International Journal of Advanced Technology & Engineering Research (IJATER)

DIFFERENT VOLTAGE SELECTION CRITERIA AND INSULATION DESIGN OF A TRANSMISSION LINE FOR HV, EHV & UHV SYSTEM
Akhlaque Ahmad Khan1; Ahmad Faiz Minai2, Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department, Integral University, Lucknow [1][2]

Abstract
In this paper voltage selection and insulation design of a transmission line are discussed. Electrical energy can be generated centrally in bulk and transmitted economically long distances. Further it can be adapted easily and efficiently to domestic and industrial application particularly for lighting purposes and for mechanical work e.g. derives. The system voltage in EHV system very much effect the capital cost of transmission line. The weight of conductor material, the efficiency of the line, the voltage drop in the line and system stability depends upon system voltage. The choice of voltage and insulation design therefore, a major factor in the line designs.

tion in the comparison of competitive system in cost but the case of maintenance, vulnerability to damage and public amenity must also be taken into account. The table below shows the comparative cost per mile for transmitting a given amount of power using over head lines and under ground cable:-

Introduction
The per capital consumption and electrical energy is a reliable indicator of a countrys state of development. Conventionally electrical energy is obtained by conversion from fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), nuclear and hydro sources. Heat energy released by burning fossil fuels or by fission of nuclear material is converted to electricity by first converting heat energy to the mechanical energy and then converting mechanical energy to the electrical energy through generators. The earth has fixed non replenishable resources of fossil fuels and nuclear materials. Hydro energy though replenishable is also limited in terms of power. The worlds increasing power requirements can only be partially met by hydro sources. Further more ecological and biological factors place a stringent limit on the use of hydro sources for power production. The plots showing energy demand installed generating capacity indicates that the electrical energy requirement is an exponential growth function and as per the slope of these plots the continuous increase in power demand has been doubling every seven years. As per the plots the installed generating capacity in India must rise from 140 GMW in 1995, 1840 GW in 2007 and 3680GW in 2014 which in turn would require a corresponding development in coal resources. Among the different types of transmission systems are overhead systems and cable systems. The primary consideraFigure 1:- Power consumption per Capita Table 1:- Comparative Cost per Mile for Transmitting a given amount power using overhead line and under ground line.

Voltage KV 400 220 132

Cost of O/H Line ( 1000/Km). 34 17 6.5

Cost of U/G Cable ( 1000/Km.) 615 217 55

Ratio

18 13 8

The generation voltages are usually 11KV &33KV and since these are low for transmission over long distances so it is step up by step up transformer to voltages upto 132KV, 220KV or 400KV and transmitted to bulk power sub-station. Difficulty of getting power station sites near the consuming centers makes it inevitable to transfer bulk of electrical energy through longer distances and is possible only by high voltage transmission systems. Extra High Voltage (EHV) above 220KV thus not only transmits power but utilized for interconnection purposes also. High voltage is desired due to various reasons such as power loss which is inversely pro-

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portional to both system voltage and power factor (p.f.) reduction in voltage drop in resistance, reduction in weight of conductor material and enhanced efficiency of transmission. Three main problems associated with EHV, namely radio interference, line insulation and equipment insulation. The various voltages adopted by different countries above 230KV are 275, 287, 345, 380, 400, 500, 735, 1100KV etc. The highest voltage used in India is 400KV. Voltages above 765KV are called ultra high voltages (UHV). Two main problems are involved which limits the large amount of power to be transmitted over long distances by A.C. systems. The first is the technical limitation and other is the economic consideration and usually later governs the final choice of design. Recently by virtue of its various advantages over A.C. transmission, high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission is also become popular in some countries. A.C. is better for generating and distributing point of view but D.C. is preferable for transmission over long distances. \

cult and expensive. The corona loss are also inevitable as communication line and EHV lines are run as the same tower the problem of radio interference with communication circuit become very serious at EHV. Shunt reactance compensation (for improvement of p.f.) and series compensation (for improvement of voltage regulation and stability) is required. While selecting the transmission voltage the present and future expectable voltage of other lines in vicinity of the line under design are taken into account. The number of circuits in EHV system can be one or two. Different Criteria for Voltage Selection:-

First Criteria:According to Indian standard

Table 2:- Table for Voltage Selection

Distance (KM)

No. of Phases

Voltage selection
A transmission line transmits electrical energy in bulk from generating station to distributing station. The maximum generation voltage in developed countries is 33KV while in India it is 11KV. The amount of power that has to be transmitted through transmission line is very large, if this power is transmitted at 11KV or 33KV, the line current and power loss would be large. Therefore this voltage is stepped upto higher value by using step-up transformers. The transmission voltages in India are 132KV, 220KV, 400KV & 765KV. The system voltage in EHV system very much effect the capital cost of transmission line. The weight of conductor material, the efficiency of the line, the voltage drop in the line and system stability depends upon system voltage. The choice of voltage therefore, a major factor in the line designs. The EHV systems are not only the power transporting system but fulfill the need of interconnecting the different EHV systems so as to improve the reliability as well as efficiency of the system. The EHV system here certain advantages such as the voltage goes on increasing the current reduces, the size of the conductor reduces and cost of conductor decreases. As current decreases line losses reduces thereby increasing the efficiency and voltage regulation increase. Although much economy can be affected in EHV system, the cost of insulation of conductors increases, the separation or clearance between conductors is to be increased to avoid electrical discharge. The problem of mechanical supporting structure and right of way an acquisition become more diffi-

Upto 8 Upto 16 Upto 64 Upto 116 Upto 240 Upto 480 Upto 800

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Standard working voltage (KV) 6.6 11 33 66 132 220 400

Second Criteria:
Imperical formula is given by VL = 5.5 ((L/1.6) + (P1000/Cos NC 150)) Where, VL = Transmission line voltage in KV L = Length of line in Kms. = 300Km P = Power to be transmitted = 280MW NC = Number of circuits Cos =Power factor of load = 0.9 (lagging) VL = 5.5 ((300/1.6) + (2801000/0.9 NC 150)) For, NC = 1 (single circuit line) VL = 261.55 KV For, NC = 2 (double circuit line) VL = 192.4 KV The standard line voltage near to this is 220KV.

Surge impedance Loading:A surge is the movement of charge along the conductor, such surge are characterized by sudden very steep rise in voltage followed by gradual decay in voltage. It is of very short duration of the order of few micro seconds. The surge

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travel along the conductor in the form of waves. There are generally two types of surge such as switching surge and lightning surge. The lightning surges are of particular interest due to their large magnitude and different wave shapes. The surges reach the transformer, switch gear and may damage them if they are not properly protected. A transmission line may be considered as generative capacitive reactive voltmeter in its shunt capacitance and consuming reactive volt-amperes in its series inductance. The load at which the inductive and capacitive reactive voltamperes are equal and opposite is called surge impedance loading (SIL). V2/VC = I2 XL Or, V/I = (L/C) = Z0 Surge impedance load of any line may be defined as power delivered by it to a purely resistive load equal to its surge impedance. SIL also gives the power transmitting capability, P (t). To determine P (t) SIL is multiplied by factor (MF) obtained from standard capability curve. SIL = (VL)2/Z0 Where, VL = Transmission line voltage in KV Z0 = Surge impedance in ohm = 200 ohm (for double circuit line) = 400 ohm (for single circuit line)

This power transmitting capability of system is greater than the actual power to be transmitted, hence, Double Circuit, 220KV line is selected.

Figure 2:- Capability Curve

Design of insulation
The major aspect in designing a power transmission line is choosing its insulation level which has a considerable influence on the cost as well as operating reliability. The influence of EHV systems is determined on the basis of possible internal and external over-voltages. The recent advancements achieved in the design of circuit breakers and other protective devices have reduced the severe effects of switching transients and power frequency over-voltages allowing considerable reductions in the insulation level of EHV networks. The earthing of the system also plays an important role in reducing the insulation. Reduced insulation level results in large swing in the size and cost of equipment. The system over-voltage factors are therefore to be evaluated carefully while choosing the insulation levels.

The power transmitted decreases with length. To find out the actual power that can be transmitted with stability SIL is multiplied by MF (multiplying factor) which is obtained from capability curve. The capability curve is plotted between MF and length (Km). From the capability curve the value of MF is 1.44 corresponding to 300Km. SIL = (VL)2 /Z0 MW

For Double Circuit Line:SIL = (220)2/200 MW = 242 MW P (t) = SIL MF = 242 1.44 = 348.48 MW

Over-Voltage
In extra high voltage system types of over-voltages likely to occur are:(a) Over voltages due to switching surges. (b) Power frequency over voltages. (c) Over voltages due to direct strokes of lightning

Switching Over Voltages

Over voltages due to switching surges are of an internal origin and are generally oscillatory in nature. These

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over voltages are of a short duration and are generally caused by the following switching operations. (1) Switching off of long lines on no load. (2) Interruption of low inductive current such as the transformer magnetizing currents. (3) Energizing lines of no load. (4) Clearance of short circuits. The most dangerous transient over-voltages are caused by tripping of long lines under no load conditions. The length of EHV lines and high capacitance due to bundled conductors increases the probability of high switching surges. Switching surges of 3 to 4 times the crest value of the normal phase to neutral voltage are likely to occur as a result of breaker restriking. Modern CBS are therefore designed for disconnecting unloaded lines without restriking which limits the over-voltage to 2-2.5 times crest value of the normal phase to neutral voltage. Dangerous switching over-voltages also occur by interruption of transformer magnetizing currents. The magnitude of these over-voltages depends on the relation between the inductance and capacitance of the transformer. In the case of EHV transformers the factor is usually 1.5. Higher voltages generated can be absorbed by the lightning arrestors between the transformer and the circuit breaker. Relatively high over-voltages occur on energizing high voltage lines and particularly a three phase rapid recourses. In absence of damping and in the most unfavorable case of reclosing when the applied voltage is at its maximum. The voltage at the open end may reach double the crest value of the phase to neutral voltage or even more.

A wider knowledge of the magnitudes of lightning and internal over-voltages has justified the revision of insulation requirements. Further with the advancements made in protective devices such as a non-restraining circuit breaker. Circuit breaker with the provision of pre insertion resistors, improved lightning arrestors and provisions of bus-car protection against earth faults in EHV stations have made it possible to limit the effects of switching over-voltages to a value of 2.5 for lines operating at 220KV. The power frequency over-voltage factor has been reduced to a value 1.3 for 220KV. The provision of shunt reactors on EHV lines for the absorption of excessive reactive power limits switching surge over-voltages and prevents abnormally high fundamental frequency and harmonic voltages.

Lightning Over-Voltage
Lightning is a very serious cause of over voltages on the lines. These over voltages are produced in the lines either by a direct stroke or by an induced stroke. The voltages due to induced strokes are very much less as compared to those produced by direct strokes. The important lightning surges against which apparatus must be protected are caused by direct strokes which originate either at the station or an overhead lines leading to the section. These direct strokes attain values as high as 4000KV with a high rate of voltage rise (1000-10,000KV per micro second) and a high current magnitude of (5000 to 200,000 amperes). These conditions impose severe stresses on the station equipments and may even be fatal for protective systems. Surges that originate as direct strokes on the lines have to propagate into the station are by far the most common and are generally less severe. The lightning discharge wave is very short and steep at the point at which it strikes and the amplitude goes on decreasing under the action of skin-effect of conductor and ground while it is propagating along the line. The frequency of occurrence of over voltages due to thunder storms varies according to the Iso-Chronic level of the region. Their amplitude depending on the presence of earth wires and the quality of earthing. A study in connection with the magnitude of lightning currents has shown that currents upto 30,000 amperes account for 90% of the total number of observations recorded and the currents of the order of 100 amperes exceed for only 1.5% of the observations. A value of 300,000 amperes of lightning stroke current is generally accepted as the criterion for determining the insulation level for EHV systems. Power lines and switch yards can however, be protected adequately against direct lightning strokes by means of screening conductors, if the protective angle is 25-30 degrees and the tower footing resistance is limited to about 10

Power Frequency Over Voltages

Operating frequency voltage rise occurs when:(1) A loaded line is interrupted at one end especially when the line is long and the impedance is high. (2) On occurrence of a single phase or two phases to earth fault. (3) An open line is suddenly connected to the source. (4) At the free end of a line connected at one end only (FERRANTI EFFECT). A practical line sections of the range 300 500Km in length which is usual at 220KV and 400KV, increase in voltage during dropping of load does not exceed 1.3 to 1.5 times the maximum normal phase to neutral voltage (rms). The value of these over-voltages in practice does not depend on the operating voltage but depends only on the length of the line and the number of lines terminating at or emanating from a station.

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ohm in the case of transmission lines and 0.5 to 1 ohm in the case of substations.

d) The leakage of current to earth should be minimum to keep the corona loss and ratio interference within reasonable limits. There are three types of insulators used for overhead lines. (1) Pin type insulator (2) Suspension type insulator (3) Strain or tension type insulator.

Choice of Insulation Level for Transmission Lines

Insulation requirements are a function of internal and external over voltages. The number of insulators, swing angle, weather conditions, phase spacing and clearance to tower and ground wires determine the tower dimensions and cost. Economy and practicability of design demand that the insulation strength b e kept a minimum and should provide basic protection. One must strike a balance between the chances of failure and the cost of greater insulation strength.

1. Pin Type Insulator

The pin insulator is supported on a forged steel pin or bolt which is secured to the cross arm of the supporting structure. The conductor is tied to the insulator on the top groove on straight line position and side groove in angle positions by annealed binding wire of the same material as conductor. A lead thimble is connected into the insulator body to receive the pin.

Suspension Insulator
A suspension insulator consists of a number of separate insulator units connected with each other by metal lines to form a flexible chain or a string. The insulator string is suspended from the cross arm of the support. The conductor is attached to the lowest unit. An insulator assembly is shown in figure. Suspension insulator offers the following advantages:(a) Each unit is designed for operating voltage of about 11KV so, that a string can be assembled by connecting several units to suit the service voltage and weather conditions. (b) In case the line is to operate on a higher voltage in future to cope with the increasing load, additional units would be introduced to the same string. In case of damage to one of the units, only the damaged insulator but not the whole string is replaced by one. (c) The string is free to swing in any direction and therefore, greater flexibility is provided. The tensions in the successive spans are balanced. The lines can therefore be designed for longer spans and higher mechanical loading. (d)There is decreased liability to lightning disturbances if the string is suspended from a metallic supporting structure which works as a lightning shield for conductor. Since the spring is hung from the support, the tower height is to be increased. Greater spacing between the conductors is to be provided to allow for swinging. The types of suspension insulators in use are: (a) Cap and Pin type (b) Hewlett or interlink type.

Multiplying Factors
The string insulation must be sufficient to prevent a flash over from the stationary over voltages and switching surges into account all the abnormal and prevailing circumstances which decrease the flashover voltage such as rain, dust, insulator pollution, fog etc. Some additional multiplying factors are therefore allowed to account for contaminated, non-standard atmospheric conditions, polluted insulation surface etc. These factors influence the value of normal frequency flashover voltages more than impulse flashover voltage. Further it becomes necessary to make some allowance for safety margin for unforeseen conditions.

Types of Insulators
Overhead line insulators are used to separate line conductors from each other and from supporting structure electrically. While designing an insulator the following points are kept in view:a) The insulator should be able to withstand the over voltages due to lightning, switching or other causes under severe conditions in addition to the normal working voltages. b) It should posses high mechanical strength to bear the conductor load under worst leading conditions. c) It needs to have a high resistance to temperature changes to reduce damage from power flashover.

Strain or Tension Insulators

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Strain or tension insulators are design for handling mechanical stresses at angle positions where there is a change in the direction of the line or at termination of the lines. For high voltage lines having longer spans and greater mechanical loading, suspension insulator strings are arranged in a horizontal position. In case a single string is not sufficient to take the load, two are more strings in parallel may be employed for higher conductor tensions.

Table 3:- Doultons Insulation Characteristic

(2) Highest System Voltage = 1.10 (3) Over voltage factor = 1.3 for 220 KV = 1.5 for 400 KV (4) Flashover Voltage = 1.15 (5) Non-standard atmospheric condition, contaminated surface = 1.2 (6) Overall safety margin = 1.50 50HZ wet flashover voltage (rms) = Vpn 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.15 = 3 (220/3) = 380 KV Number of discs corresponding to this voltage = 10.7 = 11 units

S.No.

No. of units (Disc) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Power frequency withstand voltage Dry KV(rms) 78 135 185 235 275 315 365 415 455 495 530 Wet KV(rms) 45 80 115 150 185 225 260 295 330 360 395

Impulse withstand test voltage KV(Peak) 105 200 300 380 450 530 600 680 750 820 890

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Figure3:- Characteristic of Power Frequency Over Voltage Curve

Switching Surge Over Voltage Factors

(1) System voltage = 220 KV (2) Highest system voltage =1.1system voltage (for 220 KV) = 1.05 system voltage (for 400 KV) (3) Crest factor = 1.414 (4) Switching surge = 2.5 for 220 KV = 2.0 for 400 KV (5) Switching surge strength = 1.15 (6) Impulse flashover voltage = 1.15 (7) Contaminated surface, on standard condition = 1.1 (8) Overall factor of safety = 1.15 +ve impulse flashover voltage (crest 1.2/50 sec) = Vpm 1.414 2.5 1.5 1.15 1.15 1.1 = 6.5 Vpn for line at 220 KV = (220/3) 6.5 = 825 KV Corresponding to this voltage the number of discs required = 10.1 = 11 units

Conclusion
The EHV systems are not only the power transporting system but fulfill the need of interconnecting the different EHV systems so as to improve the reliability as well as efficiency of the system. The EHV system here certain advantages such as the voltage goes on increasing the current reduces, the size of the conductor reduces and cost of conductor decreases. As current decreases line losses reduces thereby increasing the efficiency and voltage regulation increase.

References
[1]D. Povh, D. Retzmann, Perspectives of Power system interconnections Siemens, Erlangen Germany [2] FACTS Overview. IEEE and Cigr, Catalog Nr. 95 TP 108 [3] Muller, H.-C.; Haubrich, H.-J.; Schwartz, J.: Technical Limits of Interconnected Systems.CIGRE Report 37-301, Paris, Session 1992. [4]UPSEB Statistics at a Glance, March 1988.

Power Frequency (50 HZ) Over Voltage Factors

(1)System Voltage = 220 KV

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International Journal of Advanced Technology & Engineering Research (IJATER) [5]Energy Statistics Year Book, 1966 Published by U.N. New York. [6] J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari Modern Power System Analysis Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2003. [7] H.P. Young Electric Power System control Edition 3,
Chapman & Hall, 1950.

[8] W.D. Stevenson Elements of Power System Analysis fourth edition. TMH, New York 1982. [9] Wadhawa, C.L. Elements of Power System New Age International 2009. [10] Ashfaq Husain Electrical power system Edition 2004, Danpat Rai & Co, (Pvt.) Ltd. 1982.

Akhlaque Ahmad Khan was born in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, on 01 July 1987. He Received the Bachelor s Degree from Integral University, Lucknow, U. P. India. He is with the Integral University, as Lecturer in the Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department from August, 08. Ahmad Faiz Minai was born in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, on November 2, 1985. He Received the Masters Degree from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U. P. India. He is with the Integral University, as an Assisstant Professor in the Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department from July, 09.

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