% modern service sector employment as well as again in the e6port processG in services, garments and so on+ =ut Mauritius on this point is not really a %avored place %or the garment industries, %or it is too e6pensive+ That means la1or cause is too higher %or Mauritius than in =angladesh, /ietnam, Dam1odia, and so on -n o1serving these three countries and comparing them to !erala"s #evelopment parado6 there are some 1asic similarities as well as di%%erences+ It is seen that social development 1y itsel% cannot sustain, as 1y itsel% it is not immediately productive+ Health and education do not produce goods and commodities other than the services+ Two important %actors evolving out o% these are ? %rom where does the trans%er o% social surplus arrive %rom; How will 0o1s 1e created; These two %actors are crucial %or sustaina1ility and reduction o% poverty+ =ut how can sustaina1le eradication o% poverty 1e com1ined with social development; 8hat will happen to gender and gender e7uality; 8hat will happen to the gains that women have made during the period when %ocus is on social development+ .re those gains lost; Is it a temporary loss or is it a completely di%%erent tra0ectory; Is the rise o% gender ine7uality in Dhina, in Sri @an a and so on during this period, something that they can reverse, or is it something that is now set %or another direction I% we loo at the post migration policies in Sri@an a concerning women migrants coming 1ac with remittances, one can see how they were perceived 1y the 1an ers and other policy ma ers+ 8hat was very stri ing was that the language used+ .ll the language was a1out how do we capture these women migrants and

their resources and in the process there was no language o% empowermentG no language o% recognition o% what the women had done+ + The 1an er"s had the usual attitude o% >how can we give loans to these women who do not have any 1ac ground as entrepreneurs"; + It is surprising 1ecause one is tal ing a1out women who have gone o% 1y themselves, crossing the seas, wor ing as domestic wor ers and migrants %or years+ Some o% them had gone several times+ In %act many o% them go not 0ust once 1ut again and again+ .nd the 1an ers are telling that they don"t have a capacity to open a 1an account, and to run an enterprise+ =y now in South .sia, we now at least that it is possi1le to lend to women and to get 1ac money 1ac even i% capture all your interest in+ The development parado6 is 1eing spo en a1out as i% women are that some num1ers that you %eed in, and not in %act people who are themselves very much central to what is going on and what is possi1le %or the ind o% change that may or may not happen, the ind o% change that may or may not 1e possi1le+ 8e need to understand a1out the gender parado6 in it+ There are di%%erent ways, di%%erent elements o% parado6 which are 7uite interesting+ -ne?way in which it has 1een de%ined is high social development including %or women 1ut poor economic indicators? whether it is land rights or 0o1s, the 7uantity o% 0o1s, the 7uality o% 0o1s, wor ing conditions etc+ 8omen are educated and have some 1etter health access in many other parts o% the country 1ut still they have to wor pretty di%%icult inds o% occupations+ + So one way o% thin ing a1out Gender parado6 is high social development %or women, 1ut poor economic indicators+ .nother way o% thin ing a1out Gender parado6 is high social development, which is not translated into greater political agency %or women+ This can 1e o1served in some o% the studies o% Monica Arwer %rom Gothen1urg who recently completed her thesis loo ing at political development and political agency and engagement o% women in !erala"s political causes+ Aven when women are so literate and articulate, their capacity to participate and to remove the constrains on their participation in the political process is still so limited+ .nd yet another way o% thin ing a1out Gender parado6 is once again high social development 1ut poor or worsening o% indicators o% autonomy and agency in social and cultural terms+ So all o% the discussions a1out the growing violence against women, pro1lems around se6uality, the a1sence o% improvements in terms o% gender hierarchy within households and %amilies, the continuing strong patriarchal authorities with in %amilies, can in %act 1e seen %rom all o% these di%%erent dimensions+ So there is high social development on one side, 1ut i% you are loo ing at economic issues, loo ing at political agency, and participation issues or at agency, autonomy and issues o% se6uality and violence with in the home and outside you %ind that the gender parado6 really e6ists+ .nd I wanted to add a %ourth dimension to the gender parado6, to the three areas mentioned already+ That is 1ased on how we thin a1out the development

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parado6 and the way in which di%%erent countries have tried to resolve it+ !erala has still not resolved or attempted to move in the direction where it is resolving its development parado6 and hence this issue has not 1ecome sharp as yet+ =ut I thin the potential %or this to sharpen in a conte6t where gender and the implications o% gender are not ade7uately addressed is 7uite serious+ So women may 1ecome and could 1e central to employment, to 0o1s, to migration, o% IT ena1led services, or moves in other directions using the cheapness o% the %emale la1or %orce+ I% policy moves in that direction and i% you do not recogni2e the gender e7uality or ine7uality e7uations o% that, and you do not protect the social development gains that you already made, you may start seeing other elements o% gender parado6 1eginning to wor + 8hat it means is that, not only is women"s role in these conte6t not recogni2edG =ut also their role in reproduction and in the so called care economy Ethe wor that is done to %etch water, to ta e care o% children, to ta e care o% old people, to coo , to manage all the house hold mattersF that is not recogni2ed 1ut women#s centralit in production itsel& during the growth recovery in these countries is not recogni2ed either+ Hence we have two inds o% non?recognition that e6ists+ The dou1le and triple 1urdens o% the wor %or women+ In the present historical moment in !erala, with women 1earing a ma0or 1urden o% poverty eradication ESHG"sF and with the increasing ine7uality, coping with the triple 1urden is seen as a private matter+ Secondly the policy re7uirements %or ma ing the new growth mechanisms wor more e%%ectively and to protect the social developments gains that has 1een made as sort o% leap %orward into connecting up with the glo1ali2ation, those protections and sa%eguards are not ept in place+ .nd thirdly and most damaging in all o% these situations is some thing that happens in the minds and mind sets o% social activists, policy ma ers and every 1ody which is that advances in social development and 'ender e,ualit come to be seen as causes. They are seen as causes+ rather than as 1eing the 1asis %rom which the growth is happening+ They come to 1e seen, as there is a trade -%% 1etween these sects+ Rather than seeing that there is a synergy that these actually wor together+ It is a 1ig 7uestion as to how much gender in? e7uality are people willing to ta e in order to promote 1etter growth+ 8ill they argue %or improvement in wor ing conditions i% that will ill the goose that lay golden eggs; .nd this mindset then 1ecomes one %rom which it is very di%%icult %or any1ody to move %orward+ Regarding !erala"s developments there are choices+ There is a high road o% development where it is possi1le to have growth with poverty reduction through 0o1 creation, reduced in?e7uality including gender in?e7uality and sustaina1le social development+ The possi1ility o% success o% this growth depends on the inds o% 0o1s one creates+ It also depends upon ma ing, strengthening and improving policies 1ased on gender e7uality %or social developments+ Sri @an a has not done very well in this path, 1y way o% growth+ It is seen that in this path

11

there is growing ine7uality, worsening gender indicators, and the potential %or worsening social development+ It was concluded that at this point !erala is really at the development crossroads+ It has stayed over a decade there already and it is also possi1le to stay on the development cross road without moving %or a long time, provided there is the cushion that has 1een 1estowed to !erala 1y a larger secular democratic polity+ =ut now that cushion has 1een 7uite dramatically destroyed and eroded+ In this conte6t when you have those inds o% destructive %orces at wor , you can not have un employment and under employment o% this type continuing Such %orces are already at wor and are a1le to recruit and train youthG they are e6panding and an entirely di%%erent situations altogether may develop+ 8hen we loo at !erala"s development one o% the miseries is that its past lessons %rom social developments have not really 1een translated very well to the rest o% the countries+ =ut the 7uestion %or 1oth its policy ma ers and social activists is whether !erala can actually provide a way o% moving %orward into the %uture Disc&ssion #ased on the %ession
=e%ore the discussion 1egan Ms+ Sarada Muralidharan spo e on the conte6t o% decentrali2ation that has ta en place in !erala and the contradictions in the so called positive indices o% development+ .dvances in the %ield o% health and education %or women are shown as the causes o% the positive gains o% !erala+ =eing healthy has 1ecome an invasive and e6pensive option %or women in !erala+ There is a high rate o% Daesarians and the invasive contraceptive choices have an impact on gender we also have to note that education has domesticated women in !erala+ I% we loo at other states where women have not 1een given the eli6ir o% education it is seen that these women are much more %orthright, more assertive and independent than those who are educated+ This also gives an interesting angle to the de1ate on gender parado6 and the direction it is going+ It also leads to the whole issue o% a1ility to push the economic growth in a sustaina1le way+ In !erala, the ind o% economic growth has led to large? scale migration Eimplications on women are phenomenalF and marginali2ation The B'rd and B*th constitutional amendments have created a space %or women+ The pu1lic space, which has 1een thrown open %or women, has many implications+ It is de1ata1le whether the women are a1le to ta e advantage o% this opportunity and %ight the %orces that are eeping them %rom ta ing this opportunity+ There is also a space, which has 1een necessarily created through panchayati ra0, which gives the concept o% accounta1ility, transparency and creation o% community structures, which are actively involved in development+ Moreover when tal ing a1out the space it is very crucial and important to include a much poor, maligned and harassed 'rama sabhas in the empowerment de1ate that specially wor at the local levels+

12

There was a 7uery as to what e6tent cans the tal a1out sustainable 'rowth; Dan the notion o% growth, as it e6ists today lead to sustaina1ility; In pursuit o% growth ine7ualities Ewhether it 1e 1etween poor and rich or gender 1ased ine7ualitiesF are increasing+ How is this type o% growth 1ene%icial; How can it 1e made more gender aware; There was a de1ate as to whether there is speci%ically a thing called sustaina1le growth or is it 0ust a1out sustaina1le livelihood, which is really what is essential+ =ut then it is not a mythical age where every1ody lives in sustaina1le harmony+ Most resources have already 1een privati2ed and the pressures and degradation on these resources are so severe that redistri1ution 1y itsel% is not possi1le in India %or a long time+ It may 1e possi1le to redistri1ute land in other countries li e =ra2il and have enough %or every household to sustain 1y it and produce its livelihood+ =ut no amount o% redistri1ution o% land 1y itsel% in India will give agricultural households enough land that they can actually ma e a living out o% that+ There%ore it has 1een concluded that only some ind o% economic growth is possi1le+ Growth is essential %or eradication o% poverty+ It is necessary to analy2e the ind o% growth that is essential %or di%%erent situations+ -ne o% the serious damages done in the 9C<)"s 1y the 8orld =an monitoring this growth was that they let the people 1elieve that economic growth is possi1le only 1y the method that they have descri1ed+ =ut economists 1elieve that it is possi1le to have an economic growth at a place where you do 1uild in, support in and put in not 0ust sa%e guards %or environment and resources 1ut also social policies that will actually promote people"s participation in the development process+ This is one direction in which progress can grow+ This does not mean that there is no growth at all 1ecause reduction o% ine7uality and 1etter redistri1ution is essential 1ut not enough as this is not going to remove poverty 1y itsel%+ There%ore we need to loo at what inds o% growth will support and promote peopleG protect and promote gender e7ualityG will not hold on to the gains %rom the social development 1ut help them to move %orward+ The discussion on decentrali2ed planning pointed to the elements in the people"s campaign that will help people to move %orward+ The positive gender e%%ects in the social development o% !erala were actually accidental and not intended or planned+ In the decentrali2ed planning, it is possi1le to include gender analysis and processes+ Aven here, the gender sensitive approaches that have 1een attempted out o% the people"s campaign plan have not 1een the result o% any pressures %rom 1elow+ 8hat generates policy intervention is a crucial 7uestion; Policy intervention does not come out o% its own+ =ureaucrats have to 1e compelled and pushed to ma e gender 1ased re%orms 1ecause they will encourage these re%orms only i% there is some ind o% long? term 1ene%its in the e7uation+ The crucial 7uestion is how to create this ind o% environment; + Gender advocacy movements can create it+ Gender advocacy movements have ta en two directionsG one is a head on approach $ i+e+ issues li e domestic violence against women or issues o% marginali2ation, e6ploitation etc are con%ronted directly 1ecause it is also a1out redistri1ution o% power, opportunity and space+ There%ore there arises a pro1lem o% giving away resources or power o% authority or accepting change, which would 1e %or at least a temporary period+ .nother strategy is li e in the people"s plan campaign an attempt to %orm an economic agenda %or women, which resulted in %orming neigh1orhood groups and !udum1asree+ The second consideration has 1een to ta e issues li e education and health, which was not immediately seen, as con%rontational 1ut which points out to challenges in e6isting power structures and domains+ In terms o% macro economic policy, this has to come %rom

13

certain inds o% interventions and e%%orts+ These e%%orts would 1e people"s movements+ It could also 1e something that ta es advantage o% processes that are already there and which can 1e developed into something a lot more power%ul and sensitive+ 8hat is important is to get he state accounta1le+ This can 1e done through political process and community 1ased processes+ Gender 1ased advocacy programmes have the scope %or 1eing very inclusive, %or ta ing a lot o% opposite and con%licting interests which perhaps similar empowerment processes did not have in the past+ @oo ing at the SDKST advocacy scenario a certain amount o% marginalisaton is seen in the conte6t+ =ut they have not 1een a1le to move %rom the agenda o% #alit to the agenda o% community and society at large+ It is a danger which gender advocacy can also %all into 1ut at the same time it is also an opportunity %or gender 1ecause it is not so rigidly or limitedly de%ined+ =ut again 7uestion arises as to where these spaces can 1e %ound, 1ridged and ta en %orward so that at the policy level they can 1e accommodated+ -ne more crucial comment was added to the a1ove discussion+ 8omen"s organi2ation and people wor ing with them have %ound it typically very hard wor + It is a %act that in the matter o% policies in the micro level there is a limit 1ecause what is done at the micro level can wipe what out is done at the macro level+ So women"s organi2ations have to 1e completely engaged in these macro? processes too+ The discussions on !erala"s growth and development happen in spaces where hardly any women are present+ .s was mentioned earlier, things don"t happen in the government unless there is a push %rom 1elow and even then spaces do not open up %or discussion+ It is di%%icult %or women to engage in these spaces 1ecause they %eel more com%orta1le dealing with micro processes, health and development issues+ These spaces go 1eyond the discussions on health and development issues and into economics, planning, management etc+ Re%lecting on all this there arises a 7uestion as to which way !erala"s #evelopment strategies are going and what do women have to say a1out that+ The pro0ect that women have is 1eyond identity politics+ It is not only the matter o% ine7uality as %ar as women are concerned within e6isting paradigms 1ut it is also the entire tra0ectory 1uilds on ine7uality which can 1e 1ad %or every1ody+ .s mentioned 1e%ore, challenges and spaces need to 1e put %orward 1ut at the same time one needs to 1e clear as to what is 1eing done and a1out the alternatives that is 1eing suggested+ It is really a very tough decision %or a women"s organi2ation 1ecause most o% these issues are outside a women"s e6perienceG most o% the women are not economist and most o% them even do not now what is going on in the 1udgeting+ =ut it is a challenge %or a women"s organi2ation to hear what women have to say with regard to the development process+ It was also pointed out that the two ma0or coalition %ronts o% political parties that rule !erala had the same opinion in the matter o% development+ Their de%inition o% development consists o% 1uilding roads, %lyovers, railways etc+ In our country 1ig constructions and e6travagant and lavish e6penditure on ceremonies are considered as a part o% development and advancement o% country+ It was also seen that government encourages young people to migrate and %ind employment in various %ields 1ut i% something happens to them the government washes its hands o%%+ 5or e6ample, i% they die there then it ta es a long time %or the dead to 1e trans%erred to our country+ .nother point raised was a1out sel%?employment+ Government created opportunities %or the women in door?to?door sales o% di%%erent products 1ut the wor ing conditions o% these sales women were very 1ad+ 8ill all these 1ecome part o% the thin ing on development;

14

.nother point raised was regarding the impact o% such thin ing on children+ Dhildren are the product o% hisK her environment i+e heKshe is very much dependent on the culture, education and the media to which they are e6posed to+ These three things 1ecome important %or the growth o% a child in the society+ .s the child grows into a man or woman they ac7uire the e6isting notions o% masculinity and %emininity through the a1ove? mentioned institutions+ Ta ing these perspectives how can we tal a1out %undamental changes in the process o% development; 8hen we loo at the development process we should also consider the inter?milieu o% the political churnings currently happening in the state and also larger glo1ali2ation, which is not helping us in these development process+ 8henever !erala"s development process is de1ated, three main points emerge+ -ne is unsustaina1ility o% the development process it leads to %iscal crisis and corresponding pro1lems in the second generation+ #ue to this reason this process has no constancy+ Secondly this sort o% model is 1y itsel% ine%%icient and corrupt+ That is why it is 1ound to 1e unsustaina1le+ In the present conte6t o% glo1ali2ation wel%are oriented model is una1le to continue in its attempt to promote e7uality and social 0ustice+ !eeping all this conditions in mind, how is it possi1le to move %orward the discussions related to e7uality and gender 0ustice; -ne o% the comments %rom the group was that it is not 0ust indicators %or development that matters 1ut actually the process o% development itsel%+ 8hen we tal a1out improved social development indicators the 7uestion arises whether we had any %ocused intervention or policy %or this purpose; 5or e6ample+ In order to achieve a reduction in in%ant mortality rate did we have any speci%ic programme or did we really %ormulate any policies in order to achieve that; 8hen we loo into the process we have to loo into the history also+ In the conte6t o% political initiatives, many a times the governments in power never considered these 7uestions+ 5or e6ample, at present we have lot o% initiatives on moderni2ing government programmes 1ut it has nothing to do with the political system in !eralaL .s %ar as gender and its implications in the social development process o% !erala is concerned, these are the 1ye products+ !erala is %ortunate 1ecause o% a com1ination o% prior systems and traditional progressive politics+ Social development policies 0ust happened 1ecause there were conscious policies giving support towards health and education+ These conscious policies came into 1eing through social movements+ Is it was possi1le to eradicate poverty without addressing daily lives o% ordinary people and their livelihood+ !erala had 1asically an agricultural economy and women had a ma0or role in this economy+ Is it possi1le to tal a1out development paradigm without addressing the traditional roles and economic sustenance o% women; .s mentioned earlier, in the whole restructuring and %unctioning o% the pu1lic arena with private capital, what is role o% women; Is there a tool to analy2e the whole %ramewor o% economic growth, sustenance and women"s empowerment with regard to private capital where women are really present with the new 7uestions o% empowerment that is happening when women are coming into power and legislature;

15

It was o1served that with the glo1ali2ation there is a set 1ac to the social development+ Health and education systems are getting privati2ed+ #ue to poverty, women are moving into wor ing in the unorgani2ed sectorG in home nursing, domestic wor etc+ There%ore when poverty is worsening there will 1e less inter%erence %rom people in macro level policies+ In today"s political realm there is no space %or women"s issues+ Given these political process women"s organi2ation has relevance only i% they involve in the macro level policies+ #r+ Gita Sen concluded the session 1y ma ing a %ew o1servations+ She said that one o% the things we %ace in terms o% macro economics is the %act that with the collapse o% the Soviet Inion there has 1een such a ma0or challenge to the whole socialist paradigm %rom which no1ody has recovered+ The %act is that Soviet Inion was considered as a model %or socialism+ =ut whatever the challenge was, the presence o% a multi polar world and alternative directives made that possi1le+ In terms o% alternatives there are people"s e6periences, oppositions and ways o% identi%ying the places and locations where they meet in order to ma e sure that it isn"t 0ust completely wiped out+ This constantly creates a di%%icult terrain %or the people+ =ut it 1ecomes important to recogni2e that there are places where people can move %orward+ It is not true that policy ma ers or 1ureaucrats 0ust mindlessly %ollow everything that is 1eing created 1y the 8orld =an or the IM5, as they are constantly doing social e6perimentation+ The 1est e6ample is the e6perimentation in the power sector re%orms in -rissa, which led to a 1ig disaster+ .nyway these International institutions are continuing their e6perimentation process, as there is no opposition o% any ind to tell them to modi%y or moderate the re%orms that they have done+ So the presence o% in%ormed opposition, presence o% in%ormed challenge is a1solutely crucial 1ecause it is not as i% di%%erent ways are not 1een e6perimented constantly+ Ta ing the e6ample o% #PAP E#istrict primary education programmeF it was said that in some states o% the country e6perimentation was allowed which showed a much more positive result+ There%ore the people need to 1e involved and engaged Spaces are created 1y onesel% through the process o% engagement+ In !erala the people who are tal ing a1out people"s participation in planning process do not spea a1out those issues o% violence and se6uality, which are ma0or challenges+ 8ithout addressing the 7uestions o% violence, se6uality and ine7uality with in the household, we cannot spea o% development+ .s women we have the responsi1ility toG 1ring 1oth these issues to the %ore%ront and see the connections 1etween these two issues+ The 7uestion arises as to how much autonomy is there; #uring the 9C<)"s gender was a %or1idden su10ect particularly in !eralaG 1ut a decade have seen a dramatic change So we can say that the process o% engagement can change it+ So today intervening and spea ing a1out the macro economic issues may 1e hard and di%%icult+ =ut once we are involved or engaged they are %orced to ta e account all the issues and respond in a progressive way+ Sarada Muraleedharan concluded the session 1y mentioning the Moderni2ing Government Programme+ Gender is mentioned as a cross cutting thing in tal s going on implications is seen through a gender lens even though it is a convoluted %rame+ The 7uestion is whether it is possi1le to ma e a collective voice o% women out o% the political space that are occupied in the panchayath ra0 systemG in the political organi2ationsG in SHG"s, Kudumbashree etc and give it a direction, which encompasses everything+ It is relevant to develop strategies %or esta1lishing political structures sit up, and ta e notice and incorporate gender issues in their agenda+

16

%ession 2 The post lunch session started with a warm welcome and a 1rie% introduction given to the chairperson #r+Saradamoni, the %acilitators #r+Mridul Aapen M #r+Praveena !odoth+ /aper( Discrimination a!ainst Women in Kerala( 0n!a!in! 1ndicators and /rocesses of Well 2ein!( #r+ Praveena !odoth M #r+Mridul Aapen .dmittedly, in order to engage with gender 1ased discrimination it is necessary to go 1eyond the conventional indicators o% well 1eing $ education, health and employment $ to hitherto less e6amined sites such as mental health, crime against women, political participation or property rights ESonpar and !apur &))9, Mu hopadyay and Sudarshan ed+ &))'F+ It is e7ually imperative however to re? engage the conventional indicators 1y raising new 7uestions a1out them, 1oth separately a1out each indicator and a1out the ways they com1ine to re%lect e6tant gendered priorities+ This is particularly relevant in the conte6t o% !erala, nown %or reasona1ly impressive levels o% human development, conventionally measured, across genders+ Indeed G#I estimated at the regional level 1y several scholars" places !erala at the top+ In respect o% GAM too, which attempts to measure empowerment or autonomy in terms o% the e6tent to which women are a1le to use their 1asic capa1ilities to ac7uire decision ma ing powers, 1oth economically and politically, !erala is at or near the top EMehta 9CC(, AP8 9CC(F+ Net it is signi%icant that on more direct measures o% autonomy, including household decision?ma ing, mo1ility and access toKcontrol over money, !erala trailed Gu0arat, which had much lower levels o% literacy E/isaria 9CC*, Ra0an et al 9CC*F+ Indeed, the second ,ational 5amily Health Survey, 9CC<?CC, which incorporated similar measures o% autonomy %or ever?married women %or the %irst time %or &: states, also revealed that !erala trailed Gu0arat and a num1er o% other states Eincluding Tamil ,adu, Goa and the ,orth?eastern statesF ETa1le 9F+ -ver time, %indings o% this nature 1rought into 7uestion the much glori%ied, straight%orward relation 1etween literacy and womenHs autonomy+ In this light, the need to locate womenHs educational attainment and access to other resources within the e6tant patriarchal social structures, speci%ically the %amily, was emphatically advocated EJe%%rey and =asu 9CC*, Heward and =unwaree 9CCCF+ !erala has 1een considered relatively %ree %rom the conventional inhi1itions against women"s education and employment, or women owning property+ This has 1een associated with matrilineal %orms o% %amily, which placed %ewer restraints against womenHs inheritance rights on the one hand and early twentieth century social re%orms which widened access to education across genders on the other+ However social and legal re%orms were instrumental in sanctioning a new 17

%orm o% marriage, grounded in modern patriarchal relations+ .n important part o% this process was the a1olition o% matriliny and strengthening o% patriarchy among patrilineal social groups+ Today this is re%lected in a generali2ed social commitment to women"s domesticity in the state+ 5or women its implications are evident in their poor occupational pro%ile despite impressive levels o% education, decline in property rights and the rise in dowry and other crimes against women+ .t the level o% an inde6, high scores on education and health among 9: states o% India Eran ing !erala %irstF have mas ed womenHs poor employment pro%ile+ The state ran ed 9) or 9: according to di%%erent measures o% income shares 1ased on gender wor participation rates and wage rates ESeeta Pra1hu et al 9CC(F+ High rates o% literacy and impressive levels o% %emale education did not translate into rapid growth o% paid employment %or women nor into upward occupational mo1ility+9 -n the other hand the state was witnessing downtrends in women"s property rights, growing levels o% gender 1ased violence, particularly domestic violence, and rapid growth and spread o% dowry and related crime even while the levels o% education continued to rise+ 8e argue that in %act the non conventional indicators are closely related to the conventional: EaF 8omen"s e6posure to education, e6tremely high levels o% %emale unemployment and tremendous emphasis on women to 1e married contri1ute to increased %amily tension and domestic con%lict+ This has 1een o1served particularly in situations when educated women marry less educated men with good 0o1s, which are on the increase in !erala ERa0an et al 9CC*F+ The most common cause o% psychological stress among women who are educated is the lac o% employment and the roles they are e6pected to assume a%ter marriage EHalli1urton, 9CC<F+ .re these simply an indication that patriarchal codes are 1eing resisted; There are de%initive signs that women are less willing or less a1le to comply with male e6pectations ?? diso1edience 1eing a %re7uently cited reason %or wi%e 1eating+ .t the social level, the emphasis on getting girls married and the widespread resort to dowry indicate a strengthening o% patriarchal norms+ 1F @ow participation in paid employment and decline in inheritance rights restricts access to earned and inherited resources there1y reducing women"s a1ility to own and control property+ 8omen"s lac o% control over property is associated with dowry?related crime and domestic violence against women+ 8hat have women in !erala done with their impressive gains in education, health and demographic advantage; 8here have these >achievements" 1een directed; These 7uestions underscore the importance o% a re?evaluation o% the conventional indicators+ 8e %ocus particularly on women"s employment in the conte6t o% the gendered trade o%% 1etween employment and domesticity in the conte6t o% rising levels o% education o% women and women"s growing vulnera1ility to violence in the conte6t o% restrictions on their property rights and access to earned incomes+ The contemporary trends in education, employment and property rights need to 1e situated in the conte6t o% social and legal re%orm in the
1

Work participation, particularly access to earned incomes is an important aspect of empowerment t ou! "y itself it does not ensure control o#er earnin!s or women$s a"ility to take %self&interested$ decisions'

18

early twentieth century+ Hence the %irst part o% this note recounts the success o% re%orms in changing social institutions, particularly marriage and %amily, among a cross section o% social groups in !erala+ In the second part, we have pro1ed deeper into educational attainment 1y gender not only in terms o% levels as is done in constructing the G#I, 1ut also 1y the pattern o% education+ This is %ollowed 1y an analysis o% women"s employment and drawing up o% lin ages 1etween education, employment and domesticity+ In the third part we turn to women"s property rights, document evidence o% a con0ugal %ramewor o% property >holding" and discuss evidence o% increasing rates o% crime against women in the state+ have mas ed women"s poor employment pro%ile Social Re%orm, Gender and 5amily ,ew %orms o% une7ual power relations 1etween men and women were institutionali2ed in !erala through comprehensive social re%orm in the early?mid twentieth century+ Social re%orm involved a wide array o% processes particularly modern education and employment, missionary intervention, pu1lic de1ate, mo1ili2ation and campaign 1y re%orm oriented organi2ations and individuals+ It shaped distinct 1oundaries 1etween the private and the pu1lic on the one hand 1y giving currency to new ideals o% marriageK%amily and on the other negotiating a gendered relationship 1etween marriage, higher education and paid employment+ The ideals o% marriageK%amily cut across caste, class and religion in setting up a gender?1ased separation o% spheres 1etween the hus1and as the legal?economic protector o% his wi%e and children and the wi%e as responsi1le %or the home, supportive o% her hus1and 1ut his legal dependent+ This was clearly distinct %rom the position o% marriage in the pre?e6isting 0oint %amilies, more so when they were matrilineal E!odoth, &))9F+ The new notion o% gender was rooted in the 1elie% that men and women were inherently EnaturallyF di%%erent in terms o% their s ills and capa1ilities and hence their responsi1ilities were 1est organised along these di%%erences E#evi a, &))&F+ However it was also argued that their respective s ills and capa1ilities had to 1e property %ostered through the e6ercise o% discipline EI1idF+ 8hen legal?material patronage 1y men was %ramed primarily and very generally Eamong matrilineal and patrilineal groups ali eF in the conte6t o% marriage a turn towards patriliny was almost implied in it+ Patrilineal inheritance and descent also 1ecame ey %actors in the assertion o% new social identities in the early?mid twentieth century+ Importantly social re%ormers associated success in the economic sphere very generally with patrilineal institutions+ The clearest case o% this was the 1elie% that matriliny was the source o% economic decline o% the groups that practiced it 1ecause it did not recogni2e ties o% property 1etween %ather and children+ Here re%ormers posed the marital %amily as natural and superior to the matrilineal %amily and sought to tie women"s interests to marriage+ Surprisingly however even among the Syrian Dhristians, a patrilineal group whose economic %ortunes had risen considera1ly since the mid nineteenth

19

century, re%orm was motivated 1y the need to strengthen and consolidate patriliny+ Ouestions o% inheritance and succession were o% greater importance to the more propertied groups+ The ma0or non?propertied groups stand apart %rom this mainstream conte6t+ Institutional 7uestions o% the ind that dominated re%orm among the propertied groups Ediscussed laterF were not so important among the lowest castes+ Here social re%orm movements were centrally concerned with addressing caste indignity through education and agrarian struggle %or 1etter wor ing conditions+ Net the onus o% community honourKdignity was made to rest heavily on women+ .nd as among other the upper castes, women"s 1odies 1ecame the sites o% contestation and inscription o% community identity, as evident %or instance in the struggle to endow women with a >respecta1le" dress code Esee Saradamoni, 9C<)F+ @ower caste and agrarian struggles 7uestioned the %eudal rights that upper caste men had over lower caste women 1ut well within a %ramewor o% patriarchal rights o% lower caste men+ The scheduled castes are among the groups that continue to 1e outside the development achievements that have made !erala so well nown+ In this conte6t it is a point %or re%lection that marriages tend to 1e much more unsta1le and the economic provisioning role o% women is underlined among precisely these and other marginalised groups EIyl, 9CC:, Mencher, 9C<C, @ind1erg, &))9F+ . 1rie% issue 1ased review %rom a gender perspective o% re%orm among the Dhristians, Muslims, ,am1udiris, I2havas and ,airs %ollows+ %ourtin' -nterprise throu'h Patrilin . the matrilineal castes -nly one caste, the ,airs were matrilineal throughout !erala+ However most other castes and religious groups were matrilineal in speci%ic regions+ Matriliny in !erala was plagued 1y re%erences to se6ual permissiveness among women and male irresponsi1ility as hus1ands and %athers E!odoth, &))&F+ /irtually all social? re%orm oriented agencies targeted the >se6ual economy" o% matrilineal %amilies+ The %irst voices o% censure rose in all li elihood %rom the Dhristian missionaries Esee George MathanF+ Importantly marriage re%orm was among the %ounding agendas o% organised social re%orm among the ma0or matrilineal groups, the ,airs and A2havasKTiyas+ Gradually social re%ormers %rom these castes too to campaign to rewor customary practices+ The most prominent o% the customs identi%ied %or re%orm were the li%e cycle rituals, including marriage that had come to 1e seen as cele1rating women"s se6uality+ .nother set o% customs that prevented women %rom moving 1etween territories 1y proscri1ing them %rom crossing speci%ic rivers that constituted cultural 1oundaries and restrictions against women marrying men o% the same caste 1ut %rom other regions too came under the lens o% social re%orm+ In north !erala the Ittara !erala ,air Sama0am was instrumental in organising people against these territorial in0unctions+ I% these rules were seen as socially 1ac ward and restrictive %or women the primary motivation was tied to the needs o% the growing num1ers o% men who were 1eing educated and employed outside the region+ Re%orm organisations were closely attentive to evolving new and appropriate rituals and practices+ .mong the A2havasKTiyas they prescri1ed a speci%ic

20

marriage ritual that attached central importance to the kan adana Egi%t o% the girlF+ ,air re%ormers too strove to generalise a new idiom o% marriage+ 5or instance the leader o% the Ittara !erala ,air Sama0am re%used to attend marriages that were conducted in the traditional manner at night and campaigned hard to have marriages %ormali2ed during the day+ He argued that the traditional practice carried with it a strong %lavour o% the se6ual permissiveness that permitted men to snea in 1y night and have se6ual relations with ,air women without ta ing any material responsi1ility %or them and their children+ It is instructive that the rituals and practices advocated 1y re%ormers all spo e the language o% women"s se6ual discipline, modern domesticity and male responsi1ility as hus1ands and %athers E!odoth, &))&F+ Hence social re%orm went a long way in altering the >commonsense" o% matriliny+ The perceived lin 1etween patriliny and enterprise was used power%ully in the re%orm propaganda o% 1oth the ,airs and A2havasKTiyas+ Patrilineal marriage and inheritance customs were pro0ected as superior to matrilineal ones across matrilineal castes+ ,air re%ormers in particular argued that matrilineal men had no incentive to wor and accumulate wealth as they could not pass it on to their wives and children, with whom they shared Eit was claimedF the most intimate and natural 1onds+ They attri1uted the commercial success o% the Syrian Dhristians to their patrilineal %orm o% %amily and saw the matrilineal %amily, comprising a woman, her children and descendents in the %emale line, as lac ing in natural a%%inities+ The matrilineal 0oint %amily was dismantled %ormally through a series o% legislations that 1y the mid twentieth century permitted partition o% ancestral property on individual lines, provided %or compulsory monogamy and maintenance o% wi%e and children 1y the hus1and and sanctioned patrilineal and spousal inheritance E!odoth, &))9, &))&F+ -xcludin' /omen &rom *nheritance and Succession. the S rian %hristians The inheritance and succession practices o% the Dhristians o% Travancore and Dochin, where the large ma0ority o% Dhristians lived, were altered through statutory re%orm in 9C9( and 9C&9 respectively+ These legislations distinguished 1etween di%%erent groups o% Dhristians in the state, particularly the more numerous Syrian Dhristians and other groups+ 5or the Syrian Dhristians, a community that was at the turn o% the twentieth century clearly settling into its rapid economic gains o% over hal% a century, the legislations were directed at de%ining and restricting women"s property rights+ This was achieved 1y aF channeling women"s property through dowry rather than inheritance, 1F restricting dowry to Rs :))) or one third EDochinF and one %ourth ETravancoreF the share o% men in parental property whichever was less and cF providing a widow with no more than a li%e interest Eas against a trans%era1le a1solute interestF in a man"s property, which was also su10ect to %or%eiture i% she remarried+ These laws placed on record the highly limited nature o% women rights to material support %rom their natal %amily while placing their claims to property o% their marital %amily on an entirely une7ual %ooting with those o% men+ Motivating the re%orms was the >commonsense" o% patriliny that conservation o% property patrilineally was crucial to >enterprise" and to the economic consolidation o% a community+ Thus re%orm

21

oriented sections pointed out that compulsory division among sons and daughters %ragmented property and while compulsory partition already e6isted among men there was no >0usti%ication in e6tending this still %urther"+ .lso dowry claims were seen as impoverishing men+ In this conte6t, the perceived lin 1etween patriliny and enterprise was used on the one hand to deny a %air share o% %amily property to women and on the other to su1ordinate and tie women"s interests to that o% men within 1oth the natal and marital %amily+ The urge to conserve property through strict patriliny also served to consolidate religious identity %or Danon law and ecclesiastical authorities were dominant re%erence points in the process o% law re%orm+ The Travancore and Dochin Dhristian Succession .cts were repealed only in 9C<( though with retrospective e%%ect %rom 9C:9 1y a decision o% the Supreme Dourt on a case 1y a Syrian Dhristian woman who challenged them citing the constitutional provision o% e7uality o% men and women E!odoth, &))'F+ Settin' the 0oundaries o& /omen#s 1reedom. Social 2e&orm amon' the 3ambudiris ,umerically very small the ,am1udiris dominated social and economic relations in !erala until well into the colonial period+ It was the decline o% their position 1y the early twentieth century that %ormed the conte6t %or re%orm o% %amily customs+ Aconomic decline was seen as closely lin ed to their social and cultural practices+ .s a community the ,am1udiris shunned modern education considering it polluting and were slow entrants into the modern pro%essions and growing areas o% economy such as trade+ They practiced an acute %orm o% primogeniture, which permitted only the oldest ,am1udiri male in the %amily to marry within the community leaving the rest to %ind women %rom the permitted sections o% the lower castes+ This meant that many women either remained unmarried or had much older polygamous hus1ands+ =y the late nineteenth century ,am1udiri men were nown to e6change daughters in marriage so as to prevent girls %rom remaining unmarried and also avoid the large dowries that had to 1e paid+ Nounger mem1ers o% ,am1udiri %amilies were at the %ore%ront o% re%orm o% marriage, inheritance and succession+ They reached out to modern education, claimed the right to marry within the community and to inherit property separately+ Dampaign culminated in separate legislation %or Travancore, Dochin and Mala1ar during the 9C')s, which recognised the right o% ,am1udiri men to marry within the community and institutionalised monogamy+ Partition o% 0oint %amily property was permitted only in Mala1ar+ Though partition was on individual lines, married couples were re7uired to ta e their shares together+ #ivision 1etween spouses was possi1le only i% one o% them changed religion+ Importantly, re%orm did raise the need %or women to 1rea %ree o% tradition Eand indeed many women entered the campaignF+ However even the radical sections o% re%ormers were categorical a1out the need to de%ine the 1oundaries o% women"s %reedom to the interests o% a modernised %amily and community E!odoth, 9CC<F+ I% primogeniture was condemned %or e6cluding younger males, re%orm carried %orward an intensely patriarchal impulse+ This is evident in the e%%orts to anchor women"s interests and property to a patrilineal marital %amily+

22

The de1ate on the legislation %or Mala1ar in the Madras @egislative .ssem1ly is instructive here + The provision %or compulsory monogamy in the Madras ,am1udiri =ill, 9C'& E%or Mala1arF was sought unsuccess%ully to 1e amendment on the grounds that it would motivate men to divorce their present wi%e i% they wanted to marry again+ This it was argued would leave her unprotected+ The proponents o% polygamy also cited the sanction o% polygamy under Hindu law to legitimise their claim+ In the second phase o% re%orm separate legislation in Travancore, Dochin and Mala1ar were repealed and consolidated in the !erala ,am1udiri .ct, 9C:<+ The new legislation provided %or individual partition o% 0oint %amily property+ Inder the regional laws women"s property rights were split 1etween a dowry %rom the natal %amily and a maintenance or share in the marital %amily property+ This split nature o% women"s property rights arising %rom the patrilineal conte6t o% inheritance and succession was now raised as a pro1lem+ There was much an6iety in the house that on partition women could claim independent shares in her natal and her marital %amily+ .s Thanu Pillai argued, 3as soon as she gets the property o% her hus1and she leaves him and comes away+ It is not impossi1le+ .t least they must ta e their shares together+ In the case o% divorce the properties must revert to the original owner+ 8e have seen so many wic ed women+ -% course, we can see men also li e that+4 E!erala @egislative Proceedings, /ol I/, no 9?9:, 5e1 March, 9C:<F+ #espite opposition, the .ct permitted partition on individual lines+ However to cur1 the possi1ility o% indiscipline 1y women, it was also argued that a woman"s identity with her marital %amily should 1e advanced %orce%ully+ 3PMarriageQ is the occasion %or claiming partition P1y womenQ+ ,ot only that a person who married into another %amily?it may 1e in another community?ceases to 1e a mem1er o% the illom E0oint %amily o% the ,am1udirisF a%ter her marriage+ Then necessarily she must as %or her share+ (he proper provision would be to compel her to have her share soon a&ter the marria'e Eemphasis addedF E.+ Thanu Pillai, !erala @egislative Proceedings, /ol I/, no 9?9:, 5e1 March, 9C:<F+ The legislation provided that upon marriage a woman would cease to 1e a mem1er o% the %amily into which she was 1orn+ She was entitled to the marriage e6penses and a marriage settlement+ The amount she could claim was %i6ed at one third o% what would %all to her share upon partition per capita+ 1ore'roundin' 2eli'ious *dentit throu'h 1amil 2e&orm. the 4uslims .long with the growing voice %or greater identi%ication with Islamic laws, the association o% natural a%%inities with marriage came to the %ore also in the campaign %or legal changes among the matrilineal Muslims o% northern !erala+ The Muslims were concentrated in Mala1ar and their position was in many ways similar to that o% the Syrian Dhristians in Travancore+ In north Mala1ar and small enclaves o% south Mala1ar they were matrilineal+ The Mappilla Maruma atayam .ct, 9C'C provided matrilineal Muslims with the right to see partition o% 0oint property, %ull testamentary right and devolution o% separate property according to the Shariat E#errett, 9CCCF+ . !erala amendment in 9C(' e6tended the statute to all !erala, su1stituted the word Mappilla with Muslim and 1rought devolution o%

23

ancestral property under the Shariat+ These changes were underpinned 1y local level campaign that targeted customs that were perceived as not 1een in accordance with Islamic principles+ The Hindu Dode o% 9C:( including separate laws on marriage and succession was made applica1le to all castes and social groups de%ined as >Hindu"+ The matrilineal castes and the ,am1udiris were however treated on slightly di%%erent terms most prominently in their e6clusion %rom the patrilineal Hindu coparcenary property to which only men en0oyed survivorship rights+ Aventually the !erala Hindu Joint 5amily E.1olitionF .ct, 9CB( did away with the notion o% 0oint %amily property reducing all property to separate property on which spouses, children and parents had prior claims+ However, this volume o% re%orm activity in the legal sphere among the Hindus has stood in contrast to the reluctance o% the post independent state to re%orm Muslim or Dhristian personal laws E.gnes, 9CCCF+ #espite repeated pleas %or re%orm, the marriage and divorce laws o% the Dhristians enacted in the nineteenth century and plagued 1y highly gender discriminatory clauses continue to stand+ =esides, the Supreme Dourt decision that repealed the inheritance laws o% the Dhristians o% Travancore and Dochin in %avour o% the more gender e7uitous Indian Succession .ct, 9C&: was met with strong and organised resistance %rom the community and church+ It is also instructive that %ew women so %ar have 1een a1le to ris community displeasure and ta e advantage o% it EJaisingh, 9CCCF+ The process o% wea ening o% women"s customary rights to property was gradual and corresponded to their greater identi%ication with marriage and dependence on the hus1and or marital in+ Social Re%orm and 8omen"s Aducation 8omen"s education was recognised as the 1edroc o% social re%orm+ Madhava Rao, the #ewan most closely associated with Travancore"s impressive record o% moderni2ation, noted in the 9<()s 3very little, i% anything, has 1een done, %or %emale education+ This su10ect calls %or prompt attention, as such education must 1e among other advantages the %oundation o% important social re%orms4 ETravancore .dministrative Report, 9<(&?(': ** cited in Salim and ,air &))9: *<F+ The government and particularly the Dhristian missionaries advanced girl"s education through special measures including the setting up o% separate girl"s schools, training o% women teachers on a priority 1asis and providing concessions on %ees+ 8hile they relied greatly on a gender 1ased separation o% spheres to persuade people to send girl children to school, the missionaries also promoted the idea that education would only strengthen women to play appropriately womanly roles most prominently those o% wives and mothers EHaggis 9CC<: C)F+ =y the early twentieth century 1esides the state, re%orm? minded individuals, caste organisations and Dhristian groups were active in starting schools in all the regions o% !erala+ However, the importance attached to women"s education remained tied to the compulsions o% social re%orm contri1uting at least partly to regional variations in the spread o% education+ This particular approach to women"s education has meant severe constraints on their %reedoms+ Ro1in Je%%ery E9CC&: 99F pro1a1ly stands alone in the

24

o1servation that 3women in !erala 1ecame increasingly o1vious in schools and colleges and salaried 0o1s+ =ut at the same time, their autonomy may well have declined+ Their salaries went into co%%ers now increasingly li ely to 1e controlled 1y hus1ands4+ However he %ails to pro1e this %urther and li e legions o% commentators on !erala"s development e6perience ends up cele1rating women"s instrumental role+ 3#emocratic politics, involving large sections o% a population, can 1e made to provide services that people need and, conse7uently, use+ 5iterate) con&ident women will) as domestic mana'ers) turn such services into better health &or men and women alike 4 Eemphasis addedF EJe%%rey, 9CC&: &&<F+ Dontemporary trends in women"s education, employment and property rights i+e+, the continued gains in education as against the huge restrictions on employment and property rights are in%ormed strongly 1y an institutional conte6t wrought 1y early?mid twentieth century re%orm hence the latter could help understand the %ormer+ 8omen"s Aducation and Amployment Aducated unemployment is clearly a most serious pro1lem in !erala, 1ut also much more so %or women than %or men+ 8hile the %actors shaping 0o1 pre%erences are crucial in understanding educated unemployment in the state, they are also strongly gendered and hence distinct %or men and women+ 5or women paid employment is ranged against the demands o% %ull time domesticity 1ut also raises the possi1ility o% disrupting conventional norms+ This is clearly re%lected in the nature o% women"s 0o1 pre%erences, which re%lect patriarchal interests in accordance with what is considered socially desira1le %or women $ restricted mo1ility and high status wor + #espite Hdesira1leH inds o% wor 1eing highly limited, as re%lected in high rates o% educated %emale unemployment, women eep their aspirations alive 1y continuing in the education stream longer E!umar 9CC&F+ However unli e men %or whom the need to %ind employment is clearly central E-sella and -sella, &)))F %or women a greater num1er o% years in a general education could 1e perceived as 1eing in the interests o% the %amily as it could %oster more e%%ective child care, health and education+ This accords with the generali2ed orientation o% women"s education and wor Kemployment in directions that either actively %oster %emale domesticity or at least do not threaten to desta1ili2e it EAapen and !odoth, &))&F+ Pattern o& -ducation b Gender The high levels o% %emale literacy in !erala have 1een well documented+ 8omen"s achievements have 1een close on the heels o% that o% men: over the decadal periods since 9C(9, gender 1ased disparity Eratio o% male literacy rate to %emale literacy rateF has narrowed rather sharply %rom 9+'C to 9+)B 1y 9CC9 and remained at the same level in &))9 EAapen and !odoth, &))&F+ Some o% the more nota1le achievements have 1een the near universalisation o% primary education %or 1oth girls and 1oys, and the very low Ecompared to all?IndiaF school drop?out rates %or girls which in %act are higher %or 1oys since at least the early seventies at each level o% school education E.m1ili 9CC(F+

25

However, what gets o1scured 1y the very high aggregate literacy levels in the state is EaF the lower Ethan all?IndiaF proportion o% >graduate and a1ove" category, among 1oth men and women in !erala as discussed elsewhere in the ReportG and E1F the gender di%%erentiated pattern o% higher education within the state as it has evolved over time+ .lthough gender disparity is e6tremely low in the 9)th standard, Eeven reversed to some e6tent at the pre?Iniversity and non?technical diploma levelsF and currently women %ar e6ceed men in graduate and post graduate education in the arts and science courses &, they lag %ar 1ehind men in pro%essionalKtechnical education e6cept in pro%essions such as nursing, where there are %ew men, and teaching, where the ratio is in %avour o% women+ However, women %ormed less than one third o% the students enrolled in engineering colleges Ein 9CCBF+ Similarly in the lower technical educational institutions which are 0o1 oriented the inta e o% girls is 1elow 9) per cent in technical schools, 1etween 9' and &' per cent in ITIs and ITDs Etwo year courseF and 1etween ') and *) percent in polytechnics during the C)s+ The inta e o% girls in the &?year technical courses is negligi1le e6cept in civil dra%tsman and radioKT/KelectronicKwatch mechanic trades ENears;F E8omen in !erala &))9F+ In a stri ing contrast in the ITIHs and ITDHs Eone year courseF data on trade wise inta e reveals a preponderance o% women in stenography, dress?ma ing, cutting and tailoring, secretarial practice and data preparation ETa1le &F+ Dlearly women have limited entry into the more masculine speciali2ations while dominating those that are already identi%ied with women+ =y and large the latter calls %or less mo1ility, are li ely to have more women in the wor place and may have %le6i1le arrangements in terms o% ta e homewor + This orientation o% women"s education, in particular the overwhelming crowding o% women in general arts and science courses at the graduate and postgraduate levels is largely in the hope o% white? collar employment+ However it also e7uips women with s ills they could call upon in the interests o% the %amily+ /omen and /ork *. 5evels o& Participation.Kerala and all6*ndia 8omen in !erala have hitherto scored poorly in terms o% recorded participation in paid employment, 1oth in relation to women at the all India level and in relation to men in the state+ 5emale 8PRs Ein terms o% usual principal and su1sidiary statusF in !erala had 1een among the lowest in India+ Durrently while over a 7uarter o% the %emale population is recorded as economically active at the all India level, the proportion is a1out &' percent in the state+ The di%%erence is primarily due to lower rural %emale 8PRs in !erala+ However in relation to all India the ur1an situation in !erala seems %avoura1le+ .1out one %i%th o% women in ur1an !erala are employed compared to less than 9* percent at the all India level+ .nd, unli e at the all India level, which has witnessed a decline in %emale 8PRs in 1oth rural and ur1an areas in the C)s ESundaram &))9F, there has 1een greater sta1ility in !erala+ ETa1le 'F+ However, there is a catch+ #ata on the activity status o% those who are employed shows that the num1er o% days o% wor
2

("out two t irds of t e students enrolled in !raduate courses were !irls and almost t ree fourt s in post !raduate courses )Women in *erala 2001+'

26

is much higher %or women in rural and ur1an India and it increased during 9CC'? C* and 9CCC?))+ .longside this the num1er o% days o% unemployment declined in India as also the days not in the la1our %orce+ In !erala the num1er o% days o% wor has declined in rural areas and showed no change in ur1an areas+ However, the days o% unemployment increased in rural !erala while in ur1an areas there was an increase in the num1er o% days women reported Hnot see ingKnot availa1le %or wor H, i+e+, were not in the la1our %orce+ ETa1le *F+ This suggests a higher incidence o% short duration employment %or women in !erala and a revealed pre%erence o% ur1an women %or withdrawal %rom paid wor + 8e need to 1ear in mind here that women in !erala en0oy higher wage rates EcasualF in 1oth rural and ur1an areas than in other parts o% the country and hence their annual earnings may still 1e higher+ =olstered 1y increasing male 8PRs, as we see later, and higher household earnings it is entirely li ely that women are withdrawing into %ull?time domesticity %or signi%icant parts o% the year+ This could re%lect an Hin%ormedH choice, an option re%lecting greater leisure or time to attend to householdK%amily concerns+ Net we cannot ignore the strong element o% uncertainty implicit in a declineKconstancy in the num1er o% days wor ed in the C)s+ Such a choice entails considera1le ris o% vulnera1ility 1y reducing womenHs direct access to earned incomes and increasing their dependence on their hus1ands or others ii. 5evels o& Participation b Gender and -ducation in Kerala 5emale 8PRs in !erala are less than hal% o% those %or malesR&' percent vis?S? vis :: percent %or males and while the latter has increased since 9C<B?<<, %emale 8PRs as we o1served a1ove remained constant during the C)s Esee Ta1le 'F+ The wor er se6 ratio E%emale wor ers per 9))) male wor ersF which had declined %rom almost :'( in 9C<B?<< to a1out *'C in 9CC'?C*, %urther declined to *'( in 9CC?))+ This is re%lected also in a decline in the share o% women in the total wor %orce %rom ': percent to ')+: in the early nineties and then %urther to ')+' percent in 9CCC?)) 'G so much %or >%emini2ation" o% the wor %orce+ Aven among the highly educated women in !erala, Ethat is, graduate and a1oveF latest data reveal that the wor er participation rates were 'B percent Eur1anF and '& percent EruralF compared with <B percent and <& percent respectively %or men+ 5urther, gender disparity in levels o% educated employment Eratio o% male graduate 8PR to %emale graduate 8PRF has widened marginally %rom &+) to &+* in the nineties ETa1le :F+ The ta1le also throws up the very low levels o% %emale participation in the secondary and plus two categories, apparently with no other s ill ac7uisition and hence very little potential %or a >status" 0o1+ ,ot surprisingly this segment records the highest incidence o% educated %emale unemployment+ 5evels o& 7nemplo ment .ttempts to e6plain low %emale wor participation rates in terms o% greater overall unemployment in !erala are inade7uate %or while %emale unemployment rate %ar
3

, ese percenta!es a#e "een estimated on t e "asis of a"solute num"ers in t e work force and its composition deri#ed from t e W-.s and population data'

27

e6ceeds that o% men generally, this is particularly so among the educated+ -ur earlier discussion reveals that women"s 0o1 pre%erences have also played a role in constraining their opportunities %or wor + 5emale educated unemployment is as high as '* percent in ur1an areas Ein 9CCC?))F compared to a1out B percent %or men+ .nd while educated unemployment has declined %or all men in the C)s, it has increased %or women particularly in rural areas+ ETa1le (F+ Given high levels o% educated unemployment it is entirely li ely that these women are una1le to procure 0o1s commensurate with their educational s ills and pre%erences, choosing to remain unemployed+ ,agara0 E9CCCF has argued that high unemployment rates %or women Eand menF in states such as !erala vis?a?vis relatively 1ac ward states? IP, MP and Ra0asthan? are largely due to constraints in >s ill utilisation": wor see ers may not 1e willing to accept employment at the wages 1eing o%%ered+ It has also 1een suggested, as mentioned a1ove, that women in !erala continue in the educational stream in the a1sence o% availa1ility o% >desired" employment opportunities E!umar 9CC&F+ However men 1oth educated and otherwise are %ar more success%ul in %inding employment+ It is instructive that the nature o% their employment, increasingly away %rom agriculture and with considera1le resort to options li e migration, reveals high degrees o% mo1ility+ There is strong ground %or us to consider the social conte6t in which women"s 0o1 pre%erences are shaped+ ,early three %ourths o% the unemployed women in a recent study o% women"s education, employment and 0o1 pre%erences reported that they were unemployed 1ecause they had not 1een a1le to %ind 0o1s o% their pre%erence E@a shmi #evi, &))&F+ -% the %actors constituting pre%erence, social status and pro6imity to the home were the most important+ Industrial and -ccupational Structure The historical speci%icity o% the region has thrown up a more di%%erentiated industrial structure %or women in !erala compared to all India ETa1le BF, with a much larger proportion o% women in non?agricultural employment E*C percent, the highest among the states o% IndiaF+ .griculture still accounts %or a1out () percent o% %emale employment in rural areas though a1solute num1ers employed have 1een declining in !erala, partly due to a changing cropping pattern and partly, as micro studies have shown Esome o% which are cited laterF, young, literate wor see ers are unwilling to wor in this low status occupation+ ,on?agricultural segments, which a1sor1 a high proportion o% women, are manu%acturing, trade, hotels and pu1lic administration, social and personal servicesG in all three, women"s employment has grown in the nineties+ However, direct estimates o% employment in the in%ormal sector * in 9CCC?)) show that over three %ourths o% the %emale wor ers in manu%acturing %all in the in%ormal sector and in trade, hotels it is over hal%+ In the pu1lic, social and personal services the share o% %ormal sector is high+

, ese data are "rou! t out for t e first time "y t e /001 to!et er wit t e 55t .ound on 2mployment and 3nemployment in 4ndia'

28

8ithin an overall conte6t o% low wor participation rates, higher levels o% literacy have certainly ena1led women to procure a higher share o% organi2ed sector employment in !erala compared to other states in India+ The wor er se6 ratio E%emale employees per 9))) male employeesF in the organi2ed sector was :*& %or !erala Ehighest among the 9: ma0or statesF vis?S?vis 9<< %or all India+ However, wor er se6 ration was very high in the private organised sector, <*< compared to '** in the pu1lic sector ESrivastatva 9CCCF+ The %igures over time reveal that the growth in the proportion o% women in organised sector employment in !erala li e in rest o% India has 1een in the private sector+ There was a decline in pu1lic sector employment %rom almost '' percent in the early nineties to a1out ') percent in &))) E8omen in !erala &))9F+ Private sector employment is generally less secure and does not always carry non?wage 1ene%its+ .dditionally, the occupational structure suggests that the larger proportion o% women in the %ormal sector, would in all pro1a1ility, 1e located at the lower end o% the wor er hierarchy, aided 1y the generali2ed orientation o% womenHs education to speci%ic areas, %acilitating occupational segregation+ It is instructive to loo at the occupational distri1ution o% women in 9C<B?<<

)a#le 3( Work 3orce /articipation Rates 45s&al /rincipal and %&#sidiar$ %tat&s6 !erala 9C<B?<< R :)+( &<+( 9CC'?C* :'+B &'+< 9CCC?)) ::+' &'+< .ll?India 9C<B?<< :'+C '&+( 9CC'?C* ::+' '&+< :&+9 9:+: :*+* &<+' *9+< 9CCC?)) :'+9 &C+C :9+< 9'+C :&+B &:+* 'C+:

M R5 I5

:'+) ::+C ::+< :)+( 9C+< &)+' &)+' 9:+& Total M :9+& :*+' ::+* :'+9 5 &(+: &&+C &&+C &<+9 P '<+( '<+' '<+B *9+9 Source: 9C<B?<<: Sarve shana, Septem1er 9CC) 9CC'?C*: Sarve shana, July?Septem1er 9CC( 9CCC?)): Sarve shana

29

)a#le 7( /ercenta!e distri#&tion of &s&all$ ,orkin! #$ occ&pation !ro&p

9C<B?<< ) and 9pro%,tech rel w rs )< nursing,other medKhlth technician 9: teachers div & adm,e6ec, manag w rs div ' clerical and related w rs ')?': cler M oth supervisors,vill o%% stenoKtypists,computing mach oper '(?'C div * sales wor ers *)merchants,shop eepers, wsaleKret *' *&?** div : service wor ers :9?:(h eeper,maid,lunderer ,1eautician div(%armer,%ishermen, hunter (9) and (99cultivEownerKtenantF (' agric la1ourer (* plantation la1our (9C,(: (&,((,(B+(< div B?CprodKrel w r,transp e7uip oper B& metal processors B:spinner+ nitter,weaver,dy er BCtailor,dressma er,sewer,u phosterer B',B*,B(,B< <),<9shoeKleathgdma er, carpenter and <&?<C C:1ric layerKoth constrn w r C<engineKrel e7uipment oper,oiler !erala rural male %emale &+& (+: )+9 )+: 9+C 9+B '+' :+' 9 &+* ur1an male %emale B+9 &9+& )+' '+C 9+B * 9)+( C+9 9*+& 9+' 9<+< 9'+' India rural male &+9 )+9 9+' )+< 9+< %emale 9+9 )+& )+< )+* )+& 9) :+( ur1an male (+C )+* &+9 :+: %emale 9&+C & C+* &+(

9:+: B+& &+' *+& )+' :)+< 9) 9B+9 <+< )+' 9*+( &*+& )+C

' & 9 B+B )+( :)+B (+: &:+: :+C )+' 9&+: &'+' (+<

9+: 9B+* 9)+: (+9 (+( '+' 9*+C

: (+' *+' 9+< 9*+9 9&+C &)+(

*+B '+: 9 *+& )+'

&+& 9+: )+( B+B )+(

9+& 9<+( 99+C :+B <+& *+* <+:

)+* <+C :+C &+: 9B+B 9:+< &9+&

*9 &(+C )+< )+< '+C 9*+' 9+'

'(+& ': 9 )+B :+' C+' 9+B

'<+< )+* &+9 &+< &+* 9' '+C :+*

&&+9 ) '+< :+B '+( 9+( &+9 )

&<+' )+< '+C &+( 9+& 9&+9 ' :+(

')+: )+9 :+: '+< ( &+& ' )+9

30

In ur1an !erala, the share o% women in pro%essional categories is &9 percent, which is higher than %or all India at 9' percent+ However, a %urther dis aggregation shows that most o% the women are engaged in the lower rungs o% the pro%essional hierarchy ? teaching 1ut largely in schools EAapen and !odoth &))&F+ In the medical pro%ession the larger num1er appears to 1e in nursingKother health technicians+ -ther occupations are clerical, li e stenoKtypist, computing machine operators, corresponding closely to the training they opt %or Ediscussed earlierFG within service wor ers a very high proportion o% women in ur1an areas are employed as house eeper, maid, coo , launderer, 1eauticians etcG very %ew are in managerial, administrative occupations+ The larger proportion o% women continue as agricultural la1ourers, plantation wor ers in rural areas and as production process wor ers in ur1an areas o% which manu%acturing Elargely in the in%ormal sectorF is an important component+ =esides these macro data, certain micro studies over several decades provide insights into the nature o% gender di%%erentiated occupational mo1ility+ Prominently greater diversi%ication o% household incomes and male signi%icant out?migration have 1een associated with high levels o% male occupational mo1ility 1ut also the con%inement o% women to low paying conventional occupations Eagricultural la1ourKtraditional industryF or to >household duties"+ This could 1e demonstrated 1y ta ing up two sets o% wor in%ormed 1y very di%%erent employment conte6ts+ Dhasin E9CC)F points out that 1etween 9CB9 and 9C<(?<B in a central !erala village, which was predominantly rice cultivating and little a%%ected 1y Gul% remittances, women had registered much less occupational mo1ility than men+ In 9C<(?<B, the largest proportion o% women were engaged in household duties E'( percent, though this was a decline %rom :* percent in 9CB9F or were unemployed E'& percent as against 9C percent o% menF+ #espite unemployment, Dhasin notices that demand %or %emale agricultural la1our goes unmet 3as women seem to pre%er unemployment to la1ouring in the paddy %ields4+ ,evertheless, agricultural la1our continued to 1e the ma0or avenue o% %emale 1ut not o% male employment+ 5ran e and Dhasin E9CC(F analyse the main occupation o% household mem1ers in 9C<(?<B in the same village 1ut the sample is higher $ (B( people as against :*< in Dhasin E9CC)F+ Their %indings support the diverging trend o% male and %emale employmentG women were almost on par with men as studentsG 1ut petty trade, s illed la1our, white collar, service wor , %armer and pro%essional employment were dominated 1y men at an average ratio o% 9): 9 E5ran e and Dhasin, 9CC(F+ The second set o% research was in the conte6t o% male out migration and demonstrate the power%ul in%luence that increased economic resources has on women"s wor patterns ESivanandan, &))&, Jachariah et al, &))', !urien, &))&, -sella and -sella, &)))F+ 5or a 7uic picture we turn to Sivanandan"s survey in 9CCC o% a south Travancore village studied in the Densus o% 9C(9, at which time women were greatly involved in coir ma ing wor + -ver time, access to other incomes, particularly through remittances %rom the Gul% has had a strong impact on women"s wor patterns+ 5emale wor participation plummeted %rom *'

31

percent in 9C(9 to &B percent in 9CCC as against which women in >household duties" rose %rom 9( percent o% women non wor ers in 9C(9 to '& percent in 9CCC+ . second %eature 1orne out in these studies is that women in such upwardly mo1ile or a%%luent households retreat %rom poorly paid manual andKor in%ormal sector wor 1ut are not averse to more employment considered >respecta1le", particularly regular 0o1s in the government sector+ In this conte6t it is revealing to turn to the activities women are engaged in under the caption o% domestic duties+ . much higher proportion o% women in !erala Ethan at all India levelF who report themselves as housewives 1y main occupation 1ut also do some su1sidiary wor are engaged in economic activities at home such as maintenance o% itchen garden, poultry and cattle, which are accepted within the domain o% e6tended?S,. activities+ : ETa1le CF+ ,ota1ly however such wor is home?1ound, evading the negative associations o% paid manual wor 1y women+ .s high as ('C per 9))) women engaged in domestic duties in rural !erala wor in poultry compared to less than ::) in rural India while in ur1an !erala *:< women were engaged in maintenance o% itchen garden etc compared to <) in ur1an India+ Similarly, 9*& per 9))) women in !erala compared to *< per 9))) in India participate in %ree tutoring o% ownKothers" children+ Two in%erences that arise %rom this analysis: 9F that in literate !erala too, women are largely involved in unpaid wor on the household compound and &F that women are directing their educational s ills towards largely invisi1le, home?1ound unpaid services+ This is one suggestion that womenHs educational 7uali%ications have 1een used in the interests o% the %amily+ Net we cannot %orget that not all women can a%%ord %ull time domesticity or su1stitutes %or it in domestic services+ @ow economic status 1rings pressure on women to see wor %or pay+ It has generally 1een noticed that some aspects o% %amily patriarchy 1rea down among poor women owing to the need %or greater mo1ility, their earning power and their responsi1ility %or provisioning the household+ However poor wor ing women have to contend with the larger structures o% patriarchy in discriminatory wages and occupational segregation+ The assumption even at the level o% government policy o% the male 1read winner?woman housewi%e model legitimising lower wages %or women %or compara1le wor through occupational segregation ma es it virtually impossi1le %or them to 1rea out o% poverty E@ind1erg &))9F 8omen"s Property Rights in !erala Though ownership is an appealing starting point to understand women"s property rights, it need not 1e a su%%icient indication o% the latter+ Property in women"s names could merely indicate a %amily arrangement, with no su1stantial 1earing on women"s a1ility to independently manage, trans%er or decide who should inherit it+ .nd yet intensely patrilinealKpatriarchal societies have denied women su1stantial rights to inherit and control property, particularly immova1le property+ In order to develop a ro1ust account o% women"s property rights, we need to thin o% gender disparity in ownership o% property in association with the practices that
5

25tended 0/( )system of national accounts+ acti#ities are acti#ities fallin! outside t e 0/( -roduction "oundary "ut wit in t e !eneral production "oundary, a ma6or part of w ic consists of unpaid ser#ices'

32

regulate gender di%%erentiated access and control over property+ A6isting patterns o% gender?di%%erentiated access are %airly long?term outcomes o% practices that regulate control and trans%er o% property+ Recent data on the e6tent o% land held Eoccupational holdingsF 1y men and women in !erala provides one ind o% indication o% women"s rights to property ?? in the minimal sense o% the e6tent to which women are recognised as controlling occupational holding+( 8omen %rom landholding households have 1een involved e6tensively in a range o% agricultural activities though they have persisted in reporting themselves as housewives EMencher, 9C<<, 9C<C, Saradamoni, 9CC9, ,arayana, &))9F+ This tendency has 1een associated with the negative connotations o% speci%ic inds o% wor %or the status o% the %amily E-sella and -sella &)))F+ Recent research suggests that women are increasingly ta ing over responsi1ility %or management and cultivation o% land in the conte6t o% diversi%ication o% household incomes and the shi%t o% male mem1ers %rom agriculture to other occupations through migration or otherwise EMorrison, 9CCB, .run, 9CCCF+ #espite these %actors however provisional data drawn %rom the agricultural census o% 9CC:?C( %or !erala, suggests a high level o% disparity 1etween men and women in control over landholding+ Ta1le 9) shows that women hold less than a third o% the num1er and area o% operational holdings held 1y men 1ut also that as the si2e o% holdings increase, women"s share o% the num1er o% holdings and area declines+ #isparity in women"s landholding is more pronounced when we turn to the area o% holdings+ In the a1ove 9) hectares category, women hold less than 9) per cent o% total operational holdings and less than %ive per cent o% the area o% operational holdings+
Ta1le 9): Percentage #istri1ution 1y Se6 o% -perational Holdings and .rea under -perational Holdings Ein hectaresF according to Si2e?class groups in !erala E9CC:?C(FT
,um1er o% -perational Holdings Si2e class )+: to 9+) 9+) to &+) &+) to *+) *+) to 9) .1ove 9) Total Male B:+&C <'+*& <*+<B <&+:* ((+(9 B:+BC 5emale &'+B: 9:+)' 9&+<( 9&+') <+(9 &'+9< Institution )+C( 9+:: &+&( :+9( &*+B< 9+)' Dlass EUFV C'+C( *+9( 9+:& )+'9 )+): 9))+) ) .rea under -perational Holdings Male BB+(< <'+:: <*+*) <&+9* **+<* B<+9* 5emal e &9+9( 9*+<< 9'+'& 9&+9C '+(& 9B+9( Institution 9+9( 9+:< &+&B :+(B :9+:* *+B) Dlass EUFW :'+&* &)+** 9*+&* (+)B (+)) 9))+))

T This ta1le is 1ased on provisional data %rom the agricultural census o% 9CC:?C(
6

, e a!ricultural census takes t e ouse old i'e', a commensal unit, as t e unit of enumeration' (s mem"ers of a sin!le ouse old are not reco!nised as 6oint olders, indi#idual oldin!s stand in for ouse olds' 7urt er operational oldin!s do not refer to title or owners ip as t ey include owned and tenanted oldin!s'

33

V Percentage o% the num1er o% holdings in each si2e class to the total num1er o% holdings W Percentage o% the area in each si2e class to the total area under operational holdings+ Source: .gricultural Densus #ivision, #irectorate o% Aconomics and Statistics, Government o% !erala in 8omen in !erala, &))9+ Practices that regulate property rights have strong implications %or women"s a1ility to retain ownership and e6ercise control over property+ Important among them are inheritance rights and dowry trans%ers+ Men and women ac7uire property also through purchase, gi%ts and other inds o% trans%ers 1ut we have already noted that women"s poor occupational pro%ile poses tremendous 1arriers in the way o% their ac7uiring property+ There have 1een de%initive indications over the last 7uarter o% the twentieth century that dowry is replacing inheritance rights as a mode o% trans%er o% property to or on account o% women+ 8hile women"s 1argaining position in their marital %amily could vary with the property they 1ring as a dowry, even a large dowry is no guarantee o% security+ Ip to at least the mid seventies women continued to inherit some property among the matrilineal groups, though distinctions were drawn among di%%erent inds o% property EGough, 9C:&, 5uller, 9CB(F+ . study o% women"s participation in the land mar et in a highland south Travancore village %ound that a much higher proportion o% ,air women than men sold the land they inherited and that >migration due to marriage" was the most important reason %or sale o% land 1y ,air women E/arghese 9C<<F+ This indicates a higher turnover o% immova1le property inherited 1y women in association with patriarchal marriage and residence with the hus1and+ .mong %ormerly matrilineal I2havas in central Travancore, land was sold and the cash e7uivalent given to the hus1and, a %orm o% dowry that is not usually under the control o% the girl+ 38hile a newly wed 1ride living with her hus1and and his relatives is in no position to re%use to relin7uish control over her dowry, her contri1ution may give her some leverage in the %amily4 E-sella and -sella, &))): 9)&F+ -sella and -sella point out that many women no longer have land to pass on to their daughters and mother?daughter inheritance is 1ecoming rare+ In a survey o% widows in selected areas o% north and south India, Dhen E&))): 'B'F %ound that (B U o% the widows she surveyed in !erala had inherited land %rom their hus1and as against only &B U who had inherited land %rom their parents+ 8hen women"s inheritance rights are anchored su1stantially to marriage it underlines their dependence and vulnera1ility within marriage+ There is su1stantial evidence o% the very general resort to dowry payments at the marriages o% girls across a cross section o% social and economic groups+ The practice o% giving stridhanam at the marriage o% a girl was customary among the patrilineal communities ?? the Dhristians, Muslims, I2havas and ,am1udiris $ and has 1een recorded among speci%ic matrilineal groups as well $ Tiyas, Mappillas, and I2havas+ Importantly in the case o% the latter, the dowry did not e6haust

34

women"s right to inherit property+ #owry as a highly >competitive" mar et practice, increasingly divested o% previous customary regulations has 1een documented recently among the Dhristians E/isvanathan, 9CC', !urien, 9CC(F+ .mong the matrilineal groups, over the past hal% century there has 1een a very general shi%t to dowry marriages E-sella and -sella, &))): <:, Puthen alam, 9CBBF+ Aapen and !odoth E&))9F have documented the very general acceptance o% the notion o% dowry in the state+ #owries include a com1ination o% cash, gold, land and consumer dura1les+ -sella and -sella E&))): 9)(F note that some notional distinction was made 1etween land and gold to remain in the 1ride"s name and cash and goods going to the hus1and and his %amily+ In practice however most women lost control over the entire dowry, which is used to support the needs o% the hus1and"s %amily+ Trans%er o% land at marriage is recorded in the community register o% the ,air Service Society E,SSF and Sree ,arayana #harma Paripalana Nogam ES,#PF, in areas where these organi2ations wield clout among the ,airs and I2havas respectively E-sella and -sella &))): 9)(F+ A%%orts at regulation indicate that marriage trans%ers are widely practiced+ Recently, @ind1erg E&))9: &C:?C(F has documented the increasing prevalence and the steep escalation o% dowry paid among cashew wor ers o% di%%erent castes in Ouilon Esouth TravancoreF during the past hal% a century+ 5or women there are no guarantees that they will have title to or control over property trans%erred at marriage on their account, underlining their vulnera1ility during marital con%lict+ 8omen"s property rights hinges on a host o% %actors which are wea or a1sent under a %ramewor o% patriarchal marriage+ The >thinning" o% women"s inheritance over parental property and women"s very low rates o% participation in paid employment provide conditions that %orce women to con%orm to patriarchal gender codes and e6pose them to domestic violence when they do not meet patriarchal e6pectations+ Drime against 8omen . com1ination o% state level E9CC:?CBF and district level E9CC(F analysis o% ,ational Drime Records =ureau data on Drime against 8omen highlighted 1oth the use%ulness and limitations o% the data Esee Mu her0ee et al &))9F+ . ma0or irritant was the possi1ility o% under?reporting and associated distortion o% the data+ However despite these limitations Mu her0ee et al E&))9F derived cogent patterns %rom the data+ The relevance o% the data, despite suspicion o% under reporting was demonstrated through the contiguity o% districts recording the highest levels o% crime where the highest level is surrounded 1y the ne6t level+ .lso variation in crime rates against women across districts increased as we moved %rom districts with low rates o% total crime to those with higher total crime rates producing a neat cone on the scatter diagram+ I% under reporting o% crime against women were proportionately greater than other crime it is more li ely to create a positive s ewness EMu her0ee et al, &))9: *)B*F+ 8e have dealt with data at the state level 1etween 9CC:?&))), using moving averages, %ocusing on !erala+ The states have also 1een ran ed 1ased on the moving average %or 9CC<?&)))+

35

Reported o%%ences are availa1le under si6 categories o% crime $ Rape, !idnapping and a1duction, #owry deaths, Druelty 1y hus1and and relatives, Molestation and Se6ual Harassment+ In the ascending order o% total crime against women, !erala ran s &* th i+e+, among statesKITs with higher rates o% crime against women, i% the states are put into %our groups according to ran s+ In two categories, molestation and cruelty at home !erala ran s &C th, in the group with the highest rates+ -nly in two categories $ dowry deaths and idnapping and a1duction does !erala ran among states with lower rates o% crime+ )a#le 88( Ranks of %tates 9ccordin! to the 9vera!e rate 48::7-20006 of ;rimes ;ommitted a!ainst Women 4per lakh6
Rape !idnappin #owry gM #eaths .1duction
Rat Ran e )+( C )+C' 9& '+*' &B *+'' &< )+C' 9& *+:' &C 9+:B && 9+9B 9B B+' )+:B &+9B 9+(' 9+: :+B )+( '& < &( &' &) '9 C Rat Ran e ) 9 )+(' &* ) 9

Druelty 1y Molestatio Se6ual Hus1and n Harassme and nt Relatives

Rate Ran Rat Ran e )+CB 9) *+*B &( (+'B )+(' '+&B 9+*B &+(B &+9B 9+*B )+BB )+CB B+< (+& * )+'B '+)' 7.33 )+: '+BB B+C' &< < && 9* 9B 9( 9* C 9) ') &B &: ( &) 29 B &* '9 *+& *+B && &B Rat Ran e )+*' &) &+&B ') )+9' 99 )+)B B )+9 C 9+)B &: )+9B 9' )+&B 9< 9+9 )+: )+' 9+<B )+&' &( &9 9C &C 9:

Total Drime against women

Rat Ran e C+* 9' 9B 99+C B 9'+( ' (+< 9:+( B C+&B &< 9B &9 < &: 9&

States

.M, Islands 9+& 99 .ndhra Pradesh .runachal '+)' &C Pradesh &+<' &< .ssam
9+:' =ihar Dhandigar 9+C h #M , &+'B Haveli #aman M 9+& #iu '+9B #elhi 9+& Goa )+B' Gu0arat Haryana 9+CB Himachal 9+<B Pradesh Jammu M 9+< !ashmir !arnata a )+:' 9< && &B 99 ') 99 : &' &9 &) *

Rat Ran e 9+'' 9:

)+9B 9* 9+)B ') )+:' &' )+'B 9C ) 9

&+BB 9B )+: ' &+(B 9* &+' ) *+* 9+*B &+&B ' *+* 9' 9 &' < 9& 9C &'

*+:B : 9<+& B (+(B 9'+( 9(+& 9&+9 B 9(+B ' 9)+C B 15.2 9+*B &C B &) &( 9< &B 9( 24 9

)+C' &C )+9' )+& 9+*B )+9 )+9 )+* 0.1 ) )+< 9' 9: '& 9) 9) &) 10 9 &(

:+9' &< &+<' 9< 5.3 )+: 29 '

'+:B '& )+&' 9: 0.23 15 ) 9 )+CB &* )+C' &'

Kerala @a shadw eep Madhya Pradesh Maharasht ra

1.63 19 )+*B ' *+: 9+* '9 9(

0.37 3 ) 9 9+9B 9B )+< 99

9)+9 '& '+9B &9

&9+: '9 9:+9 &' '

)+*' &&

36

Manipur )+*' & Meghalay 9+*' 9B a Mi2oram B+(' '& ,agaland )+BB B &+9 &: -rissa Pondicher )+'B 9 ry 9+9B 9) Pun0a1 Ra0astan &+'' &( Si im Tamil ,adu tripura Ittar Pradesh 8est =engal (otal !All *ndia$
9+&' 9* )+B' : &+)B &* 9+)' C 9 1.89 <

9+C &: )+:' B )+&' & )+*B * 9+&' 9C )+*B * 9+9' 9( *+<' ') )+: 9+: ( &)

) ) )

9 9 9

)+9 ) ) ) ' )+'' &+(B C+C' )+CB 9+)' '+&' '+&B *+C ;.;<

* 9 9 9 9C : 9B '& 9) 9' &9 && &(

)+:B ( )+: ' B+)B '9 )+& & *+*' &: &+(B 9* )+C' B :+B' ') &+(B 9* '+)B &) 9+< 9+: 99 9)

) 9 )+9B 9' ) ) )+: 9 9 &9

'+)' * &+B' ' 9:+) ' 9+: 9&+C B 9)+) B B+)' &'+C B :+&B &)+* && & 9C 9* C '& ( ')

)+)' C )+B' &: )+&B 9( )+<' &< )+< &( ) )+' )+* 9+' 9 9B &) '9

9+(B &< )+)B B )+9 C )+9' 99 &+< '9 ) 9 9+:B &B )+)' ( 0.><

)+CB 9* 9+(B &* )+CB 9* 1.:

<+:B 9) 9)+( 9: <+<' 99 1<."

)+'' 9< 0.9

9+*B < <.=9

The suspicion that 1etter reporting o% crime contri1utes to its ran is particularly strong when we consider !erala, given the pervasive assumption that higher literacy levels and gender parity in the conventional sense would in%luence 1etter reporting o% crime+ 8e have attempted to wor through this o1vious constraint+ Reporting o% crime is li ely to 1e mediated 1y gender codes, which stigmatise women who have 1een raped or molested, 1ut also 1y other %actors, prominently the rigidity o% the legal system and the intensity o% crime+ .s we have attempted to show in the case o% !erala, gender codes are neither o1literated nor trans%ormed in more e7uitous directions 1y social development+ .nalysis o% the rates o% di%%erent categories o% crime over a period o% time 9CC:?&))) ETa1le &F in the conte6t o% other evidence on speci%ic categories o% crime against women indicate the relevance o% the data+ #owry deaths and cruelty at home are strongly associated with the domestic conte6t as against rape, molestation and se6ual harassment which involve di%%erent degrees o% a genre o% crime against women, not associated with the domestic+ !idnapping and a1duction are ta en separately as the category presents di%%iculties owing to the circumstances that motivate parents or guardians to %ile cases o% a1duction Esee Mu her0ee et al &))9F+

37

)a#le 82( Movin! 9vera!e of Rate of ;rimes a!ainst Women 4per lakh6 !erala Rape !idnapp #owry ing M #eaths .1ducti on ?? )+*B )+*B )+*' )+'B ?? ?? 9+:B 9+(' 9+(' 9+() ?? )+9) )+9) )+9) )+9) ?? ?? )+() )+(' )+(B )+B) Druelty 1y Hus1and and Relatives ?? '+B' :+9' (+() B+'' ?? ?? '+(B '+CB *+9B *+*' Molestati Se6ual #owry on Harass Proh+ ment .ct ?? '+BB *+BB :+&' :+') ?? ?? '+9' '+9B '+&' '+&B ?? )+9) )+&) )+&' )+&' ?? ?? )+:B )+(B )+BB )+C' ?? )+)) )+)) )+)) )+)) ?? ?? )+') )+'' )+'' )+'' Total

9CC: 9CC( 9CCB 9CC< 9CCC &))) .ll India 9CC: 9CC( 9CCB 9CC< 9CCC

?? 9+'' 9+(B 9+B) 9+(' ?? ?? 9+:B 9+:B 9+:B 9+:B

?? C+B) 9&+: ) 9*+* ' 9:+& ) ?? ?? 9&+& ' 9&+< B 9'+' ' 9'+< ) ?? Ministry o%

&))) ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? Source: Drime in India 9CC:?&))), ,ational Drime Records 1ureau, Home .%%airs, Govt o% India

=etween 9CC:?&))) the rates o% molestation, rape and se6ual harassment grew consistently and at a %airly even pace in !erala+ The rates o% rape and molestation grew at a similar pace while se6ual harassment, grew %aster partly 1ecause it was initially almost nil+ The rate o% se6ual harassment is relatively low E%or !erala and IndiaF 1ut it would 1e a1surd to suggest that se6ual harassment occurs with less %re7uency than rape or molestation+ -n the other hand, analysis o% two high pro%ile cases o% se6ual harassment recently revealed the strong disincentives Eo% time, resources, e%%ort and legal procedureF attached to reporting se6ual harassment E#evi a and !odoth, &))9F+ Rape and molestation 1eing more heinous seems more li ely to 1e reported than se6ual harassment+ #owry death is li ely to 1e relatively 1etter reported on account o% the intensity o% the crime though under reporting is not ruled out+ =etween 9CC:?&))), the rate o% dowry deaths in !erala remained steady at a level signi%icantly lower than %or India as a whole+ It is well nown that dowry deaths and related crime are 38

concentrated in the north+ !erala was %or long considered %ree o% this crime Esee Mens i, 9CCCF in association with its matrilineal traditions and customary regulation o% dowry among patrilineal groups+ It is an indication o% signi%icant shi%ts in marriage practices that dowry deaths are 1eing reported consistently in the state+ #owry death is a terminal %orm o% cruelty at home and states reporting high levels o% dowry murder may 1e e6pected to have high rates o% cruelty at home as well+ In %act the rate o% cruelty against women is consistently higher than rate o% dowry death %or all states+ . comparison o% the ran ing o% states on these two categories indicate strong possi1ility o% under reporting in =ihar, IP and Pun0a1, which are in the highest group o% states in dowry death 1ut show signi%icantly lower ran s %or cruelty at home+ !erala ran s in the highest group o% states in cruelty at home and molestation and there was a concerted and %airly sharp increase in rates o% cruelty at home 1etween 9CC:?&)))+ -ther evidence too indicates the serious dimensions that this %orm o% violence has attained in the state+ 8omen in Trivandrum had reported similar levels o% physical violence as women in /ellore and @uc now Eranging 1etween &9 and &( UF according to a study o% domestic violence underta en 1etween 9CCB and 9CCC in seven cities o% India EI,D@A,KIDR8, &)))F+B The study also revealed that over two thirds o% the sample women in rural and a little lower in the ur1an non slum area had e6perienced psychological violence which was considera1ly higher than in the other sites+ . more recent study o% domestic violence in Trivandrum Erural and ur1anF %ound that overall ':+B U o% women reported e6periencing at least one %orm o% physical violence at least once in their married li%e+ .t (*+C U the %igure was considera1ly higher %or psychological violence EPanda, &))': **F+ 5urther, almost two thirds o% the cases %iled in the %amily court in Thrissur 1etween 9CC:?C< %or divorce and maintenance were on account o% protracted marital disharmony EJames, &)))F+ .ccording to unpu1lished in%ormation %rom %ive %amily courts o% !erala, among the cases %iled in the %amily courts %or divorce, ()U o% cases were %iled 1y women $ among them B)U o% them stated cruelty 1y hus1ands Edomestic violenceF as the main reason+ Dases registered increased %rom &'(* in 9CCB to *(&< in &))9 $ a :) percent increase in : years EA Mohamed, S Irudaya Ra0an, ! .nil !umar, P M Saidu Mohammed, &))'F+ The socio?economic correlates o% domestic violence investigated 1y these studies are instructive+ Ta ing all the sites together, the I,D@A, study revealed that gender gap in education and employment was signi%icant in e6plaining violence+ /iolence was more %re7uent when the woman respondent was more educated EX & yearsF and had a 1etter type o% employment+ ,evertheless, the unemployment status o% the hus1and was signi%icantly and positively associated with 1oth measures o% violence+ These %indings underline the importance o% wor
7

4t is only to "e e5pected t at le#els of reported #iolence will "e muc i! er in primary sur#eys, w ic pro"e closely into respondents e5perience of #iolence, t an in crime statistics, w ic only reflects #iolence to t e e5tent to w ic it is reco!nised as crime and re!istered wit t e state'

39

status to male identity+ A6isting evidence %or India and !erala also points to the negative association 1etween socio?economic status and domestic violence EI,D@A,KIDR8, &))), ,5HS &, 9CC<?CC, Panda &))'F+ In particular, Panda E&))'F %ound that education status o% men and women was negatively associated with li%e time prevalence o% violence and that women engaged in irregularKcasual employment were more li ely to e6perience violence while regular employment was li ely to reduce violence EI1id, :(F+ However as I,D@A,KIDR8 E&)))F point out it is entirely open to interpretation whether women o% higher socio?economic levels actually e6perience lower levels o% violence or merely report it at lower levels+ It is instructive that ownership o% property Eland and houseF 1y women was %ound to reduce 1oth physical and psychological violence against women EPanda, &))': ((F+ A6isting wor converges on a set o% reasons that are seen as inciting violence+ The I,D@A, study %ound male dissatis%action with women over domestic responsi1ilities including diso1edience, in%idelity and alcoholism were ey causes o% violence+ 8hile these were important in Panda"s study too, he also noted that ') U o% women who had arranged marriages cited dowry as a %actor in violence EI1id, :9F+ Dlearly these provide strong indications o% patriarchal structures underlying violence against women, most clearly in the gendered e6pectations that they sustain+ Disc&ssions on session
The session was chaired 1y #r+ Saradamoni and the discussants were Ms /anitha ,aya Mu her0ee and #r+ Shee1a+!+M+ . %ew comments were made on women"s Aducation and employment situation in !erala+ Most women are employed in services sectors especially in teaching and nursing This is in con%ormance o% their social roles as cares and nurturers Some women"s organisations have attempted to 1ring changes 1y encouraging women to ta e trainings in the unconventional sectors such as are masonry, plumping, carpentry, aluminum %a1rications, pump operations etc+ =ut even i% women attempted to wor in these %ields, people had pre? conceived ideas a1out the 7uality o% wor done 1y women+ Moreover status also plays a hand in securing 0o1s in !erala+ I% gul% remittances or high wages 1y men are there in the %amily then women show more dependency on men+ Men wor ing in gul% countries control the se6uality o% their women 1y not allowing them to wor outside the home -ne o% the conclusions o% a study on 3Drimes against women4 showed that the more the women are educated and 1etter employed than the men, the more they are prone to violence %rom their partners+ In another study it was pointed that women who owned property seemed to e6perience less violence+ The second %inding was contested 1y many in the audience+ The e6isting literature lay a lot o% emphasis on %emale literacy leading to changes+ 3Matrileny4 had an important role to play+ 8omen had a certain status in the traditional !erala society+ Studies at state level shows a very high rate o% unemployment in !erala with low wor participation rates+ Donclusively it was said that women are educated 1ut are not a1le to utili2e the s ills as they lac opportunities to ac7uiring s ills to move into 1etter occupations+ 5rom the gender point o% view this ind o% a situation?enhanced women"s vulnera1ility, which made them more and more depended on the household

40

income generated mainly 1y the male+ This could also 1e related to the insecurity, con%licts and violence against women in marriages+ The cases at the 5amily court showed that marital con%licts are slightly higher among %amilies where women are more educated than men and diso1edience is one o% the most stated %actor o% con%licts o% this ind+L It was also o1served that there is not a contradiction 1etween social development and women"s position+ 8omen"s position was 1uilt into the ind o% social development that was created+ There was no gender parado6 1ecause the social development was 1uilt on higher ine7uality+ 8omen"s education was also %ound to 1e the 1edroc o% social re%orms+ =oth health and education came together in this paper and 1oth were sort o% weaved into the re%orm movements+ Social re%orms did address the 7uestions o% health+ Social re%orm movements also simultaneously addressed women in terms o% domesticity, the ind o% marital %amily structure+ This paper attempted to lin education and domesticity in such a way so as to not distur1 the accepted norms o% women"s wor + ,aturally a 7uestion arises as to how the %amily copes i% women are employed+ There is also an old controversy a1out how women"s wor was not shown in o%%icial statistics+ 8hen women report themselves as housewives they might 1e ma ing a small income %rom the economic and income generating activities or %rom tutoring, tailoring and dressma ing 1ut which is not considered as wor + There%ore it was o1served that there is a need to argue along certain lines to legitimi2e pro%essions %or women+ .nother gender parado6 seen in !erala is lac o% political representation o% women which needs to 1e analy2ed+ It was mentioned in the earlier session that the eradication o% poverty should 1e the %ocal point o% women+ In !erala now the only people who involve in eradicating poverty is women in Sel% help groups a%%iliated to Kudumbasree. In this scenario it is o1served that women who are domesticated are seen as very good poverty eradicators+ =ut unless the poverty eradication intervention go 1eyond this and %ocus on gender discrimination and development technologies li e that o% IT interventions in some places, the women would as is typical o% !erala, 0ust consumers once again+ Aducation has an instrumental value 1ut that instrumental value can 1e channeled+ YAsan Pallikkudam# had once prevailed in !erala where the children were neither re%used privileges o% education nor was there any coercions in such matters+ It did not mean that all the children had participated in such Pallikkudams+ =ut when the organi2ed schools came education was given another dimension+ 5inally the Dhairperson #r+ Saradamoni concluded the session with her views+ It was o1served that discussions on land and property rights le%t out to mention what had happened to the agricultural lands and the small peasants in !erala in the last ' decades+ .lso an issue le%t out was that o% scarcity o% water and its implication on health+ To conclude she said that there e6ists a %ear%ul atmosphere in the %ield o% !erala"s political and social atmosphere that was not there 1e%ore+ 5inally it was concluded that even though it is a struggle, the issues o% violence against women should 1e politici2ed++ !erala women should come out o% their protective enclosures and %ight %or the rights o% a women+

41

%ession 3( /aper 3
Womens 1nvisi#le ,ork + )raditional and 1nformal %ectors Women in the informal sector
Paper presented 1y Ms+ ,alini ,aya and Sonia George,SA8.?!erala ,alini 1egan the session 1y spea ing a1out the various inds o% invisi1le wor women do in the traditional and in%ormal sectors+ 8or is not 0ust paid la1our 1ut any activity in which la1our power is e6pended+ 8omen"s wor within the %amily is invisi1le ? nurture and various services %or her hus1and+ Then there is also livelihood related wor , which can 1e either wor that sustains the %amily or that which relates to producing %or the mar et, %or e6change+ In this aspect o% wor , in traditional sectors, the se6ual division o% la1our is complementary 1ecause it is the wor o% 1oth the man and woman that ma es a product %or the mar et, converting the product into money+ 5or e6ample in %isheries men catch the %ish and women sell it+ #espite the %act that there is a gender 1ias even in this se6ual division o% la1our and %orces the women to 1ear the household 1urden single handed, the la1our o% 1oth the man and woman is re7uired to convert the product into %oodKmoney+ <)U o% the wor %orce is in the in%ormalKunorgani2ed sector+ #ata o% the unorgani2ed producers and wor ers in the in%ormal sectors are given 1elow : ? In%ormal Sector Inorgani2ed producers Toddy wor ers 5ish wor ers .griculture wor ers !hadi wor ers Handloom Doir wor ers Inorgani2ed wor ers Dashew Shop Donstruction wor ers =eedi, Digar

*:,))) &,*),))) &),)),))) &(,<*) &,:),))) ',<*,)))

9,'9,))) (,)),))) :,)),))) &,:),)))

Total ? *<,<:,))) .rtisans *),)),))) E ',&:,))) F Most o% the wor ers in the in%ormal sector who produce %or the mar et, produce goods %rom resources that are pu1lic and permit %ree access+ This is generally called common property and such common property could 1e the %orests, the sea, various other resources %rom land which is not privati2ed+ <o, common property is 1ecoming increasingly privati2ed and with this the poor loose access to them+ I% we spea In terms o% social security %or unorgani2ed prod&cers it

42

would mean that their right o% access to resources in the common property is retained+ I% access is retained then they have the rights to livelihood+ In the case o% unorgani2ed ,orkers, social security would 1e 0o1 security and regulated employment+ This security is to 1e provided 1y the regulations o% the State that should provide an en%orcement mechanism %or the same+ =ut o%ten in these unorgani2ed producers women are not recogni2ed as wor ers 1ecause hus1and is considered the head o% the household+ The role o% the state on the one hand is to protect the commons and avoid privati2ation and on the other hand it has to regulate employment+ In !erala most o% the people who struggled %or the right o% access to resources almost never succeeded+ The state totally %ailed to protect the commons, which meant that people who depended on them %or a livelihood were marginali2ed+ There are various ways in which this displacement too place in !erala+ In communities where matriliny e6isted women had the right to inherit productive assets+ In %isheries %or instance, they inherited the use rights o% the 1oats and nets+ =ut when the 1an s came in with loans, these loans to 1uy e7uipment were given to the men+ This resulted in the displacement o% women"s ownership rights through 1an loans+ .nother %actor pointing to the state"s insensitivity to women was that no support or su1sidy was given %or woman"s productive wor + In the 9CC)"s !erala made e6tensive resource maps 1ut it did not ma e note o% access considerations+ It is %act that there is a massive displacement in every sector due to moderni2ation+ !erala is well nown %or its numerous wel%are 1oards %or the wel%are o% the wor ers in the in%ormal sector+ The 1oards have 1een created as a result o% wor er"s struggles+ Interestingly, instead o% responding to wor er"s actual demands o% a right to livelihood, the 1oards were created to provide wel%are+ Aven these wel%are 1oards have 1een one sided and very male oriented+ Asta1lishment o% the 1oards 1ecame a political process which o%%ered social security nets li e li%eline social assistance schemes and social insurance cum provident %unds+ .t present there are around *& social security schemes in !erala+ .round hal% o% the *& schemes are %inanced completely %rom the state 1udget with an annual commitment o% Rs+ 9<)) million, which is 'U o% the State"s revenue 1udget+ There are some ma0or and conceptual %laws in these 1oards+ The administration management and delivery system is ine%%icient and there is no co?relation 1etween government"s %inancial support and the real need+ This leads to 7uestions o% 0ustice especially when seen %rom a women"s perspectives+ There were certain 1iases in developing social security systems in %avour o% the more power%ul and voci%erous section o% male wor ers+ 8omen have 1een le%t out these process completely+ 5or e6ample the government contri1ution to the toddy 1oard with only male wor ers is 9)U o% the 1udget while 2ero contri1ution is given to the agriculture 1oard where the ma0ority are %emale wor ers+ In the 1oards where the ma0ority o% the wor ers are women there are no schemes %or

43

pension and provident %und E.rtisans and S illed wor ers wel%are schemeFG no proper %unctioning EAtta, !attuvally, Ta2ha wor ers wel%are 1oard schemesF and no maternity 1ene%it schemes E.rtisans and s illed wor ersF+ .ll the women mem1ers are withdrawing mem1ership %rom these 1oard and 0oining the construction wor ers 1oard which has more 1ene%icial schemes+ In this way there are dues in the government contri1ution+ This la6ity o% the State a%%ects sectors in which women are sel% employed+ It 1ecomes very di%%icult %or a woman %rom such sectors to eep some money aside %or the contri1utions towards their provident %und+ Moreover, there is no contri1ution %rom the agricultural land owners to the agricultural 1oard where most o% the wor ers are women+ There is no integration or harmoni2ation o% 1asic li%e?line securities+ There is low enrolment o% women wor ers+ So there is much to 1e desired regarding the >uni7ue" wel%are 1oards o% !erala+ A%%orts to study and restructure the whole scheme have to 1e made+ . census o% the wor ers especially women wor ers in the unorgani2ed sectors should 1e ta en to assess the e6act num1er o% wor ers and to e6amine whether the schemes are sustaina1le %or them+ Moreover the accessi1ility o% the %unds to the %emale wor ers should also 1e studied+ .nother thing that needs to 1e noticed is that there is no standardi2ation in distri1ution o% the %unds i+e the %unds should 1e e7ually distri1uted among the wor ers+ @astly each panchayat should have a good monitoring system to distri1ute, and collect dues+ . re%lection on the plight o% the wor ers in the in%ormal sectors should also 1e underta en in the light o% the ongoing impact o% glo1alisation, and new employments that have 1een created+ 8omen are 1eing drawn into the mar et %or all inds o% wage wor , such as se6 wor ers, cheap la1our in modern industry, %ish processing etc+ The point is that when women have entered these sectors the la1our laws have 1een nulli%ied+ Its much more advantageous today to employ women 1ecause the organi2ed sector la1our laws are 1eing more and more %emini2ed+ 8hen the laws are %emini2ed there is no security and protection when women are drawn into the mar et+ In !erala in almost all the %ields women are drawn into the mar et+ So this can 1e viewed as the culmination o% patriarchy+ !erala is descri1ed as God"s own country+ This is the 1iggest slogan that is seen everywhere+ Two 1asic aspects o% this is aF that on the one hand nature is o10ecti%ied %or tourism+ ,ature is no longer the source o% livelihood+ 1F is e6treme commodi%ication o% women and women"s 1odies+ The patriarchal cycle is complete in the state touching the poorest and ma ing use o% them %or the advancement o% the %ew+

44

%ession 3 ( /aper 4

9 ;ase %t&d$ ( '&lnera#ilit$ of ;ashe, %ectors

Dr 9nna =ind#er! I,TR-#IDTI-, In !erala, it is well? nown that cashew wor ers 1elong to the most deprived population in the state and that their wor ing conditions are e6tremely poor+ They num1er something 1etween &)),))) and *)),)))Rmost o% them womenRand %re7uently heard is unemployment and severe poverty among these people+ =y way o% 1ac ground, #r+.nna @ind1erg"s interdisciplinary studies o% history and development studies 1ac in Sweden made her interested in !erala"s past+ She came to !erala and started to visit li1raries and universities, meeting with people and in7uiring a1out research 1y indigenous scholars+ She 1ecame %ascinated 1y the topic o% cashew wor ers when she reali2ed that they %ormed the ma0ority o% the %actory wor ers in the stateG most o% them have 1een organi2ed into trade since the 9C*)s or :)sG that they are literateG and that throughout their history they have 1een very militant+ The outcome o% her research was the 1oo , -xperience and *dentit . A ?istorical Account o& %lass) %aste) and Gender amon' the %ashew /orkers o& Kerala) 1><0 @=000 + This study is interdisciplinary in methodology, theory, and topic+ It includes concepts and theories %rom social anthropology, sociology, development studies, and in particular gender studies+ Indian history o%ten seems to stop at 9C*B, 1ut the present study covers a period %rom the 9C')s to present day+ .rchives and printed sources %or the post?colonial period are particularly di%%icult to o1tain: they are not %ound in I! or the IS, 1ut have to 1e retrieved %rom archives in India that are not well accessi1le and o%ten inade7uately organi2ed+ Moreover, the sources are very o%ten not in Anglish+ The methodology that was employed was to com1ine archival and printed sources with discourse analyses o% newspapers and historical accounts 1y trade unions leaders+ This was supplemented these with e6tensive in?depth interviews at cashew %actories and in the homes o% wor ers+ In the early &)th century, cashew nuts were processed in people"s homes or on the streets and sold at mar ets+ Dashew nuts were nown to 1e especially healthy and nutritious and wea people were advised to eat them+ In the 9C&)s, an agent %rom General 5oods Ean .merican companyF came to !erala in order to search %or pro%ita1le e6port goods+ He came upon cashew nuts

45

and soon the %irst shipment le%t !erala+ Some =ritish companies also 1ecame involved in the 1usiness, 1ut very soon indigenous men were in ma0ority among the cashew %actory owners+ The processing o% cashews started as cottage production in which men, women, and children were engaged+ In the 9C')s, production was centrali2ed into small %actories+ Soon cashews 1ecame one o% !erala"s most important e6port items+ Pro%its were huge and the %actory owners 1ecame nown as cashew 1arons or cashew ings+ A6porting cashew nuts was a way to 1ecome rich 7uic ly+ 8hile analy2ing the archival documents and statistics, and reading trade union leaders accounts o% the history o% the cashew sector, two inds o% stories were %ound: one related a glorious history o% how male leaders succeeded in %orming unions among women cashew wor ers and improved their wor ing conditions+ . second told o% ruthless capitalist e6ploitersRthe %actory owners+ ,owhere was the strict gender division o% la1or that prevails in contemporary cashew %actories 7uestionedG it was seen as natural and timeless+ In order to understand this gender division o% la1or, we need to loo at the di%%erent phases in the processing o% cashew nuts: roasting, shelling, peeling and grading+ Today, only a1out :U o% the wor %orce is male, and they do all the roasting+ -% the remainderRall womenR*)U are involved in shelling, and the remaining ::U consist o% peelers and graders+ . %ew incidental 0o1s involve drying cashews, pac ing tins %or e6port, carrying cashews %rom one section to another, loading truc s, and so on+ These 0o1s are mainly carried out 1y males+ Roasting was especially hot, dangerous, and dirty wor in the old days, when it was done in pans over an open %ire+ It 1ecame lighter and less dangerous when drum roasting machines were introduced in the *)s and :)s+ Roasting is necessary in order to ma e the dense outer shell o% the 3cashew apple4 1rittle %or the ne6t stage, shelling+ There, the sooty, 1lac nut is pounded with a mallet until the shells crac s and the inner 1rown ernel can 1e removed+ The shell contains corrosive oil, related to poison ivory, that gives the wor ers severe s in pro1lems and may even cause cancer+ To protect their s in, shellers continuously dust their hands with wood ashes or wear gloves that they must provide at their own e6pense+ ,e6t, peelers use their %ingernails or a ni%e to remove the inner 1rown s in surrounding the cashew ernel+ Inevita1ly, some ernels 1rea during shelling and peeling, and these are sold at a slightly lower price+ Ironically, wor ers get paid nothing %or processing such ernels, although %actory owners %ind a lucrative mar et %or them+ Grading, the %inal process 1e%ore pac ing, is done manually according to a system that determines 7uality 1y color and si2e+ Dashew %actories consider roasting a male 0o1, whereas shelling, peeling and grading are classi%ied as 3women"s wor 4+ The :U o% cashew industry employees who are male are generally paid monthly and receive some unemployment compensation i% the %actory closes down seasonally %or lac o% raw nuts+ 8omen, however, are paid 1y the piece and usually get nothing when

46

the %actory is closed+ In statistics %rom the early 9C')s, %ound that most cashew %actories at that time employed a1out &:U to ')U menRin some %actories the %igure was as high as :)U to ()U+ Then %actory owners and trade union leaders were interviewed+ However, when as ed a1out male shellers, peelers, and graders, they answered that there have never 1een any men to do that wor unless they are some young 1oys or sometimes handicapped men wor ed in %emale sections+ =ut no a1le?1odied men ever did this processing+ -nly women who had the patience and the necessary nim1le %ingers to carry out this wor did the processing+ Men do the roasting as it is heavy, dangerous and also involves machines which only men can handle+ In statistics %rom the early 9C')s, I %ound that most cashew %actories at that time employed a1out &:U to ')U menRin some %actories the %igure was as high as :)U to ()U+ 5actory owners and trade union leaders were interviewed+ However, when as ed a1out male shellers, peelers, and graders, they answered that there have never 1een any men doing that wor unless it is some young 1oys or perhaps sometimes handicapped men wor ed in %emale sectionsR1lind, lame or very, very old+ =ut no a1le?1odied men ever did this processing+ -nly women have the patience and the necessary nim1le %ingers to carry out this wor + Men do the roasting as it is heavy, dangerous and also involves machines which can 1e handled only 1y men+ In the 9C()s, trade unions 1ecame a real pro1lem %or %actory owners, so they 1egan to shi%t their plants to neigh1oring statesRmainly Tamil ,adu+ =ut they also started to use whatever other ways they could to evade the la1or laws+ -ne stratagem was to close down a %actory a%ter a %ew months and reopen it under a new name+ .nother was to open illegal, non?registered %actories, so?called kudivarappus, in which no la1or laws applied and wages were a1out hal% the legal minimum wage+ Going on stri e was no longer a very e%%ective weapon %or wor ers+ In %act it was counterproductive, since %actories closed down all the time and 1ecame seasonal+ EThe kudivarappus, however, were not seasonal and continued to 1e a pu1lic secretF+ In Tamil ,adu, %actory owners 1ri1ed civil servants and politicians so that they could evade la1or laws+ They may have done so in !erala as well, 1ut we have no evidence, as we do in the case o% Tami ,adu+ However, the cashew %actories in Tamil ,adu were owned 1y the same people as in !erala+ 5actory owners would threaten that i% politicians insisted on implementing la1or laws in Tamil ,adu, they would 0ust shi%t their production to kudivarappus in !erala, leading to severe unemployment in Tamil ,adu+ Similarly, in !erala they argued that they would shi%t their %actories to Tamil ,adu i% unions and civil servants were not cooperative, 1ringing a1out unemployment in !erala+ So they would play the two states against each other+ 8hat did the trade unions do a1out this; Inion leaders mainly argued two things: aF they were more or less helpless against the power%ul %actory owners, 1F they tried their 1est to prevent them %rom going to kudivarappus, 1ut since many women were illiterate and ignorant, and could not understand the long?term goals

47

o% socialism so it was hard to prevent them+ Some union leaders claimed that the hus1ands o% women who were unemployed would provide %or them, citing women as merely contri1utors to male?supported households+ EThis was completely %alse+ 5or more then B) years, the ma0ority o% %emale cashew wor ers have 1een the main providers %or their %amiliesF+ Several sources indicated that not only women, 1ut unemployed male roasters as well went to kudivarappus+ The di%%erence was that women were paid hal% wages, while men were actually paid more then in the registered %actories, as compensation %or the loss o% certain %ringe 1ene%its and also %or their loyalty to the %actory owners+ !udivarappus are clearly located in the in%ormal sector+ However, the case o% the cashew %actories shows that the distinction 1etween the %ormal and in%ormal sector is not very strict+ The same owners and the same wor ers o%ten operate in 1oth sectors+ Since the 9C')s and *)s, wor ers who were %ormerly de%ined in terms o% caste, came to 1e constructed in terms o% gender with the advent o% moderni2ation+ The radical wor ing class in !erala was now seen as i% it could only 1e male+ Somehow men did not even need to 1e organi2ed into unions to 1e considered 3radical trou1le ma ers4+ The %ollowing conversation, which too place in 9CCC at the home o% three shellers, Santha E1orn 9C:BF, her daughter, Meena E1orn 9C<&F, and Santha"s mother, /elum1i E1orn 9C')F, a %ormer sheller, illustrates this parado6: Santha: I wor in a state?owned cashew %actory, 1ut now it is closed+ *nterviewer: How do you survive when the %actory is closed; Santha: I go to a kudivarappu+ I have toRotherwise there will 1e no rice in the house+ *nterviewer: How o%ten do you go there, and how much do you earn; Santha: I go si6 days a wee and I get thirty rupees a day+ I wor a1out eight hours a day+ *nterviewer: Isn"t that 1etraying the trade unionsRgoing to a kudivarappu; Santha: It is a 1etrayal o% the idea o% trade unionsRnot the trade unions+ *nterviewer: Dan you e6plain what you mean; Santha: There is no trade union in the kudivarappus and we can"t start one, 1ecause then we will no longer have any wor + The trade union leaders %rom outside now a1out this, 1ut they don"t do anything+ It is not in their interestRsome o% them are even involved in kudivarappus themselves+ That is also 1etraying the idea o% trade unions+ This illegal processing could not have continued without their approval+ -n the other hand, we need them+ 8hen the state?owned %actory is openR last year it was only a1out one month, 1ut 1e%ore it has 1een a little 1it 1etter$$I get a 3dearness allowance4, a 1onus %or Anam, and some

48

days o%% with wages+ 8e would not have achieved those rights without trade unions+ The older woman and her granddaughter now entered the conversation+ Belumbi: That is what people say today, that the unions are involved in 1usinesses 1ehind our 1ac s+ I can"t 1elieve it, 1ut i% it is true we should o10ect loudly+ 8e should not hide when there is a pro1lem li e this+ .nd without unions we would never have reached this stage+ Santha: =ut, .mma, what to do; There is no rice in the house, kudivarappu owners have their own laws and rules, and the unions only care %or registered %actories+ 8e are caught in a trap+ Belumbi: I am old, 1ut you must never give up li e this+ Go out and shoutL 4eena: Grandmother is so %ull o% trust in unions, 1ut things are not li e they were when she was young+ Inions are not %or us, they are 1eyond our spheres o% li%e+ Santha: ,o, Meena, not li e that, we need the unions, 1ut it is di%%icult to ma e them engage with the kudivarappus. They should$$1ut I do not now how+ 8e changed the su10ect and started to tal a1out supporting a %amily+ *nterviewer: How many are wor ing %or wages in this %amily; Santha: My daughter and I, and sometimes my hus1and+ The other children are too youngRthey are still at school+ *nterviewer: 8hat a1out your hus1and; 8hat ind o% wor does he do; Santha: He is a casual la1orer in agriculture and construction wor , 1ut he only a %ew days a wee + *nterviewer: How much does he earn a day; Santha: -ne hundred rupees is the minimum, 1ut %or hard wor he earns 9:) rupees+ ,ormally he gets a 0o1 two or three days a wee and usually he gives me :) or B: rupees %or %ood a%ter a day"s wor *nterviewer: Is he a trade union mem1er; Santha: ,o, we %elt that it was too much to pay the %ees %or two mem1erships, so we paid only %or me+ *nterviewer: Dan your hus1and get more wor i% he accepted lower wages; Santha: ,o1ody would do that among the menL .nd no1ody as s them to do itL *nterviewer: 8hy do you do it; Santha: 8hat would you do i% your children were starving; I will do an thin' %or my children+ I will even ill mysel% i% that would help themL @ast wee I had a %ever, so I could not go to wor + My daughter %ainted %rom hunger+ I 1orrowed 9)) rupees %rom a moneylender+ ,ow I have to pay it 1ac , 1ut every day my de1t will increase 1y one rupee+ < *nterviewer: Is your hus1and not prepared to do an thin' %or his children, as you are;
8

49

Santha: Nou see, the responsi1ility %or the children has always lain on my shoulders+ My hus1and is o%ten out and he does not hear their cries o% hunger+ Men 0ust don"t understand these things+ They ta e it %or granted that there is %ood in the house+ I can"t change him+ I suppose he does his 1est, and 1esides, what would people thin o% him i% he started to wor %or hal% wages; The dominant gender discourse within their culture holds men up to 1e the 1readwinners in their %amilies+ Thus, there is a parado6 1etween the ideal and the reality+ The same prevailing discourse also assigns men the roles o% radical wor ers, loyal unionists, and party mem1ers+ The strength o% these identi%ications overshadows the 1readwinner role, leaving men to pursue their political aims, even to the detriment o% %amily o1ligations, and yet not 1e loo ed down upon as anomalies+ In this process, trade unions, which have 1ecome more and more hierarchical, have played a ma0or role+ The institutionali2ation o% unions has also made them more masculine and less grassroots?oriented+ 5or e6ample, the demand to 1e paid %or 1ro en ernels was %irst raised 1y %emale wor ers in 9C'B, 1ut more than si6 decades later, it has still not 1een met+ Many women complain that trade union leaders do not entertain 3small 7uestions4 any longerRonly issues that are o% great political importance+ They claim that women had more power in the unions in the 9C*)s than in su1se7uent years+ Many o% the women with whom #r .nna spo e stated that, although they themselves were %actory wor ers, they wanted their daughters to 1ecome housewives+ Aven women who said that their wor had given them some %reedom and empowerment vis?S?vis their hus1ands told me that they wanted their daughters to 1e housewives+ Such women have started to consider themselves anomalies+ The 1est way to secure a 1righter %uture %or their daughters, they %elt, was to get them a good hus1and, that is, a hus1and who could provide %or a %amily+ Their strategy was to 31uy4 a hus1and with a 0o1 1y giving him a 1ig dowry+ 8here would the money come %rom; /ery o%ten women"s la1or is converted into dowriesRin e%%ect, a trans%erring o% resources %rom women to men+ The dowries re%erred to here are not so?called stridhanas Ethat remain the 1ride"s propertyF, 1ut wealth that goes to the groom or his %amily+ /iewed in the conte6t o% amassing a dowry, daughters have 1ecome a 1urden to poor %amilies+ This may lead to a tendency to pre%er sons, something that has not e6isted in !erala earlier+ Ironically, a 3good wi%e4 %or a low?caste man in the 9C')s was a strong woman who was a1le to do a lot o% wor and provide %or hersel% and her children+ Similarly, a 3good hus1and4 %or a woman o% lower caste was a man with a good landlord who would e6tend 0o1 opportunities %or the woman+ The case study o% the !erala cashew wor ers is an illustration o% how %orces 1eyond the economic sphere a%%ect the lives o% poor wor ers, and especially how a shi%t in hegemonic gender discourse and ideology has 1een decisive in the

50

ongoing struggle against capitalist %orces+ #espite the %act that the women depicted here have o1tained su1stantially improved conditions at wor and in society in general, the power discrepancy 1etween low?caste men and women has increased in %avour o% men+ @ow?caste women have gone through a process that we may call e&&emini+ationRthe way a woman dresses and 1ehaves in di%%erent spaces Ei+e+, in the %actory, at the union, in the household, and in society at largeF is perceived as di%%ering %rom a man+ Today, to a greater e6tent than in the 9C*)s, such women are stereotyped as wea and dependent+ The distinction 1ecomes especially overt in the sphere o% marriage+ .lthough women have improved their living conditions over the past B) years o% 3development4, 3moderni2ation4, and the !erala Model, they have not achieved as much as their male counterpartsG in %act, the gap 1etween masculinity and %emininity has increased considera1ly+ The changes that have in%luenced women can 1e termed as e&&emini+ation instead o% the more common >%emini2ation" 1ecause the latter is strongly associated with such processes as >%emini2ation o% poverty" or >%emini2ation o% la1our"+ In those instances, >%emini2ation" is simply a 7uantitative term designating an increase in the sheer num1ers o% women present+ The concept o% e%%emini2ation, on the other hand, is more ideological and discursive, and has 7ualitative implications+ ,evertheless, there is a connection 1etween the two: e%%emini2ation o%ten leads to the %emini2ation o% 1oth la1our and povertyRand this appears to 1e what has happened to the cashew wor ers o% !erala+ Several structural %orces have operated into this direction: glo1al capitalism, westerni2ation, moderni2ation, and to some e6tent sans riti2ationRthe striving o% people to rise in the social hierarchy 1y consigning women to the role o% housewives+ The response to those %orces 1y %emale wor ers has 1een to negotiate the 1est option availa1le to them within the social structures in their 7uest to eep their daughters away %rom %actory wor and secure a 1righter %uture %or them through marriage+ Disc&ssion on the t,o papers.
The discussion was 1ased on the gender segregation in paid 0o1s in the in%ormal sectorG social and economic marginalisation o% women in !erala+ Two segregations o% gender were o1served during a %eminist analysis o% paid 0o1s+ The la1our mar et was gender segregated which put male as the 1readwinner ideally and woman as the dependant house wor er+ The morning session dealt with the wor participation rates in !erala+ . loo at the &))9 Densus %ound that the %emale wor participation has 1een reduced %rom 9(+9U E9C<9F to 9:+<U E&)))F+ .nalysis o% the type o% wor that women were involved lead to various household and non?house hold industries, which a1sor1 most o% the %emale employment, especially the coir and cashew sectors+ This rate has decreased due to the sti%% competition and capital?intensive technology+ 8omen in !erala are also %aced with the pro1lems o% social M economic marginalisation and gender discrimination+ There is also occupational se6?segregation+

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The papers 1rought out the discrimination in wages and %emini2ation o% poverty+ 8omen entering the la1our mar et had the dual responsi1ility o% employment and also the %amily responsi1ilities li e child 1earing, care o% the elderly, care o% other %amily mem1er+ In !erala we have to ta e this into consideration, 1ecause o% migration o% people to other countries %or 0o1s+ The point derived was that women"s speciali2ations in %amily tas s contri1uted directly or indirectly to the socio $economic disadvantage related to men+ @a1our was not empowered which can 1e seen in the decline o% the organi2ed wor %orce, wea ening o% the trade union and a political vacuum in terms o% agencies which would advocate the struggle %or %reedom+ More and more temporary employers and contract wor ers 1egan to appear which was not recorded+ It was suggested that women"s organi2ation should apply pressure %or re'isterin' the workers+ Aven when they are wor ing in the in%ormal sector they should 1e given identity cardsG pay slips and attendance register should 1e made compulsory %or them, so that employment generated in the in%ormal sector will also have record+ . %ew records e6isted on women who entered the in%ormal sector 1ut that was missed completely on any new entrances+ This recording should 1e made a compulsory re7uirement to ascertain social security and wel%are+ The %acilitator o1served that the Im1rella @egislation %or the in%ormal sector is a very radical part o% the =ill+ Aven though the model 1ill included lot o% issues that had 1een mentioned here, %inally when the 1ill got passed in parliament it only included wel%are schemes+ Registration and creation o% %acilitation centers at the Panchayat level was one o% the 1asic things in this new 1ill+ The idea was to decentrali2e the whole registration process and ma e it accessi1le to every1ody at the village level+ =ut as the 1ill was passed in a great hurry due to the new election it was passed as only a wel%are scheme+ .nother comment %rom the group was that the paper did not mention traditional 0o1s li e weaving in Handloom sector+ This sector is now e6posed to e6ploitation and violence+ .nother area that is %acing ine7uality in distri1ution o% wages among men and women is the 3construction4 %ield+ It was also 1rought to the notice o% the group that the 3household wor 4 should also 1e considered as an employment and unless and until it was recogni2ed as such women"s valua1le time spent in itchen will not 1e valued at all+ It is seen that India has no scarcity o% legal acts+ There is the dowry prohi1ition act as well as the 3e7ual pay %or e7ual wor 4 act, 1ut when in reality a lot o% o1stacle was created specially on account o% politics+ It was also o1served that caution should 1e ta en against danger that awaits the waste management process+ Kudumbashree women in Trivandrum and some other local 1odies handle waste directly, collecting them %rom homes and dumping it somewhere else+ Instead o% this a programme o% empowerment should 1e developed in which waste that collected should 1e considered as resources %rom which 3wor could 1e created4+ In terms o% empowerment, women will 1e the managers or directors o% environment Gother wise there will 1e a creation o% a new class o% Ywaste collectors"+ In the many pro0ects sprung up as part o% women"s component programmes in panchayats, the women s illed in traditional occupations are ta en away %rom those sectors and are provided with loans %or rearing the cows etc+ In case the loan was provided %or ma ing hollow 1ric s, the location provided will 1e inaccessi1le to water,

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transportation %acilities or neither o% the sort+ ,o training programmes are organi2ed regarding accounting, management o% such units or mar eting process+ Such 1asics training should 1e provided to such women in centers or units+ .nother concern raised was how some Kudumbasree pro0ects were shown as a success and the manipulations 1ehind this+ In a certain panchayat, the women deposit Rs+9) each wee and the =an accumulated Rs+:: la hs, 1ut instead o% using it %or development process there itsel%, the money will eventually 1e used to support 1uilding o% dams and a variety o% anti?developmental activities+ The mem1ers o% !udum1asree has done over a period o% one and a hal% years 1usinesses %or Rs 9+&: la h 1ut these mem1ers had money only to repay the de1t+ Towards the end o% the pro0ect each o% them got Rs &)), which was pro0ected as a success%ul group+ 8hen kudumbasree o%%icials visited they were made to 1elieve that these women are drawing Rs+&))) per month as gained share+ The concerned panchayat is regarded as the model panchyat, which managed to eradicate poverty 1ecause o% the development and growth o% this so called success%ul pro0ectL The group e6pressed concern over the multiplication o% Sel%?help groups all over !erala and the %ocus merely on savings, credit and income generation+ 8hile everyone welcomed the %act that this has 1rought women out o% their homes into pu1lic spaces, the concern was the su1se7uent inde1tedness, which may result 1ecause women will not 1e a1le to pay 1ac the loans, which mostly go, %or consumption e6penditures or %or dowry and related e6penses+ There were dou1ts raised a1out the sustaina1ility o% the programme and complete lac o% gender awareness and lin ing up o% the groups to speci%ic gender issues o% domestic violence, se6ual atrocities etc+ It is high time a study is underta en to understand the dynamics o% the >new model" %rom a gender perspective+

53

Day 2 24th March, 2004 Dhair : Ms T+Radhamony

/aper 8 - )he 0rodin! Reso&rce 2ase of Kerala

Dr M.K./rasad The I,DA# .genda &9 in 9CC& told us that 3the humanity stands at a de%ining moment in history+ 8e are con%ronted with Z a perpetuation o% disparities 1etween and within nations, Z a worsening o% poverty, hunger, ill health and illiteracy, Z continuing deterioration o% the ecosystems on which we depend %or our well? 1eing+ Integration o% environment and development concerns and greater attention to them will lead to the %ul%illment o% 1asic needs, improvement o% living standards %or all, 1etter protected and managed ecosystems and a sa%er, more prosperous %uture4+ -cos stem is another e6pression %or li%e?support systems+ =y li&e6support s stem we mean essential ecological processes+ -ssential ecolo'ical processes are those processes which are essential %or %ood production, health and other aspects o% human survival and sustaina1le development+ The maintenance o% such processes and systems is vital %or all societies regardless o% their stage o% development+ Many archaeological relics testi%y to the conse7uences o% not doing so+ Today the most important and most threatened li%e?support systems are: > agricultural systems > %orest systems > coastal and %reshwater systems 8e have to e6amine the status o% these systems to understand the signi%icance o% eroding resource 1ase o% !erala . 9!ric&lt&ral s$stems E9F @and degradation: Soil erosion #egraded %orests Semi stream 1an erosion @and slides Sea erosion 8ater logging M salinity C+:& la h ha )+B( ,, 9+)) ,, 9+)) ,, )+:) ,, )+B( ,,

54

The indiscriminate and unscienti%ic soil and water management have made a ma0or portion o% land to 1e erosion prone+ Soil loss: In !erala soil erosion has 1een estimated to 1e 9(+': tonsKha EID.RF+ Soil erosion has a%%ected C+:& la h ha o% croplands and 9+)) la h ha o% stream? 1an s+ High erosion rates have resulted in the sedimentation o% river 1an s, siltation o% drainage channels, irrigation canals and reservoirs+ In !erala reduction in storage capacity o% various reservoirs range %rom *+9<U in Pampa to '9+C)U .anayiran al reservoir+ Mining and 7uarrying: To mention a %ew e6amples,9( MT o% sand is 1eing mined per day %rom < panchayats in ,eyyar river 1asin+ There are '&) mining locations in Periyar river 1asin itsel%+ Aach day in !erala <'B& cu1ic metre sand is removed %rom rivers+ This has a drastic impact on the availa1ility o% water in the tan s and wells on either 1an s o% the river+ Many %ish %auna and other a7uatic organisms are a%%ected+ .ggravated saltwater intrusion into rivers is another impact+ Dlay mining %rom paddy %ields: This is a wide spread phenomenon in all districts+ -ne estimate shows &)U o% paddy %ields in ,eyyar 1asin is lost due to mining o% clay+ #ecline in cropland over years: !erala had cropped area o% ')+*& la h have in 9CCB which has reduced to ')+') la h have in &))'+ This has happened in paddy, pulses, sugarcane, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, cashew, tapioca, sesame and tea lands+ 3orest s$stems 5orest cover includes all lands more than 9 ha with a tree canopy density o% more than 9)U including non?%orest areas+ .ccording to the !erala State Aconomic Review E&))'F %orest area in !erala is 99&('+<< s7 m, ie+&<, C*U o% the geographic area, 1ut e%%ective area is C*)) s7 m+ The 1rea up o% the same is as %ollows: Tropical wet evergreen Tropical moist deciduous Tropical dry deciduous Mountain su1 tropical temperate sholas Plantation Grassland '&CC s7 *9)) s7 9)) s7 B) s7 9<9) s7 &9 s7 m m m m m m

55

There has 1een decline in the 7uantity o% %orest produce in erala over the years+ Item Tim1er Eround logsF Tim1er Eround polesF 5irewood Reeds =am1oos #uring 9CC'?C* B<(C9 DuM B&:&'9 nos ''*:) MT (*+B crores nos 9<+9 la h nos #uring &))9?)& '<C9:+* DuM &*:&:* nos 999<& MT '&+( crores nos 9'+) la h nos

#egraded %orests in !erala amounts to 9+<< la h ha+ Ancroachments continue+ 5ire destroys considera1le areas o% %orests every year, e6clusively due to neglect o% the 5orest #epartment+ .rea lost this year is C99& ha according to the statement made 1y the ministerL Arosion o% %orest resources has serious conse7uences+ The 3Goods and Services4 rendered 1y the %orest get a%%ected+ Ancroachments change the nature o% the system+ #e%orestation leads to 1iodiversity loss, soil erosion, %lash %loods and depletion o% groundwater resources+ /illagers living in the %orest %ringe areas are deprived o% the 1iomass they collect %rom %orests+ 8omen are mostly a%%ected in this case+ Ancroachers drive the %orest?dwelling tri1als out o% their ha1itats+ #estruction o% %orests or its change a%%ects wildli%e+ #estruction o% croplands 1y wild animals and the conse7uent man?animal con%licts are results o% this+ Two main pressures on vegetative cover are: Z,eed %or %uel and Z,eed %or %odder+ !erala uses B)?<) la h tons o% wood %or %uel per year+ Though %irewood re7uirement does not directly cause de%orestation, B)U o% %irewood comes %rom %orests+ !erala supports &*+C la h cattle population+ =ut we have no pasturelands, and hence ma0or part o% %odder resource is %orests+ ;oastal and 3resh,ater s$stems. This is constituted 1y the coastal wetlands and shallows+ They provide %ood and shelter %or %ishes, crustaceans, mollus s, water%owls etc+ They are important %or coastal protection+ 5reshwater wetlands and %lood plains support inland %isheries+ #estruction o% these systems threatens ha1itats o% many a7uatic animals+ The causes are industrial and agricultural pollution, construction o% dams, siltation %rom eroded uplands, %illing up to provide sites %or industry, housing, recreation, airports, %armlands etc+ and cutting mangroves %or %uel+ The 1iodiversity o% our sea and inland waters are a%%ected, another instance o% erosion o% resource 1ase which support lives o% millions o% people+ Marine %ish

56

resources include more than ')) di%%erent species, o% which *) species are commercially important+ .ccording to #r+ Madhusoodana !urup EDIS.TF many o% these species are threatened o% e6tinction+ 5ish harvest appears to 1e in the increase over the years, revealed as under: &)))+9 :((:B9 MT &)))+& :C'B<', &)))+' ()'&<(, =ut these data are not indicative o% any real increase in the %ish resource+ The increase is the result o% using more %ishing cra%tsL !erala is endowed with a1out '+B< la h ha o% inland waters, which include )+<: la h ha o% Rivers )+') ,, ,, Reservoirs )+&: ,, ,, Ponds M tan s &+*' ,, ,, =ac waters+ The inland %ish production is a1out 99+)(U o% total %ish production o% the state+ =ut this is e6clusively o% 1ac water harvests+ ,o data is availa1le o% inland %reshwater harvests+ There are &&& %ishing villages in the marine sector and 99' in the inland sector+ Their population is <+'( la hs and &+*C la hs respectively+ The continued erosion or depletion o% these resources is a%%ecting the livelihoods o% these people+ The timely agitations o% the %ish?wor ers against use o% mechani2ed trawlers, indiscriminate catching etc+ and %or total prohi1ition o% trawling during the monsoon have gone a long way in conservation o% %ishery resources o% our state to a certain e6tent+ Water Reso&rces !erala is 1lessed with two predominant rainy seasons caused 1y Southwest and ,ortheast monsoons+ The average rain%all is '))) mmKyear? ()U o1tained during S8 monsoon, &:U during ,A monsoon, 9:U during summer months+ The state loses *)U o% rainwater through run?o%%+ Sur%ace water resources: The total run?o%% o% the rivers is BBC)) mill+cu1+mtr+ The total utili2a1le yield is *&B)) mill+cu1+mtr+ =ut our re7uirement is *<()) mill+cu1+mtr+ Thus we have a shortage o% :<)) mill+cu1+mtr+ ()U o% people use water in their households %or drin ing+ !erala has *:,))))) sanitary wells, a world record o% 9:) wells per s7+ m+ B&+&U villagers do not have access to water supply+ 9*U o% those who get partial supply get only 9) lit+ per head per dayElpcdF+ In MunicipalitiesKDorporations supply is only B) lpcd against &)) lpcd entitlement+ Piped water is still a dream %or the ma0ority o% people+ Supply o% drin ing water to people is a statutory o1ligation o% the governmentKlocal 1odies+ Reasona1le demands cannot 1e met 1ecause resources are depleting, not %orgetting increase in population+ The reasons %or depletion o% sur%ace water resources are o1vious+ Incontrolled river sand mining, reclamation, %ragmenting rivers 1y constructing 57

dams, de%orestation o% catchment areas and over? withdrawal are some o% the ma0or reasons+ The partnership 1etween women and environment is shown in its real dimension in relation to water+ Rural women spend an important part o% their time %etching water needed 1y their community i+e %or drin ing, coo ing, cleaning, caring o% children and the elderly and washing cloths+ There%ore women are directly concerned with anything negative altering the 7uantity and 7uality o% water+ Groundwater resources: -ur groundwater resources are largely concentrated in the sedimentary a7ui%ers o% the coastal regions+ !erala has a replenisha1le groundwater resource o% (<*) mill+cu1+mtr+ The net groundwater availa1ility is (&&C mill+cu1+mtr+ distri1uted as: 9: =loc s o% our state in Trivandrum, !asargod, Thrissur %all under over? e6ploited, Dannur, Trivandrum, Ouilon M Dalicut are critically e6ploited+ Arna ulam, Thrissur, Dalicut and Trivandrum are semi critically e6ploited+ -ver? e6ploitation especially 1y motorised pumping in the coastal regions lead to salinisation, and in mid and uplands lead to total depletion+ The root causes o% erosion o% resources may 1e identi%ied as: Z Model o% development, Z Increasing consumption o% >goods and services", Z Arosion o% customary rights and management systems, Z Increasing social, political and economic ine7uities, Z Dhange in ethical, cultural and moral values, and Z Inappropriate, in%le6i1le, wea and contradictory laws and politics+ Disc&ssions on session
The discussant %or the session Ms+Isha %rom Thanal shared some o% her concerns+ She 1egan the discussion 1y %ocusing on the e%%ects o% recent changes in !erala as a result o% industriali2ation, multiplication o% construction wor and misuse o% water and other resources+ @i%e support systems are misused %or the purpose o% income generation+ + Small 1usiness ventures have 1een displaced+ It was o1served that tourism industry has 1rought environment degradation as is seen in the 1ac waters o% !uttand+ The house 1oats indiscriminately use plastic and discard it in the water+ @ot o% other waste also is seen deposited in the 1ac waters+ .nother o1servation was that in a growth oriented development paradigm, growth itsel% is needs to 1e 7uestioned+ . 7uestion arose as to who is responsi1le %or preserving li%e? supporting system; .nother important point raised was a1out the proposed access controlled A6press High 8ay in !erala+ It was clear that the new scheme o% A6press High 8ay is going to destroy the primary resource 1ase o% !erala and will create severe drainage pro1lems+ The proposal is to 1uild B?meter high, 9))?meter wide super highway+ It will 1e li e a 1ig wall cutting across the narrow landmass o% the small state+

58

/arious issues arising out o% this was discussed+ The need to have a mass campaign to protest against it is strongly put %orward+ Regarding the issue related to tourism #r+ M+!+Prasad said that this does not %ollow the guidelines, which gives consideration %or the protection o% environment+ There are rules prepared %or Panchayats E=loc Panchayats, Jillah PanchayatsF and %or Dorporations to manage the resources and environment+ People have the responsi1ility to ta e care o% it and this authority is given to us through the B' rd and B*th Donstitutional amendments+ -ur anger and stu11ornness should 1e e6pressed constantly

/aper 2 + 3ood %ec&rit$ and =ivelihoods in the conte?t of *lo#ali"ation

Paper presented 1y %hri )./.K&nhikannan+ !erala is well nown %or its capa1ility to lead a 1etter social li%e at a low cost+ -rgani2ed interventions %or 1ringing a1out %ood security and improve livelihood conditions contri1uted a great deal to increase the 7ualities o% li%e o% people+ 5or the last & decades the State and its social li%e had 1een %aced with a varieties o% pro1lems+ .nd in 9CC) with the strengthening o% Glo1ali2ation the pro1lems have intensi%ied and many other new inds o% social and economic pro1lems are emerged+ .ll together the !eralites are %aced with new challenges+ 8hat are those challenges; 8ill we 1e possi1le to rise a1ove those challenges; -r is there any need to challenge those situations; -n the other hand, is it enough that ad0usts to those neo? li1eral policies; Here is an attempt to con%ront those 7uestions+ Topics are divided into : categories 9+@i%e e6periences o% !erala+ &+Interventions in the %ield o% %ood security and lively hood modes+ '+Glo1alisation and its challenges+ *+,ewly emerging conse7uences+ :+8ays and means to %ace the pro1lems+ @i%e e6periences o% !erala: ? The numerous changes in the social li%e and political structures o% !erala are well nown+ The social and political changes in the state have 1een slowly 1rought a1out 1y the social re%orms, nationalist movements, and %reedom struggles, agitations among the la1ourers and peasantry groups and the wor o% the communist party+ This movement had created a power%ul political awareness among the people that resulted in people"s pressure %or their rights+ The governments responded positively to this+ .s a result systems o% education, pu1lic health, and pu1lic distri1ution were put in place+ !erala"s li%e e6periences were energi2ed 1y the privileges li e pu1lic rationing, medical treatments, land re%orm movements, agitations etc to o1tain minimum coolie+ . special development model was emerging due to le%t political approaches and 59

popular interventions+ Aven when !erala lagged 1ehind in its per capita income and economic development, in its human development indicators and 7uality o% li%e indicators, !erala had secured the %irst place ESee ta1le 9F+ This is the peculiarity o% this model+ 5ood security measures and the lively hood options had played a great role in this+ 5ood security and lively hood :? 5ood security doesn"t mean the a1sence o% hunger alone+ It means the possi1ility and a1ility to lead a healthy and active li%e+ It is a state o% e6istence to secure %ood and ensure that people have the a1ility to 1uy %ood and nutrition+ Increases in the %ood production do not secure %ood security+ It is e7ually important to ma e sure that people have the purchasing power to 1uy the %ood+ Thus %ood security and livelihood conditions are interrelated to each other @ivelihood conditions ensures social security and wor security+ Hence strengthening o% occupation, education to ac7uire it, health to do the wor , ma ing sure o% the minimum coolie, housing %acilities, tenancy rights etc+ to that e6tend, %ood security also will 1e sustained+ Government"s interventions were very important to ac7uire %ood security and these were in & ways+ Growth oriented process and supportive structures+ The %irst one is related to agricultural activities that %acilitate the economic growth, associated development programmes, people"s participation, in development process increasing the strength o% people"s involvement, meeting the 1asic needs etc+ .nd the &nd is the pu1lic distri1ution o% commodities to the people as much as possi1le, %ood su1sidy, availa1ility o% nourished %ood, %ood %or the wor etc+ These two together constructed !erala"s %ood security system+ .s a part o% this the contracted rationing, distri1ution o% other necessities through civil supply corporations, ID#S, su1sidies, %ood %or the wor , increased 0o1 opportunities among the rural people, pensions that supported land re%orms, decentrali2ation etc complimented each other to 7uic en the %ood security and lively hood measures+ -ccupational security is a must to ensure the %ood security+ .long with the a1ove stated ones di%%erent types o% social securities also 1een necessary and all these three together ma e the li%e security possi1le+ That was the %oundation o% the 7uality o% li%e o% people in !erala+ A7uality and social 0ustice were the special gains only cause %or the prosperity o% its people+

60

The Glo1ali2ation: ? It is a imperial political process that 'ot stren'thened durin' the ear 1>>0.At this Cuncture Government retreated &rom social wel&are sector activities) Pro&it motivated market dominated in the &ields o& health) education) rationin's) civil suppl etc) !(able =$ .As a result the income) occupation) production etc are diminished and at the same the earlier 'ained social advanta'es and prosperities have declined. Achievements 'ained throu'h political participation and worker#s or'ani+ed e&&orts could not be sustained. 2i'ht to or'ani+e and stru''le has been taken awa . At this point it became important to protect the existin' ri'hts and bene&its than to &i'ht &or the new ones. Glo1ali2ation has wea ened e7uality and social 0ustice 1ut also democracy, sovereignty, secularism, right to organi2e etc+ They 1elieve that money and mar et could solve everything+ Those who do not possess these are ousted %rom the li%e itsel%+ I t has a dou1le e%%ect+ -n the one side it 1rings despair to those who dream o% a middle class li%e into despair and on the other the poorer are alienated %rom all the availa1le wor opportunities+ The disparity 1etween the rich and poor is increasing in new %orms+ 2ationin' in Kerala @advanta'es and disadvanta'es. 6 !erala is a %ood de%icient area 1ut it has progressed a lot in %ood security programmes+ The reason was the well? organi2ed pu1lic distri1ution system in !erala+ Rationing in rural areas was %irst started in !erala itsel%+ .1out CCUo% the %amilies own ration cards+ The pu1lic distri1ution system ensures %ood to every one through out !erala+ -ne ration shop e6ists %or every *))?card owner+ There is special ration %or hostel and canteens+ The ration shop %unctions on all days e6cept on pu1lic holidays+ The people 1uy %ood grains in 1ul 1ut could 1e 1ought according to the availa1le money+ This ind o% privileges is seen very special to !erala alone+ The state stands %irst in its per capita distri1ution o% %ood grains through these rationing+ Ma0ority o% the people especially the poorer ones depends only on ration %or their %ood grain needs+ The pu1lic distri1ution system has given some indirect 1ene%its to !erala li e %ood security, nutrition, health protection, advancement in education etc+ In !erala, the pu1lic distri1ution system grew in the strong %oundation and 1ac ground o% political struggles+ .%ter the &nd world war and when Dholera was wide spread out through out the country !erala had agitations %or rationing system+ The coir wor ers" movements in .lappu2ha and the %armers> movements in Mala1ar were mainly %or pu1lic distri1ution system and against 1ac mar ets+ -ne o% the %irst steps o% the %irst ministry was to ensure %ood security+ It is only due to the political will and involvement that a ind o% permanent, lasting, and law%ul rationing system came in to e6istence %rom 9C(: onwards+ 8ith the advent o% the State Divil Supplies Dorporation the pu1lic distri1ution o% %ood items and other essential commodities got %urther improved+

61

.s mentioned 1e%ore !erala is one o% the states that could achieve many gains as regards %ood security+ This gain had played an important role to lessen the pathetic conditions o% the children and child la1our+ There were mainly * inds o% interventions under the leadership o% the local and state Governments and people to 1ring a1out %ood security+ Strengthening o% pu1lic distri1ution ,oon meals aimed at schools+ ID#S programme+ 8idow and -ld age pension E.ll these have helped to ensure %ood security+F The new economic policies were introduced at a time, when even these attempts were not Su%%icient+ Its conse7uences can 1e compiled as %ollows+ + 5ood su1sidy present in the pu1lic distri1ution programme was withdrawn and ration was limited+ ETP#SF+ -nly =P@?category people had 1een provided with low cost+ Rice+ 5rom 9CC9 onwards %or 9)?9& years ration price had 1een slowly increasing+ In 9CC9 it was 0ust a Rest+ '+&)+and in &))9 it was raised in to Rs9'+&)+ There was a cutting short o% Social Security Samithies and 8el%are Pensions+ =an s limited its" Pre%erential loans+ #ue to the a1ove reasons ration price increased and ration was decreased to a great deal+ ETa1le ',*,:,(,F .t the same the 5ood Dorporation at cheaper rates auctions the stored rice, which has not 1een spent+ A6periences are that Iniversal P#S has collapsed wherever targeted P#S was introduced+ The e6periences in countries li e Me6ico, Sri @an a, Jamaica, Jam1ia, Tunisia, and Philippines etc shows out that with the mechanically num1ered poor alone P#S cannot 1e ept active+ The e6periences o% the approaches o% the glo1al phase are the %ollowing+ 9+ The government withdraws %rom its primary responsi1ility to satis%y the peoples" hunger &+ The attained general 7uality o% li%e through rationing had collapsed+ '+ Dutting short o% ration su1sidies ended up in rise o% prices o% the rice+ *+ The stagnant unspent rice is e6ported at a low price+ %ollapse o& the livelihood s stems. 6 Its %ailure was seen mostly seen in the agricultural sector .gricultural productions in !erala is continuously declining+ In &)))?)9 it had a %all o% &)U where as &))9?)& it was 9U and in &))&?)' it was *U+ The agriculture? price inde6 showed a declining trend Ei% the present temporary advantages in the %ield o% coconut, ru11er etc were ept asideF and the e6penditure price inde6 is rising+ This is demolishing agriculture 1ased economic

62

structure+ + Inemployment among the agricultural la1ourers and unemployment in other sectors, reduction in wages etc+ is also ta ing place+ These changes a%%ect women adversely+ Imports 1ased on the agreement with the 8orld Mar et -rganisation are also contri1uting to the crisis+ The minimum wage system no longer e6ists in traditional sectors+ + Doir sectors do not even get the hal% o% the agreed wages+ The reason is the stopping o% the government aid to the coir co?operative societies+ In the cashew sector the destruction o% pu1lic sectors has a%%ected the 1argaining power in the private sectors+ This has resulted in the a1sence o% employment opportunities+ 8ith the ending o% the >re1ates" to the co?operative societies, the handloom sector has 1ecome stagnant+ The en%orced and planned steps destroyed the traditional toddy industry and encouraged the %oreign li7uor industriesG hence toddy tapping is %aced with crisis+ #ue to various reasons the =eedi industries is also in its way to destruction+ 5or a1out & decades the wage o% the %ish wor ers have not increased+ 5or these reasons the unemployment in !erala is thrice than that o% India+ ESee the ta1le CF Health and education %ield are completely on privati2ation path+ ,aturally these circumstances will lead to the increased num1er o% the poor+ The present attempt is to 1ring a1out reduction in the num1er o% the poor 1y changing the criteria+ =ased on the .#= conditions the ratio o% the poor is attempted to reduce to (?BU+ .s a result the %ood security programmes and lively hood measures could 1e shrin 1ac to only (?BUo% people and it could 1e the end o% those programmes and this is one o% the %irst learned lessons o% the Glo1alisation period e6periences+ The steps ta en 1y Dentral Government worsen the a1ove stated situations+ 5irst one is the change made 1y the ,ationali2ed =an s in its pre%erential loan policy+ .t the same its loan ratio had 1een lowered and a lot o% alteration had 1een made in its implications+ ESee ta1le <F The agricultural 1udget is considera1ly lowered+ !erala has the privilege to have a government department %or the rural development 1ut the government is in a haste to entrust this department to some other wel%are agencies+ Glo1ali2ation does not see poverty as a part o% the polari2ation 1etween the poor?rich+ However, its conclusion is that it was due to the igno1leness o% the poor+ Thus poverty eradication 1ecomes the responsi1ility o% the poor alone+ Glo1ali2ation had 1een creating a separate atmosphere all together+ !erala that was once distinguished hersel% in its 7uality o% li%e indicators is now parallel 1ecoming %irst in crimes, alcoholism, violence against women, suicides etc+ .ll the a1ove together destroyed the ac7uired advantages+ The li1erali2ation policies and its invasion created many conse7uences in the %ollowing %ields+ #estruction o% the li%e security policies+ @ac o% %aith in democratic process and the increased politici2ation+ #emocratic Governments made irrelevant+ Increased vest interestedness o% the middles class people+ Increased criminalisation o% the society 63

!erala #evelopment model is 7uestioned The !erala development model o% providing high 7ualitative li%e at low cost had 1een 7uestioned o% its e6istence itsel%+ This model cannot 1e sustained at all+ Three causes had 1een put %orward+ #ue to the increased economic crisis in the state, the old !erala development model that gave importance to wel%are activities and social 0ustice was una1le to sustain+ It creates a second?generation pro1lem+ !erala model is resulting in an irresponsi1le wor culture counter to development as well as doing away with individual entrepreneurship+ This internal contradiction will destroy the !erala model+ Glo1ali2ation is a given reality and we need an economic system that is a1le to compete in the mar et+ The old model is a redundant model in itsel%+ The a1ove pointed arguments re%use to see that people"s participation and resulted advantages were the result o% a people centered political activities+ In %act !erala model has not %ailed+ It was 0ust wea ened due to the a1sence o% a political desire to eep up e7uili1rium 1etween social 0ustice and e7uity to increase production and improve wel%are services+ So what is needed is to protect the !erala model 1y strengthening the political will that in turn will ensure social 0ustice 5or this purpose we need widespread political discussion and interventions to now the %eelings and opinions o% general pu1lic+ Interventions with %ocus on the %ollowing are essential: ? 9+ Strengthen the resistance and struggle o% people+ &+ And the diversity among political parties, la1our organisations, and people"s movements and strengthen unity+ '+ =oycott multi national products as %ar as possi1leG emphasis on locally produced goods and its distri1ution+ *+ =y strengthening the micro level democratic institutions+ :+ #emocrati2e sel%?help groups to create local resistance+ (+ Turn the SHGs in to neigh1or hood groups rather than 0ust t =P@ groups there 1y democrati2ation o% society and national thin ing is %acilitated+ B+ To %acilitate the a1ove create a mentality 1lending speech and action together in personal li%e+

64

)a#les
)92=0-8 Item =irth rate K9))) #eath rateK9))) Dhild death rateK9))) @iteracy EUF #uration o% li%e EageF 8oman Man Total ESource?Densus report &))9F )92=0-2 Important social inde6 !erala 9(+) (+* 9*+) C)+C& B(+9 ()+9 B&+: India &B+& C+) B'+) (&+) (:+*' (*+99 (*+<

Item Aducation Health

Pu1lic A6penditure EU o% GSP#F Near 9C<9 9CC9 :+&& :+&: &+)& 9+*C

&))9 '+&: )+C:

Source?Densus report &))&

)92=0 3

5ood grains availa1ility EIndiaF !+G K Near Near .vaila1ility 9C*:?*( 9'(+<) 9CC9 ?C& &))& ? &))' 9*9+:)

65

)92=0 +4 =uying o% ration?rice in !erala E9))) toneF Near Rice 9CCB 9(+9B 9CC< 9(+') 9CCC 9'+:< &))) :+:B &))9 *+(9 &))& '+&< Source?Aconomic /iew &))& )92=0-5 Ration?Retail sail $Price $9 RupeeK !+G Item Near 9CC) 9CC9 9CC* &))) Rice '+&< '+B& (+<* 9&+:) 8heat &+&( &+:( *+': C+B: Sugar :+&: :+:( C+9: 9&+() Source $ Ration Shops

&))9 9'+&) C+B: 9&+()

&))' C+)) B+)) 9&+))

Item Rice 8heat Sugar !erosene

)92=0 +@ #i%%erence in Ration sale with the #P#S in !erala+ Permitted #istri1ution Permitted a%ter =e%ore TP#S during .pril TP#S 9CCC 9,*),C&B 9,9<,B'C 9,**,)B) '9,B&) &9,)<9 '(,&B* 99,<&: 9&,)9( 9&+):' '&,'*< '&,(*9 '&,'*< Source?Ration?Monthly report+

#istri1ution during .pril &))9 *(,9B< ',*:< 99,CC* '&,C9:

)92=0-A Dhanges in Nearly?Per capita A6penditure on Health ESocio?Aconomic SituationF Status 9C<B 9CC( Dhanges U A6treme poor :*+CC *BB+&( ( B< Poor *&+99 *(B+&( 9)9) Middle class 9&(+'' :'<+&B '&( Rich 9()+<) :(C+*C &:* !erala EIn <<+C& :*<+<( :9B DommonF Source?Health Transition in Rural !erala+

66

)92=0 +7 =an and Rural @oans Item Pre%erential loan accounts E,um1erF Rural @oans EPercentageF .gricultural @oan E,um1erF =elow Rs+ &:,))) Rural .ccounts E,um1erF Small Scale @oan and its total percentage 9CC * '+(* crore 9'+C &+: Drore :+:< Drore I<+') Near &))& &+9( crore+ 9'+) & Drore '+B' Drore :+C

Near 9C<B?9CC* 9CC*?&))) Reference

)9=20 +: -ccupational Growth Rate in India /illage &+)' )+:<

Town '+'C &+&B

9+Dentre %or #evelopment Studies E9CB:F: Poverty, Inemployment and #evelopment Policy[ . Dase study o% selected issues with re%erence to !erala, E-rient @ongmanF &+Government o% !erala E&))'F: Aconomic Review: State Planning =oard, Thiruvananthapuram+ '+!annan !+P E&))&F: 5ood Security in Regional Perspective [. view %rom %ood de%icit !erala?8or ing paper no+ ')*,D#S, Thiruvananthapuram+ *+!unhi annan+T+P+E&))9F /ishap,#haridryam,Rationari EHunger,Poverty,Ration RiceF $ !erala Shastra Sahithya Parishad?!o2hi ode+ :+Raghavan +M+ E&))'F .gholaval aranavum !arshi a Meghalayum EGlo1alisation and .gricultural SectorF?!erala Sangamam &))&, Pra1handangal E@iterary DompositionF? Thiruvananthapuram+ (+Madhura Swami ,athan E&)))F: 8ea ening 8el%areG The Pu1lic #istri1ution o% 5ood in India?@e%tword, ,ew #elhi+ B+Ramachandran+/+!+E9CC(F:!erala"s #evelopment .chievements? Review?in Jean #rea2e M .martya SenEedF?Indian #evelopment GSelected Regional Perspective, -IP? ,ew #elhi+ <+Ramachandra ,air+ E&))'F: .golaval aranavum Samuhya Parira shayum EGlo1alisation .nd social ProtectionF?!erala Sangamam?&))&, Pra1handangal E@iterary DompositionF?Thiruvananthapuram+

67

Mr.Ron$, 1<39;), /ala-Disc&ssant He spo e on the need to clear the concept o% %ood security and its spheres+ He also urged %or a critical evaluation o% pu1lic education, pu1lic health, pu1lic distri1ution, and land re%orms and whether it was a growth according o% !erala situation+ 5or him it was a 1orrowed development model+ In the education %ield it was not an education %or recogni2ing our stand+ Pu1lic distri1ution could have 1een thought o% a rationing o% our own %ood resources+ The pu1lic health was designed 1y some one %rom out to sell their products+ The rich and multi cropped lands were cut into pieces through land re%orms+ Rony suggested %ew alternatives re7uired in our traditional sectors+ 5or e6ample any person who own & cents o% land or at least a coconut tree can produce >neera"+ !erala is rich with its 1io diversities and is diversi%ied in medicinal plants+ Its each village was sel%?su%%icient and needed to 1e e6plored again+ In the case o% %ood !erala should have a %ood 1as et designed a%ter the local needs and taste o% the community+ 8hat is needed is %ood sovereignty not security+ Pro0ects should target children+ 2nd disc&ssant ( Dr. /.%. *eethak&tt$+ 1mpact of !lo#ali"ation on ,omen in a!ric&lt&re *lo#ali"ation and KeralaBs 9!ric&lt&re. The e6periences o% the past eight years o% glo1ali2ation, is enough to caution how our agriculture scene will 1e dismally a%%ected through the 8Tregulated glo1al trade and the related issues The 8T- regime has widened the already e6isting gap in dye economic and political strengths 1etween the developed and developing countries, and is impacting changes in national policies and strategies within developing countries, which adversely a%%ect the low income and resource poor groups+ India, 1eing a developing country Hwith more than <) percentage o% its people 1elonging to the low income and resource poor groups, is one o% the worst hit victims o% glo1ali2ation+ It is also speci%ically noticed that as a result o% the implementation o% the .greement on .griculture .-.F ) the 8T. %rom 9CC: onwards, !eralaHs agricultural products have e6perienced drastic price crash putting the ma0or segment o% the rural wor %orce ? small %armers and marginal %armers ? into e6treme %inancial crisis, which is predicted to 1e o% the highest order with the implementation o% %ree mar et in &)):+ =oss of livelihood and food sec&rit$( The ine7ualities o% glo1ali2ation that are going to 1e impacted will 1e largely through loss o% livelihood and %ood security+ ,o dou1t, in a country li e India where women constitute ma0or wor ers o% the agricultural and rural development sector, the most a%%ected category will 1e the women in agriculture+ 68

In the conte6t o% %ood security o% the households, womenHs role and contri1ution are o% ma0or importance as they are responsi1le %or 1uying or ac7uiring %ood, processing, coo ing and distri1ution among the %amily mem1ers+ A nationHs %ood security primarily depends on its capa1ility to produce and distri1ute %ood to its population at a%%orda1le prices+ =ut on event o% glo1ali2ation the Structural .d0ustment Policies ES.PF, e6port driven demand policies and li1erali2ation there are diversions o% vast areas o% %ood crops to plantations and a7uaculture, which are largely leading to the crisis o% %ood production in the coming years+ This in %uture will 1e reversing the trend o% relative low price o% staple %oods thus a%%ecting the %ood security at large+ The introduction o% discriminatory system o% Targeted Pu1lic #istri1ution System as part o% S.P has already started to e6hi1it is its impact on the %ood security system that e6isted among the poor through the P#S+ The targeting approach %ollowed through narrow income criterion is highly impractical and turns to 1e detrimental, to categori2e poor into 1elow and a1ove poverty groups+ .ppro6imately ': per cent o% poor rural households are %emale headed in the nation+ In other %amilies also apart %rom income generating wor and unpaid essential wor that helps to curtail %amily e6penditure, women have the tas o% managing the %amily %ood 1udget+ 8hen there are cuts in the e6penditure due to a %all in income or rise in %ood prices, it 1ecomes the 1urden o% the women to \ma e the two ends meet+ This will 1e %orcing women %or varied ad0ustment mechanisms ? e6tra wor , cut in individual %ood share, depending on low 7uality %ood etc+ Thus coping with higher prices, higher unemployment and reduced %ood availa1ility puts tremendous physical and mental pressure on women to ad0ust the %amily 1udget and income+ *ender iss&es of 9!ric&lt&re( .part %rom 1eing primarily responsi1le %or %ood security, women have serious sta es in agriculture due to their economic contri1ution as %armers Ewomen headed %arm householdsF, co?%armers o% men headed households, agricultural la1ourers and %arm 1usiness entrepreneurs also+ =ut most o% the systems o% administration, planning, policyma ing, research, e6tension and development remain gender 1lind a1out the roles and needs o% women in agriculture+ The ma0or gender issues in agriculture are enlisted and these are predicted to 1e aggravated in the emerging crisis o% glo1ali2ation+ 9 & '+ *+ 8omen lac ownership o% land and %arm assets Inaccessi1ility to credits and monetary inputs 8omen lac recognition as %armers Inder valued wor and low wages %or women 69

:+ (+ B <+ C+

Ins illed and drudgery involved wor s to 1e per%ormed 1y the women Improved technologies are male oriented and displace women %rom la1our opportunities Reluctance to employ women and loss o% employment opportunities Inaccessi1ility to s ill, nowledge and %arm resources ,on?mem1erships in %armer"s organi2ations and co?operatives

9)+ Inaccessi1ility to mar et and mar et in%ormation 99+ Inaccessi1ility to e6tension support services 9&+ Gender neutral K 1lind policies and criteria ? which deny development 1ene%its to women 9'+ Multiple wor load and lac o% time 9*+ ,on?recognition in the %amily and society 9:+ Se6ual harassment 9(+ A6clusion %rom social security 1ene%its 9B+ Dhange in la1our laws, amendments and discriminations 9<+ Inpaid wor and non?recognition o% wor contri1utions /ossi#ilities and pport&nities to 0mpo,er Women in 9!ric&lt&re.

The Swaimnathan Dommission on 8TO Doncerns in .griculture E&)O&F in !erala did identi%y the need to 1uild a sustaina1le .gricultural Trade Security System+ The Dommission has put %orth the need o% addressing the crisis due to dye glo1ali2ation o% trade in the spheres o% employment and production in !erala+ The emphasis 1rought in sustaina1le livelihood security is to 1e noticed+ This is meant %or providing livelihood security to the rural population 1y restricting the import o% identi%ied commodities o% any regionG The Hcommission had recommended to enlarge home trade, pay greater attention to cost and 7uality %or the home mar et to encourage mutually 1ene%icial trade relationships and to enlarge glo1al trade+ The report highlights the %ocus needed on productivity, 7uality and value addition revolutions in the scene o% agriculture+ The competitiveness o% the glo1al mar et and %ree trade demand updated and continuous mar et intelligence and in%ormation communication technology+ Avolving technology %or e%%icient resource use and increased productivity, their dissemination and adoption among all categories o% %armers ? 1oth men and women ? is a need+ This also calls %or caution to eep these technologies as 70

gender sensitive ? to ta e care o% the needs and pro1lems o% women in agriculture and to ensure their livelihood security+ Dompetitiveness o% product is another area o% concern to %ace the challenge o% glo1al mar et ? our %armers are to 1e trained to ta e up the challenge o% 7uality products+ .wareness on phyto sanitary measures and certi%ications are to 1e en%orced+ The mar et access among %armers is also important+ -ne challenge in the e6port o% spices, marine products, coir etc+, as recently proven m the case o% %isheries sector, is the need o% improving the capacity o% %armers I producers in the area o% sanitary and phyto sanitary K 7uality measures in production and processing+ This demands enlarging domestic and e6port mar et support and in%rastructure %acilities in these sectors at the %ield level+ A6ploring the resource endowments o% !erala is one o% the opportunities %or !erala as !erala has its own special resources o% crop varieties, spices, medicinal plants and products+ Su%%icient promotion to conserve, multiply and utilise these resources should 1e ta en up+ .wareness creation on legal issues o% IPR genetic literacy and patenting in agriculture is another area %acing the impact o% glo1alisation+ In all these areas and actions, women also are sta eholders as women play ey roles in many e6port?oriented industries li e cashew, coir, prawns, tea etc+ There is a need to strengthen their role 1y paying speci%ic attention to impart nowledge ? s ill empowerment and capacity 1uilding+ The issues o% occupational health ha2ards o% these sectors are also to 1e %ocused through appropriate research and policies %or ensuring security %or women+

%&!!estions( 9 PolicyH Hadvocacy should 1e there to solve the e6isting gender issues in the scene o% agriculture li e discriminatory wage rates, land ownership and property rights, protective laws and re%orms in the la1our mar et, mem1erships in co?operative institutions, domestic la1our and accounting o% wor , criteria %or social security 1ene%its etc+ Gender sensitive technology development and trans%er o% technology, gender %riendly %arm support services, %armersH institutions, programmes and in%ormation service should 1e 1rought to promote women also as %armers and producers o% e6port commodities+ Dapacity 1uilding programmes %or 8omen in .griculture %or e%%icient %arm production and value addition are to 1e ta en up+ Research on the status o% women in agriculture and identi%ied issues should 1e ta en up+ 71

&+

'+ *+

:+

8omen empowerment programmes li e !udum1asree and Sel% Help Groups, which are engaged in agriculture, should 1e supported with in%rastructure, in%ormation and mar et support+ Dommunity grain 1an s %or ensuring local %ood security are to 1e set up+ =an e6ports o% essential %ood and ensure livelihood security %or rural poor+ Revitalise e%%icient P#S so that real poor are not denied o% their right %or %ood security+

(+ B+ <+

Discussions. -ne o% the suggestions was to maintain the living lin s and the technology should 1e li%e %riendly+ The dependence on the resources coming %rom outside will end up in the dependence on e6press highway and petroleum+ It is now high time to %ocus on the uncultivated healthy %ood that needed no care+ There is a need to connect %ood security with that o% li%e security+ Home trade and e6port trade contradict to each other @ocali2ed home trade system can prevent glo1ali2ation or any other reports or systems+ 8omen had an alternative and traditional system and the state should 1e %orced to develop %ood security 1ased on this methodology+ People"s movement 1ased on this security will sustain+ Good attempts in ID#S that promoted sharing and eating together, distri1ution o% local %ood among the anganawadi children were appreciated+ There was a suggestion that Y!erala model at a low cost" is to 1e evaluated 1ecause in reality it was not so+ Pu1lic #istri1ution System has caused the destruction o% agriculture to some e6tend and lessened the 1readth o% the %ood 1as et+ Mr+!unhi annan e6pressed his evaluation on the discussed points+ He said that his presentation was an evaluation o% !erala"s development and the role played 1y the organi2ed interventions and the given securities with in an over all conte6t+ It did not mean that he close his eyes towards its limitations at the macro level+ He %irmly retaliated that Y!erala model at a low cost was a living reality"+ #e politici2ation o% society meant an undemocratic approach towards development issues+ #evelopment has got a politics o% its own and it is to 1e sustained+ Rony suggested an evaluation on each one"s involved sectors to see the state o% %ood 1as et 1e%ore and now, what was the role o% the women 1e%ore and now and what is to 1e done in the %uture This should lead to a common sharing and %inding up o% a alternate model %or each community+ He supported the idea o% Mr+!unhi annan"s Y community 1ased approach" giving importance to the neigh1orhood groups and 1uilding up o% a sustaina1le relationship #r+Geetha utty presented her reviews+ .ccording to her agriculture is a 1io mass production ma ing use o% the availa1le resources o% a place %or the su1sistence and lively hood o% its people+ It could 1e natural resources or human resources Ehuman %actors 1oth men and womenF+ The interventions or change in technology or s ill or attitude are mainly targeted towards the human actors+

72

%ession 2. Paper '

*ender eC&it$ in health in Kerala( 9n overvie,
). K %&ndari Ravindran and )ara %adasivan The inter lin ages 1etween health and social and economic status have 1een nown and ac nowledged %or more than a century now+ Mortality data %rom the I!, Inited States and several countries in Aurope %or the later hal% o% this century show that there are systematic di%%erences in mortality rates 1y social class E9F+ The relationship 1etween race, gender and health status have also 1een o1served 1y many studies E&,',*, :F+ These studies 1ring home the point that di%%erences in health status arise not simply as a result o% individual di%%erences in genetic and 1iological ma eup, li%e styles, e6posure to disease causing organisms and health+ It would appear that the disadvantages su%%ered in opportunities, and in access to resources and power across population groups in turn translate into di%%erences in ris o% e6posure and vulnera1ility to diseases, as well as in di%%erential access to ade7uate and appropriate health care+ Thus social class, race and gender are important varia1les to consider when e6amining e7uity in health+ This paper e6amines the limited evidence availa1le to discuss gender?e7uity in health in !erala+ .%ter a de%inition o% concepts, the paper presents an overview o% data on gender?1ased di%%erences in health outcomes and in utili2ation o% health services+ It then %ocuses on women"s reproductive health status to ma e the case that !erala has a long way to go yet towards achieving gender e7uity in health+ Equality and equity in ealt It may 1e more appropriate to tal o% health e7uity than o% e7uality in health outcomes+ A7uality is the state o% 1eing the same, whereas e7uity implies %airness and 0ustice+ This is 1ecause there are o%ten di%%erences in health status 1etween individuals %or a num1er o% reasons, many o% these random or 1iological+ -ne e6ample is di%%erences in health status 1y age+ It may there%ore not 1e possi1le to achieve >e7uality" in health outcomes+ Ine7uity in health re%ers to di%%erences in health outcomes that are >avoida1le" and >un%air"+ This is usually de%ined as di%%erences in health outcomes arising %rom di%%erences in opportunity which result in une7ual li%e chances, une7ual access to health services and nutritious %ood, ade7uate housing, une7ual power to ma e decisions concerning one"s li%e and well?1eing and so on+ A7uity may 1e seen as consisting o% two components: hori2ontal e7uity, and vertical e7uity+ Hori2ontal 73

e7uity re%ers to the e7ual treatment o% e7uals+ In health, it is o%ten seen as a matter o% service provision, %or e6ample, e7ual access or utili2ation %or e7ual need+ /ertical e7uity re%ers to the une7ual E1ut e7uita1leF treatment o% une7ual+ 5or e6ample, this would mean additional services and investment in health %or those with additional health needs+ 8hen discussing gender e7uity in health, vertical e7uity may 1e more relevant to consider+ 8omen have additional and di%%erent inds o% health needs 1ecause o% their reproductive 1iology+ 8hen e6amining whether there is gender e7uity in health, the 7uestion to 1e as ed is not only whether there are avoida1le >di%%erences" 1etween women and men in health outcomes+ It should also 1e as ed whether there is avoida1le mortality, mor1idity or disa1ility %rom se6? speci%ic health needs such as reproductive health needs %or womenG and %urther, whether these avoida1le negative health outcomes result %rom gender discrimination, including lac o% attention in policies and programmes+

1n Kerala, man$ health indicators favo&r females 8hen we compare a num1er o% health indicators %or males and %emales, we %ind that many o% these %avour girls and women as against 1oys and men+ 5or e6ample, the li%e e6pectancy at 1irth is B9 %or men while it is B: %or women E(F+ The in%ant mortality rate was lower %or girls E9(+(K 9)))F than %or 1oys E&*+BK9)))F, and so was the child mortality rate: *+: %or girls and (+) %or 1oys EBF+ !erala is one o% the %ew states in India with a se6 ratio that %avours women: 9):< %emales per 9))) males according to the Densus o% India, &))9+ Mor1idity indicators in children and adults also show an overall lower prevalence o% mor1idity in girls and women+ The prevalence o% acute respiratory in%ection among children under ' years o% age was &:U %or 1oys and &) U %or girls, and diarrhoea prevalence 9:U %or 1oys and <U %or girls, according to data %rom ,5HS?& EBF+ The same survey also shows that among adults, tu1erculosis, 0aundice and malaria were more prevalent among men than among women+ The prevalence rate o% T= Eper 9))) populationF was (&' %or men and *': %or women+ Jaundice prevalence rates were ((& %or men and *)& %or women, and malaria prevalence rates were (C %or males and *' %or %emales+ .mong children under age ' years, the nutritional status is also 1etter among girls than among 1oys, although the di%%erences are not very large+ ,ot only were 1oys more li ely than girls to 1e wasted according to the weight %or height inde6 Ewhen considering weight %or height, percentage o% 1oys 1elow $'S# V [ 9+9 and girls [ )+'F 1ut also more li ely to 1e severely undernourished+ Ewhen considering weight %or age, 1oys 1elow $'S# [ B+*U and girls[9+<UFEBF+

74

V Dhildren who %all more than ' Standard #eviation ES#F 1elow the re%erence median Emedian o% International Re%erence PopulationF are considered to 1e severely undernourished+ 2&t several health indicators are also &nfavo&ra#le . more detailed e6amination o% the health indicators show that there are also several indicators those are not in %avour o% girls and women+ 5or e6ample, although the in%ant mortality rate %or girls is lower than that %or 1oys, the advantage is mainly in the neonatal period+ .t the post neonatal stage, girls had a higher mortality rate E( per 9)))F than 1oys E:+9 per 9)))F in &))&+ This is worth %urther investigation, 1ecause the post neonatal period is in%luenced more 1y environmental %actors as compared to the neonatal period, which is in%luenced 1y genetic %actors and s illed attendance at 1irth+ Similarly, !erala"s %avoura1le %emale se6 ratio does not hold %or the )?( age group+ The )?( age group has an adverse se6?ratio o% C(' girls %or every 9))) 1oys+ This age group is not a%%ected 1y out?migration o% males, and there%ore this adverse se6 ratio needs %urther e6amination to ascertain the e6tent to which se6?selective a1ortion o% the %emale %oetus may 1e contri1uting to this+ 8hen we ta e into account the nutritional status o% children, aneamia is more prevalent among girls E*(UF than 1oys E*&UF in the age group (?': months+ .mong adults, prevalence o% mor1idity is higher among women than in men %or several speci%ic conditions+ . community survey on household mor1idity and e6penditure was done in 9&U o% the households chosen %rom amongst the selected 9&U o% the panchayats in !erala in9CC(+ This study o% the households documenting E<F changes in the health status o% !erala during 9C<B?9CCB reported a higher rate o% acute mor1idity among women E9'9+< per 9)))F than among men E9&*+< per 9)))F ,5HS?& data show that more women than men su%%ered %rom asthma in 1oth ur1an and rural areas+ The prevalence rate o% asthma per 9)),))) usual household residents was 'BB) %or males and *)&: %or %emales in ur1an areas and *C(( %or males and :9C: %or %emales in rural areas+ . study on the prevalence o% hypertension and its correlates in elderly Eindividuals a1ove the age o% () yearsF doing a rural ur1an comparison in Trivandrum district ECF %ound the prevalence o% hypertension to 1e ('+9U %or women and ()U %or men+ Gender di%%erentials were not signi%icant in the ur1an population E(C+<U %or men and (<+9U %or womenF, 1ut very signi%icant in the rural population E*C+*U %or men and :<+'U %or womenF+ . community?1ased study o% 9)C* households with a population o% :&<* was conducted in rural !erala in 9CC:E9)F+ This study %ound that more women than

75

men su%%ered %rom all inds o% psychiatric disorders such as schi2ophrenia, a%%ective disorders and organic psychoses e6cept mental retardation, with the di%%erences statistically signi%icant in the age group a1ove () years+ Ta1le 9: Prevalence o% psychiatric disorders according to age and se6 E9CC:F Prevalence per 9))) %emale K male population ,ature o% psychiatric 5emale Male disorder Mental retardation &+(< &+CC Donvulsive disorder (+9' *+99 Schi2ophrenia *+&& &+CC .%%ective disorder '+<' &+&* -rganic psychosis 9+:' )+'B .ge 9* <+() (+CC 9:?&C 9:+&* 99+<: ')?** 9B+'* 9(+:( *:?*C 9(+B( 9:+'< a () and a1ove '(+C9 99+'& .ll ages 9(+<B 9&+'* a statistically signi%icantEp])+))9F Source: Re% E9)F There is limited in%ormation on gender di%%erences in utili2ation o% heath services+ There are some indications that while overall there are no ma0or di%%erentials 1y gender, in speci%ic instances, girls and women may 1e at a disadvantage+ -ne instance is among children su%%ering %rom acute respiratory in%ection E.RIF as documented 1y the ,5HS?&+ It was %ound that a greater proportion o% 1oys with .RI E<BUF are ta en to a health %acility as compared to girls with .RI EBBUF EBF . &))) study o% tu1erculosis treatment see ing in Trivandrum E99F %ound that only 9CU o% treatment see ers were women, although ,5HS?& reported that &:U o% all persons with T= in !erala were women EBF+ ,inan" study also indicated a potentially greater stigma associated with the disease %or women+ The proportion o% men who sent others to collect medicines on their 1ehal% was ')U while :CU o% the women patients sent others to collect medicines on their 1ehal%, even though the patients were supposed to 1e under #irectly -1served Therapy E#-TsF+ In another study 1ased in #istrict Tu1erculosis Dentre, !ollam, E9&F, provider delay was signi%icantly higher %or women Ean additional * wee sF than men among patients see ing T= care+

76

Reprod&ctive health ( an impressive record on the s&rface, #&t all is not ,ell 8e now turn to e6amine in greater detail the reproductive health situation in !erala, to ascertain whether women"s additional health needs arising %rom their reproductive 1iology are 1eing met ade7uately %or all women+ !erala"s reproductive health indicators are nown to 1e impressive+ The total %ertility rate was 9+C( according to ,5HS?& and it was 9+< according to Sample Registration System data %or &))9, the lowest T5R in the country+ The contraceptive prevalence rate was very high at (*U o% currently married women in the age group 9:?*C using some method o% contraception in 9CC<?CC+ .lmost all currently married women ECC UF new a1out %emale sterili2ation and C*U new a1out male sterili2ation+ -ther methods o% contraception li e the pill, II# and condoms were also well nown Epill[C)U,II#[<CU,condom[C&UF+ .1out C'U o% all deliveries too place in a health %acilityKinstitutionE'(+'U in a pu1lic health %acility, &+CU in a %acility un 1y ,G-Ktrust, and :'+BU in privateF and CCU women had received antenatal chec ?ups+ -nly &'U o% women su%%ered %rom anaemia and the vast ma0ority o% these had mild anaemia E&)UF+ EBF There is however, cause %or serious concern on many %ronts+ The maternal mortality ratio o% !erala, although among the lowest in India, is not as low as one would e6pect, given the very high proportion o% institutional deliveries+ The maternal mortality ratio %rom a study 1ased in Trivandrum"s teaching hospital was 9&: per 9)),))) in 9CC< E9'F+ The SRS %igure %or the same year was 9C< per 9)),)))+ Ta1le & 1elow compares the maternal mortality ratios across medium and low? income countries with a high proportion o% s illed attendance at delivery+ It is clear that even i% we ta e the lower maternal mortality ratio %or !erala, the %igure does not compare %avoura1ly with other countries+ Ta1le &: Proportion o% women receiving s illed attendance at delivery and maternal mortality ratios in the 9CC)s, selected countries U o% women with s illed MM ratio per 9)),))) live attendance at delivery 1irths .l1ania CC :: Du1a CC '' !erala C' 9&: Malaysia C< *9 Poland CC 9' Sri @an a C* C& Source : Re% E9*,9:F 8hat accounts %or !erala"s relatively poor per%ormance despite achieving an impressive institutional delivery rate;

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The %ew studies that give data on causes o% maternal deaths point to a signi%icant proportion o% avoida1le maternal deaths+ Ta1le ' 1elow shows causes o% maternal deaths in %ive teaching hospitals in !erala during 9CC'?CB+ Ta1le '+ Dauses o% maternal deaths in !erala , 5ive teaching hospitals, 9CC'?CB Dauses ,um1er percent #irect causes 9+Hemorrhage :' 9B+9) &+Sepsis &B <+B9 '+Hypertensive disorders B' &'+:: *+Septic a1ortion 9' *+9C :+Rupture uterus B &+&( (+Tropho1lastic disease & )+(: B+.naesthetic * 9+&C <+Actopic pregnancy 9 )+'& C+-thers *) 9&+C) Indirect causes 9+ .cute hepatitis :9 9(+*: &+Dardiac disease ') C+(< '+.nemia < &+:< *+Malaria during pregnancy 9 )+'& Total '9) 9)) Source: Re% E9(F &* U o% all maternal deaths are %rom hypertensive disorders, 9BU %rom hemorrhage and almost CU %rom sepsis+ It may 1e argued that at least &(U o% these deaths $ those %rom hemorrhage and sepsis $ should not have occurred in institutional deaths, and a signi%icant proportion o% death %rom hypertensive disorders ought to have 1een avoided given the high coverage with antenatal care+ Given that there are hardly any home deliveries, the scenario in which women are ept at home till it is too late to save them is not a li ely one+ Something is seriously wrong either with the re%erral and transportation systems in the health %acilities women initially go to, causing women to arrive in re%erral hospitals too late to 1e savedG alternately the 7uality o% emergency o1stetric care within re%erral hospitals needs serious scrutiny+ Pro1a1ly 1oth %actors contri1ute to the high proportion o% avoida1le maternal deaths in the state, a situation that should not 1e allowed to continue+ 5nnecessar$ c-sections .nother appalling %inding has 1een the num1er o% increasing and unnecessary caesarian sections+ I% we loo at the various studies conducted 1etween 9C<B and 9CC<, we %ind a rising trend in c?sections+ It was 9&U in 9C<B E9BF, 9*U in 9C<<?C&E9<F &9U in 9CC( E9CF and &CU in 9CC*?C< EBF+ . study conducted in the three corporation areas o% Trivandrum, Dochin and !o2hi ode in !erala E&)F shows that c?section rates in these cities was '*U+ It %urther %ound that *'U o% all 78

deliveries in the private sector was 1y c?sections while it was &:U in the pu1lic sector health %acilities+ The study 1y Mishra and Ramanathan E9<F %ound c? section rates 1eing signi%icantly higher in the private sector %acilities compared to the pu1lic sector+ 5nderno&rished mothers -ne in %ive women in the reproductive age group E9:?*C yearsF are undernourished and have a =ody Mass Inde6 1elow 9<+: gKm &+ The prevalence o% undernourishment is lowest in the age group 9:?9C E9'+:UF 1ut increases steeply to 1e the highest in &)?&* age group E&BUF and &:?&C age group E&:UF+ In other words, the age group within which most women go through child1earing is also the period in which the largest proportion are undernourished+ Is there perhaps a connection 1etween %amily %ormation patterns and undernourishment o% women in the pea reproductive age group; To understand this, we need to go 1eyond the high contraceptive prevalence rates and loo more closely at the pattern o% contraceptive use+ @ow use o% reversi1le methods %or spacing There is negligi1le use o% reversi1le methods o% contraception+ .lthough contraceptive prevalence rate is high in the state and :(U o% women or their hus1ands used a modern method o% contraception in 9CC<?CC, o% this only :+9U used a reversi1le method o% contraception: )+*U used pills, 9+(U used II# and '+9U used condoms+ 5emale sterili2ation was used 1y *CU and male sterili2ation, 1y 'U + EBF+ Reprod&ction sC&ee"ed into a short time span .ccording to ,5HS?& data, the singulate mean age at marriage Ewhich we assume as e7uivalent to mean age at coha1itationF %or women in !erala was &) years, while the median age at sterili2ation was &( years EBF+ Reports %rom the #irectorate o% Health Services also show that the ma6imum num1er o% tu1ectomy is done in the age group &(?&C years E&9F+ 8ith mean age at coha1itation &) years and median age o% sterili2ation &( years and the low use o% reversi1le methods o% contraception, reproduction is s7uee2ed into a short span o% time, ending with %emale sterili2ation+ !erala has done poorly in 1irth spacing E&&,&'F+ Spacing appears to 1e achieved predominantly through induced a1ortions though there is only anecdotal and circumstantial evidence to this e%%ect+ Dould this perhaps 1e related to the higher prevalence o% undernourishment in the age group &)?&C years; )he safe se? messa!e has not hit home Dondom use in !erala was only 'U in 9CC<?CC+ Thus, >the sa%e se6 1ehaviour" message seems to have not hit home+ This is a matter o% very serious concern in an era o% HI/ in%ections+ .ccording to data %rom the sentinel surveillance in .,D clinics and ST# clinics carried out 1y the !erala State .ids Dontrol Society, )+'U o% women had tested positive in the .,D clinics and *+&U had tested positive in

79

ST# clinics in &))' E&*F+ In another survey among commercial se6 wor ers, prevalence o% HI/ among %emale se6 wor ers was ' $ : U E&*F+ It may not 1e very long 1e%ore the in%ection rates among low?ris se6ual 1ehaviour groups o% women 1ecomes a ma0or issue to contend with+ .necdotal evidence points to many low?ris 1ehaviour women 1eing in%ected 1y their only se6ual partner? their hus1ands+ The low median age at sterili2ation o% &( years e6poses women to an even higher ris o% in%ection, 1ecause once they have 1een sterili2ed, it would 1e very di%%icult %or them to insist on condom use 1y their hus1ands, or %or their hus1ands to do so without raising a lot o% 7uestions a1out marital %idelity+ There is need to address this issue o% sa%e se6 %or sterili2ed couples with urgency+ %&#stantial #&rden of reprod&ctive mor#idit$ Reproductive mor1idity among ever?married women in !erala was reported to 1e su1stantial in many studies+ In ,5HS?&, ':U o% ever?married women reported any a1normal vaginal discharge or symptoms o% a urinary tract in%ection+ .mong currently married women , sel%?reported reproductive mor1idity was *&U+ .mong women who reported symptoms o% any ind o% reproductive or urinary tract in%ections, more than hal% E::UF have not sought any advice or treatment EBF+ The pattern is almost similar in ur1an and rural areas+ This pattern o% high reproductive mor1idity is con%irmed 1y a study 1ased on clinical e6amination+ The study covering %ive Trivandrum panchayats reported *)U prevalence o% reproductive mor1idity in ever?married women o% reproductive age group E&:F+ In a community 1ased study on the 1urden o% sel% reported mor1idity and its correlates among people a1ove the age o% %orty %ive years in !erala E&(F, 9CU o% the women a1ove *: years o% age had undergone surgery %or a gyneacological pro1lem+ ,ine per cent reported uterine prolapse , (U reported urinary incontinence and : U reported white discharge per vaginum+ Dontraceptive use was %ound to 1e signi%icantly associated with reproductive mor1idity in another study carried out in 9CCC in the three su1?centre communities randomly selected %rom those under the PHD in Pangappara in Trivandrum district in !erala+ . signi%icant association was %ound 1etween contraceptive use and three reproductive health pro1lems, namely menstrual pro1lems, reproductive tract in%ections and urinary tract in%ections+ Prevalence o% these three conditions was :BU among users o% contraception and only &*U among non?users o% contraception+ In particular, ')U o% contraceptive users reported symptoms o% reproductive tract in%ections while only 99U o% non?users o% contraceptives reported such symptoms E &&F+ Dealth care #ecomin! &nafforda#le Dosts o% health care are on an upward spiral and have 1ecome a 1urden especially %or low?income households+ In a &))9 study carried out in si6 rural panchayats o% Trivandrum, the mean cost o% delivery in the pu1lic sector was

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Rs'C'(, and private sector it was Rs CC<B+ This study on the e6penditure pattern, perceived 7uality and %inancing sources %or pregnancy and delivery services %ound that 1orrowing was the main source o% %inancing among B9U o% those %rom low?income groups, and the mean rate o% interest was as high as *BU+ .1out 9)U o% the total e6penditure in the pu1lic sector was spent on gi%ts and 1ri1es E&BF+ .ccording to a study on the 1urden, cause and cost o% caesarian sections in !erala in &))9 E&)F, the mean cost o% a normal delivery in a government %acility was Rs9C)B9*&C and Rs *::C &''( in private %acilities+ 5or caesarian sections, the mean cost in a pu1lic %acility was Rs *)** 9C9B and in a private hospital, Rs9)(9' '&'<+ .ccording to this study, the pu1lic spends almost two and a hal% crores o% rupees as e6tra cost every year on un0usti%ied c?sections+ Dost o% an a1ortion in private %acility ranged %orm Rs 9&((? 9(C9 %or %irst trimester a1ortions to 1etween Rs *)))? :))) %or a1ortions a1ove &) wee s gestation E&9F+ -ther studies have also pointed out that there are costs involved %or the provision o% services even in the pu1lic sector, although these are supposed to 1e provided %ree o% cost E <,9BF+ 8hile there are no studies documenting the cost o% see ing care %or reproductive mor1idity, the %act that :*U o% women with a reported reproductive health pro1lem did not see any ind o% health care EBF may at least in part 1e due to the cost o% see ing health care+ ;oncl&sions 8hat is the picture that emerges a1out gender e7uity in health in !erala %rom the mosaic o% %igures %rom disparate sources pulled together; I% gender e7uity means une7ual treatment o% une7uals, then the tally is not very good+ The e6tent o% avoida1le mor1idity and mortality related to reproduction is still very high, and incompati1le with the widespread availa1ility o% health care services and near? universal institutional deliveries+ 8hat this implies is the lac o% ade7uate attention in policies and programmes to reproductive health+ 8e also %ind that costs o% health care may 1e ma ing services %or chronic reproductive and other mor1idity 1eyond women"s access+ In addition, unnecessary medicalisation poses threats to women"s well1eing and may lead to impoverishment o% low?income women+ There are also some indications o% possi1le gender 1iases in access to general health care+ There is a long way to go yet 1e%ore !erala can 1oast o% gender e7uity in health+ . serious 1arrier to identi%ying and addressing ine7uities is the lac o% in%ormation 81

on the gender dimensions o% health pro1lems+ Gathering and ta1ulating evidence on gender di%%erences in health in routine data collection 1y the health services, and %urther research on gender di%%erences in all aspects o% health and health care are urgent priorities+ RA5ARA,DAS 9+ Marmot MG, !ogevinas M and Alston M.+ SocialKeconomic status and diseases+ Annual 2eview o& Public ?ealth, 9C<B, <:999?':+ &+ Muntaner D+ Invited commentary: social mechanisms, race and social epidemiology+ American Dournal o& -pidemiolo' , 9CCC, 9:)E&F:9&9?(+ '+ Muntaner D, @ynch J+ Income ine7uality, social cohesion and class relations+ *nternational Dournal o& ?ealth Services, 9CCC, &C::C?<&+ *+ !reiger ,, Rowley #, Herman . et al+ Racism, se6ism and social class: implications %or studies o% health, disease and well?1eing+ American Dournal o& Preventive 4edicine , 9CC', C:<&?9&&+ :+8illiams #+ RaceKethnicity and socioeconomic status: measurement and methodological issues+ *nternational Dournal o& ?ealth Services) 9CC(, &(E'F: *<'::):+ (+ -%%ice o% the Registrar? General, India+ Sample 2e'istration S stem+ ,ew #elhi: -%%ice o% the Registrar General, IndiaG &))&+ B+ International Institute %or Population Sciences, India+ ,ational 5amily Health Survey E,5HS?&F,9CC<?CC, Mum1ai, IIPS, &))9+ <+ !unhi annan TP and .ravindan !P+ %han'es in the health status o& Kerala 1>"961>>9, Trivandrum, Dentre %or #evelopment Studies, #iscussion Paper ,o &)G &)))+ C+ .le6 SD + Prevalence o& h pertension and its correlates in elderl . a rural urban comparison in (hriuvanthapuram district) Kerala G Inpu1lished MPH dissertation, Trivandrum, .chutha Menon Dentre %or Health Science Studies, Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute %or Medical Sciences and Technology, &)))+ 9)+ Sha0i S, /erghese ., Promodu ! et al+ Prevalence o% priority psychiatric disorders in a rural area in !erala+ *ndian Dournal o& Ps chiatr , 9CC:G 'BE&F: C9? C(+ 99+ ,inan =S+ Determinants o& treatment non6compliance amon' pulmonar (0 patients in 23(%P6 DA(S ) (rivandrum) Kerala) *ndia + Inpu1lished MPH dissertation, Trivandrum, .chutha Menon Dentre %or Health Science Studies, Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute %or Medical Sciences and Technology G &))9+

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9&+ Raghavan .+ ?ealth seekin' behaviour o& (0 patients o& Kollam) Kerala. Inpu1lished MPH dissertation, Trivandrum, .chutha Menon Dentre %or Health Science Studies, Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute %or Medical Sciences and TechnologyG &))'+ 9'+ =eegum .+ ?i'h risk pre'nancies and their clinical outcomes. A prospective descriptive stud o& the clinical outcomes o& hi'h risk pre'nancies at a public sector tertiar care centre in rural (hiruvananthapuram) Kerala + Inpu1lished MPH dissertation, Trivandrum, .chutha Menon Dentre %or Health Science Studies, Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute %or Medical Sciences and Technology, 9CC<+ 9*+ 8H- and 8orld =an + 4aternal ?ealth Around the /orld) Poster, Geneva, 8orld Health -rgani2ationG 9CCB+ 9:+ 8H-KI,IDA5KI,5P.+ 4aternal mortalit in =000. -stimates developed b /?A) 73*%-1 and 731PA. Geneva, #epartment o% Reproductive Health and Research, 8orld Health -rganisationG&))'+ 9(+ Se haran P! et al+ 4aternal mortalit in medical colle'es o& Kerala. In Shenoy TS et al Eeds.$ %hallen'es in sa&e motherhood initiative in Kerala , India, Medical Dollege, ThiruvananthapuramG 9CCC+ 9B+ !annan !P et al+ ?ealth and development in rural Kerala. Trivandrum, !erala Sastra Sahithya ParishadG 9CC9+ 9<+ Mishra IS and Ramanathan M+ Deliver complications and determinants o& caesarean section rates in *ndia @ An anal sis o& 3ationa 1amil ?ealth Surve 1>>=6><+Trivandrum , Dentre %or #evelopment Studies, 8or ing paper '9*G &))9+ 9C+ Than appan !R+ Daesarean section deliveries on the rise in !erala + (he 3ational 4edical Dournal o& *ndia, /ol+9& E(FG 9CCC &)+ Hemachandran !+ 0urden) cause and cost o& caesarean sections . A communit based stud in the three cities o& (hiruvananthapuram) Kochi) Ko+hikode) Kerala.Trivandrum, .chutha Menon Dentre %or Health Science Studies, Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute %or Medical Sciences and Technology, 8or ing Paper Series ,o&G &))'+ &9+ Ramanathan M et al+ Situational anal sis o& 4(P services in Kerala. Provider perspective+ Inpu1lished research report, ,ew #elhi and Mum1ai, Health 8atch and DAH.TG &))'+

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&&+ Sowmini D/+ A stud on the sel& reported reproductive morbidit in the context o& contraceptive use and anal sis o& the service related determinants o& reproductive morbidit + Inpu1lished MPH dissertation, Trivandrum, .chutha Menon Dentre %or Health Science Studies, Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute %or Medical Sciences and TechnologyG9CCC+ &'+ Jee0o1hoy S+ Reproductive health in%ormation needs in India+ Has ,5HS %illed the data gap+ (he Dournal o& 1amil /el&are G/ol *&E9F, B $ &',March 9CC(+ &*+ !erala State .I#S Dontrol Society, Government o% !erala, !erala+ Kerala responds to the A*DS challen'eG Trivandrum, !S.DSG &))'+ &:+ Shenoy et al+ 2eproductive health and ' naecolo'ical morbidit in Kerala. Trivandrum, Inpu1lished study report, Studies on Human #evelopment in India, Pro0ect o% I,#PE #ecem1er 9CC(. =:+ Mathew #+ 0urden o& sel& reported morbidit and its correlates amon' people above the a'e o& &ort &ive ears . A communit based surve in rural KeralaG Inpu1lished MPH dissertation, Trivandrum, .chutha Menon Dentre %or Health Science Studies, Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute %or Medical Sciences and Technology G &))9+ &B+ .0ay /S+ -xpenditure ) pattern) perceived ,ualit and &inancin' sources &or pre'nanc and deliver services in rural (hiruvananthapuram) Kerala G Inpu1lished MPH dissertation, Trivandrum, .chutha Menon Dentre %or Health Science Studies, Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute %or Medical Sciences and Technology, &))&+ Disc&ssion #ased on the paper #uring discussions some o% the clari%ications on comparing maternal mortality across countries, data on a1ortion rate, %emale %oeticide, gender im1alance, privati2ation o% health sectors etc+ were done+ Dases o% unreported cases o% mor1idity needed to attend to 1e+ Pesticides resulting in s in in%ections and sic ness related mor1idity rate is also high and ta en not o%+ Mental health data is not included in the paper+ Medicali2ation o% preganancies and o% women"s 1ody need to 1e ta en seriously+ 8e needed to document the unnecessary procedures recommended 1y many private institutions %louting standards set internationally 1y the 8H-+ .ll o% us who are concerned should 1e involved in documenting what we are o1serving+ So that we can provide that evidence even i% it is :) people+ #r+Joy Alamon added some more points+ He said the 7uestion o% gender e7uity in health in !erala itsel% is a new 7uestion which have never have 1een addressed+ In many o% the studies we have to pro1e in detail and this has to 1e made a ma0or concern %or all o% us in %uture regarding health in !erala+ 8e need to see what really is !erala model o% health especially as regards to gender

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e7uity + There are some 1asic 7uestions to 1e raised+ -ne is regarding the privacy in health care settings %rom -P to @a1or room and the attitudes towards women in such settings and the second is regarding the reproductive health achievements+ How did we achieve that; 8hat was the 7uality o% health care deliveries in those settings; + The point regarding the maternal mortality rate ?the increase rate o% caesarians sections itsel% would 1e one %actor 1ecause normal deliveries are normal and caesarian section is not normal+ .nd so whether c? sections added to maternal mortality or mor1idity; . third %actor is a1out the reproductive age group 1asically 1ut what a1out the women who passed this reproductive age group and health conditions they %ace, their mental condition and the issues o% widows+ There is also the reality o% women who had the sterili2ation and a%ter ' or * years loosing her uterus also+EhysterectomyF Several such issues need urgent attention o% health activists and human rights groups in !erala Paper *

0d&cation of Women in Kerala, MaEor ;oncerns and 1ss&es . Dr./.K.Michael )harakan

1ntrod&ction( /iewed %rom a gender perspective, three ma0or issues seem to con%ront !erala society + They are decreasing 5emale 8or participation Rate E 58PRF , increasing crime rate against women, and a perceived wea ening o% inheritance rights %or women+ .ll three, re7uire deeper analysis to clearly understand their dimensions and contours+ ,evertheless, there are reasons to 1elieve that are all three are li ely to 1e ma0or pro1lems sooner than later+ .ccording to the latest ,ational Sample survey organisation E,SS- :: th RoundF, when only a1out &' per cent o% women were %ound to 1e economically active in 9CCC?)), :: per cent o% men were %ound to 1e so+ The Male 8or Participation Rate EM8PRF seems to have increased since 9C<B $ <<G while the 5emale wor participation rate E58RRF remained the same+ .n increased rate o% economic activity %or women would have 1rought independent earnings, 1etter treatment in the %amily and higher decision ma ing roles %or them+ This does not seem to 1e happening+ The statistics o% the State and ,ational Drime Records =ureau E,DR=F, do indicate increasing con%lict? situations within households+ .s a result crimes against women, stress? related violence and suicides seem to 1e on the increase+ Similarly, though it was 1elieved that !erala society placed %ewer restrictions against women owning property due to the long and strong tradition o% matrilineal %orms o% %amily, there are increasing reports o% restraints on %emale inheritance+ The 1est nown case %rom !erala in this respect is that o% Syrian Dhristian women? o% course %rom a patrilineal group $ 1eing denied right%ul inheritance i% their %athers die without registering a will+ 85

.ll three issues may have di%%erent processes wor ing 1ehind them and various reasons might have caused them to reach their present dimensions+ -ne among them, which can strongly 1e lin ed with all three issuesG at least indirectly i% not directly, is the educational process that goes on in !erala society+ .n educated society li e !erala should have 1etter 5emale 8or Participation Rate"sE58PRF, less violence against women and a li1eral attitude towards %emale inheritance+ In other words, how come !erala with total literacy and near universal primary education %ail to produce more economically active women; 8hat is the meaning o% the high 7uality o% li%e claimed %or women o% !erala i% they are increasingly su10ected to violenceG leading them to a stress %ull li%e culminating even in suicides; How came !erala with near1y ninety per cent women"s literacy %ailed to produce a society with attitudes li1eral enough to allow %emale inheritance without restrictions; .pparently there is something wrong with the 7uantity o% education claimed %or !eralaG or there is something amiss with 7uality o% the educational process or it could 1e that the social conte6t in which the educational achievements are claimedG is %or a nature that does not lead to the e6pected results+ @et us discuss it in greater detail+ 0d&cation and 3W/R Aven among women o% graduate and a1ove category the 8PR"s were as low as 'B percent %or ur1an areas and '& per cent %or rural areas compared to <B percent %or ur1an males and <& percent %or rural males+ In addition, gender disparity in levels o% educated unemployment has increased 1etween 9C<B $ << and 9CCC $ &)))+ 8hile educated unemployment has declined %or men in 9CC)s, it has increased %or women+ In this particular conte6t, women who are una1le to get 0o1s according to their educational s ills and pre%erences may choose to remain unemployed+ In pre%erences, at least one study has pointed out that social status and pro6imity to home were the most important+ . higher proportion o% women in !erala who report to 1e housewives do also some other su1sidiary economic wor G including tutoring o% their ownK others children+ Though such su1sidiary wor may 1e %etching them some incomeG their identi%ication o% themselves as mainly housewives do indicate the domestic nature o% their occupation+ 8hat these o1servations indicate is that however well $ educated a women in !erala is , she is %orced into domesticity in her choice o% wor 1y social circumstances, %amily e6pectations and personal pre%erence which can 1e greatly in%luenced 1y the %ormer two %actors+ -n o% the main goals o% gender e7uity is the reduction in women"s economic dependence+ There%ore, increased incorporation o% women in wage employment may 1e interpreted as a positive development+ =ut to achieve gender e7uity, e7uality o% %emale and male wages is crucial+ !erala is still very %ar %rom that+ =ut in 1oth rural and ur1an areas o% the state there are higher casual wage rates+ M8PR,s has 1een increasing too+ This might lead, as Mridul Aapen has already suggested to higher household earnings which can induce women to 3withdraw into %ull?time domesticity %or signi%icant parts o% the year4+ =ut it can also increase their vulnera1ility 1y increasing their hus1ands or other male relatives incomes+ 86

.part %rom this, the gender $ 1ased speciali2ations in certain educational streams may also strengthen such a pattern+ Though up to the Metric level there is hardly any gender disparityG it is %ound that in other levels, there are pronounced disparities+ 5or instanceG women are %ound to e6ceed men in graduate and post graduate courses in arts and sciences+ =ut they are %ound to lag 1ehind men in pro%essionalK technical courses+ 8omen clearly dominate teaching and nursing pro%essions while they %ormed less than one third o% the enrolment in engineering colleges in 9CCB+ Similar disparities are %ound in the case o% enrolments to technical schools, ITIS, ITD"s and polytechnics+ Interestingly women dominate trades li e stenography, dress ma ing+ Dutting and tailoring, secretarial practice and data preparation in the one year course in ITIs and ITD,s+ It means that there is a de%inite crowding o% women into so called %eminine speciali2ationsG %urther strengthening the prevailing social, %amily and individual choices in %avour o% domesticated 0o1s+ In other words, the prevailing educational system and process sustain the apparent vulnera1ility o% women+ Such a pattern may 1e %ound in educational systems elsewhere too+ .s it has 1een said Schools are regarded as sites within, and through which, the inter?related power structures o% class and gender operate+ Hence schools are seen to prepare students %or their dual locations in the socio?se6ual division o% la1or, the relations o% production , and in the relations o% reproduction within the %amily+ There%ore, in addition to as ing the 7uestion how with more than hundred and %i%ty years history o% modern education, !erala still lend to domesticate women, we should also wonder why there is hardly any sign o% challenge, within the system, against such domestication+ I wish to propose a hypothesis in e6planation which is very much rooted in the history o% educational development in this region+ Though much o% the credit %or the increase in literacy and 1asic education in !erala is generally attri1uted to the contri1utions o% Dhristian Missionaries and successive GovernmentsG it is 1etter e6plained in terms o% a demand driven process initiated 1y structural changes, such as agrarian? re%orms leading to commerciali2ation o% agriculture in the nineteenth century and to comprehensive land re%orms in the twentieth country+ 8hile the %irst opportunity was converted into social indicators o% development %or the middle level castes and communities 1y the Socio?religious Re%orm Movements ESRRMSF the second opportunity was trans%ormed %or the lower $ middle classes 1y political Movements EPMSF particularly o% the le%tist stream+ The SRRMS located their organi2ationalK mo1ilisational units at the level o% castesK communities+ The PMS identi%ied their organisationalK mo1ilisational constituencies at the level o% classes+ ,either o% these movements had %or o1vious reasons, a %eminist or ecologicalK environmental perspective+ .s a result, even when these movements supported women"s education, it was meant to pursue education along with men within the prevailing socially approved system o% gender?relations+ Aducation was

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meant to challenge caste discriminations, %or SRRMS, and class contradictions %or PMS+ The SRRMS re%lecting their re%ormist character were aiming %or greater social mo1ility, though some o% them had the aim o% a1olition o% the caste system+ The PMS also wor ed mainly towards cornering social and economic indicators o% development to the lower middle and the lowest classes, though sections o% them aimed at a1olition o% classes altogether+ There%ore their activities, seemingly radical seldom assumed truly revolutionary character+ .s part o% the re%orm plat%orm, even educated sections o% matrilineal castesKcommunities themselves, had argued %or social legislation sanctioning a new %orm o% marriage and %amily rooted in modern patriarchal relations and very much in con%ormity with prevailing colonial practices+ The PMS seem to have accepted the new %amily structure rather uncritically even in the conte6t o% one o% the ma0or legislation %or social change in !eralaG that is %or comprehensive land re%orms+ It should 1e remem1ered that it has 1een said in a similar conte6t that 8ithout a strong movement among women which will empower them to engage with and ma e use o% %ormal structures and legal opportunities that are 1eing put in place, the 1road policy o10ective o% greater gender e7uality through land re%orm is li ely to remain stronger at the level o% principle than practice+ In such circumstances , it is understanda1le why the educational system demanded %or and partly created 1y the SRRMS and the PMS in its various %orms, was not capa1le to contradict the conventional speciali2ation o% women into the so called %eminine disciplines which is now ma ing them vulnera1le+ It should also 1e recalled that the enveloping social system was already moderni2ing on the 1asis o% patriarchical %orms o% marriage and domestic li%e and in that circumstance a challenge to the system %rom within will not have 1een easily allowed+ Domestic violence a!ainst Women .s already mentioned, violence against women in general and crimes against them emanating %rom stress $ %ull households seem to 1e an increase in !erala+ . survey covering Doim1atore, /ellore and Trivandrum with regard to crimes against women %ound no di%%erent pattern %or Trivandrum, which was e6pected to present a variation due to educated population+ Put di%%erently education does not seem to matter in this case, as %ar as !erala is concerned+ 8ith low 58RR and growing vulnera1ility, it could 1e understood easily, how they are made to operate %rom a su1ordinate position within the %amily+ Since a ma0or section o% women seem to voluntarily accept domestic >non?paid" occupations, they are nowingly or un nowingly 1ecoming highly dependent upon their male relatives+ In such circumstance, when the household %aces a particularly stress? %ull situation the women will not only have to 1ear the 1runt o% the stress 1ut also violent outpouring o% such stress within the household+

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Since there is the strong tradition o% women speciali2ing in a %ew 3%eminine4 occupations, their choice o% 0o1s is highly restricted+ Their choice is %urther restricted as mentioned earlier, 1y social status and pro6imity to home+ Though women may also accept such restrictions 3voluntarily4, 1ehind such impositions the prevailing concept o% status %or di%%erent categories o% women are operating + I% a particular woman tries to de%y such restrictions, she is li ely to 1e su10ected to severe pressure %rom within the %amily itsel% Jechariah"s short story >Salam .merica" portrays reversal o% gender roles in the conte6t o% glo1ali2ation+ =ut women gain%ully employed else where in a pro%ession li e ,ursing, may 1e treated di%%erently within their stem?%amily operating under >%alse concept" o% social status and accepted occupations+ !athleen Gough, surveying literacy in traditional !erala Society o1served that the spread o% literacy in medieval !erala did not result in the spread o% >logical reasoning" as predicted 1y some literacy e6perts+ 8hat she %ound was a higher and more severe use o% written te6ts and codes to impose restrictions and divisions within society+ In the modern period, as we have already seen, it were the PMS, SRRMS and to a lesser e6tent the wor ings o% Governments and Dhristian Missionaries Eat least those who 1elieved in the need o% =i1le $reading as part o% their evangeli2ation practicesF that gave a 1oost to literacy and 1asic education+ They also operated within a highly restrictive social conte6t+ It was the %irst communist government during 9C:B $ :C that tried to pilot a %airly progressive educational =ill+ It raised severe opposition, leading to the dismissal o% that state Government 1y the centre+ It was %elt 1y the communist party leadership that com1ining land re%orms along with educational re%orms, as their Ministry did, caused such opposition+ 5rom that period onwards no radical educational re%orm was attempted in !erala, with or without any %eminist content+ It goes to show that, li e Gough has o1served in the case o% medieval literacy, modern education also operated in support o% prevailing social hierarchy which had hardly any chance o% resistance to growing violence and restrictions against women, arising %rom the %ield o% ideas supported 1y %ormal education+ 1nheritance Ri!hts I% SRRMs identi%ied their organi2ational K mo1ili2ation unit as casteKcommunity, the PMS %ound the same at the level o% classes+ It is mainly through the wor o% these two types o% movements, that the >modern" !erala society was created+ Aven though the >modern" !erala society, evo es casteKcommunity or class 7uite o%ten in pu1lic discourse, its 1asic unit o% social organi2ation seems to 1e the patriarchal nuclear %amily+ -1viously the earlier e6tended 0oint %amily whether patrilineal or matrilineal $ had changed to give space to the modern nuclear %amily+ This does not mean that this trans%ormation was complete or total+ -n the one hand the >modern" Malayalee tends to trace his or her identity to an e6tended 0oint %amily tracea1le to a common >Tharavad"+ -n the other he or she is strongly attached to the immediate nuclear %amily o% 5ather, Mother, =rother"s, and sister"s and sometimes grand parents+ These two types o% %amilies operate di%%erently upon individuals+ 8hile the e6tended %amily 89

holds images o% communality and social discipline, the nuclear %amily is the realm in which individual interests are provo ed and demands %or 1etter per%ormance, in educational results, cornering well paid 0o1s and marrying with 1est dowries etc+ are made+ There%ore the %amily remains the space in which, under une7ual gender relations, which have not 1een su%%iciently challenged, the women are e6pected to 1ring su%%icient dowry to %inance %amily KindividualKmale pro0ects+ 5amilies o% di%%erent communities are aware o% the e6perience o% the 9C')s when the matrilineal 0oint %amilies and their common properties were legally partitioned, leaving the Thava2hies to sell their holdings mainly partilineal community mem1ers+ Such a situation, no %amily or no community will li e to have+ It is interesting to recall the sentiments e6pressed 1y #r+ Thomas !urialacheri, =ishop and /icar .postolic o% Dhanganachery in a letter dated '9 st March 9C9& to the President o% the Dhristian community+ He said that, .ccording to our custom the unmarried daughter and the widow are entitled to maintenance only, while the married daughter is entitled to her dowry at the time o% marriage+ There was a great an6iety and %ear in the minds o% the people when the courts o% this country deviating %rom the custom, lately applied the Indian Dhristian Succession .ct in certain decisions in the case o% the widows+ Indeed, it was this unrest that led to an agitation and to the conse7uent appointment o% the Dhristian committee+ I% the daughters are given share along with their 1rothers and the widow is allowed to have any claim whatever e6cept maintenance in the property o% her hus1and, it would destroy the domestic tran7uility, throw open the %lood gates o% litigation 1ringing all sorts o% calamities and eventually ruin the community+ Such %ear still persists among all communities even nowG and in a situations uneven gender relations operate adversely to the interests o% women+ It is not surprising that in a society in which patriarchy was not 7uestioned at all, %amily inheritance is ta en to 1e a space %or male oriented capital accumulation, through dowry and through restricting %emale inheritance rights+ 8ithin the modern %ormal educational system in !erala, which originated and developed within a situation o% compliance o% e6isting social order, no alternative ideas have evolved+

;oncl&sion The three issues identi%ied at the very outset they 1eing decreasing 58PR, increasing crime rate against women, and declining inheritance rights %or women, seam to 1e interlin ed to each other+ In strengthening all three trends, mainstream educations" %ailure seems to 1e a ma0or %actor+ The reason %or this %ailure is not within the 7uantity o% education 1ut in its 7uality in the sense that it %ailed to generate challenges to the prevailing patriarchal system+ 5or that the

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main reason is the general social conte6t in which modern education originated an disclosed+ F(entative BersionsG3ot to be ,uotedH #iscussion 1ased on the paper #iscussions centered on comparing the old and new system o% education+ Some o1served that the new system do not promote any ind o% a challenge to the situation 1ut in turn it promotes 1lind acceptance o% every thing+ Glo1alisation rein%orced patriarchal structure and the new curriculum promoted a segregated atmosphere %or women and made them more and more marginali2ed, resulting in domestic violence towards women+ There were opinions %or and against co education+ 8omen who are more educated and employed %aced more violence as is pointed out in the I,D@A, study on domestic violence+ .s level o% education goes up, dowry also increases+ =oth the re%orm and the political movements were una1le to challenge the prevailing patriarchal system+ Thus !erala model o% development itsel% is 1rought into a very serious challenge 1ecause it catered only to the re7uirement o% the middle class+ In the new democratic system it has ended up in a situation where the same people who derived 1ene%its %rom the earliest space o% development tend toward preventing the people %urther down to receive the same+ -ur educational system remains very conservative due to the reason that it was not a1le to develop any new civics concepts or new civic values+ %ession 3(

1ma!es of ,oman in media 4/anel6

Ms.9mm& Foseph 4chair6 Ms./arvathiDevi G Ms.;.%.;handrika 9+ R. /arvath$ Devi was the %irst spea er+ She spo e a1out all the changes that are ta ing place in media speci%ically in its structure and vision+ Media is considered as the %ourth Astate+ =ut now it has turned itsel% into a huge 1usiness oriented and pro%it motivated concern+ The >news" is sold as a product through advertisements or other ways and the readers are its consumers+ There is a strong anti women 1ias e6pressed in the media+ 8omen never 1ecome news+ Media shows great eagerness to protect the interest o% the rich and the marginali2ed are very tact%ully ignored+ Media always e6plains its stand in the name o% Yvie,er ship and readership+ .long with glo1ali2ation glo1al media too came to the scene and women were never in its agenda+ She pointed out the article in a prominent Malayalam daily, o% women 0ournalist"s e6perience o% traveling through !erala on the same day+ It shows how the mo1ility o% women is

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controlled 1ut that article is also a good e6ample o% how a news li e that can 1e sensationali2ed too+ It was noted that the whole media is politici2ed+ The %irst page o% the newspaper is allotted to politics and it is a reality that women are not there+ Issues related to women or human rights are edited in the unimportant pages or are avoided+ Some unimportant news are 1lown out and e6aggerated+ In media women"s images are misinterpreted+ It"s usual pro0ection is a YGoddess" Esym1ol o% sadnessF or a Ywitch" Esym1ol o% evilF+ There is a wrong notion that anything is possi1le through 0o es and cartoons+ There are competition 1etween the print and electronic media, 1etween channels etc+ There is no room %or ideas li e secularism, democracy or sovereignty+ .dvertisements try to convey a message o% anti?la1or attitude+ The only trans%ormation possi1le is through creating %orums li e media watch, watch group or media monitoring group etc+ They will 1e ready %or any change only i% a customer stop 1uying newspaper+ + 2nd speaker . Market, %ec&rit$ G Media D+S+ Dhandri a Dommunication and dissemination o% nowledge are essential elements o% social development+ ,ewspapers and other audio?visual media originate in our society as communication tools 1ased on development+ These in%luence and a%%ect the li%e styles, attitudes and values o% people+ Media play a su1stantial role in changing the value system, creating new meanings and turn around the accepta1ility and non?accepta1ility o% matters+ The media which e%%ectively can play these roles yet appear 1e%ore us as a dou1le edged sword+ Aach society uses images and sym1ols appropriate to their environment %or communication+ The categories and imageries la1elled as >collective representation" 1y social scientists are used to produce, mar , eep and preserve attitudes, culture and in%ormation+ Thus social li%e is mainly created around this representations+ That way they direct our character and thoughts+ WomenBs ima!e in media The relationship o% women and media is always dialectical+ The 1asic reason in that the ownership o% media and that o% the mar et is with the monopoly capital and patriarchal %orces+ 8ithin this, women were represented in traditional waysG in ways that women do not have any right and power in society, its economic structure and culture+ )he traditional ,omen( It is a now %act that a woman in India %aces discrimination even when she is in her mothers wom1+ I% she is not a1orted and is allowed to 1e 1orn, she can live as a second?class citi2en+ Traditional 1elie%s, customs, pre0udices, social

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theories are all against her+ It e6ploits her or ignores her+ .s soon as she is 1orn, she is an economic 1urden and a social lia1ility+ Her e6istence is then centered on her a1ility to attract a man and marry and nurture a %amily+ To attract, she needs 1odily and %acial 1eauty+ Her young 1ody and se6uality is the ey to this+ Girls receive training to eep themselves 1eauti%ul and attractive+ Media today 1ecomes a power%ul tool in this training process and they tighten their hold on women in this way+ Through their %eatures, reports and programmes media is not only constantly re%lecting the social values, characters and attitudes 1ut also distort the identities o% women+ 5or this, the media uses the %ollowing clich^s+ 8omenHs space in her home 8omen do not ta e ma0or decisions 8omen are depends and needs menHs protection 8omen are se6 o10ects %or men?delicate, 1eauti%ul, without personality

Re%lecting are the a1ove, you see the %ollowing gender stereotypes Man .ctive Mind Rationale Thin ing Strength Strong Women passive 1ody emotional %eeling wea ness tender

These stereotypes are not 1iological 1ut are created according to the cultural and social conditioning o% men and women+

)he ne, ,omen The role o% media is moderni2ing the traditional society and its men and women are signi%icant+ In the modern word, the new women are not suited to the traditional role models+ In a male dominated society she wants to esta1lish her personal and economic identity+ She shares progressive thin ing and is

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conscious o% her social and political rights and responsi1ilitiesG she steps out o% her household to get educated and to wor + Net, the media still have the stereotypes o% housewi%e, mother, victim, decretive o10ect, romantic love, se6ual o10ect etc+ -nly certain changes and adaptations have 1een madeL =ut there is a strong relationship 1etween these changes in stereotypes and the changes in the media in C)Hs as also in the social, economic and political %ields+ This is directly related to the process o% economic li1erali2ation and glo1ali2ation+ In India, the glo1ali2ation o% media Eespecially o% satellite, ca1le T/F resulted in increased consumerism+ Glo1ali2ation, as we now is a use%ul economic system %or the %irst world+ It leads the wor ers, marginali2ed sections li e adivasis, dalits, minorities and women to more poverty, e6ploitation and deathG such glo1ali2ation is actually selling the glo1al capitalist culture through consumerism+ In, 9CC9, with glo1ali2ation o% India media, D,, came in and 1rought ma0or changes+ Today we can sit in our living room and view a1out 9)) %oreign channels+ This glo1al culture is %acilitated also 1y the In%ormation and computer technology+ Instead o% the diverse and special cultures, we are speeding towards a mar et?oriented monoculture+ Media is %ast changing the Indian women also %rom the role o% the housewi%e, house manager to that o% a ma0or consumer, eager to 1uy and consume the goods %rom the mar et+ The traditional status o% women was one who coo sG washes 1uc et %ull o% clothesG serves the hus1and and childrenG without creating nowledge or wealthG all the time 1eing dependent on the man and 1uying things+ =ut the new woman is a wor ing women who has purchasing power and is a1le to de%ine her status in the new world social order and is a prominent consumer+ Traditionally women had to spend her li%e within the house without nowing the happening in the outside word and without any possi1ility %or wor outside+ Men were the consumers %or the entire household+ Hence the %ocus o% mar et was men+ In the last *) years, women had the possi1ility %or getting educated and to wor outside+ This has ena1led at least some women to gain economic independence+ 8ith this mar et started to %ocus on women+ In Indian mar et, all the %ocus now is on women consumers+ 8omen wor and earn and 1uy all the things necessary %or her, hus1and and children+ The reality o% mar eting o% the media today is through advertisements+ I% we care%ully watch the popularity o% women"s maga2ine, we reali2e that they are mostly popular in Indian cities+ 8e used to view the print media as cultural institutions, which gave nowledge and education+ The growth o% print media here was li e imaging the Independence struggle+ In 9C:C, it was under the .ll India radio E.IRF, that television 1roadcast started+ The aim was to develop

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educational, development and recreational programs+ The independent o10ectives and goal, which #oordarsan had when it was made an independent media in 9CB(, is no more the case today+ It is only a%ter the emergence o% the women"s movement that the women"s maga2ines have started appearing in the present %orm in the Indian mar et+ Today they are reaching to women cutting across caste, class, and religious a%%iliations in rural and ur1an India, as a 1ac lash to the %eminist ideology and movements+ Through well?designed advertisements using ad? agencies they are a1le to in%luence the readers to a consumer culture, li%e styles and philosophy+ Through their cover pages, women"s maga2ines are a1le to advertise their contents in the mar et+ They are >%or women only" whether it is 5emina or /anith or 8omens era or The ,ew woman+ %e?&alit$ The stereotypes 1eing used in media a1out se6uality is o% two types:? one is ideal and totalG through success and 1eauty creating admiration o% 0ealously in all L These are men+ The other is caricatureG over simpli%ied+ It is %or %un or recreationG to satis%y the viewers+ There are women+ Men decidesG they stay in positions o% power and 1ecomes heroes who su10ugates+ 8omen are selling se6ual 1odies, the homema er, without %unctional 1rainsL These stereotypes are used to maintain the une7ual gender relations in our socio?economic system+ In reality, it is not women"s 1ody o% the %emininity that is the pro1lem+ The real issue is the structure o% male power and it attitudes+ It is the attitude, which is re%lected in naturali2ing the atrocities and e6ploitation o% women+ It re%uses to see women as complete human 1eings who have rights and powers+ I% such role models are created and sustained at all times, women can 1e, through %amily and social pressures made protectors o% traditional culturesG can 1e made victims o% dowryG eep on attac ing and victimi2ing_ EThe recent statistics o% 8orld Health -rgani2ation says that in every :* minutes a woman is raped in IndiaF The advertisement in media contri1utes a great e6tend to show women as se6 sym1ols+ 8omen"s 1ody is used to sell products ranging %rom cosmetics, te6tiles, 0ewellary, household things, vehicle etc+ #ecorated women models are passive and inactive+ Their primary and important tas is to show the products and create se6ual attractionG li e the role o% manne7uins in show caseL The se6ual image o% women outside the home is to ine1riate men and within the home to 1e oppressed 1y household tas s+ In 1oth places, she gets the %eminine roles, which has the least potentials and is oppressive+ The most important calamity %aced 1y Indian woman is to surrender her to the power o% the hus1and in the traditional %eudal %amily structure and in society outside to 1e e6ploited 1y the capitalist consumerist e6ploitation+

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.dvertisements use male 1ody too+ The 1ill1oard male image used in adds o% cell phone, Domputer, men"s underwear etc are o% muscular power, so%t ga2e, clear s in, %irm 0aw 1ones, se6ually arousing lips etc+ It is a com1ination o% hardness and so%tness and a special mi6 o% the traditional hard muscularity and the new age so%t masculinity+ The macho image is changing slowly+ It is not 0ust hard, muscular 1ody o% the Mr+Iniverse o% past 1ut has to have 1eauty, intelligence, strong 1ody language which arouses passions+ ,ew Stereotypes o% male 1eauty and se6uality are getting stronger now+ Such images are the need o% the mar et today+ The real power %i6ed macho image E?is women) ?is whisk F where women had no purchasing power is no more valid now+ 8hen women have considera1le purchasing power o% their own, male models are used as magnets to attract+ The mar eting strategy o% the new mar et is that the male models also said have the same >se6 appeal" as women models used to have+ This new trend, which was seen in the India media since 9CC)"s, created multiple identities o% women and try to change the stereotypes so %ar e6isted+ This new woman is the middle class woman who has spending power+ These women are not dependent on men+ Men do not apparently e6ercise their domination as in olden time+ These women are employed and their %reedom is cele1rated in the consumerism o% the modern age+ <&dit$ ,udity e6isted in the media 1ut not as openly as it e6ists now+ -pen nudity presently is e7ual to the commodity in the open mar et+ It is in the %orm o% the product which can 1e owned and which gives satis%action and pleasure+ The media through many sponsored programmes come to compete in the mar et with advertisements %all o% se6uality+ Dompanies use %amous models %or this EIndia has several 1eauty 7ueensLF Through them, elegantly and with sophistication, nudity is sold+ Since this is directly related to se6uality, the men and women who view this, compare themselves to these models and go 1ehind the consumer products+ #o we get se6ual arousal when we 1rush with Dolgate paste or 1reath mintsL Net the .d+ Dompanies use the 1ody, its nudity, action, sound which is suita1le to it and change the human se6uality into a desire %or a product and a stimulation %or it+ Since there are strong social and moral controls, the se6uality is ept in control, to ta e out when there is an opportunity+ In this glo1ali2ed economy, the desire %or se6uality is a commodity to ma e pro%it+ In the third world countries, which are %acing e6treme poverty and unemployment, the se6 industry is 1ooming+ .long with this child prostitution, se6 tourism, tra%%ic ing, child se6ual a1use etc are also growing strong+

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The villages and cities o% our country are completely turned into a mar et o% the imperialist capitalism+ The Auro?.merican countries have, through their media sold India as their mar et especially %or cosmetics and %ashion industry+ This tendency is so prominent in our visual media now+ The media is helping the privati2ation and glo1ali2ation and control o% our mar ets 1y multinationals+ Media is a strong power%ul means to e6ecute the pro%it oriented and e6ploitative mar et conditions o% capitalism in India+ Media is trans%orming the interests o% capital into >realities" %or people+ =ecause media is the cultural %orm which can give messages most e%%iciently+ Media can control human 1eings and determine their thin ing regarding their worldview, e6periences, approaches, interpretations, %amily and cultural 1ac grounds etc+ Disc&ssions. The participants shared some o% their o1servations+ Programmes related to women and their pro1lems E%or e6ample against dowryF may 1e shown 1ut might have 1een sponsored 1y 0hima DewellersL+ .dvertisements are mainly %ocused upon ma ing women %air and 1eauti%ul+ The media eep the real issues o% women out+ . lot o% images o% women are pro0ected + 5irst one is as a commodity and the second is as carriers o% sym1ols and religion+ 8omen are %orced to 1ecome carries o% so called traditional culture E%or e6ample Ytharavattamma"F+ The discussion then moved to how media loo ed at !erala"s development pro1lems+ ,o plat%orm e6ists %or women to e6press their opinions+ Pollution is an a%ter e%%ect o% a culture o% consumerism promoted 1y the media and media is seen spea ing a1out pollution+ 8hen the newspapers %rom 9CCB? &))& are reviewed %or news on the child?se6ual a1uses, it was seen that they were considered as sensational stories and are not analytical at all+ -nly @eela Menon in Indian e6press had an article on what are the conse7uences o% child se6ual a1uses+ 8hether it is on women issues or anything else, no process is reported+ Pictures that adolescents a1sor1 %rom media a1out women are distorted impressions on se6uality There is an upsurge o% so called >yellow 0ournals" and even the newspapers have 1ecome agents in e6aggerating events and converting them into distorted stories eeping aloo% the person concerned %rom society, home and %riends+ Most o%ten there is no o10ective reporting+ Media also is 1ecoming an em1odiment and re? en%orcement o% a strong social and traditional culture Ema ing 1lac into white comple6ion+F Media 1y means o% advertisements %oster caste, religion, and 1lind 1elie%s E%orecasting o% %uture, even the color o% the dress to wearF+ Aven when lady IPS o%%icers do appear in %ilms, at a point o% crisis, she has to 1e saved 1y a lover? a strong maleL+ Some pointed out that one o% the reason %or the increase o% violence and pro1lems %aced 1y women are due to the multiplication o% 1lue %ilms+ Spea ers %rom the Panel made some comments on the audiences" re%lections+ There are written laws in the country against discriminations on the 1asis o% color 97

and race+ Net this happens in our country+ -n one side there are those wea ness 1ut on other side media 1ecome a ground %or a positive and active participation and interventions o% women+ However, due to the scarcity o% time the selected programmes on such important themes with a women"s perspective are shown when women are at wor + In this scenario o% the multiplication o% channels and competitions in newspapers smart girls do have the chance o% getting in to the %ield+ ,et wor ing and trainings could 1e initiated consciously+ There was also a suggestion that we need to analy2e Dinemas in a similar %ashion+ Media are now e6tremely mar et oriented and pro%it oriented+ -ne o% the advantages 1ehind this is that, it is very sensitive to the response o% the audience+ So it is very important to give %eed 1ac especially on things that are anti?women+ Media struggle to get audience and their struggle would 1e strengthened i% the audienceresponds+ People in the media very o%ten %eel that they operate in a vacuum 1ecause no one reacts to anything+ Media monitoring is one?way o% media appreciation, audience education, and audience watch+ 8omen"s movement and progressive thin ing movements has a ma0or impact on people in the media and that in turn has in%luenced the whole generation o% people+ Noung 0ournalists wants to do something through the media 1ecause many o% them %eel that it has an important role to play in discussing gender issues+ 8e too need to ac nowledge that there has 1een some growth+ ,evertheless, one has to put pressure on media to per%orm 1etter+

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3rd da$. 25th March %ession 8( Risin! )ide of 3&ndamentalism- /anel disc&ssion Ms.%&!athak&mari,Ms.K.9Eitha,Ms.<eena Foseph ,eena Joseph chaired the session+ Ouoting a de%inition on %undamentalism she e6plained Y%undamentalism is nothing 1ut ma ing a1solute what is not a1solute+ It is negating the validity o% everything else"+ .s an e6ample she showed the Thali1an and the massacre o% the =uddhist mon s+ .ny ideology that is ta en to the e6treme is nothing 1ut %undamentalism+ Ms+Sugatha umari was invited to spea on the su10ect+ She e6plained how India is at a great threat o% religious 1lindness, sectarianism, casteism, and %undamentalism+ Aven the educated women writers wish to imitate Aurope with so many independent states+ + Political parties use religion as a weapon+ =e%ore politics was spirituali2ed 1ut now spirituality is politici2ed She reminded everyone o% the Gandhian ideology as a remedy to respect and love the other ones+ It is not tolerance 1ut living together respecting the other culture+ YShanti sangamam" organi2ed y her and %ew others was an attempted e%%ort to prove the a1ove+ She complained that women seem to pretend that they are ind and gentle 1ut in reality they have 1ecome very sel%ish and sel%?centered and only 1othered a1out their own %amily, children and 1eauty+ She as ed why are women silent and su1missive+; !+ .0itha was the ne6t spea er+ She said that in !erala the growth o% %undamentalism was %ound only a%ter 9CC&+ Hinduism 1ecame a great threat and India"s secularism and democracy stood helpless and depressed+ She spo e a1out the destruction o% =a1ari Mas0it and Marad event in !erala and the political drama displayed a%ter+ She proved how women were made use o% 1y communalistic %orces+ Dan one %ace such %orces with love or is it a 7uestion o% ideology; .ccording to her the deterioration o% le%tist movement paved the way %or the growth o% %undamentalism and she put %orward a sel%?critical approach++ The divide and rule policy initiated 1y the =ritish rule and its conse7uences are still seen in !ashmir issues and why should India is so stu11orn to eep it as a

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part o% India+ India certainly had a tendency to dominate over the neigh1oring countries 1e%ore and now and it needed to 1e 7uestioned+ She stressed on the point that this independency should not allowed on the 1asis o% religion at all+ -n one side there is the %riction o% secular democratic values and social alienation o% rationalist movements and on the other the strengthening o% Hindu and Islamic %undamentalism and women are ideologically conditioned to eep up the morality .nd what should 1e done against it as the women movement is to con%ront %undamentalism with ideology+ <eena Foseph summari2ed 1oth tal s and added her own suggestions and views as %ollowed+ 9t individ&al level Help children to ma e it a ha1it to pray %or people o% other religion, congratulate them and than God %or them in their economic prosperity+ .t school level: ?Dhildren could 1e trained to love, appreciate and share the spiritual aspect o% other religion and they could pray together+ Ideological level: ? 8omen should 1ecome capa1le to scrawl in to the citadel and 1arricade o% patriarchy, ma ing little crac s in it+ 5or e6ample one who taught sociology also should switch on to the issues o% communalism and gender+ In the open discussion that %ollowed several views were e6pressed+ There was a 7uestion on which approach should 1e appropriate to %ight %undamentalism? religion?integrated approach, secular approach or a new inpretations with mother goddess at its ape6; There were discussions on how village inha1itants are now split on the 1asis o% religion, and culture and also on social, political, and economic 1ase+ Male domination is so power%ul that they don"t allow any other ideas to enter in+ Those who thin di%%erently are harassed and victimi2ed+ So it is now time to invent an energy stronger than the prevailing one to save the society %rom the clutches o% those relationships+ -ne o% the participants shared the whole process o% institutionalism o% religion, through which patriarchy too over religion and how %emale goddesses have disappeared+ Hence what is to 1e eliminated is the patriarchal institution o% religion+ Marriage 1etween state and religion is an inevita1le part o% politics and %or this purpose religion was institutionali2ed+ 8hat is needed is the e6pression o% all the diversities, not only in religion 1ut also in all the relationships o% li%e + .nd this is what %eminism has to 1ring in today"s" politics and this diversity is the strength towards 1uilding up peace+ There is %undamentalism also in the political %ield and those who wor %or democracy in politics are thrown out or isolated+ Dapitalist system needed to 1e challenged 38hether India have ever 1een uni%ied;4 one %rom the group raised 7uestion and she proved that it was not so+It is always ept together 1y militarism Kmight+ So why not have a separate states i% that was demanded; Enot a state %or di%%erent

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religionF+ 8omen have enough o% 1lame upon her and why to put the responsi1ility o% communal riots upon her, as she had never 1een the perpetuator+ Sugatha umari tried to clear the dou1ts+ She said in ,ortheast violence is caused 1y the state and e6tremist terrorists and religion and capitalism is the only cause 1ehind it+ 8omen are divided among party, ,G-s, religion, group etc+ So we should 1ecome capa1le to rise a1ove those+ There were %ew more contri1utions %rom the group+ -ne o% the opinions was that it is impossi1le to %ight against communal riots unless the male centered, dominated, and institutionali2ed religion and capitalistic ideology is 7uestioned+ .nother one was that the communal issues must 1e addressed with a macro perspective+ .nother side o% %undamentalism pointed out 1y one participant was that, it is the a%ter e%%ect o% a %ear %elt 1y a man towards the other men Eie+homopho1iaF in the process o% controlling women EcultureF and earth EnationF and %amily was used as a 1est tool+ 8ith %ew e6amples one o% them proved that even in glo1al politics num1ers do not translate into strength+ There is not only religious and political ideology 1ut also social and cultural ideology G the patriarchal ideology com1ines all o% these together, and women are conditioned so deeply that they are una1le to 1rea out %rom it+ 5undamentalists do not represent %undamental truths o% their religion so it is a need that some other word is used to name them+ The contri1ution o% %eminism was the promotion o% diversity o% all inds+ It was said that politici2ation and instrumentali2ation o% religion was %or an economic advantage+ There should 1e an attempt %rom people"s level to regain the spirituality and to 1ring a1out the revolutionary aspect o% every religion Ms+Sugatha umari in conclusion said that the e6istence o% organi2ed religion is a reality at all times+ Its poc ets are getting strengthened and institutionali2ed+ This diversity is to 1e watched upon and this is what YShanty sangamam" has attempted to communicate+ She 7uoted Gandhi0i"s words that Yall religion is %or the e6istence o% humanity, %or a civili2ed society and spirituality is %or man"s prosperity not %or political greed li e today+ @eaders must 1e elected not on the 1asis o% religion 1ut on the 1asis o% sanity+ This attempt is to 1e made 1y women+ .0itha in her conclusion added, women are su10ected to ideological conditioning Religion and patriarchy is well connected+ Glo1ali2ation process resulted in %undamentalism+ The challenge %or women"s movement today is to see how to 1ring up the secular and democratic values+ ,eena gave a gist o% whole discussions and wind up the session+ In the concluding session chaired 1y .leyamma, ,alini ,aya summari2ed the & days wor shop+ She started o% with the development parado6 and the gender parado6 that was %ound in !erala+ !erala have achieved high levels o% social developments, which cannot 1e sustained+ These social inde6es have not

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empowered women+ Instead the patriarchal values seemed to 1e deeply internali2ed+ It was also seen how access to property and the women >s autonomy was gradually eroded+ .s a result violence has increased ? violence on women and violence within the %amily+ The decentrali2ed planning process o%%ered a window o% opportunity 1y 1ringing so many women in to pu1lic sphere+ =ut here again the women"s component plan has not made much head way and it draw poor women into the mar et through the micro credit schemes+ They can now 1ecome the scavengers o% the state through udum1asree waste collecting schemeL+ It was mentioned that the state does not protect the livelyhood o% the wor ers in the traditional and in%ormal sectors+ =ut it is renowned %or its wel%are 1oards+ .nd here too it is women who least 1ene%it %rom these wel%are 1oards+ 8e also saw how the trade union leaders have deceived the cashew sector, which employ large num1er women+ .nd even trade unions have 1een in%luenced 1y money in their thirst %or power+ The unions who were supposed to lead the wor ers struggle has 1een well in trenched into the system and provides no alternatives+ The shoc ing state o% !erala"s resources, and over e6ploitation o% its li%e support systems, challenges all the possi1ilities o% its %urther growth+ Then there was the interesting de1ate on the %ood security+ -ne spo e a1out the gains o% the state under the le%t that emphasi2ed pu1lic health, pu1lic education, pu1lic distri1ution, land re%orm and minimum wages+ .nd the process o% Glo1alisation now challenges all o% these+ -ther spea er responded and raised the 7uestion a1out what ind o% health services and what ind o% education and what ind o% pu1lic distri1ution system it was; The 7uestion on do we want %ood security or %ood sovereignty; was analy2ed+ The role o% agricultural university in developing nature %riendly and women %riendly technologies was seen+ It was very clear that 1oth the health and educational system have contri1uted to generally 1etter health and education %or women 1ut have not led to create empowerment o% women and did not change the value system to create civil society values in eeping with high educational standards These contradictions are re%lected in the media that now rein%orces stereotypes and draws !erala society in to the consumer trap+ Religion used women to eep the system in place+ So in this phase o% glo1ali2ation we have 1een drawn more and more into the trap where even the poorest women even %rom SHGs are drawn into consumerism 1ecause capitalism uses the poorest+ It creates colonies and it e6ploits+ The poor women are 1eing e6ploited either as wor ers %or a manu%acturing industry or to sell the goods o% the multinational+ Dapitalism ma es use o% religion as a last resort+ In our country the state and the religion are getting more closely united and could see how patriarchy colludes with power and money+ .ccording to ,alini only a >political economy o% li%e could with stand in this crucial situation+

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!alini presented a political economy o" li"e to political economy o" deat . /olitical econom$ of Death Relation of prod&ction $ Daste 1ased ? Dlass 1ased M ? Patriarchal 1ased - 3or e6change ? 5or pro%it ? Dommodi%ied ? all in the pu1lic sphere >virtual" - #ased on non?renewa1le resource - n nature, on human ? Greater competition ? /iolenceKwar ?5ascism ?@ivelihood only to %ew

/rod&ction

'al&e )echnolo!$ 9!!ressive =eads to

/olitical econom$ of life Relations of prod&ction /rod&ctions for )echnolo!$ 'al&es spheres =eads to $@iving and organic ?Domplementary 1etween men and women ?5or need not greed ? 5or local sel% su%%icient ? -nly surplus to mar et - 2ased more renewa1le ? That respect the cycles Kseasons - narro,in! the gap 1etween pu1lic and private ? Spirit o% mutuality respect %or diversity ?li%e and livelihood %or the ma0ority

The participants suggested several strategies and alternatives+ 9+There is a need to identi%y nowledge gaps in gendering development+ 5or this gender sensitive studies regarding wor participation rates o% women, mor1idity patterns, on SHG"s and what does it do to change gender relations, Threat to li%e support systems and assessment o% via1le alternatives, engendered education in schools etc were suggested &+8ho should 1e a1le to ta e such studies; StudentsKacademic institutions etc can 1e approached and proper orientation given to M+Phil students etc

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'+8e need to identi%y gender sensitive people in the policy ma ing and planning circles and dialogue with them+ Aven in political parties, we should 1e a1le to identi%y %ew who are open and willing to enter into dialogue *+The time constraint o% plan %ormulation in local 1odies is a ma0or pro1lem?the way 1udgets are made and the deadlines to 1e ept etc need to 1e challenged and re e6amined+ Gender 1udgeting e6ercises should 1e attempted .nother participant %elt strongly that we need to internali2e the political economy o% li%e which ,alini spo e a1out and disseminate to a wider groups o% people so that it can have an impact on development planning processes+ It was also suggested that we should have more such de1ates on the institution o% %amily, marriageKdowry, the issues o% elderly and migration and its impact on women .%ter some discussion, it was decided to %orm a ,orkin! !ro&p and thin o% ways to create a space and environment to discuss this new paradigm o% development+ This could also develop into a %orum where we can share in%ormation and studies %rom an alternative view point+ It is also important to %orm a media watch group su1se7uently . wor ing group was %ormed with the %ollowing mem1ers+ 9+.0itha+ !+ .nweshi,!o2hi ode &+#r+!+ Saradamony,Trivandrum '+Mr+ Sunny,!.IR-S,!anur *+Ms+Isha,Thanal,Trivandrum :+Ms+ Soya Thomas (+Ms+Sudhi B+Ms+Sonia George,SA8. <+Ms+ Sharada Muralidharan C+Ms+,eena Joseph,IMG 9)+Mr+Sreedar,Thanal 99+Mr+Jagageevan,!SSP 9&5r+Mathew pai ada 9'+ Ms+@eela,SIR# 9*+Ms+Deline Sunny,Ra0agiri college o% social sciences 9:+Ms+,alini ,aya 9(+Ms+.leyamma

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Programme: Keralas Development- a feminist perspective

Workshop :March 2
r!

" 2#th an! 2$th "2%%#

&rgani'e! (y )akhi resource center for Women *enue8 )cience an! +echnology Museum ,all, -9: ;unction, -alayam, ,ri#andrum 2
r!

. +ues!ay: Morning8

9'30 am' .e!istration 10'30 am8 Welcome and 1"6ecti#es8 (leyamma <i6ayan 11am& 1 pm .hair: Ms.)ara!a Murali!haran /.0.)

)ession -'

Key note a!!ress -. 1en!er an! !evelopment-perspectives :Dr.1ita )en

@unch =rea :
)ession 28 -aper' 2

9 pm? & pm
2 pm = 4 pm > air' ?r' 0aradomoni 2ngaging in conventional an! non-conventional in!icators of 3omens 3ell-(eing8 ?r' 9ridul 2apen @ 9s'-ra#eena *odo t
Disc&ssant( Ms.'anitha <a$ak M&kherEeeH Ms,%hee#a K.M.

4pm-4.30 pm(

)ea #reak

)ession

4'30 = 6'30 pm > air8 ?r'9anu A askar

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8omen"s invisi1le wor ? traditional and in%ormal sectors

-aper 3'Women in t e informal sector8 9s'/alini /ayak and 0onia :eor!e -aper 4' ( case study8 <ulnera"ility of cas ew sector8 ?r'(nna Bind"ur!

2#th We!nes!ay8 session -: 9 am&10'30 am88 > air8 9s','.ad amony -aper 1' +he 2ro!ing 4esource (ase of Kerala: Dr.M.K.Prasa! Discussant8 9s 3s a, , anal 10'30 =11am8 ,ea Areak 11am =1pm 8 -aper 28 5oo! security an! livelihoo!s in the conte6t of glo(ali'ation: Mr.+.P. Kunhikannan )*00-+ Discussants' 9r'.ony, 4/7(>,, -alaC ?r':eet akutty,>olle!e of (!riculture,,ric ur 0ession 28 -aper 3 8 -aper 3' 4'30 =6'30 > air8 2$th +hurs!ay8 )ession -: 9 am &11 am )ession 28 11'30& 1'30 pm 8 2merging challenges&4ising ti!e of fun!mentalism > air8 9s'/ina ;osep , speakers89s'0u!at a *umariC *'(6it a >oncludin! and summin! up 9alini 9ayak" 0leyamma *i:ayan 2pm& 4 pm > air' 0er#ice sector8 > air'?r';oy 2lamon' ,ealth an! 27uity in the conte6t of Keralaa critical analysis: Dr.)un!ari 4avin!ran /s 2!ucation empo3ering 3omen8: Dr.Michael +harakan /mages of 3omen in me!ia 8 Panel (mmu ;osep ,Aan!lore ,9s' -ara#t i de#i )kairali+ 9s'>'0'> andrika

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9ddress of those ,ho presented papers

Pro%+Gita Sen Indian Institute o% Management =anerghatta Road =angalore :() )B( #r+Praveena !odoth Denter %or #evelopment Studies Prasanth ,agar Medical Dollege P+Thiruvananthapuram (C:)99 Tel : &**<<<9 #r+Mridul Aapen Denter %or #evelopment Studies Prasanth ,agar Medical Dollege P+Thiruvananthapuram (C:)99 Tel : &**<<<9 ,alini ,aya Sadanand .nayara P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: )&C Tel : &B*9(B: Sonia George SA8. Murali !R.# $ :9 !uthiravattom Road Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))9 #r .nna @ind1erg #epartment o% History @und Iniversity Sweden #r+M+!+Prasad (&, Gowri ,agar !ochi (<& )&) Tel : )*<* &'9C*') T+P+!unhi annan Parishad =havan Dhalappuram !o2hi ode (&' ))& #r+Geetha !utty P+S .ssociate Pro%essor M Pro0ect Doordinator Denter %or Studies in Gender Doncerns in .griculture !erala .gricultural Iniversity /ellani ara, Thrissur (<)(:( #r+Sundari Ravindran Shruti .nanta Housing Dooperative Society, Dheruvic al P+Thiruvanathapuram (C:)'9 Tel : )*B9 $ &**BCB* Tara Sadasivan .chuta Menon Denter %or Health Science Studies Sree Dhitra Tirunal Institute o% Medical Science M Technology Medical Dollege Dampus Thiruvananthapuram (C:))9 #r+Michael Thara an &&, Gowrinagar Pongumoodu Medical Dollege P+Thiruvananthapuram (C:)99 D+S+Dhandri a T+D B& K 9*<, /alla adavu P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))< Tel : )*B9 &:)&')*

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;ist of the participants

9+ !+.0itha .nweshi 8omen"s Dounselling Denter !ottuli P+!o2hi ode (B')9( Tel : )*C: &B**'B) E-F )*C: &':B9&9 ERF Mo1ile no : '9&B*&( &+ .mmu Joseph B9, ST =ed @ayout !oramangala =angalore :())'* Tel : )<) &::&9<'9 '+ .+J+/i0ayan Protsahan C&, Mathru1humi Road /anchiyoor Thiruvananthapuram (C: )': Tel : )*B9 &*BCC<< *+ .ndrea =ra2ier Ainsiedlergasse '' K B ,oso 8len Amail : andree1ra2iesThotmail+com :+ .nindita TD * K 99<& Thiruvananthapuram (C:))' (+ .nupama+M+J Programme Sta%% Joint 8omen"s Programme P+- =o6 9<*B, TD '( K 9:) Ponnalayam, Perunthanni Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))< Tel : &*:)**' B+ #r+Deline Sunny A6ecutive #irector Research Institute Ra0agiri Dollege o% Social Sciences !alamassery Arna ulam <+ Dhristy Sha0i !airos =urmacheri P+!annur Tel : )*CB &B9&:': C+ #eepa+/+, 9 K <&9 Sreeparmeshwaram *umarapuram Thiruvananthapuram (C:)99 Tel : C<*B& ('))9 9)+ 5reeda+/+John Peniel, Moda allur Moda allu P+Pin : (B' '&9 Tel : )*C( &B))99& 99+ .dv+T+Geena !umari Sarayoo !udappana unnu P+, iru#anant apuram Mo1ile ,o : C**B'(9)*( 9&+ Jag0eevan Pulimoottil /eedu /en0aramoodu P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: ()B ,el 8 0472 2872199 Mo1ile ,o: C**B9B&9CC

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9'+ .dv+Jeena Jose TD &BK9B<:K& !hadi Road /anchiyoor Thiruvananthapuram (C: )': Mo1ile no C**B)B)&)9 9*+ Ji1u Thomas DA,SA !aitharam House !anattu ara P+, rissur 680 011 Tel: )*<B ? &'<B:<C 9:+ Ms+Jincy Joseph Jananeethi EMaithriF T+=+Road, Mission Ouarters, Thrissur (<)))9 Tel: &*&B''< K &****B' 9(+ Joy Alamon A6ecutive Doordinator Dap #ec Sona =uildings, Pattom Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))* Tel : )*B9 $&:*''C& 5a6 : &:*''C9 Amail : capdec Tmd:+vsnl+net+in 9B+ Justine M. Sociology @oyola Dollege o% Social Sciences Sree ariyam Thiruvananthapuram 9<+ @alitha+!+, !I@. Mulan unnathu avu P+Thrissur Tel : )*<B &&)9B(< E-F &&)&B&< ERF 9C+ #r+@eela umari SIR# ATD P+!ottara ara (C9:'9

&)+ Sr+@isa Sisters o% Dharity o% Jesus M Mary !a avayal P+Theneri !alpetta via 8ayanad Tel : )*C'( $ &*<&&9 &9+ @ourde Mary Sthreeni etan /anitha 5ederation !arunalayam Thiruvananthapuram (C:)'B Tel : &')*(C: &&+ #r+Man0u ,air Prayog, W 9) .lthara Road Thiruvananthapuram Tel : )*B9 &B&*&(C Mo1ile ,o : '&*'&*& &'+ #r Manu =has ar Sivodayam Dhem1a2hanthi P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: :<B Tel : &*9<*&: E-F &:CBC<9 ERF &*+ 5r+Mathew Pai ada Jeevadhara Malloossery P+!ottayam (<( )*9 Tel : )*<9 $&'C&:') &:+ Maya+S A?B, @a shmi ,agar, Pattom P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))* Mo1ile ,o : C<*B9 &C'(( Amail : mayas''Tredi%%mail+com &(+ Sr+ Mercy Mathew Dherurashmi Dentre /aliathura Thiruvananthapuram Tel : )*B9 &:)(B(9 Mo1ile ,o C**B)9(B(9

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&B+ Mini Su umar Surya anti /P ? ' K 99<< /etti onam, Mani andeshwaram P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: )9' Tel : &'B'<*: &<+ Sr+Molly .le6 3s us Sholayoor Pala ad (B<:<9 &C+ ,ina Joseph IMG !a anadu Arna ulam Tel : )*<* &''())< ERF Mo1ile ,o C<C:&<(()B ')+ ,irmala Dap #ec Sona =uildings, Pattom Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))* Tel : )*B9 $&:*''C& 5a6 : &:*''C9 Amail:capdec Tmd:+vsnl+net+in '9+ Mr Pan a0a shan+@ Doordinator Swara0 !erala Santhigram, Dhapatth !a2huvur P+Pulluvila (C: :&( Tel %a6 : &&(CB<) Amail santhigram&))'Tyahoo+com '&+ Ms+Parvathi #evi C, Su1ash ,agar Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))< Tel : &*:*9'< E-F &*B<''* K &*:9(&* ERF ''+ Sr+Patricia Prana ,'> 27 D 332 D 1 !unnu u2hi P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: )'B Tel :)*B9 &')9:C9

'*+ Sr+Philomen Marie DKo Prana T+D &B K ''& K 9 !unnu u2hi P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: )'B Tel :)*B9 &')9:C9 ':+ Philip Mathew DKo Sonia George SA8. Thiruvananthapuram '(+ Ms+Praveena !odoth Denter %or #evelopment Studies Prasanth ,agar Medical Dollege P+Thiruvananthapuram (C:)99 Tel : &**<<<9 'B+ Prema ,air . lamon Pattom Palace P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))* Tel : &**()*B '<+ Ms+Radhamony+T T+D+&< K <C) Jyothis !aithamu u Thiruvananthapuram Tel : &:&:*:< Mo1ile ,o : C<*B) ? ()&BB 'C+ Sr+Reginamma Medical Mission Sisters Poothura .nchuthengu P+Thiruvananthapuram *)+ Renu Henry Mariyaleyam .m1oori Thiruvananthapuram

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*9+ Ra0ara0eshwari .1hilash, TD &9 K B*: ,edum ad !aramana P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))' Tel : &'*:(<(

*<+ Sindhu James I2hathil House !odanchery P+!o2hi ode Tel : )*C: &&'BBB9

*&+ Rony Joseph I,5.DT !i2hathadiyoor Palai !ottayam (<( :B* Tel : )*<& $ &99CCB E-F &'(&:C ERF *'+ Santhosh !umar +!+D DA,SA !aitharam House !anattu ara P+Thrissur (<) )99 Tel: )*<B ? &'<B:<C Amail : censeTsancharnet+in **+ #r+!+Saradamoni Thiruvathira A$& Sree /ilas @ane !audiar Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))' Tel : &*'(<<) *:+ Sharada Muraleedharan A $ &', Hudeo place ,ear .nsal pla2a ,ew #elhi 99))*C+ *(+ Shee1a !+M Thrishna !alady *B+ Seema =has ar Mupully House Pandalam @ane !anattu ara Thrissur (<) )99

*C+ .dv+ Sini Sa0 Jananeethi EMaithriF T+=+Road, Mission Ouarters, Thrissur (<)))9 Tel: &*&B''<K&****B' :)+ Sr+Sheela ,a2areth Donvent !a avayal P+!alpetta ,orth 8aynad (B'9&& Tel : )*C'( $ &*B(': :9+ Sreedhar Thanal @ $ 9*, Jawahar ,agar !owdiar Thiruvananthapuram (C:))' :&+ Soya Thomas H ? :*), D#S, Prasanth ,agar Medical Dollege+P+-+ Thiruvananthapuram (C: )99+ :'+ Sudhi .1hilash, TD &9 K B*: ,edum ad !aramana P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: ))' Tel : &'*:(<( :*+ Sunny .sariparam1il Gen+Doordinator !airos =urmacheri P+!annur Tel : )*CB &B9&:':

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::+ Sugtha !umari /arada ,andavanam Palayam Thiruvananthapuram Tel : &':*::( E-F &'&))B' ERF :(+ Sr+Therma Prai ulam Medical Mission Sisters Poothura .nchuthengu P+Thiruvananthapuram :B+ Thressiamma Mathew Donsultant Socio Aconomic Init !erala 8ater .uthorithy Dhem1u avu , rissur 680020 Tel : ''()<9 :<+ /ani Shan ar MS8 Semester II @oyola Dollege o% Social Sciences Sree ariyam Thiruvananthapuram :C+ /anitha ,aya Mu her0ee *&C Prasanth ,agar Medical Dollege P+Thiruvananthapuram (C: )99 ()+ Isha Thanal @ $ 9*, Jawahar ,agar !owdiar Trivandrum (C:))' Tel : )*B9 $ &B&B9:) Amail : thanalTvsnl+com

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