J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780

DOI 10.1007/s10921-012-0160-x
Modeling Acoustic Emission Signals Caused by Leakage
in Pressurized Gas Pipe
Saman Davoodi Amir Mostafapour
Received: 26 May 2012 / Accepted: 19 July 2012 / Published online: 9 November 2012
Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Abstract Leakage in high pressure pipes creates stress
waves which transmitted through the pipe wall. These waves
can be recorded by using acoustic sensor or accelerometer
installed on the pipe wall. Knowing how these waves vi-
brate pipe is very important in continuous leak source lo-
cating process. In this paper the pipe radial displacement
caused by acoustic emission due to leakage is modeled an-
alytically. The standard form of Donnells nonlinear cylin-
drical shell theory is used to derive the motion equation
of the pipe for simply supported boundary condition. Us-
ing Galerkin method, the motion equation has been solved
and a system of nonlinear equations with 7 degrees of free-
dom is obtained. A MATLAB code according to Runge-
Kutta numerical method is generated to solve these equa-
tions and derive the pipe radial displacement. To check the
theoretical results, acoustic emission testing with continu-
ous leak source and linear array of two sensors positioned
on two sides of the leakage source were carried out. The
major noise of recorded signals was removed through the
wavelet transform and ltering technique. For better analy-
sis, fast Fourier transform (FFT) was taken from theoretical
and de-noised experimental results. Comparing the results
showed that the frequency which carried the most amount
of energy is the same that expresses excellent agreement be-
tween the theoretical and experimental results validating the
analytical model.
Keywords Acoustic emission Wavelet transform
Donnells nonlinear theory Galerkin method
S. Davoodi () A. Mostafapour
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Tabriz,
Tabriz, Iran
e-mail: Saman.davoodi@gmail.com
1 Introduction
In the elds of micromechanics and seismology the defor-
mation such as micro cracks has been formulated analyt-
ically. Leak detection is one of the most important prob-
lems in the oil and gas pipelines, where it can lead to -
nancial losses, severe human and environmental impacts.
The technique to monitor defects and abnormal vibrations
due to machine failures is vitally important for the safety
of structures in the modern society. Acoustic emission (AE)
has drawn a great attention because of its applicability to
on-stream surveillance of structures. One important point is
the capability to acquire data very simply but with high sen-
sitivity. The applicability is limited partly because the ac-
curacy of solutions depends on the noise levels and partly
because the phenomenon is usually irreproducible [1]. Pol-
lock [2] has discussed the parameters which affect AE wave
propagation in structures. He noted that in gas lled vessels,
attenuation can be very low and a number of Lamb wave
modes are experimentally observable. In liquid lled ves-
sels the increased attenuation of signals due to its effect on
the waveform and the timing of the peak made source lo-
cation more difcult. Elforjani and Mba [3] applied the AE
technology to detect natural crack initiation and propagation
on slow speed bearings which is one of the few publications
that address natural mechanical degradation on rotating ma-
chine components. Shehadeh and et al. [4] concentrated on
the temporal aspects and on determining the arrival times
of propagating waves generated from a simulated source,
hence identifying the AE wave speeds. Maji [5] has dis-
cussed AE wave propagation in plates and beams. He noted
that it becomes more difcult to extract the arrival time of in-
dividual frequency components from broad band transduc-
ers and that it is preferable to use resonant transducers so
that specic frequencies dominate the recorded AE events.
He found dominate peaks in the AE signals at around 100
68 J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780
and 160 kHz. The AE energy is partly reected and trans-
mitted when it encounters a boundary between the steel pipe
wall and the uid contained in the pipe. The partitioning be-
tween transmitted and reected waves depends on the angle
of incidence and relative material acoustic impedances. So if
the two materials are well matched in acoustic impedance,
a large portion of energy will transmitted [6]. Fuller et al.
[7] have also studied the free waves in uid-lled cylindri-
cal shells and noted that behavior of these waves depends on
the thickness of wall shell and the ratio of shell material den-
sity to contained uid density. Acoustic emission waves in
large structures propagate in more than one mode with dif-
ferent travelling speed. So the determination of arrival times
for different modes and their rates of attenuation are im-
portant. Watanabe et al. [8] have located pin-hole sources
using auto-correlation and cross-correlation methods, and
they have noted that cross-correlation is more effective for
large pipelines with a high acoustic damping, whereas auto-
correlation is more effective for short pipes with low acous-
tic damping. This method is more useful for leak locating in
pipes. Cross correlation is a technique for measuring time
differences between two AE signals recorded at transduc-
ers. If the speed of wave propagation was dened we can lo-
cate the leakage source. There are many algorithms for leak
locating in one, two or three dimensions based on time dif-
ference estimation. Knowledge of howthe pipe wall vibrates
by acoustic emission resulting fromleakage is a key parame-
ter for leak detection and location. Goncalves and Batista [9]
considered simply supported circular cylindrical shells lled
with incompressible uid. To model the shell Sanders non-
linear shell theory and a novel mode expansion were used.
It was found that the presence of a dense uid increases the
softening characteristics of the frequency amplitude relation
when compared with the results for the same shell in vac-
uum. Mayers and Wrenn [10] used both Donnells nonlinear
shallow shell theory and the Sanders-Koiter nonlinear shell
theory to study shell vibrations.
In this present work modeling of AE signals and their
vibration characteristics due to leakage in pressurized pipe
is studied. Donnell s non-linear theory for cylindrical shell
is used to modeling the pipe vibration and deriving of mo-
tion equation of the pipe in radial direction and by Galerkin
method a system of nonlinear ODEs will be derived. Acous-
tic emission testing with a point source and a linear array of
transducers are carried out to survey the accuracy of analyt-
ical results. Wavelet transform is taken from experimental
results to omit the environmental noises and reconstruct the
AE signals without noise.
2 Analytical Model
A circular cylindrical shell with radius R, length L and
thickness h is considered as a pipe. A cylindrical coordi-
nate system (O; x, r, ) is used in which O is origin placed
at the center of one end of shell. The displacements of shell
points in the axial, circumferential and radial directions are
u, v, w respectively.
Donnell s non-linear theory for cylindrical shell is used to
derive the motion equation (the displacement in the radial
direction) [11].
D
4
w +ch w +h w
=f p +(1/R)
_

2
F/x
2
_
+
1
R
2
_

2
F

2
w
x
2
2

2
F
x

2
w
x
+

2
F
x
2

2
w

2
_
(1)
where D represents the exural rigidity dened as D =
Eh
3
/12(1
2
), c: damping factor, E: Young s modulus, :
the mass density and f : the force that is applied to the pipe
surface caused by the jet of the leaking gas, w = w/t ,
w =
2
w/t
2
and F is in-plane stress function. More infor-
mation in this matter can be obtained by [12].
w(x, , t ) is the displacement in radial direction of points
on shell which is expanded by using the linear shell eigen-
modes [12]:
w(x, , t )
=
2

k=1
_
A
m,n
(t ) cos(n) +B
m,n
(t ) sin(n)
_
sin(
m
x)
+
3

m=1
A
(2m1),0
(t ) sin(
(2m1)
x) (2)
where m denotes the axial wave number (equal to the num-
ber of half-waves along the shell.), n is the circumferential
wave number, and
m
is the wave number which depends
on boundary conditions. In this study the boundary condi-
tion for two ends of a simply supported pipe is as bellow:
w = 0, M
x
= D
_

2
w
x
2
+

2
w
R
2

2
_
= 0
at x = 0, L
N
x
= 0, = 0 at x = 0, L
(3)
where M
x
and N
x
are the bending moment and the ax-
ial force per unit length. For simply supported shell:
m
=
mx/L.
The forces per unit length in the axial (N
x
) and circum-
ferential (N

) directions, as well as the shear force (N

x
),
are given by:
N
x
=
1
R
2

2
F

2
, N

=

2
F
x
2
, N
x
=
1
R

2
F
x
(4)
J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780 69
The strain-displacement relations are:
_
1
2
_
N
x
Eh
=
w
R
+
1
2
_
w
x
_
2
+

2
_
w
R
_
2
+
u
x
+

R
_
v

_
_
1
2
_
N

Eh
=
w
R
+

2
_
w
x
_
2
+
1
2
_
w
R
_
2
+
u
x
+
1
R
v

_
1
2
_
N
x
Eh
= 2(1 )
_
1
R
w
x
w

+
1
R
u

+
v
x
_
(5)
In these equations is Poisson ratio. According to Hamil-
tons principle we can derive the motion equations as:
N
x

+
N
x

=R
2
h

u
N

+
N
x

+Q

=R
2
h

v
Q
x

+
Q

=hR
2

w +f
B
x

+
B
x

RQ
x
= 0
B
x

+
B

RQ

= 0
(6)
where B
x
, B

, B
x
are equivalent static couples, Q
x
, Q

are
equivalent static shearing and =x/R, u =u/R, v =v/R,
w = w/R. Donnells theory represents a simplication of
the theory. There are two assumptions in Donnells theory
to solve Eqs. (6). It is argued that in the equations of motion
(6) the transverse shearing stress resultant Q

make a negli-
gible contribution to the equilibrium forces in the circumfer-
ential direction and hence Q

may be neglected. Secondly

it is argued that v has no effect on the relationship between
curvature and the displacements. So we can rewrite Eqs. (6)
as:

2
u

2
+K
0

2
u

2
+K

2
v

+
w

=
R
2
c
2

u
K

2
u

+K
0

2
v

2
+

2
v

2
+
w

=
R
2
c
2

v

4
w =
R
2
c
2

w +
Rf
K
(7)
where =h
2
/12R
2
, K

0
=(1+)/2, K
0
=(1)/2, K =
Eh/(1
2
). By some calculations we can obtain Eq. (1)
from Eqs. (7).
The perturbation pressure is calculated by using
Paidousis and Dennis model [13] and the method of vari-
ables separation:
p
r
=
f
L
m
I
n
(mr/L)
I

n
(mR/L)
_

t
_
2
w (8)
where
f
is the gas density. Pipelines and piping system are
important in the infrastructure of modern society. Pipelines
networks frequently cross highly populated regions water,
oil and gas supplies or natural reserves. So knowing the vi-
bration behavior of the gas and uid-lled pipes caused by
leakage is very important to detect the leakage and prevent
the explosion, environmental pollution and saving energies
and water supplies. This model can be used to model the
uid and gas lled pipe vibrations and be useful in several
industrial elds.
Applied force to the pipe caused by leaking uid is con-
sidered as follows:
f =F(x x
0
)(
0
)e
it
(9)
where x
0
,
0
denote leak source coordinates and is the fre-
quency of applied force caused by leaking gas. By replacing
w in the right hand side of Eq. (2), a partial difference equa-
tion (PDE) for in-plane stress function is dened as:
F =F
h
+F
p
(10)
where F
p
and F
h
denote particular and homogeneous solu-
tions of in-plane stress function. To determine F
p
and F
h
,
Mathematica software is used [12].
By replacing w(x, , t ), F, f and p
r
in right hand side
of Eq. (1) and by using the Galerkin technique with weight-
ing functions, the partial differential equation of motion
is solved and a system of non-linear ordinary differential
equations with 7 degree of freedom is obtained in Math-
ematica. By using the Galerkin method, seven second or-
der ordinary, coupled non-linear differential equations are
obtained. The Galerkin projection of Eq. (1) has been per-
formed by using the Mathematica computer software. The
Runge-Kutta method was used to solve the system of equa-
tions (Appendix).
In this model the non-linear interaction among linear
modes of the chosen basis involves only the asymmetric
modes having a given n value, and all the axisymmetric
modes is considered. Then the obtained theoretical results
were compared with de-noised experimental results. Liu
et al. [14] and Kandasamy et al. [15] used the computer sim-
ulation source or a point excitation source (a small piezo-
electric disc) in their experimental set-up for theoretical re-
sults validation and in some other researches [16] a linear
interaction among the modes were used to study the vibra-
tion behavior of pipe caused by simulated leak source. In
our previous work [11] we studied the validation of the an-
alytical model by noisy experimental results. The boundary
conditions were as:
u = 0 at x = 0, L and v = 0 at x = 0, L (11)
In this study we used a non-linear model with a differ-
ent boundary conditions (as mentioned in Eqs. (3) and the
70 J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780
model wsa solved per these boundary conditions. Then the
analytical results were compared with the de-noised ex-
perimental results per a specic range of frequencies. The
noise of the experimental results were suppressed by wavelet
transform.
3 Wavelet Transform
Wavelet transform is one of the more useful mathematical
transform in signal processing domain. Regarding the na-
ture of multi-resolution analysis, this transform plays very
important role in most processing usages. Important points
of wavelet transform in non-stationary can be obtained by
[17, 18]. In practical conditions, AE signals resulted from
leakage are very complicated. Recognition of main sig-
nals from noises like ow, surrounding and used equipment
noises is very difcult by using mentioned acoustic tech-
nique, so there needs other new methods for analysis of non-
stationary signals [19]. Wavelet transform (WT) is an ana-
lytical time-frequency method which is considered in anal-
ysis of AE signals. Qi [20] has also used the WT to analyze
AE signals, this time by decomposing the signal into differ-
ent wavelet levels, each level representing one component
of the decomposed AE signal within a certain frequency
range. Also, the energy of each level of the decomposed
AE signal is carried with it, thus providing a comprehen-
sive means of inspecting the AE source. Kalogiannakis [21]
used WT for tracing the AE waves resulted from defects in
composite structures. Kishimoto et al. [22] dened that WT
together with Gabor wavelet is a useful method for analy-
sis of propagated signals. On the other hand a source lo-
cating algorithm according to Gabor wavelet provided simi-
lar results with cross correlation technique. Inoue et al. [23]
showed that a three-dimensional plot of the magnitude of
the WT in time-frequency space has peaks whose locations
indicate the arrival times of each component of the wave.
Most authors have observed that the velocity of propagation
is frequency-dependent. Rosa et al. [24] studied the possibil-
ity of using wavelets and wavelet packets to detect and char-
acterize alarm signals produced by termites. A set of syn-
thetics have been modeled by mixing the real acquired tran-
sients with computer generated noise processes. Identica-
tion has been performed by means of analyzing the impulse
responses of three sensors undergoing natural excitations.
The conventional methods and wavelet transform methods
are based on the premise that the individual wave modes can
be recognized. For example, Bayray and Rauscher [25] have
compared the windowed Fourier transform and the wavelet
transform for identifying AE wave mode and found that they
gave similar results in helping to identify fast extensional
wave and slow exural wave propagation. For cases where
the geometry and material make modes difcult to distin-
guish, simple frequency ltering may not be as effective,
Fig. 1 Continuous leak source
and so this work uses a wavelet packet transform [26] and
then a Butterworth lter [27] together with a threshold cross-
ing technique to x the arrival time(s). This technique will
be compared with results obtained using threshold crossing,
cross correlation and Gabor wavelet techniques. With the
availability of advanced computing resources and data stor-
age and transmission capability, recording and anad analysis
of the complete signal waveforms is becoming the preferred
analysis approach. Though the signals captured by sensors
are affected by the medium of propagation and the sensor
characteristics, the signals still contain information about
the nature of the source. The use of wavelet transform for
noise suppression in acoustic emission detection is widely
used [28]. We used Dauechies wavelet (db4) in this research.
Such wavelet needs a few calculations that is one of its im-
portant advantages.
4 The Experimental Set-Up
Experiments were carried out with a linear array of sensors
on steel pipe (ASTM A 106/99) of nominal length of 5.6 m,
J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780 71
Fig. 2 Sensors lay out
Fig. 3 Equipment lay out
7.35 mm wall thickness and external diameter of 169 mm.
Two ends of the pipe were capped by 10 mm thickness
plates. An opening was formed in distance of 258.5 cm from
one end of the pipe. Simulated continuous leak source with
0.8 and 0.6 mm diameter hole according to Fig. 1 was t-
ted the opening and pipe was then lled by air with 5 bar
pressure [29]. To prevent pressure loss, the regulator was
installed in the inlet of the pipe. Two R15a sensors were
mounted on both sides of leak source by adhesive tape and
vacuum grease couplant as shown in Fig. 2. As it mentioned
in Eq. (10), we study the vibration behavior of the pipe an-
alytically per the resonance frequency. Therefore we used
resonance sensor of R15a. AE signals were pre-amplied
using a PAC1120A operating at 60 dB amplication and
the amplier output was ltered between 0.01 and 0.4 MHz.
The AE data being captured at a sampling rate of 10 MHz
72 J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780
Fig. 4 AE raw signals for test
no. 1 at (a) S
1
, (b) S
2
Table 1 Sensors position
Test No. Nozzle Hole Dia.
(mm)
X
1
(cm)
X
2
(cm)
1 0.6 100 20
2 0.8 100 20
3 0.6 214 102
4 0.8 214 102
for a record length of 6 ms. The sensor distances from leak
source location are shown in Table 1. The equipment lay out
is shown in Fig. 3.
5 Results and Discussion
The raw AE signals captured at sensors S
1
and S
2
for test
No. 1 are shown in Fig. 4 respectively. Varying the amount
of leaking gas will change the signal amplitude. On the other
hand the acoustic properties of the signal transmitter struc-
ture can affect the amplitude of the generated AE signals.
The leakage source propagates acoustic signals in a wide
range of frequencies. In addition to main AE signals gen-
erated by leakage, noises like surrounding, ow and equip-
ment noise are transmitted through the pipe wall and cap-
tured by acoustic emission sensors mounted on the pipe
wall. In practical situations recognition of main AE sig-
nal from noises are very difcult. For better analysis Fast
J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780 73
Fourier Transform (FFT) was taken from raw AE signals.
As can be seen in Fig. 5 AE signals and surrounding noises
propagate in a wide range of frequencies. To study the ver-
ication of the used analytical model, it is necessary to
detection the main AE signals and suppressing the noises.
Fig. 5 Frequency domain of recorded signal for test no. 1 at (a) S
1
,
(b) S
2
Wavelet transform is a kind of analyzing ways for measure-
ment of time and frequency of the signal. It can be used to
analyze pipeline leak signals and lter the noise appeared
in the signal. Captured AE signals by sensors split into an
approximation and a detail in wavelet transform. The ap-
proximation is then itself split into a second level approxi-
mation and detail and the process is repeated. Noises usu-
ally occur in details. Choosing the appropriate level of de-
composition is very important. A 6 layers decomposition is
applied in this research for experimental results. By lter-
ing the approximation of layer 6, more noises were removed
and the ltered approximation was split into an approxima-
tion and a detail in order to remove more noises. At last we
reconstructed the main AE signals without noise. Figure 6
indicates the reconstructed AE main signals. To obtain the
radial displacement of the pipe theoretically, the resonant
frequency of the AE sensor was used and the applied force
to the pipe due to gas leaking was measured by dynam-
ics of gases. So varying the hole size, caused different ra-
dial displacement. The Runge-Kutta numerical method was
used to solve the system of equations. Replacing the me-
chanical properties of the pipe and gas in the equations and
using ODE tool of MATLAB software the pipe vibration
of the different points was calculated. In our experimental
set-up there were two major types of noises. One of them
is surrounding noises especially compressor noises and an-
other one is the reected AE waves which were captured
by AE sensors. The rst type (caused by compressor) was
suppressed by isolating the compressor from experimental
set-up environment in a separate room. Moreover before do-
ing the main test, a pre-test with a cap on the leak source
Fig. 6 De-noised signals after
WT for test no. 1 at (a) S
2
,
(b) S
1
74 J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780
Fig. 7 Theoretical results for
test no. 1 at (a) S
1
, (b) S
2
was carried out and a pre-threshold proportional to the envi-
ronmental noises was set to suppress these unwanted noises.
So only the AE signals produced by leakage were recorded
by mounted acoustic emission sensors. The pipe boundaries
reected some AE waves in a wide range of frequencies
and amplitudes. These reected waves lost a majority of
their energies. So AE signal with lower energy interfered
with initially waves. In this study, for each sensor the cap-
tured signals were narrowband ltered at center frequencies
of 150 KHz with a determined bandwidth. By this ltering
some components of reected waves were removed. In ad-
dition to eliminate more of reected waves, a threshold ac-
J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780 75
Fig. 8 FFT results of test no. 1
for sensor S
1
(a) experimental,
(b) theoretical
cording to maximum amplitude of raw AE signal was set
so the waves which crossed this threshold were recorded. In
Fig. 7 the predicted signals of test no. 1 are shown. To survey
the vibration characteristics of AE signals the time domain
of signals is changed to the frequency domain. The greatest
amount of AE energy is carried out per specic frequency
ranges. By fast Fourier transform, the frequency domain of
the modeled signals was calculated. The theoretical model
calculated the amplitude of the AE signals in meter (m) but
the sensors used in the experimental set-up measured the
amplitude of the AE waves in volt (V). Therefore the scales
of the theoretical and experimental results are different. So
the frequencies which carried the most amounts of energies
are comparable.
In Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11 the FFT results of theoretical and ex-
perimental data for test nos. 1 and 2 are shown. Comparison
the results showed that the maximum amount of AE energy
carried per the same frequencies. In Table 2 the results of an-
76 J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780
Fig. 9 FFT results of test no. 1
for sensor S
2
(a) experimental,
(b) theoretical
alytical modeling and experimental is shown for some tests.
As can be seen the mean error between analytical modeling
and experimental results is less than 7 %. So the experimen-
tal results conrm performance of the developed analytical
model.
6 Conclusion
In this paper, modeling of AE signals and their vibration
characteristics due to leakage in pressurized pipe is studied.
Donnells non linear theory has been used to obtain the ra-
dial displacement of the pipe. The simulated continuous leak
source, used in acoustic emission testing, propagated waves
in a wide range of frequencies. Unwanted noises in addition
to main AE signals propagate through the pipe wall in a wide
range so suppressing these noises is very important. Wavelet
transform is used to suppress these surrounding noises. The
theoretical model has been solved numerically per the reso-
nant frequency of the AE sensor used in acoustic emission
testing and the radial displacement of the pipe has been cal-
culated. To verication of the model, we study the frequency
ranges which carry the maximum energy of the AE signals.
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) was taken from theoretical
and de-noised experimental results. Comparing the results
J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780 77
Fig. 10 FFT results of test
no. 2 for sensor S
1
(a) experimental, (b) theoretical
showed that the frequency which carried the most amount
of energy is the same that expresses excellent agreement be-
tween the theoretical and experimental results validating the
analytical model.
Appendix: Non-Linear Equations Obtained
in Mathematica Software
The system of non-linear ordinary differential equations
which is obtained in Mathematica are given by:

A
1,n
(t ) +2
1,n

1,n

A
1,n
(t ) +
2
1,n
A
1,n
(t ) +h
1
A
3
1,n
(t ) +h
1
A
1,n
(t )B
2
1,n
(t )
+h
2
A
1,n
(t )A
2
2,n
(t ) +h
3
A
1,n
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) +h
4
A
2,n
(t )B
1,n
(t )B
2,n
(t )
+h
5
A
1,n
(t )A
1,0
(t ) +h
6
A
1,n
(t )A
3,0
(t ) +h
7
A
1,n
(t )A
5,0
(t ) +h
8
A
1,n
(t )A
2
1,0
(t )
+h
9
A
2
3,0
(t )A
1,n
(t ) +h
10
A
1,n
(t )A
2
5,0
(t )h
11
A
1,n
(t )A
1,0
(t )A
3,0
(t )
+h
12
A
1,n
(t )A
3,0
(t )A
5,0
(t ) =Fe
it
m
1
=hL/2,
2
1,n
=
L
2
_
D
_

2
L
2
+
n
2
R
2
_
2
+
Eh
4
R
2
L
4
__

2
L
2
+
n
2
R
2
_
2
__
m
1

1,n
=
chL
2
/(2
1,n
m
1
)
(12)
78 J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780
Fig. 11 FFT results of test
no. 2 for sensor S
2
(a) experimental, (b) theoretical

B
1,n
(t ) +2
1,n

1,n

B
1,n
(t ) +
2
1,n
B
1,n
(t ) +h
1
B
3
1,n
(t ) +h
1
B
1,n
(t )A
2
1,n
(t )
+h
2
B
1,n
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) +h
3
B
1,n
(t )A
2
2,n
(t ) +h
4
B
2,n
(t )A
1,n
(t )A
2,n
(t )
+h
5
B
1,n
(t )A
1,0
(t ) +h
6
B
1,n
(t )A
3,0
(t ) +h
7
B
1,n
(t )A
5,0
(t ) +h
8
B
1,n
(t )A
2
1,0
(t )
+h
9
B
1,n
(t )A
2
3,0
(t ) +h
10
B
1,n
(t )A
2
5,0
(t ) +h
11
B
1,n
(t )A
1,0
(t )A
3,0
(t )
+h
12
B
1,n
(t )A
3,0
(t )A
5,0
(t ) = 0 (13)

A
2,n
(t ) +2
2,n

2,n

A
2,n
(t ) +
2
2,n
A
2,n
(t ) +k
1
A
3
2,n
(t ) +k
1
A
2,n
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) +k
2
A
2,n
(t )A
2
1,n
(t )
+k
3
A
2,n
(t )B
2
1,n
(t ) +k
4
A
1,n
(t )B
1,n
(t )B
2,n
(t ) +k
5
A
2,n
(t )A
1,0
(t ) +k
6
A
2,n
(t )A
3,0
(t )
+k
7
A
2,n
(t )A
5,0
(t ) +k
8
A
2,n
(t )A
2
1,0
(t ) +k
9
A
2,n
(t )A
2
3,0
(t ) +k
10
A
2,n
(t )A
2
5,0
(t )
+k
11
A
2,n
(t )A
1,0
(t )A
3,0
(t ) +k
12
A
2,n
(t )A
1,0
(t )A
5,0
(t ) = 0
m
2
=hL/2,
2
2,n
=
L
2
_
D
_
4
2
L
2
+
n
2
R
2
_
+
16Eh
4
R
2
L
4
__
4
2
L
2
+
n
2
R
2
_
2
__
m
2

2,n
=
chL
2
(2
2,n
m
2
)
(14)
J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780 79
Table 2 Experimental and
analytical results
Test Theoretical main
power spectral
density freq.
Experimental main
power spectral
density freq.
Error %
0.6 mm Dia. Hole and 20 cm
sensor-source Distance
111 115 3.4
0.6 mm Dia. Hole and 100 cm
sensor-source Distance
133 127 4.7
0.8 mm Dia. Hole and 20 cm
sensor-source Distance
119 117 1.8
0.8 mm Dia. Hole and 100 cm
sensor-source Distance
127 119 6.7
0.6 mm Dia. Hole and 102 cm
sensor-source Distance
135 129 4.6
0.6 mm Dia. Hole and 214 cm
sensor-source Distance
115 120 4.4
0.8 mm Dia. Hole and 102 cm
sensor-source Distance
130 122 6.5
0.8 mm Dia. Hole and 214 cm
sensor-source Distance
118 114 3.5

B
2,n
(t ) +2
2,n

2,n

B
2,n
(t ) +
2
2,n
B
2,n
(t ) +k
1
B
3
2,n
(t ) +k
1
B
2,n
(t )A
2
2,n
(t )
+k
2
B
2,n
(t )B
2
1,n
(t ) +k
3
B
2,n
(t )A
2
1,n
(t ) +k
4
B
1,n
(t )A
1,n
(t )A
2,n
(t )
+k
5
B
2,n
(t )A
1,0
(t ) +k
6
B
2,n
(t )A
3,0
(t ) +k
7
B
2,n
(t )A
5,0
(t ) +k
8
B
2,n
(t )A
2
1,0
(t )
+k
9
B
2,n
(t )A
2
3,0
(t ) +k
10
B
2,n
(t )A
2
5,0
(t ) +k
11
B
2,n
(t )A
1,0
(t )A
3,0
(t )
+k
12
B
2,n
(t )A
1,0
(t )A
5,0
(t ) = 0 (15)

A
1,0
(t ) +2
1,0

1,0

A
1,0
(t ) +
2
1,0
A
1,0
(t ) +l
1
A
1,0
(t )A
2
1,n
(t ) +l
1
A
1,0
(t )B
2
1,n
(t )
+l
2
A
1,0
(t )A
2
2,n
(t ) +l
2
A
1,0
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) +l
3
A
2
1,n
(t ) +l
3
B
2
1,n
(t ) +l
4
A
2
2,n
(t ) +l
4
B
2
2,n
(t )
+l
5
A
3,0
(t )A
2
1,n
(t ) +l
5
A
3,0
(t )B
2
1,n
(t ) +l
6
A
3,0
(t )A
2
2,n
(t ) +l
6
A
3,0
(t )B
2
2,n
(t )
+l
7
A
5,0
(t )A
2
2,n
(t ) +l
7
A
5,0
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) =Fe
it
m
1,0
=hL,
2
1,0
=
L
m
1,0
_
D
4
L
4
+
Eh
R
2
_

1,0
=chL/(2
1,0
m
1,0
)
(16)

A
3,0
(t ) +2
3,0

3,0

A
3,0
(t ) +
2
3,0
A
3,0
(t ) +n
1
A
3,0
(t )A
2
1,n
(t ) +n
1
A
3,0
(t )B
2
1,n
(t )
+n
2
A
3,0
(t )A
2
2,n
(t ) +n
2
A
3,0
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) +n
3
A
2
1,n
(t ) +n
3
B
2
1,n
(t ) +n
4
A
2
2,n
(t )
+n
4
B
2
2,n
(t ) +n
5
A
1,0
(t )A
2
1,n
(t ) +n
5
A
1,0
(t )B
2
1,n
(t ) +n
6
A
1,0
(t )A
2
2,n
(t )
+n
6
A
1,0
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) +n
7
A
5,0
(t )A
2
1,n
(t ) +n
7
A
5,0
(t )B
2
1,n
(t ) = Fe
it
m
3,0
=hL,
2
3,0
=
L
m
3,0
_
81D
4
L
4
+
Eh
R
2
_

3,0
=chL/(2
3,0
m
3,0
)
(17)

A
5,0
(t ) +2
5,0

5,0

A
5,0
(t ) +
2
5,0
A
5,0
(t ) +p
1
A
5,0
(t )A
2
1,n
(t ) +p
1
A
5,0
(t )B
2
1,n
(t )
+p
2
A
5,0
(t )A
2
2,n
(t ) +p
2
A
5,0
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) +p
3
A
2
1,n
(t ) +p
3
B
2
1,n
(t ) +p
4
A
2
2,n
(t )
+p
4
B
2
2,n
(t ) +p
5
A
1,0
(t )A
2
2,n
(t ) +p
5
A
1,0
(t )B
2
2,n
(t ) +p
6
A
3,0
(t )A
2
1,n
(t )
+p
6
A
3,0
(t )B
2
1,n
(t ) =Fe
it
m
5,0
=hL,
2
5,0
=
L
m
5,0
_
625D
4
L
4
+
Eh
R
2
_

5,0
=chL/(2
5,0
m
5,0
)
(18)
80 J Nondestruct Eval (2013) 32:6780
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