SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION

In this unit you have learnt that: Classification of organisms is the basic method, employed by us to organise the external world. The various systems of classification are grouped into artificial, natural and phylogenetic ones. The system proposed by Linnaeus is one of the best examples of artificial system. In all, Linnaeus recognised 24 classes in his system. In natural system of classification, two British Botanists namely Bentham and Hooker proposed a system of classification, which is chiefly based on the Form-Relationship. In all 202 families were recognised in this system. The starting family being Ranunculaceae and Poaceae (Graminae) being the ending family of the system. Phylogenetic system of classification are those where plants are grouped according to their evolutionary and genetic affinities. The most popular systems under this category are the systems of classification by two German Botanists, Engler and Prantl, British Botanist, John Hutchinson and Russian Botanist, Takhtajan. In the case of Engler and Prantl system of classification, unisexual, naked flowers in catkin are considered as the most primitive type of flowers. In this system the position of Gymnosperms just before the Angiosperms is an important point of merit. As a whole 303 families of flowering plants are recognised in this system. Hutchinsonsy stem is mainly based on 24 phyletic dicta. He traced 2 lines of development of Dicots viz Lignosae (Woody Plants) and Herbaceae (Herbaceous plants). As a whole 111 osders and 420 families are included in this system. Takhtajan proposed the system of classification in 1942 and then revised and modified several times. The most recent version of the system appeared in 1980. He coined new terms for Dicots and Monocots and named them Magnoliopsida and Liliopsida respectively. He recognised 419 families of flowering plants in his system of classification.

A. MICHEL ADANSON (1727-1806)

A French botanist was first to formulate a natural system of classification.in his book families des plant (1973) Adanson considered different characters and also affinities among various group while arranging and classifying plants. He was poinner in identifying ORDERs and families.Adanson also known for his contribution in the field of numerical taxonomy and described as the father of numerical taxonomy

B. ROBERT BROWN (1773-1858)

Robert Brown was an English botanis,who did not purpose a classification of his own but demonstrated that Gymnosperm were a group discrete from dicotyledons and had naked ovules.He also clarified the floral morphology and pollination of asclepiadaceae, morphology of grass flower structure of cyathium in euporbiaceae and etabilished several families

C. WETTSTEIN (1862-1931)
A system of plant taxonomy, the Wettstein system recognised the following main groups. According to R. Wettstein (4th edition, 1935). Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik. I. phylum Schizophyta II. phylum Monadophyta III. phylum Myxophyta IV. phylum Conjugatophyta V. phylum Bacillariophyta 1. classis Schizophyceae 2. classis Schizomycetes

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VI. phylum Conjugatae VII. phylum Rhodophyta VIII. phylum Euthallophyta 1. classis Bangieae 2. classis Florideae A. Eumycetes 1. subclassis Phycomycetes 2. subclassis Ascomycetes 3. subclassis Basidiomycetes B. Lichenes 1. subclassis Ascolichenes 2. subclassis Basidiolichenes A. Monochlamideae 1. ordo Verticillatae familia Casuarinaceae 2. ordo Fagales 1. familia Betulaceae 2. familia Fagaceae 3. ordo Myricales familia Myricaceae 4. ordo Leitneriales familia Leitneriaceae 5. ordo Juglandales 1. familia Julianiaceae 2. familia Juglandaceae 6. ordo Salicales familia Salicaceae 7. ordo Batidales familia Batidaceae [sic, now Bataceae] 8. ordo Balanopsidales familia Balanopsidaceae [sic, now Balanopaceae] 9. ordo Urticales 1. familia Moraceae 2. familia Cannabaceae 3. familia Ulmaceae 4. familia Eucommiaceae 5. familia Rhoipteleaceae 6. familia Urticaceae 10. ordo Piperales familia Piperaceae incertae sedis familia Saururaceae familia Chloranthaceae familia Lacistemonaceae 11. ordo Proteales familia Proteaceae 12. ordo Santalales 1. familia Santalaceae 2. familia Grubbiaceae 3. familia Opiliaceae 4. familia Octoknemaceae 5. familia Olacaceae 6. familia Myzodendraceae

1. classis Chlorophyceae 2. classis Fungi

IX. phylum Cormophyta

I. divisio Archegoniatae 1. subdivisio Bryophyta 1. classis Musci 2. classis Hepaticae 2. subdivisio Pteridophyta 1. classis Psilophytinae 2. classis Lycopodiinae 3. classis Psilotinae 4. classis Articulatae 5. classis Filicinae II. divisio Anthophyta 1. subdivisio Gymnospermae 1. classis Pteridospermae 2. classis Cycadinae 3. classis Benettitinae 4. classis Cordatinae 5. classis Ginkgoinae 6. classis Coniferae 7. classis Gnetinae 2. subdivisio Angiospermae 1. classis Dicotyledones 1. subclassis Choripetalae A. Monochlamideae B. Dialypetalae 2. subclassis Sympetalae 2. classis Monocotyledones Gymnospermae 1. subdivisio Gymnospermae 1. classis Pteridospermae (fossil only) 2. classis Cycadinae 1. familia Cycadaceae 2. familia Zamiaceae 3. classis Benettitinae (fossil only) 4. classis Cordatinae (fossil only) 5. classis Ginkgoinae 1. familia Ginkgoaceae

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6. classis Coniferae 1. familia Taxaceae 2. familia Cupressaceae 3. familia Abietaceae 7. classis Gnetinae 1. familia Ephedraceae 2. familia Gnetaceae 3. familia Welwitschiaceae Angiospermae 2. subdivisio Angiospermae 1. classis Dicotyledones 1. subclassis Choripetalae

7. familia Loranthaceae 8. familia Balanophoraceae 9. familia Cynomoriaceae 13. ordo Polygonales familia Polygonaceae 14. ordo Centrospermae 1. familia Chenopodiaceae 2. familia Amaranthaceae 3. familia Phytolaccaceae 4. familia Thelygonaceae 5. familia Nyctaginaceae 6. familia Aizoaceae 7. familia Cactaceae [sic] 9. familia Portulacaceae 10. familia Basellaceae 11. familia Caryophyllaceae 15. ordo Tricoccae 1. familia Euphorbiaceae 2. familia Daphniphyllaceae 3. familia Dichapetalaceae 4. familia Buxaceae 5. familia Callitrichaceae 16. ordo Hamamelidales 1. familia Hamamelidaceae 2. familia Cercidiphyllaceae 3. familia Eupteleaceae 4. familia Platanaceae 5. familia Myrothamnaceae [sic] B. Dialypetalae 18. ordo Polycarpicae 1. familia Magnoliaceae 2. familia Trochodendraceae 3. familia Lactoridaceae 4. familia Himantandraceae 5. familia Eupomatiaceae 6. familia Anonaceae [sic, now: Annonaceae] 7. familia Myristicaceae 8. familia Canellaceae 9. familia Aristolochiaceae 10. familia Rafflesiaceae 11. familia Hydnoraceae 12. familia Calycanthaceae 13. familia Gomortegaceae 14. familia Monimiaceae 15. familia Lauraceae 16. familia Hernandiaceae 17. familia Menispermaceae 18. familia Lardizabalaceae 19. familia Ranunculaceae 20. familia Berberidaceae

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21. familia Nymphaeaceae 22. familia Ceratophyllaceae incertae sedis 23. familia Nepenthaceae 24. familia Cephalotaceae 25. familia Sarraceniaceae 19. ordo Rhoeadales 1. familia Papaveraceae 2. familia Tovariaceae 3. familia Capparidaceae [sic, now Capparaceae] 4. familia Cruciferae 5. familia Resedaceae 6. familia Moringaceae 20. ordo Parietales 1. familia Cistaceae 2. familia Bixaceae 3. familia Cochlospermaceae 4. familia Tamaricaceae 5. familia Fouquieriaceae 6. familia Frankeniaceae 7. familia Elatinaceae 8. familia Droseraceae 9. familia Violaceae 10. familia Flacourtiaceae 11. familia Stachyuraceae 12. familia Turneraceae 13. familia Malesherbiaceae 14. familia Passifloraceae 15. familia Achariaceae 16. familia Caricaceae 17. familia Loasaceae 18. familia Begoniaceae 19. familia Datiscaceae 20. familia Ancistrocladaceae 21. ordo Guttiferales 1. familia Dilleniaceae 2. familia Actinidiaceae 3. familia Ochnaceae 4. familia Strassburgeriaceae 5. familia Eucryphiaceae 6. familia Caryocaraceae 7. familia Marcgraviaceae 8. familia Quiinaceae 9. familia Theaceae 10. familia Guttiferae 11. familia Dipterocarpaceae 22. ordo Rosales 1. familia Crassulaceae 2. familia Saxifragaceae 3. familia Cunoniaceae 4. familia Brunelliaceae 5. familia Myrothamnaceae

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6. familia Pittosporaceae 7. familia Byblidaceae 8. familia Roridulaceae 9. familia Bruniaceae 10. familia Podostemonaceae 11. familia Hydrostachyaceae 12. familia Rosaceae 13. familia Crossosomataceae 14. familia Chrysobalanaceae 15. familia Connaraceae 16. familia Mimosaceae 17. familia Papilionaceae 23. ordo Myrtales 1. familia Penaeaceae 2. familia Geissolomaceae 3. familia Oliniaceae 4. familia Thymelaeaceae 5. familia Elaeagnaceae 6. familia Lythraceae 7. familia Heteropyzidaceae 8. familia Sonneratiaceae 9. familia Rhizophoraceae 10. familia Alangiaceae 11. familia Nyssaceae 12. familia Lecythidaceae 13. familia Combretaceae 14. familia Myrtaceae 15. familia Punicaceae 16. familia Melastomataceae 17. familia Oenotheraceae 18. familia Halorrhagidaceae [sic: now Haloragaceae] 19. familia Gunneraceae incertae sedis familia Hippuridaceae 24. ordo Columniferae 1. familia Malvaceae 2. familia Bombacaceae 3. familia Tiliaceae 4. familia Sterculiaceae 5. familia Elaeocarpaceae incertae sedis familia Chlaenaceae familia Gonystylaceae familia Scytopetalaceae 25. ordo Gruinales 1. familia Linaceae 2. familia Humiriaceae 3. familia Oxalidaceae 4. familia Geraniaceae 5. familia Limnaceae 6. familia Tropaeolaceae 7. familia Erythroxylaceae

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8. familia Malpighiaceae 9. familia Zygophyllaceae incertae sedis familia Cneoraceae 26. ordo Terebinthales 1. familia Rutaceae 2. familia Simarubaceae [sic: now Simaroubaceae] 3. familia Burseraceae 4. familia Meliaceae 5. familia Tremandraceae 6. familia Polygalaceae 7. familia Xanthophyllaceae 8. familia Trigoniaceae 9. familia Vochysiaceae 10. familia Anacardiaceae 11. familia Sapindaceae 12. familia Akaniaceae 13. familia Aextoxicaceae 14. familia Aceraceae 15. familia Hippocastanaceae 16. familia Coriaceae 17. familia Cyrillaceae 18. familia Pentaphyllacaceae 19. familia Sabiaceae 20. familia Melianthaceae 21. familia Corynocarpaceae 22. familia Balsaminaceae 27. ordo Celastrales 1. familia Aquifoliaceae 2. familia Celastraceae 3. familia Salvadoraceae 4. familia Staphyleaceae 5. familia Hippocrateaceae 6. familia Stackhousiaceae 7. familia Icacinaceae 28. ordo Rhamnales 1. familia Rhamnaceae 2. familia Vitaceae 29. ordo Umbelliflorae 1. familia Cornaceae 2. familia Araliaceae 3. familia Umbelliferae incertae sedis ordo Garryales familia Garryaceae 2. subclassis Sympetalae 1. ordo Plumbaginales familia Plumbaginaceae 2. ordo Primulales 1. familia Theophrastaceae 2. familia Primulaceae 3. familia Myrsinaceae

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3. ordo Bicornes 1. familia Clethraceae 2. familia Pirolaceae 3. familia Ericaceae 4. familia Empetraceae 5. familia Epacridaceae 6. familia Diapensiaceae 4. ordo Diospyrales 1. familia Ebenaceae 2. familia Hoplestigmataceae 3. familia Styracaceae 4. familia Symplocaceae 5. familia Sapotaceae 5. ordo Tubiflorae 1. familia Convolvulaceae 2. familia Cuscutaceae 3. familia Polemoniaceae 4. familia Hydrophyllaceae 5. familia Lennoaceae 6. familia Boraginaceae 7. familia Nolanaceae 8. familia Solanaceae 9. familia Scrophulariaceae 10. familia Lentibulariaceae 11. familia Orobranchaceae 12. familia Gesneriaceae 13. familia Bignoniaceae 14. familia Pedaliaceae 15. familia Martyniaceae 16. familia Acanthaceae 17. familia Verbenaceae 18. familia Labiatae 19. familia Tetrachondraceae 20. familia Globulariaceae 21. familia Phrymaceae 22. familia Myoporaceae 23. familia Plantaginaceae incertae sedis familia Columelliaceae 6. ordo Contortae 1. familia Loganiaceae 2. familia Buddleiaceae 3. familia Gentianaceae 4. familia Menyanthaceae 5. familia Apocynaceae 6. familia Asclepiadaceae 7. ordo Ligustrales familia Oleaceae 8. ordo Rubiales 1. familia Rubiaceae 2. familia Caprifoliaceae 3. familia Adoxaceae 4. familia Valerianaceae

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5. familia Dipsacaceae 6. familia Calyceraceae 9. ordo Cucurbitales familia Cucurbitaceae 10. ordo Synandrae 1. familia Campanulaceae 2. familia Lobeliaceae 3. familia Goodeniaceae 4. familia Stylidaceae 5. familia Brunoniaceae 6. familia Compositae II. classis Monocotyledones 1. ordo Helobiae 1. familia Alismataceae 2. familia Butomaceae 3. familia Hydrocharitaceae 4. familia Scheuchzeriaceae 5. familia Aponogetonaceae 6. familia Potamogetonaceae 7. familia Najadaceae 2. ordo Liliiflorae 1. familia Liliaceae 2. familia Stemonaceae 3. familia Cyanastraceae 4. familia Pontederiaceae 5. familia Haemodoraceae 6. familia Philydraceae 7. familia Amaryllidaceae 8. familia Velloziaceae 9. familia Iridaceae 10. familia Juncaceae 11. familia Flagellariaceae 12. familia Rapateaceae 13. familia Thurniaceae 14. familia Bromeliaceae 15. familia Dioscoreaceae 16. familia Taccaceae 17. familia Burmanniaceae 3. ordo Enantioblastae 1. familia Commelinaceae 2. familia Mayacaceae 3. familia Xyridaceae 4. familia Eriocaulaceae 5. familia Centrolepidaceae 6. familia Restionaceae 4. ordo Cyperales familia Cyperaceae 5. ordo Glumiflorae familia Gramineae 6. ordo Scitamineae 1. familia Musaceae 2. familia Zingiberaceae 3. familia Cannaceae

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4. familia Marantaceae 7 ordo Gynandrae familia Orchidaceae 8. ordo Spadiciflorae 1. familia Palmae 2. familia Cyclanthaceae 3. familia Araceae 4. familia Lemnaceae 9. ordo Pandanales 1. familia Pandanaceae 2. familia Sparganiaceae 3. familia Typhaceae

D. JOHN HUTCHINSON (1884-1972)

John Hutchinson, a renowned British Botanist proposed 24 phyletic dicta or principles and based on these dicta he published a phylogenetic system in 2 volume book entitled "The Families of Flowering Plants" (1926-1934). The volume I deals with Dicots while the Volume I1 having Monocots. The revised and detailed treatment of the system was published in 1959 and thc most recent revised system appeared in 197.1. Outline and Basis of Classification As pointed out earlier, the system is mainly based on 24 phyletic dicta. Thus, it seems proper to give a brief account of these phyletic dicta. 1. Evolution is both upwards and downwards, the former tending towards preservation and the latter to their reduction and suppression (of characters). Examples of former are towards the sympetalous condition and epigyny and of latter towards the apetalous state of many flowers and unisexuality in flowering plants. 2. Evolution does hot necessarily involve all organs of the plant at the same time. One organ or set of organs may be advancing while another set may be stationary or retrograting. 3. Evolution has generally been consistent, and when a particular progression or retrogression has set in, it is persisted into the end of the phylum e.g., strong tendency to zygomorphy of the corolla coupled with the reduction in the number of stamens in Engler's hypogynous Metachlamydeae and the vast tendency to perigyny and epigyny in Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae as seen in the families Umbelliferae and Rubiaceae respectively. 4. In certain groups, trees and shrubs are probably more primitive than herbs e.g., Mirnosaceae and Caesalpiniaceae (trees and shrubs) as compared with the derived family Papilionaceae (Fabaceae) (often herbaceous). 5. Trees and shrubs are older than climbers in any one family or genus, the latter habit being acquired through particular environment. is tor^ und Concept of Taxonomy Hypothetical pomngioepenns oicotyiepns ~onocot~ledons Lignosae Hefbaceae 6. Perennials are older than biennials, and from thep annuals are derived e.g., there are only a few annuals in the primitive family Ranunculaceae while there are many more in the more advanced Bnd natural family Cruciferae. 7. Aquatic flowering plants are derived from terrestrial ancestors, Epiphytes, saprophytes and parasites are more recent than plants of normal habit. 8. Dicotyledones with collateral vascular bundles arranged in a cylinder are more primitive in origin than Monocotyledones with scattered vascular bundles, although it does not necessarily follow than Monocots are directly derived from Dicots.

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9. The spiral arrangement of leaves on the stem and of the floral leaves is more primitive than the opposite and whorled arrangement. 10. Simple leaves are usually more primitive than compdund leaves. 11. Unisexual flowers are more advanced than bisexual and. dioecious plants are more recent than monoecious. 12. Solitary flowers are more primitive than those in inflorescence, the highest forms of the latter being the umbel and capitulum (Umbelliferae and Compositae). 13. Spirally imbricate floral parts are more primitive than whorled and valvate. Example-Magnolia and Clematis. 14. Many-parted flowers (polymerous) precede, and the type with few parts (oligomerous) follows from it, being accompanied by progressive sterilisation of reproductive parts. Examples-Magnolia and Cheiranthus. 15. Apetalous flowers are derived from petaliferous ones, the former condition being as a result of reduction. 16. Polypetaly (free petals) is more primitive than gamopetaly (fused petals). 17. Actinomorphy is more primitive than zygomorphy. 18. Hypogyny is the most primitive structure and from it perigyny and epigyny have been derived. 19. Apocarpy (free carpels) is more primitive than Syncarpy (connate carpels). Sometimes, however, when the carpels have remained loosely united during evolution, they may again become quite free, e.g., Asclepiadaceae. 20. Polycarpy (many carpels) precede oligocarpy (few carpels) e.g., Ranunculus and Nigella. 21. Endospermic seeds with small embryo are older than non-endosperimic seeds having a large embryo, e.g., Ranunculaceae and Rosaceae. 22. Indefinte stamens indicate greater primitiveness than an androecium with a few stamens only (exception Malvaceae) e.g. Ranunculus and Cheiranthus. This condition may however, be reversed within the confines of-a single family, e.g., papaveraceae, where bees feed on the pollen. 23. Separate stamens precede connate ones e.g., Tiliaceae and Malvaceae, Campanulaceae and Lobeliaceae. 24. Aggregate fruits are more highly evolved than single fruits. Generally, capsule precedes berry or drupe. Based on these above mentioned 24 phyletic dicta, Hutchinson proposed the phylogenetic system of classification. The outline of this system are given below: 1) Hutchinson believed in Monophyletic origin of Angiosperms from a hypothetical groue, which he' hamed,as Proangiosperms 2) He tracedu2 main lines development of Dicots viz. i) Lignosae (woody) ii) Herbaceae (herbaceous) 3) Lignosae has 54 ORDERs and 251 Families. The starting ORDER is Magnoliales with Magnoliaceae as the starting family passing through Annonales-Rosales-Malvales Rubiales and terminating at Verbenales with Phrymaceae as the terminating family. 4) Herbaceae has 28 ORDERs and 100 Families, The starting ORDER is Ranales with Paeoniaceae as the starting family passing through ~hoedales-Car~o~h~llales- Umbellales-Asterales and terminating at Lamiales with Lamiaceae (Labiatae) as the ending family 5) The haonocots have 29 ORDERs and 69 Families. As a whole, Monocots have been subdivided into 3 distinct groups based on the nature of Perianth viz. i) Calyciferae ii) Corolliferae iii) Glumiflorae The starting ORDER of Calyciferae is Butomales with Butomaceae as the starting family. The climax (ending) ORDER is Zingiberales with Marantaceae as the ending . The starting ORDER of Corolliferae is

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Liliales with Liliaceae as the starting family. The terminating ORDER of this group is Orchidales with Orchidaceae as the ending family. In the case of Glumiflorae the starting ORDER is Juncales and Juncaceae as starting family. The climax ORDER is Graminales and Gramineae (Poacea) as the last or terminating family. The outline of the monocots can be represented in the form of chart as given below:

Merits
The merits or achievements of the system are as follows: The standard of the family description is of high ORDER and valuable features are given in the keys for identification. The systein of classification is of much practical value. The treatment of Monocots is more adequate, logical and acceptable. The data from Floral Anatomy and Embryology arc taken into consideration during the classification of Monocots in particular and Dicots in Geographical distribution of most of the genera is included in this system. The system of classification is phylogenetic one.

Demerits
A number of shortcomings and criticism have been put forward to expose the demerits of the system. More stress is given on Monophyletic origin of Angiospcrln from a hypothetical proafigiosperm. Due to special emphasis on Herbaceae and Lignosae, some very closely related fahilies have been put apart. For example, Ranunculaceae and Magnoliaceae under Ranales (Herbaceae) and Magnoliaceae (Lignosae) are separated just because of demarcation between Herbaceae and Lignosae. Similarly, the family LamiaCeae and Asteraceae (Herbaceae) are put apart from Verbenaceae and Rubiaceae (lignosae). However, in the opinion of most taxonomists, Hutchinson has contributed an excellent service by his most careful and critical appraisal of family and ordinal , limitations. His classification has been a greater stimulant to phyletic thinking during the past decade or two than any other similar contribution.

E. ARMEN TAKHTAJAN (1910-1997)

Another important phytogenetic system was proposed by Takhtajan, the famous Russian Palaeobotanist working at Komarov Botanical Institute, Leningrad,U.S.S.R. For the first time he proposed the system in 1942rnainly ba~edo n the structural types of Gynoecium and placentation. Afterwards, he put foward a modified systeni in 1954 in Russian language and then the translated version of English in 1958. This modified system was mainly based on phylogenetic principles. Soon after he made another attempt to revise the system in the light of evolutionary trends in Angiosperms, which appeared in 1964. This, too, was not the last word but Takhtajan again revised and updated version of his system appeared in 1980. Before we take into account the outline of the system it seems proper to point out the important and significant points of the system as new terms were employed by Takhtajan in his system: a. Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms) are regarded to be monophyletic in origin. b. Magnoliopsida (Dicots) are considered as a primitive group than Liliopsida (Monocots).

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Outline of Takhtajan's. System of Classification (Takhtajan, 1980) 1) Mognoliophyta (Angiosperms) has 419 Families and is divided into 2 classes viz. i) Magnoliopsida (Dicots) and ii) Liliopsida (Monocots) 2) Magnoliopsida (Dicots) is further divided into 7 subclasses, 20 super ORDERs, 71 ORDERs and 342 Familes. The 7 subclasses with some important ORDERs and families (starting and ending) are as follows:

3) Liliopsida (Monocots) is divided into 3 subclasses, 3 super ORDER 21 ORDERs and 77 Families, The 3 subclasses of Liliopsida with important ORDERs and Families (Starting and ending) are given below:

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The outline of the system can also be represented in the form of a chart:

Takhtajan has accepted main divisions and sub-divisions as classes and sub-classes almost similar to classification given by Bentham and Hooker. In the Hooker's system the larger taxa are natural since their status is ascertained on the basis of large number of characters. But so far as further sub-groupings like series (Thalimiflorae, Disciflorae, and Calyciflorae etc. and several ordirs and faniilies; are concernedone can easily spot out that more or less only one character is chosen as basic criterion in categorization making it more artificial. Takhtajan introduced modifications at vch levels. A ~riticael xamination of Takhtajan's classification shows that it is of considerable merit since he has made use of maximum data available. Through morphology, cytology, Palynology, Anatomy, Embryology, Cytogenetics, Biochemistry and Palaeobotaqy in the construction of taxa of various ranks.

F.

ROBERT THORNE (1920)

A modern system of plant taxonomy, the Thorne system (1992) of plant classification was drawn up by the botanist Robert F. Thorne (1920- ). He replaced it in 2000 with a new system. These two systems were published in: R.F. Thorne (1968). "Synopsis of a putative phylogenetic classification of flowering plants". Aliso 6 (4): 5766. R.F. Thorne (1992). "Classification and geography of flowering plants". Botanical Review 58 (3): 225348. doi:10.1007/BF02858611. R.F. Thorne (1992). "An updated phylogenetic classification of the flowering plants". Aliso 13: 365389. R.F. Thorne (2000). "The classification and geography of the flowering plants: dicotyledons of the class Angiospermae". Botanical Review 66 (4): 441647. doi:10.1007/BF02869011. The system is available online at two sites. Firstly, at the Center for the Study of Digital Libraries Texas A&M (CSDL, Texas). Secondly in the 1999 lecture notes by J.L. Reveal, at that time a professor at the Norton Brown Herbarium, University of Maryland (1, 2, 3; with an extensive listing of synonyms, both nomenclatural and taxonomic, for each name in the system).

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According to the latter site the main groups in the system are:

class Magnoliopsida [= angiosperms ] subclass Magnoliidae [= dicotyledons ] superORDER Magnolianae superORDER Nymphaeanae superORDER Rafflesianae superORDER Caryophyllanae superORDER Theanae superORDER Celastranae superORDER Malvanae superORDER Violanae superORDER Santalanae superORDER Geranianae superORDER Rutanae superORDER Proteanae superORDER Rosanae superORDER Cornanae superORDER Asteranae superORDER Solananae superORDER Loasanae superORDER Myrtanae superORDER Gentiananae subclass Liliidae [= monocotyledons ] superORDER Lilianae superORDER Hydatellanae superORDER Triuridanae superORDER Aranae superORDER Cyclanthanae superORDER Pandananae superORDER Arecanae superORDER Commelinanae

The Thorne system (1992) counts 440 families and 69 ORDERs: class Magnoliopsida [= angiosperms ] subclass Magnoliidae [= dicotyledons ] superORDER Magnolianae ORDER Magnoliales family Winteraceae family Illiciaceae family Schisandraceae family Magnoliaceae family Degeneriaceae family Himantandraceae family Eupomatiaceae family Annonaceae family Aristolochiaceae family Myristicaceae family Canellaceae family Austrobaileyaceae family Amborellaceae family Trimeniaceae family Chloranthaceae family Monimiaceae family Gomortegaceae family Calycanthaceae family Lauraceae family Hernandiaceae family Lactoridaceae family Saururaceae family Piperaceae superORDER Loasanae ORDER Loasales family Loasaceae superORDER Myrtanae ORDER Ceratophyllales family Ceratophyllaceae ORDER Nelumbonales family Nelumbonaceae ORDER Paeoniales family Paeoniaceae family Glaucidiaceae subclass Liliidae [= monocotyledons ] superORDER Lilianae ORDER Liliales family Melanthiaceae family Campynemataceae family Alstroemeriaceae family Colchicaceae family Liliaceae family Trilliaceae family Iridaceae ORDER Burmanniales family Burmanniaceae family Corsiaceae ORDER Asparagales family Asparagaceae family Luzuriagaceae family Asphodelaceae family Aphyllanthaceae family Phormiaceae family Tecophilaeaceae ORDER Berberidales family Menispermaceae family Lardizabalaceae family Sargentodoxaceae family Berberidaceae family Hydrastidaceae family Ranunculaceae family Circaeasteraceae family Papaveraceae superORDER Nymphaeanae ORDER Nymphaeales family Cabombaceae family Nymphaeaceae superORDER Rafflesianae ORDER Rafflesiales family Hydnoraceae family Rafflesiaceae superORDER Caryophyllanae ORDER Caryophyllales family Caryophyllaceae family Portulacaceae family Hectorellaceae family Basellaceae family Didiereaceae family Cactaceae family Phytolaccaceae family Petiveriaceae family Agdestidaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 14

ORDER Myrtales family Lythraceae family Alzateaceae family Rhynchocalycaceae family Penaeaceae family Oliniaceae family Trapaceae family Crypteroniaceae family Melastomataceae family Combretaceae family Onagraceae family Myrtaceae superORDER Gentiananae ORDER Gentianales family Loganiaceae family Rubiaceae family Dialypetalanthaceae family Apocynaceae family Gentianaceae family Saccifoliaceae ORDER Scrophulariales family Oleaceae family Buddlejaceae family Stilbaceae family Bignoniaceae family Pedaliaceae family Martyniaceae family Myoporaceae family Scrophulariaceae family Gesneriaceae family Globulariaceae family Plantaginaceae family Lentibulariaceae family Acanthaceae family Callitrichaceae family Hippuridaceae family Verbenaceae family Phrymaceae family Symphoremataceae family Nesogenaceae family Avicenniaceae family Lamiaceae ORDER Podostemales family Podostemaceae ORDER Cunoniales family Cunoniaceae family Davidsoniaceae family Staphyleaceae superORDER Cornanae ORDER Hydrangeales family Hydrangeaceae family Escalloniaceae family Carpodetaceae family Griseliniaceae family Alseuosmiaceae family Montiniaceae family Brexiaceae family Columelliaceae family Desfontainiaceae ORDER Cornales family Vitaceae

family Lanariaceae family Hemerocallidaceae family Asteliaceae family Hanguanaceae family Agavaceae family Hostaceae family Blandfordiaceae family Dasypogonaceae family Xanthorrhoeaceae family Ixioliriaceae family Hyacinthaceae family Alliaceae family Amaryllidaceae family Hypoxidaceae family Velloziaceae family Cyanastraceae family Eriospermaceae ORDER Dioscoreales family Philesiaceae family Ripogonaceae family Petermanniaceae family Smilacaceae family Dioscoreaceae family Trichopodaceae family Stemonaceae family Taccaceae ORDER Orchidales family Orchidaceae superORDER Hydatellanae ORDER Hydatellales family Hydatellaceae superORDER Triuridanae ORDER Triuridales family Triuridaceae superORDER Alismatanae ORDER Alismatales family Butomaceae family Alismataceae family Hydrocharitaceae ORDER Potamogetonales family Aponogetonaceae family Scheuchzeriaceae family Juncaginaceae family Potamogetonaceae family Posidoniaceae family Cymodoceaceae family Zannichelliaceae family Zosteraceae superORDER Aranae ORDER Acorales family Acoraceae ORDER Arales family Araceae family Lemnaceae superORDER Cyclanthanae ORDER Cyclanthales family Cyclanthaceae superORDER Pandananae ORDER Pandanales family Pandanaceae superORDER Arecanae

family Barbeuiaceae family Achatocarpaceae family Stegnospermataceae family Nyctaginaceae family Aizoaceae family Halophytaceae family Molluginaceae family Chenopodiaceae family Amaranthaceae superORDER Theanae ORDER Theales family Dilleniaceae family Actinidiaceae family Paracryphiaceae family Stachyuraceae family Theaceae family Asteropeiaceae family Tetrameristaceae family Pellicieraceae family Chrysobalanaceae family Symplocaceae family Caryocaraceae family Marcgraviaceae family Oncothecaceae family Aquifoliaceae family Phellinaceae family Sphenostemonaceae family Sarraceniaceae family Pentaphylacaceae family Clethraceae family Cyrillaceae family Ochnaceae family Quiinaceae family Scytopetalaceae family Medusagynaceae family Strasburgeriaceae family Ancistrocladaceae family Dioncophyllaceae family Nepenthaceae family Bonnetiaceae family Clusiaceae family Elatinaceae family Lecythidaceae ORDER Ericales family Ericaceae family Epacridaceae family Empetraceae ORDER Fouquieriales family Fouquieriaceae ORDER Styracales family Ebenaceae family Lissocarpaceae family Sapotaceae family Styracaceae ORDER Primulales family Theophrastaceae family Myrsinaceae family Primulaceae family Plumbaginaceae ORDER Polygonales family Polygonaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 15

family Gunneraceae family Haloragaceae family Cornaceae family Curtisiaceae family Alangiaceae family Garryaceae family Aucubaceae family Aralidiaceae family Eucommiaceae family Icacinaceae family Metteniusaceae family Cardiopteridaceae family Peripterygiaceae ORDER Pittosporales family Pittosporaceae family Byblidaceae family Tremandraceae ORDER Araliales family Helwingiaceae family Torricelliaceae family Araliaceae family Hydrocotylaceae family Apiaceae ORDER Dipsacales family Caprifoliaceae family Adoxaceae family Valerianaceae family Triplostegiaceae family Dipsacaceae family Morinaceae superORDER Asteranae ORDER Asterales family Calyceraceae family Asteraceae ORDER Campanulales family Menyanthaceae family Pentaphragmataceae family Sphenocleaceae family Campanulaceae family Goodeniaceae superORDER Solananae ORDER Solanales family Solanaceae family Duckeodendraceae family Goetzeaceae family Nolanaceae family Convolvulaceae family Hydrophyllaceae family Boraginaceae family Hoplestigmataceae family Lennoaceae family Tetrachondraceae family Polemoniaceae ORDER Polygalales family Malpighiaceae family Trigoniaceae family Vochysiaceae family Polygalaceae family Krameriaceae superORDER Rutanae ORDER Rutales

ORDER Arecales family Arecaceae superORDER Commelinanae ORDER Bromeliales family Bromeliaceae ORDER Philydrales family Philydraceae family Pontederiaceae family Haemodoraceae ORDER Typhales family Typhaceae ORDER Zingiberales family Musaceae family Strelitziaceae family Lowiaceae family Heliconiaceae family Zingiberaceae family Costaceae family Cannaceae family Marantaceae ORDER Commelinales family Rapateaceae family Xyridaceae family Commelinaceae family Mayacaceae family Eriocaulaceae ORDER Juncales family Thurniaceae family Juncaceae family Cyperaceae ORDER Poales family Flagellariaceae family Joinvilleaceae family Restionaceae family Ecdeiocoleaceae family Centrolepidaceae family Poaceae ORDER Balanopales family Buxaceae family Didymelaceae family Daphniphyllaceae family Balanopaceae ORDER Bruniales family Roridulaceae family Bruniaceae family Geissolomataceae family Grubbiaceae family Myrothamnaceae family Hydrostachyaceae ORDER Juglandales family Rhoipteleaceae family Juglandaceae family Myricaceae ORDER Betulales family Ticodendraceae family Betulaceae family Nothofagaceae family Fagaceae ORDER Rosales family Rosaceae family Neuradaceae

superORDER Celastranae ORDER Celastrales family Celastraceae family Goupiaceae family Lophopyxidaceae family Stackhousiaceae family Corynocarpaceae superORDER Malvanae ORDER Malvales family Sterculiaceae family Huaceae family Elaeocarpaceae family Plagiopteraceae family Tiliaceae family Monotaceae family Dipterocarpaceae family Sarcolaenaceae family Sphaerosepalaceae family Bombacaceae family Malvaceae ORDER Urticales family Ulmaceae family Moraceae family Cecropiaceae family Barbeyaceae family Urticaceae family Cannabaceae ORDER Rhamnales family Rhamnaceae family Elaeagnaceae ORDER Euphorbiales family Euphorbiaceae family Aextoxicaceae family Simmondsiaceae family Dichapetalaceae family Gonystylaceae family Thymelaeaceae superORDER Violanae ORDER Violales family Bixaceae family Cochlospermaceae family Cistaceae family Violaceae family Flacourtiaceae family Physenaceae family Lacistemataceae family Salicaceae family Dipentodontaceae family Peridiscaceae family Scyphostegiaceae family Passifloraceae family Turneriaceae family Malesherbiaceae family Achariaceae family Caricaceae family Tamaricaceae family Frankeniaceae family Cucurbitaceae family Begoniaceae family Datiscaceae ORDER Brassicales

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 16

family Rutaceae family Rhabdodendraceae family Cneoraceae family Simaroubaceae family Picramniaceae family Ptaeroxylaceae family Meliaceae family Burseraceae family Anacardiaceae family Leitneriaceae family Tepuianthaceae family Coriariaceae family Sapindaceae family Sabiaceae family Melianthaceae family Akaniaceae family Bretschneideraceae family Moringaceae family Surianaceae family Connaraceae family Fabaceae superORDER Proteanae ORDER Proteales family Proteaceae superORDER Rosanae ORDER Hamamelidales family Trochodendraceae family Eupteleaceae family Cercidiphyllaceae family Platanaceae family Hamamelidaceae

family Crossosomataceae family Anisophylleaceae ORDER Saxifragales family Tetracarpaeaceae family Crassulaceae family Cephalotaceae family Penthoraceae family Saxifragaceae family Francoaceae family Grossulariaceae family Vahliaceae family Eremosynaceae family Lepuropetalaceae family Parnassiaceae family Stylidiaceae family Droseraceae family Greyiaceae family Diapensiaceae ORDER Rhizophorales family Rhizophoraceae ORDER Geraniales family Oxalidaceae family Geraniaceae family Balsaminaceae family Tropaeolaceae family Limnanthaceae ORDER Casuarinales family Casuarinaceae

family Resedaceae family Capparaceae family Brassicaceae family Salvadoraceae family Gyrostemonaceae ORDER Batales family Bataceae superORDER Santalanae ORDER Santalales family Olacaceae family Opiliaceae family Medusandraceae family Santalaceae family Misodendraceae family Loranthaceae family Eremolepidaceae family Viscaceae ORDER Balanophorales family Balanophoraceae family Cynomoriaceae superORDER Geranianae ORDER Linales family Humiriaceae family Ctenolophonaceae family Hugoniaceae family Ixonanthaceae family Linaceae family Erythroxylaceae family Zygophyllaceae family Balanitaceae

G. ROLF DALHRAGEN (1932-1987)

One of the modern systems of plant taxonomy, the Dahlgren system was published by monocot specialist Rolf Dahlgren. His wife Gertrud Dahlgren carried on after his death. According to the extensive listing by Professor Reveal (see 1 2 3 4, note the synonyms, both nomenclatural and taxonomic, for each name in the system), it looks like this: class Magnoliopsida subclass Magnoliidae superorder Magnolianae order Annonales family Annonaceae family Myristicaceae family Eupomatiaceae family Canellaceae family Austrobaileyaceae order Aristolochiales family Aristolochiaceae order Rafflesiales family Rafflesiaceae family Hydnoraceae order Magnoliales family Degeneriaceae family Himantandraceae family Magnoliaceae order Lactoridales family Lactoridaceae order Winterales family Winteraceae order Chloranthales family Chloranthaceae order Illiciales family Illiciaceae family Schisandraceae order Laurales family Amborellaceae family Trimeniaceae family Monimiaceae family Gomortegaceae family Calycanthaceae family Lauraceae order Nelumbonales family Nelumbonaceae superorder Nymphaeanae order Piperales family Saururaceae family Piperaceae order Nymphaeales family Cabombaceae family Nymphaeaceae family Ceratophyllaceae superorder Ranunculanae order Ranunculales family Lardizabalaceae family Sargentodoxaceae family Menispermaceae family Kingdoniaceae family Circaeasteraceae family Ranunculaceae family Hydrastidaceae family Berberidaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 17

order Papaverales family Papaveraceae family Fumariaceae superorder Caryophyllanae order Caryophyllales family Molluginaceae family Caryophyllaceae family Phytolaccaceae family Achatocarpaceae family Agdestidaceae family Basellaceae family Portulacaceae family Stegnospermataceae family Nyctaginaceae family Aizoaceae family Halophytaceae family Cactaceae family Didiereaceae family Hectorellaceae family Chenopodiaceae family Amaranthaceae superorder Polygonanae order Polygonales family Polygonaceae superorder Plumbaginanae order Plumbaginales family Plumbaginaceae family Limoniaceae superorder Malvanae order Malvales family Sterculiaceae family Plagiopteraceae family Bixaceae family Cochlospermaceae family Cistaceae family Sphaerosepalaceae family Sarcolaenaceae family Huaceae family Tiliaceae family Dipterocarpaceae family Bombacaceae family Malvaceae order Urticales family Ulmaceae family Moraceae family Cecropiaceae family Barbeyaceae family Cannabaceae family Urticaceae order Euphorbiales family Euphorbiaceae family Simmondsiaceae family Pandaceae

family Aextoxicaceae family Dichapetalaceae order Thymelaeales family Gonystylaceae family Thymelaeaceae order Rhamnales family Rhamnaceae superorder Violanae order Violales family Flacourtiaceae family Berberidopsidaceae family Aphloiaceae family Physenaceae family Passifloraceae family Dipentodontaceae family Peridiscaceae family Scyphostegiaceae family Violaceae family Turneraceae family Malesherbiaceae family Caricaceae order Cucurbitales family Achariaceae family Cucurbitaceae family Begoniaceae family Datiscaceae order Salicales family Salicaceae order Tamaricales family Tamaricaceae family Frankeniaceae order Capparales family Capparaceae family Brassicaceae family Tovariaceae family Resedaceae family Gyrostemonaceae family Bataceae family Moringaceae order Tropaeolales family Tropaeolaceae family Limnanthaceae order Salvadorales family Salvadoraceae superorder Theanae order Dilleniales family Dilleniaceae order Paeoniales family Glaucidiaceae family Paeoniaceae order Theales family Stachyuraceae family Pentaphylacaceae

family Marcgraviaceae family Quiinaceae family Ancistrocladaceae family Dioncophyllaceae family Nepenthaceae family Medusagynaceae family Caryocaraceae family Strasburgeriaceae family Ochnaceae family Chrysobalanaceae family Oncothecaceae family Scytopetalaceae family Theaceae family Bonnetiaceae family Clusiaceae family Elatinaceae order Lecythidales family Lecythidaceae superorder Primulanae order Primulales family Myrsinaceae family Aegicerataceae family Theophrastaceae family Primulaceae family Coridaceae order Ebenales family Sapotaceae family Styracaceae family Lissocarpaceae family Ebenaceae superorder Rosanae order Trochodendrales family Trochodendraceae family Tetracentraceae order Cercidiphyllales family Cercidiphyllaceae family Eupteleaceae order Hamamelidales family Hamamelidaceae family Platanaceae family Myrothamnaceae order Balanopales family Balanopaceae order Fagales family Nothofagaceae family Fagaceae family Corylaceae family Betulaceae order Juglandales family Rhoipteleaceae family Juglandaceae order Myricales family Myricaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 18

order Casuarinales family Casuarinaceae order Buxales) family Buxaceae family Daphniphyllaceae family Didymelaceae order Geissolomatales family Geissolomataceae order Cunoniales family Cunoniaceae family Baueraceae family Brunelliaceae family Davidsoniaceae family Eucryphiaceae order Saxifragales family Saxifragaceae family Francoaceae family Greyiaceae family Brexiaceae family Grossulariaceae family Iteaceae family Cephalotaceae family Crassulaceae family Podostemaceae order Droserales family Droseraceae family Lepuropetalaceae family Parnassiaceae order Rosales family Rosaceae family Neuradaceae family Malaceae family Amygdalaceae family Anisophylleaceae family Crossosomataceae family Surianaceae family Rhabdodendraceae order Gunnerales family Gunneraceae superorder Proteanae order Proteales family Proteaceae order Elaeagnales family Elaeagnaceae superorder Myrtanae order Myrtales family Psiloxylaceae family Heteropyxidaceae family Myrtaceae family Onagraceae family Trapaceae family Lythraceae family Combretaceae

family Melastomataceae family Memecylaceae family Crypteroniaceae family Oliniaceae family Penaeaceae family Rhynchocalycaceae family Alzateaceae order Haloragales family Haloragaceae superorder Rutanae order Sapindales family Coriariaceae family Anacardiaceae family Leitneriaceae family Podoaceae family Sapindaceae family Hippocastanaceae family Aceraceae family Akaniaceae family Bretschneideraceae family Emblingiaceae family Staphyleaceae family Melianthaceae family Sabiaceae) family Meliosmaceae family Connaraceae order Fabales family Mimosaceae family Caesalpiniaceae family Fabaceae order Rutales family Rutaceae family Ptaeroxylaceae family Cneoraceae family Simaroubaceae family Tepuianthaceae family Burseraceae family Meliaceae order Polygalales family Malpighiaceae family Trigoniaceae family Vochysiaceae family Polygalaceae family Krameriaceae order Geraniales family Zygophyllaceae family Peganaceae family Nitrariaceae family Geraniaceae family Vivianiaceae family Ledocarpaceae family Biebersteiniaceae family Dirachmaceae

family Balanitaceae order Linales family Linaceae family Humiriaceae family Ctenolophonaceae family Ixonanthaceae family Erythroxylaceae family Lepidobotryaceae family Oxalidaceae order Celastrales family Stackhousiaceae family Lophopyxidaceae family Cardiopteridaceae family Corynocarpaceae family Celastraceae order Rhizophorales family Rhizophoraceae family Elaeocarpaceae order Balsaminales family Balsaminaceae superorder Vitanae order Vitales family Vitaceae superorder Santalanae order Santalales family Olacaceae family Opiliaceae family Loranthaceae family Medusandraceae family Misodendraceae family Eremolepidaceae family Santalaceae family Viscaceae superorder Balanophoranae order Balanophorales family Cynomoriaceae family Balanophoraceae superorder Aralianae order Pittosporales family Pittosporaceae family Tremandraceae family Byblidaceae order Araliales family Araliaceae family Apiaceae superorder Asteranae order Campanulales family Pentaphragmataceae family Campanulaceae family Lobeliaceae order Asterales family Asteraceae superorder Solananae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 19

order Solanales family Solanaceae family Sclerophylacaceae family Goetzeaceae family Convolvulaceae family Cuscutaceae family Cobaeaceae family Polemoniaceae order Boraginales family Hydrophyllaceae family Ehretiaceae family Boraginaceae family Lennoaceae family Hoplestigmataceae superorder Ericanae order Bruniales family Bruniaceae family Grubbiaceae order Fouquieriales family Fouquieriaceae order Ericales family Actinidiaceae family Clethraceae family Cyrillaceae family Ericaceae family Empetraceae family Monotropaceae family Pyrolaceae family Epacridaceae order Stylidiales family Stylidiaceae order Sarraceniales family Sarraceniaceae superorder Cornanae order Cornales family Garryaceae family Alangiaceae family Nyssaceae family Cornaceae family Roridulaceae family Davidiaceae family Escalloniaceae family Helwingiaceae family Torricelliaceae family Aucubaceae family Aralidiaceae family Diapensiaceae family Phellinaceae family Aquifoliaceae family Paracryphiaceae family Sphenostemonaceae family Symplocaceae family Icacinaceae

family Montiniaceae family Columelliaceae family Alseuosmiaceae family Hydrangeaceae family Sambucaceae family Viburnaceae family Menyanthaceae family Adoxaceae family Phyllonomaceae family Tribelaceae family Eremosynaceae family Pterostemonaceae family Tetracarpaeaceae order Eucommiales family Eucommiaceae order Dipsacales family Caprifoliaceae family Valerianaceae family Dipsacaceae family Morinaceae family Calyceraceae superorder Loasanae order Loasales family Loasaceae superorder Gentiananae order Goodeniales family Goodeniaceae order Oleales family Oleaceae order Gentianales family Desfontainiaceae family Loganiaceae family Dialypetalanthaceae family Rubiaceae family Theligonaceae family Gentianaceae family Saccifoliaceae family Apocynaceae family Asclepiadaceae superorder Lamianae order Lamiales family Retziaceae family Stilbaceae family Buddlejaceae family Scrophulariaceae family Myoporaceae family Globulariaceae family Plantaginaceae family Lentibulariaceae family Pedaliaceae family Trapellaceae family Martyniaceae family Gesneriaceae

family Bignoniaceae family Acanthaceae family Verbenaceae family Lamiaceae family Callitrichaceae order Hydrostachyales family Hydrostachyaceae order Hippuridales family Hippuridaceae subclass Liliidae superorder Alismatanae order Alismatales family Aponogetonaceae family Butomaceae family Hydrocharitaceae family Limnocharitaceae family Alismataceae order Najadales family Scheuchzeriaceae family Juncaginaceae family Najadaceae family Potamogetonaceae family Zosteraceae family Posidoniaceae family Cymodoceaceae family Zannichelliaceae superorder Triuridanae order Triuridales family Triuridaceae superorder Aranae order Arales family Araceae family Acoraceae family Lemnaceae superorder Lilianae order Dioscoreales family Trichopodaceae family Dioscoreaceae family Stemonaceae family Taccaceae family Trilliaceae family Ripogonaceae family Petermanniaceae family Smilacaceae order Asparagales family Philesiaceae family Luzuriagaceae family Convallariaceae family Dracaenaceae family Asparagaceae family Ruscaceae family Herreriaceae family Nolinaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 20

family Asteliaceae family Dasypogonaceae family Calectasiaceae family Blandfordiaceae family Xanthorrhoeaceae family Agavaceae family Hypoxidaceae family Tecophilaeaceae family Lanariaceae family Ixioliriaceae family Cyanastraceae family Phormiaceae family Doryanthaceae family Eriospermaceae family Asphodelaceae family Anthericaceae family Aphyllanthaceae family Hemerocallidaceae family Hostaceae family Hyacinthaceae family Alliaceae family Amaryllidaceae order Liliales family Colchicaceae family Uvulariaceae family Iridaceae family Alstroemeriaceae family Calochortaceae family Liliaceae order Melanthiales family Melanthiaceae family Campynemataceae

order Burmanniales family Burmanniaceae family Corsiaceae order Orchidales family Neuwiediaceae family Apostasiaceae family Cypripediaceae family Orchidaceae superorder Bromelianae order Velloziales family Velloziaceae order Bromeliales family Bromeliaceae order Haemodorales family Haemodoraceae order Philydrales family Philydraceae order Pontederiales family Pontederiaceae order Typhales family Typhaceae superorder Zingiberanae order Zingiberales family Lowiaceae family Musaceae family Heliconiaceae family Strelitziaceae family Zingiberaceae family Costaceae family Cannaceae family Marantaceae superorder Commelinanae

order Commelinales family Mayacaceae family Commelinaceae family Xyridaceae family Rapateaceae family Eriocaulaceae order Hydatellales family Hydatellaceae order Cyperales family Juncaceae family Thurniaceae family Cyperaceae order Poales family Flagellariaceae family Joinvilleaceae family Restionaceae family Centrolepidaceae family Poaceae superorder Arecanae order Hanguanales family Hanguanaceae order Arecales family Arecaceae superorder Cyclanthanae order Cyclanthales family Cyclanthaceae superorder Pandananae order Pandanales family Pandanaceae

H. ARTHUR CRONQUIST (1919-1992)

The Cronquist system is a taxonomic classification system of flowering plants. It was developed by Arthur Cronquist in his texts An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (1981) and The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants (1968; 2nd edition, 1988). Cronquist's system places flowering plants into two broad classes, Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons) and Liliopsida (monocotyledons). Within these classes, related ORDERs are grouped into subclasses. The scheme is still widely used, in either the original form or in adapted versions, but some botanists are adopting the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the ORDERs and families of flowering plants: APG III. The system as laid out in An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (1981) counts 321 families and 64 ORDERs in class Magnoliopsida with 19 ORDERs and 65 families in class Liliopsida:

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 21

Cronquist System Diagram Class Magnoliopsida Subclass Magnoliidae (mostly basal dicots) ORDER Magnoliales Winteraceae Degeneriaceae Himantandraceae Eupomatiaceae Austrobaileyaceae Magnoliaceae (magnolia family) Lactoridaceae Annonaceae Myristicaceae Canellaceae ORDER Laurales Amborellaceae Trimeniaceae Monimiaceae Gomortegaceae Calycanthaceae Idiospermaceae Lauraceae (laurel family) Hernandiaceae ORDER Piperales Chloranthaceae Saururaceae Piperaceae (pepper family) ORDER Aristolochiales Aristolochiaceae ORDER Illiciales Illiciaceae Schisandraceae ORDER Nymphaeales Nelumbonaceae Nymphaeaceae Barclayaceae Cabombaceae Ceratophyllaceae ORDER Ranunculales Ranunculaceae Circaeasteraceae Berberidaceae Sargentodoxaceae Lardizabalaceae Menispermaceae Coriariaceae Sabiaceae ORDER Papaverales Papaveraceae Fumariaceae Subclass Hamamelidae [sic: correctly Hamamelididae] ORDER Trochodendrales Tetracentraceae Trochodendraceae ORDER Hamamelidales Cercidiphyllaceae Eupteleaceae Platanaceae Hamamelidaceae Myrothamnaceae ORDER Daphniphyllales Daphniphyllaceae ORDER Didymelales Didymelaceae ORDER Eucommiales Eucommiaceae ORDER Urticales Barbeyaceae Ulmaceae Cannabaceae Moraceae Cecropiaceae Urticaceae ORDER Leitneriales Leitneriaceae ORDER Juglandales Rhoipteleaceae Juglandaceae ORDER Myricales Myricaceae ORDER Fagales Balanopaceae Ticodendraceae Fagaceae Nothofagaceae Betulaceae ORDER Casuarinales Casuarinaceae Subclass Caryophyllidae ORDER Caryophyllales Phytolaccaceae Achatocarpaceae Nyctaginaceae Aizoaceae Didiereaceae Cactaceae (cactus family) Chenopodiaceae Amaranthaceae Portulacaceae Basellaceae Molluginaceae Caryophyllaceae ORDER Polygonales Polygonaceae ORDER Plumbaginales Plumbaginaceae Subclass Dilleniidae ORDER Dilleniales Dilleniaceae Paeoniaceae ORDER Theales Ochnaceae Sphaerosepalaceae Sarcolaenaceae Dipterocarpaceae Caryocaraceae Theaceae (tea family) Actinidiaceae Scytopetalaceae Pentaphylacaceae Tetrameristaceae Pellicieraceae Oncothecaceae Marcgraviaceae Quiinaceae Elatinaceae Paracryphiaceae Medusagynaceae Clusiaceae ORDER Malvales Elaeocarpaceae Tiliaceae Sterculiaceae Bombacaceae Malvaceae ORDER Lecythidales Lecythidaceae ORDER Nepenthales Sarraceniaceae Nepenthaceae Droseraceae ORDER Violales Flacourtiaceae Peridiscaceae Bixaceae Cistaceae Huaceae Lacistemataceae Scyphostegiaceae Stachyuraceae Violaceae (violet family)

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 22

Tamaricaceae (tamarind family) Frankeniaceae Dioncophyllaceae Ancistrocladaceae Turneraceae Malesherbiaceae Passifloraceae Achariaceae Caricaceae Fouquieriaceae Hoplestigmataceae Cucurbitaceae Datiscaceae Begoniaceae Loasaceae ORDER Salicales Salicaceae ORDER Capparales Tovariaceae Capparaceae Brassicaceae Moringaceae Resedaceae ORDER Batales Gyrostemonaceae Bataceae ORDER Ericales Cyrillaceae Clethraceae Grubbiaceae Empetraceae Epacridaceae Ericaceae Pyrolaceae Monotropaceae ORDER Diapensiales Diapensiaceae ORDER Ebenales Sapotaceae Ebenaceae Styracaceae Lissocarpaceae Symplocaceae ORDER Primulales Theophrastaceae Myrsinaceae Primulaceae Subclass Rosidae ORDER Rosales Brunelliaceae Connaraceae Eucryphiaceae

Cunoniaceae Davidsoniaceae Dialypetalanthaceae Pittosporaceae Byblidaceae Hydrangeaceae Columelliaceae Grossulariaceae Greyiaceae Bruniaceae Anisophylleaceae Alseuosmiaceae Crassulaceae Cephalotaceae Saxifragaceae Rosaceae (rose family) Neuradaceae Crossosomataceae Chrysobalanaceae Surianaceae Rhabdodendraceae ORDER Fabales Mimosaceae (mimosa family) Caesalpiniaceae Fabaceae ORDER Proteales Elaeagnaceae Proteaceae ORDER Podostemales Podostemaceae ORDER Haloragales Haloragaceae Gunneraceae ORDER Myrtales Sonneratiaceae Lythraceae Penaeaceae Crypteroniaceae Thymelaeaceae Trapaceae Myrtaceae Punicaceae Onagraceae Oliniaceae Melastomataceae Combretaceae Alzateaceae Memecylaceae Rhyncocalycaceae ORDER Rhizophorales Rhizophoraceae ORDER Cornales Alangiaceae

Nyssaceae Cornaceae Garryaceae ORDER Santalales Medusandraceae Dipentodontaceae Olacaceae Opiliaceae Santalaceae Misodendraceae Loranthaceae Viscaceae Eremolepidaceae Balanophoraceae ORDER Rafflesiales Hydnoraceae Mitrastemonaceae Rafflesiaceae ORDER Celastrales Geissolomataceae Celastraceae Hippocrateaceae Stackhousiaceae Salvadoraceae Aquifoliaceae Icacinaceae Aextoxicaceae Cardiopteridaceae Corynocarpaceae Dichapetalaceae Tepuianthaceae ORDER Euphorbiales Buxaceae Simmondsiaceae Pandaceae Euphorbiaceae ORDER Rhamnales Rhamnaceae Leeaceae Vitaceae ORDER Linales Erythroxylaceae Humiriaceae Ixonanthaceae Hugoniaceae Linaceae ORDER Polygalales Malpighiaceae Vochysiaceae Trigoniaceae Tremandraceae Polygalaceae Xanthophyllaceae

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 23

Krameriaceae ORDER Sapindales Staphyleaceae Melianthaceae Bretschneideraceae Akaniaceae Sapindaceae Hippocastanaceae Aceraceae Burseraceae Anacardiaceae Julianiaceae Simaroubaceae Cneoraceae Meliaceae Rutaceae Zygophyllaceae ORDER Geraniales Oxalidaceae Geraniaceae Limnanthaceae Tropaeolaceae Balsaminaceae ORDER Apiales Araliaceae Apiaceae Subclass Asteridae ORDER Gentianales Loganiaceae Retziaceae Gentianaceae Saccifoliaceae Apocynaceae Asclepiadaceae ORDER Solanales Duckeodendraceae Nolanaceae Solanaceae Convolvulaceae Cuscutaceae Menyanthaceae Polemoniaceae Hydrophyllaceae Retziaceae ORDER Lamiales Lennoaceae Boraginaceae Verbenaceae Lamiaceae ORDER Callitrichales Hippuridaceae Callitrichaceae Hydrostachyaceae

ORDER Plantaginales Plantaginaceae ORDER Scrophulariales Buddlejaceae Oleaceae (olive family) Scrophulariaceae Globulariaceae Myoporaceae Orobanchaceae Gesneriaceae Acanthaceae Pedaliaceae Bignoniaceae Mendonciaceae Lentibulariaceae ORDER Campanulales Pentaphragmataceae Sphenocleaceae Campanulaceae Stylidiaceae Donatiaceae Brunoniaceae Goodeniaceae ORDER Rubiales Rubiaceae Theligonaceae ORDER Dipsacales Caprifoliaceae Adoxaceae Valerianaceae Dipsacaceae ORDER Calycerales Calyceraceae ORDER Asterales Asteraceae Class Liliopsida Subclass Alismatidae ORDER Alismatales Butomaceae Limnocharitaceae Alismataceae ORDER Hydrocharitales Hydrocharitaceae ORDER Najadales Aponogetonaceae Scheuchzeriaceae Juncaginaceae Potamogetonaceae Ruppiaceae Najadaceae Zannichelliaceae Posidoniaceae Cymodoceaceae

Zosteraceae ORDER Triuridales Petrosaviaceae Triuridaceae Subclass Arecidae ORDER Arecales Arecaceae (palm family) ORDER Cyclanthales Cyclanthaceae ORDER Pandanales Pandanaceae (pandan family) ORDER Arales Acoraceae Araceae Lemnaceae Subclass Commelinidae ORDER Commelinales Rapateaceae Xyridaceae Mayacaceae Commelinaceae ORDER Eriocaulales Eriocaulaceae ORDER Restionales Flagellariaceae Joinvilleaceae Restionaceae Centrolepidaceae ORDER Juncales Juncaceae Thurniaceae ORDER Cyperales Cyperaceae Poaceae (Grass family) ORDER Hydatellales Hydatellaceae ORDER Typhales Sparganiaceae Typhaceae Subclass Zingiberidae ORDER Bromeliales Bromeliaceae ORDER Zingiberales Strelitziaceae Heliconiaceae Musaceae Lowiaceae Zingiberaceae (Ginger family) Costaceae Cannaceae Marantaceae Subclass Liliidae ORDER Liliales

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 24

Philydraceae Pontederiaceae Haemodoraceae Cyanastraceae Liliaceae (Lily family) Iridaceae (Iris family) Velloziaceae

Aloeaceae (Aloe family) Agavaceae Xanthorrhoeaceae Hanguanaceae Taccaceae Stemonaceae Smilacaceae

Dioscoreaceae ORDER Orchidales Geosiridaceae Burmanniaceae Corsiaceae Orchidaceae (Orchid family)

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION | 25