PHYSICS 312

EXAM 1 March 6

SPRING 2013

The exam consists of ve problems; work them all. Full credit on Problems 1-4 will only be given if, besides writing formulas and numerical results, you provide coherent connecting statements that make your reasoning clear in solving the problems. Each problem is worth 20 points. Problem 1. The head of the scorpion in the constellation Scorpius is represented by a rather bright star designated Sco (Arabic name: Dschubba). Assume that Dschubba radiates like a spherical blackbody with surface temperature Te = 28, 000 K and radius R = 5.16 109 m. The distance to this star is known approximately; take it as 123 pc from Earth. Determine any ve of the following parameters characterizing Dschubba: (a) Parallax in arcsec (although small, it should be measurable by the Hipparchus satellite) (b) Luminosity (also state your answer in units of L ) (c) Absolute bolometric magnitude (d) Apparent bolometric magnitude (e) Radiant ux at the surface of the star itself (f) Radiant ux at the surface of the Earth, called the irradiance (and compare with irradiance from the Sun) (g) Peak wavelength max of the radiation, using Wiens displacement law. To what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does your answer belong? For Solar parameters (luminosity, absolute bolometric magnitude, etc., as needed), refer to the tables provided.

Solution: (a) Parallax d(parsec) = 1 p(arcsec) 1 p= arcsec = 0.00813 arcsec. 123

(b) Luminosity
4 = 4 (5.16 109 )2 m2 , (5.67 108 ) j/m K4 s(28 103 )4 K4 L = 4 R2 Te 2

= 1.166 109 1018 108 1012 = 1.166 1031 W

With L = 3.90 1026 W, we have L= Alternatively, the ratio L/L 1.166 105 = 2.86 104 L . 3.90 may be calculated from the formula R Te L = 2 log + 4 log L R Te

log derived in class:

5.16 109 28, 000 L = 2 log + 4 log log 8 L 6.955 10 5777 = 2 log 7.419 + 4 log 4.846 = 1.741 + 2.742 = 4.483 L = 104.843 = 32, 410. L

(c) Absolute bolometric magnitude log 1 L (Mb Mb ) = L 2. 5

log(2.86 104 ) = log 2.86 + 4 = 4.456 2.5(4.456) = 4.74 Mb Mb = 11.14 + 4.54 = 6.4 2

(d) Apparent bolometric magnitude mb = Mb 5 + 5 log d(parsecs) = 6.4 5 + 5 log 123 = 6.4 5 + 5(2.09)

= 0.95 (e) Flux at surface of Sco F =

L 4 R 2 1.166 1031 W = 4 (5.16 109 )2 m2

= 3.48 103 1013 W m2 = 3.48 1010 W m2 . (e) Irradiance of Sco upon Earth F = = L 4 d2 1.166 1031 W 4 (123 3.0556 1016 )2 m2

= 9.94 103 1031 1032 W m2 = 6.57 108 W m2 , using 1 parsec = 3.055 1016 m. This is to be compared with the irradiance of the Sun on Earth, 1.365 103 W m2 . (f) Peak wavelength of radiation max Te = max (28, 000 K) = 0.00290 m K max = 2.9 103 0.00290 m= m = 104 nm (ultraviolet). 28, 000 2.8 104

Problem 2. (a) Consider the equation of radiative transfer 1 dI = S I , ds in which I is the specic intensity at frequency of a light ray passing through a volume of gas, is the absorption coecient at that frequency, and S = j / is the source function, where j is the corresponding emission coecient. The general solution of this equation takes the form I (s) = I (0)e s +
0 s

e (ss ) S (s )ds .

(In the general solution as developed class, I used the optical length or depth as the independent variable rather than the path length s, but the two general expressions are equivalent.) Suppose that both and S remain constant along the ray path, and show that the general solution above then simplies to I (s) = I (0)e s + S (1 e s ). This result tells us that the rays intensity tends to become equal to the source function with increasing distance along the ray path. For S = 2I (0), at what optical depth does the intensity reach (2 1/e) of the value of the source function? Alternative Statement: For S = 2I (0), at what optical depth does the intensity reach (2 1/e)/2 of the value of the source function? (To avoid confusion: in dening optical depth, the sign should be chosen so that the optical depth increases with increasing s.) Solution: Since S is a constant independent of s, we can convert the original radiation transfer equation 1 dI = S I ds = I S , for then into a simpler form by dening I dI dI = ds ds and Integrating,
s 0

1 dI . =I ds
s s =0 s

(s ) 1 dI (s) ds = ln I ds I

ds = s,

and hence ln Exponentiating both sides, we have

(s) I = s. (0) I

(s) = I (0)e s I and then I (s) S = I (0)e s S e s or I (s) = I (0)e s + S (1 e s ). To nish this part, set S = 2I (0) and s = on the right side of this last result, to obtain I (s) = I (0)e + 2I (0) 2I (0)e = 2I (0) I (0)e . We seek a value of such that I (s) reaches [2 (1/e)]S = [2 (1/e)]2I (0), i.e., [2 (1/e)]2I (0) = 2I (0) I (0)e or, cancelling I (0) factors, 2[1 (1/e)] = e Attempting to solve this for , we have = ln{2[1 (1/e)]}. The natural logarithm of a negative number is undened (unless we admit complex solutions). We must conclude that there is no real optical depth such that I (s) reaches 2[1 (1/e)]S . On the other hand, with the alternative statement of the problem the equation for becomes [2 (1/e)]I (0) = 2I (0) I (0)e , which reduces to (1/e)I (0) = I (0)e or e = 1/e. Hence the restated goal is attained when the optical depth reaches = s = 1. 5

 ) = I (r), show that the ux F (r) must vanish (b) Given an isotropic radiation eld I (r, n everywhere. Solution: ) is the radiation eld, the ux at frequency is given by In general, if I (r, n F (r) = ) cos d. I (r, n

, the integrand of the ux expression If the radiation eld is isotropic, i.e., independent of n F (r) = I (r) cos d

is an odd function of and the integral must vanish. Hence F (r) = 0 for all r and . (c) Imagine an insulated box (or cavity, or oven) containing radiation in equilibrium with itself and the walls of the box, at some temperature T1 . (i) A small hole is punched in the box and radiation leaks out. What is the spectrum of this radiation (either in frequency or wavelength). Answer: The spectrum is continuous and by denition that of a blackbody, namely the Planck spectrum characterized only by the temperature T1 , i.e., U d = 3 d 8 h c3 exp(h /kB T ) 1 or U d = d 8 hc . 5 exp(hc/kB T ) 1

in the notations used in class. (ii) A chunk of iron, say 1/5 the size of the cavity, is heated by itself in isolation until it glows. What kind of spectrum does this radiation have? Answer: The macroscopic piece of iron will also radiate like a blackbody, with Planck spectrum determined by its ambient temperature Ti . The color with which it glows will be dominated by that corresponding to the peak intensity max given by Stefans Displacement Law, max T = 0.00290 m K. Note that the iron chunk has a well-dened surface there is nothing like the graduate fallo in temperature and density existing in a star, which is responsible for the presence of absorption lines characteristic of the elemental composition of the stellar matter. 6

To obtain emission spectra for the elements in a macroscopic sample (such as the piece of iron), it is necessary to atomize the sample and examine it in a gaseous state (e.g., by ame, plasma, spark, or arc atomic emission spectrometry). It may not be necessary to break the sample down all the way to atoms, but the largest particles should eectively be all surface. (iii) Now open the box and insert the iron chunk right in front of the small hole, blocking it such that any radiation that leaks out must come from the iron. Wait until the iron, the cavity, and its other contents have come to equilibrium at some temperature T2 . What now is the character of the radiation that leaks out? Answer: Same answer as for (i), but with temperature T2 . Kirchho s Law, S = B (T ). This result is a manifestation of

Problem 3. (a) The objective of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) has a diameter 2.4 m. Calculate, in arcsec, its theoretical and indeed nearly actual (diraction-limited) resolution H at the following wavelengths: (i) = 500 nm (ii) = 200 nm (iii) = 2000 nm To covert from radians to arcsec, use 1 radian = 206265 arcsec. Also identify the band of the electromagnetic spectrum in which each of the wavelengths (i)-(iii) lies. Solution: In empty space there are no atmospheric disturbances that aect ray paths to the objective of the HST. Assuming high-quality optics, the resolution of the HST should then approach the diraction limit, specied by di = 1.22 = 1.22 ., D 2. 4 m

This gives di in radians. To convert to arcsec, use 1 radian = 206265 arcsec. Substituting the wavelengths (i)-(iii) into the formula for di , we nd (i) = 500 nm, in visible range: 5 107 m H = 1.22 = 2.54 107 radian = 0.0524 arcsec 2. 4 m (ii) = 200 nm, in ultraviolet range: H = 1.22 2 107 m = 1.0167 107 radian = 0.0210 arcsec 2. 4 m

(iii) = 2000 nm, in infrared range: H = 1.22 2 106 m = 1.0167 106 radian = 0.210 arcsec 2. 4 m

(b) Considering your results for part (a), why would it ever be advantageous to observe in the infrared with the HST? (Suggestion: wait to answer this until you have considered part (c).) 8

Solution: The resolution of the HST in the infrared is not very good because of the size of its mirror compared, for example, to the Keck telescope (two mirrors each having D = 10 m). Even so, its use in infrared observations can still be advantageous. The molecules of the Earths atmosphere have many absorption bands in the infrared, so the atmosphere is only partially transparent in this range of the electromagnetic spectrum. In fact, the HST permits observation at infrared wavelengths not observable from the Earths surface. (c) What is the optical depth of the Earths atmosphere at = 3 m (3 microns, i.e., 3 106 m), IF only 10% of the incident radiative intensity reaches the surface. In case you decide you need it, the physical height of the atmosphere is about 100 km. This part of Problem 3 may help you answer part (b) correctly. Solution: The intensity of the radiation obeys the exponential law I ( ) = I,0 e , where I,0 is the intensity at the top of the atmosphere. The radiation in this case lies in the infrared, and the fact that it is greatly attenuated in reaching the Earths surface tells us that observation of this wavelength by the HST may be advantageous. The optical depth of the atmosphere for this radiation is given by the following simple calculation: I = 0.1 = e I,0 ln 0.1 = ln e = ln e 2.3 = ln e = 1 = 2. 3.

Problem 4. Part (a) (i) Name the three kinds of stellar energy stores we identied and discussed in class. (ii) If any two of them are rigorously related in principle, state that relation. (iii) Suppose the radius R of a (spherically symmetric) star shrinks quasistatically by 1%. Estimate the fraction of the gravitational energy store that is released. (Dont just guess; show your steps.) How much of this is radiated into space, thus helping to maintain the stellar luminosity? Part (b). Write down the basic equilibrium equations of stellar structure that must be satised in a spherically symmetric steady star. (Include also the alternative equilibrium equation that must be applied if convective motion is present.) Identify four structural functions that depend explicitly only on the radial coordinate r , plus three constitutive functions that depend on the local properties of the stellar matter at r , including temperature, density, and composition (elemental and isotopic abundances, degrees of ionization). Also dene any fundamental constants that appear. For each equation give a brief description of its physical meaning (one well-chosen sentence will do). The full set of four dierential equations expressing the equilibrium conditions, together with the three constitutive relations, should form a closed set of coupled equations that can be used to build a denite model star, given appropriate boundary conditions. Solution: Part (a) (i) Thermal, gravitational, and nuclear stores, denoted respectively ET , EG , and EN . (ii) The thermal and gravitational energy stores under equilibrium conditions are related by the Virial Theorem, EG = 2ET . (iii) Gravitational energy before shrinkage:
b EG

GM 2 . R

Gravitational energy after

a EG

GM 2 GM 2 GM 2 = = (1 + 0.01), (R 0.01R) R(1 0.01) R 10

where in the last step a geometric expansion has been made and truncated at rst order. Change in gravitational energy:
a b EG = 0.01 EG

GM 2 R

A fraction 1% of the gravitational energy is released. Half of this is radiated into space, the rest going into the thermal energy store (and heating the star). Comment: For a self-gravitating sphere of uniform density, the proportionality factor for the above derivation would be 3/5. Part (b) See rst part of Slides 6.

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Problem 5. Twenty-one Questions. Each worth 1 point. Cross out the one on which you are the least certain. You will be graded on only 20, so the 20 must be your choice. In case of multiple right answers, partial credit will be given for the correct answers you nd. True/False (circle the right answer) 1. Bluer stars are cooler than red stars. T F

2. Near-infrared radiation is absorbed mainly by water vapor, which concentrates in the lower layers of the atmosphere. T F 3. The presence of absorption lines in stellar spectra, embedded in the black-body continuum, can be traced to the temperature gradient that exists in the stellar atmosphere. T F 4. An adiabatic process is one in which there is no heat ow into or out of the thermodynamic system being studied, and the temperature remains the same as that of the systems environment. T F 5. The spectrum (distribution over wavelengths) of photons emitted from a blackbody is independent of the material making up the blackbody, it is isotropic, and the relation P = U 2 /3 holds between the radiation pressure P and the energy density U . T F 6. Photons generated in the core of the Sun typically reach the surface and escape in a matter of minutes. T F 7. The light we see from the Sun comes primarily from the photosphere. T F

The following two questions were poorly stated, such that they introduce natural and unnecessary confusion. They were not graded, and full credit was given irrespective of the students answers. 8. Radiative equilibrium becomes unstable with respect to convective motions in a given layer of a star when the magnitude of the temperature gradient exceeds the adiabatic temperature gradient of that layer. T F 9. Convection is so ecient that in convective equilibrium the actual temperature gradient in the stellar interior is only marginally higher than the adiabatic temperature gradient. T F

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Properly state questions are these: 8. Radiative equilibrium becomes unstable with respect to convective motions in a given layer of a star when the magnitude of the temperature gradient exceeds that of the adiabatic temperature gradient of that layer. T F 9. Convection is so inecient that in convective equilibrium the actual temperature gradient in the stellar interior is only marginally higher in magnitude than the adiabatic temperature gradient. T F Fill in the Blanks 10. Name three sources (or potential sources) of astronomical information that are not based on electromagnetic radiation. Any three of: Neutrinos from Sun, supernovae, and other astronomical objects; cosmic rays; presolar grains; and gravitational radiation 11. Name four elementary atomic/electronic processes contributing to stellar opacity: Bound-bound atomic & ionic transitions; bound-free transitions (ionization); free-free transitions; and Thompson electron scattering Multiple choice (circle the right answer or answers, if more than one is correct) 12. Which early astronomer/mathematician advocated the heliocentric theory of the Solar System? (a) Hipparchus (b) Ptolemy (c) Aristarchus (d) Pythagoras (e) Eudoxus (f) none of these 13. The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) is/was famous for: (a) his fabulous wealth (b) his copper nose (c) the supernova that bears his name (d) his observatory on the island of Hven (e) his ne astronomical instruments (f) his orbital data for Mars (g) hiring Kepler as a postdoc (h) his alcoholic pet Moose (i) having a still-born twin and a sister who herself became a noted astrologer (j) all of these 14. Gamma rays of the highest energies in the TeV range are detected on Earth by the HESS (EU) and VERITAS (USA) arrays through the secondary (visible) photons generated by their interactions with air molecules in passing through the atmosphere. The secondary photons are produced by which of these mechanisms: (a) Compton scattering (b) pair production (c) electron capture (d) Auger eect (e) Cherenkov eect (f) none of these 15. Neutrinos have been detected on Earth from which of these cosmic sources: (a) the Sun (b) supergiant stars (c) white dwarfs (d) Supernova 1987a (e) the galactic

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center 16. The Harvard Spectral Sequence of stellar classication, running from hotter to cooler stars, reads as follows: (a) OGKABMF (b) OBAFGKM (c) FBKGOMA (c) AGOFMBK (d) KBGMFOA (e) GBFMKOA 17. A simple formula often useful for estimating opacity (named after Kramers) has the following behavior with respect to density and temperature: (a) 2 T 1/2 (b) T 7/2 (c) 3/2 T 2 (d) 1 T 3 18. The radiation eld inside a star must have an anisotropic component of some magnitude, else there could be no ux of radiation from the star into space. In the interior of a normal, main-sequence star such as the Sun, the ratio of the anisotropic to the isotropic component would be of order (a) 1011 (b) 107 (c) 104 (d) 102 (e) 1, for an interior temperature of 3 106 K, according to the estimate made in class. 19. Photons produced in nuclear interactions in the hot, dense core of a star lie primarily in the following range of the electromagnetic spectrum: (a) microwave (b) infrared (c) visible (d) ultraviolet (e) X-ray (f) -ray Comment: Energies of X-rays range from 100 eV to 100 keV. A temperature 107 K corresponds to approximately 0.9 keV. 20. A signicant violation of the condition of hydrostatic equilibrium in a star would have observational eects on Earth within a matter of (a) minutes (b) hours (c) days (d) months (e) years (f) centuries 21. The convective motion occurring in stars has typical velocities of order (a) 0.1 km/s (b) 50 km/s (c) 1000 km/s (d) 105 km/s

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