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ESSAYS
ON

'THE

CHINESE LANGUAGE;
BY

T.

WATTERS.

*^jO'>jO^

Presbyterian

Mission
1889.

Press

7/^

LF^(^

PREFACE.
The
first

beginning of this book was

made in Peking more

It was at the suggestion than a quarter of a century ago. Bruce, then H. M/s Minister Frederick Sir of the lamented to China, that the stoiy Qf the word Tao was taken up,

same time the survey of the Chinese language It was originally intended to take in o-eneral was begun. in a number of subjects not treated of in the pages which But as the work proceeded it was found imposfollow.
and
at the
sible

to carry out the

original design.

Still

the author

ventures to hope that what is here given will help or interest students of the Chinese language and form a basis
for further researches.

Imperfect drafts of part of the book have already

appeared in the Chinese Recorder and the China Review.

It afi'ords the author

much

pleasure to acknowledge

openly his deep gratitude to his friend,

W.

R. Carles, Esq.,

H. M.'s Consul
task

for Chinkiang.

of correcting the

proofs

The hard and irksome w^as undertaken by Mr.

Carles and carried out by him during the whole time the work was going through the press. The Superintendent of the Mission Press also has done all in his power to These, however, diminish the number of printer s errors. the author and regrets many, that the book too still are has to appear marred by these and other errors for which

the printers are not responsible.

Newchwai^g, September, 1889.

/Vniversitt
OALi

tXNIVERSITY

CONTENTS.
Chap.
I.

SOME WESTERN OPINIONS.

Number
scholars, 2
;

of

those

who
;

use

tlie

Chinese language,
little

p.

sphere of the language, 1

different

Chinese
;

known
theories

to

Western

opinions, 3

some

as to origin
;

and family relationship, 4 ;

G-olius,

Leibniz, Farrar, 4
missionaries, 7;

John
de

Webb, 5;

early

Roman
;

Catholic

Edkins,
;

Marshman, Chalmers, 8
Lacouperie, II
;

Logan,

Gr.
;

von der Gabelenz, 9

Fried. Miiller, 12

some opinions on Chinese

F. von Schlegel, 12;
Pott, L.

from

the morphological

point of
;

view,

Bopp,

W.
14

von Humboldt, 13
;

Schleicher,

Adam, Max

Miiller,

Grube, 16

some opinions on the contents and

language,

general character of the

15; Semedo, 16; Premare,

Arayot, 16;

W.

von Humboldt, Steinthal,

Whitney, Renan,

17; materials for correct general judgment not yet ready, 19.

Chap.

II.

THE CULTIVATION OF THEIR LANGUAGE BY THE CHINESE.

This chapter does not pretend to give a
full

account of the
;

cultivation of their language by native authors, p. 20

of writing,

early use
;

21

the state interpreters in

in this period,

Chow
;

period, 22

cultivaTi's

tion of the

language

23

Ch'in Shi
;

Huang

action,

26

the scholars of the

;

Han

dynasty, 28

the Buddhist

miseionaries from India, 36

the scholars of the Three

Kingdoms

; ;

11

CONTENTS.
the works on the language in the Chin period, 39
;

period, 38

the North and South dynasties, 42

the Sin dynasty, 46

the T'ang

dynasty, 48

Buddhist monks on the language, 51

;

invention

of printing,* 54

writers under the

;

Sung dynasty, 55

the

Mongol

er

Yuan

dynasty, 73
;

works on the language during the Ming

;

period,

78

those of the present dynasty, 84

treatises to teach

natives of

Kuangtung and Fuhkeen

the Mandarin language, 97.

Chap. III.

CHINESE OPINIONS ABOUT THE ORIGIN AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE.
Chinese opinions as
to first

men, they were not mute,

p.

103

they and barbarians generally chattered like birds, 103; Chinese

regard speech as natural, 104;

man

speaks

when moved, 106;

speech before or after music, 106; the growth and changes in

speech not arbitrary, 107; earliest articulate utterances of baby,

108; sing-sing, parrot and other creatures can utter words, 109;

man

alone has faculty of speech, 110

;

two

fold source of speech

material and mental, 113

climatic conditions affect speech, 115

speech not enough and visible record needed, 116; precursors of

writing,

the Ho-t'u,

and Lo-shu, and Pa-kua, 118;

written

characters invented by Tsang Chie but

made according

to reason,

121; history of writing, 123; Chinese appreciation of value of

writing,

125

comparison

of written

languages of China and

India, 126.

Chap. IY.

ON THE INTERJECnONAL AND IMITATIVE ELEMENTS IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.

Man's conscious control does not extend
emotional and
imitative expressions, p. 128
philologists,
;

to

the

use of

treatment of these

by grammarians and
* See Eri-ata.

128;

by native scholars in

COlfTBlfTS.

Ill

China,

129; Farrar's
135

"elements

of

articulate
;

speech," 130;
;

Chinese use of interjections such as ai-ya, 131

vocal gestures,
;

uses of a^, 133

in
;

some cases such expressions are real

blowing of wind, rain, 137
;

words or their
of

ruins,

136
;

imitations

animal

cries,

139

of involuntary

human sounds

as

coughing

and sneezing, 142; defects and

child's language,

peculiarities of utterance,

145;

147

expressions metaphorically imitative, 149.

Chap. V.

THE WOED TAO.

Neither foreign nor native opinions as to the resources of
the Chinese language to be trusted,
investigated, 152
;

p.

152

the

word Tao
is

to

be

cautions with reference to what

fair

stated in this

chapter, 153

Tao does not give

specimen of uses of a
;

word, 153

writing and pronunciation of the word, 153

of road,

syno-

nyms, 151; combinations with sense

154; special phrases

;

connected with meaning of road, 160; to travel, 161

right of

way, 161
time, 166

from, district, 162

;

orbit, course,

164

ray, band, line,

;

Tao
170

as a

numerative or

classifier,

167

in the sense of

means and manner, 168; expedient, 169;

acteristics,
;

attainments, char-

course of conduct, 172

state or condition,
;

175

to lead or guide,

177
to

doctrine, religion,
rule,

180

truth,

wisdom, 181

principles,

183;

government, institutions, 186;

good

government, order, 189; law, standard, &c., 190; to

&c.,

talk, discourse,

192;

the

Ultimate

Principle,

197;

nature

or

law

of

creatures, 201;
tion,

I'ien-tao's meanings,

202; man's moral constitu-

206

conscience,

208

Tao-hsin and Jen-hsin, 209 ; Eeason,

essentials,

211; duty, 214; relationship, 217;

title of

sum, 219; Tao as

;

per son, 221

source or cause, reason, 222

;

type,

emblem,

223

ideal

moral perfection, 225

;

ideal state of society,

228

Nature, 229

Miscellaneous, 232

Taoist use of the word, 235

Mahometan, 239;

ChrisLian, 240.

IV

CONTENTS.

Chap. VI.

TEEMS RELATING TO DEATH AND BURIAL.

The Chinese language
others, p.
is

rich

in

some respects and poor in

;

245 ; words and phrases connected with Pig, 246 names for year, 249 for periods of human life, 252 terms for death, 257
;
; ;

for dying,
ill,

259; to

die,

262

to die

prematurely, 274; to die

279; the dead, 282; terms

;

for ceremonies]

on behalf

of the
;

dead, 292

terms for customs to be observed by mourners, 297

coffin
;

terms for the

the grave, 305
coffin,

and its

parts,

299

the bier, 303

;

the

site for

terms for burial, 307

for

temporary resting

of

309; the grave and tomb, 310; the cemetery, 318; terms

for

mourning, 321.

Chap. VII.

FOREIGN WORDS IN CHINESE.

Foreign words in Chinese not numerous, 328
;

Barbarians,
;

329

commodities known by names of countries, 329

;

An-hsi,

Chiam-pi, Ho-lan, 330

Greek and Roman terms, 331

Persian, 347
;

Spanish

and Portuguese, 333; Dutch and German, 334; French, 334;

English, 335; Malay, 341
;

Arabic, 352

Turkish,

356

Manchu, 362 ; Mongolian, 369

Tibetan, 375.

Chap. VIII.

THE INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.

The
influence
of

Buddhism on Chinese only sketched

in

outline, p.

379; intercourse with India before the

;

Han

period

asserted but not proven, 379

Chang Ch'ien

gives report of India,

effects of

380;

first

missionaries from India, 380;

of Christianity

Buddhism

on Chinese like those

languages, 380;

and Mahometanism on other

the Chinese were taught Sanskrit by the mis-

CONTENTS.
sionaries,

V
;

381

books were written, 382

the Chinese were also

;

taught

how

to

study their own language, 383

;

astronomy and
all

other sciences taught, 383

the foreign missionaries were not

dialects,

from India, 384

different

Indian and Chinese, 385

;

Indian words introduced at different periods, 385

to the

words relating

Buddhist religion

the objects of worship and reverence

;

Buddhas, P'usas, Disciples and Patriarchs, 387

Indian

gods,

Brahma and

Indra, 394

Yama
hells,
;

and Mara, 395

other superna;

tural beings, Eakshas,

Yakshas, Gandharvas, Asurs, 396

Chandi,

399; Buddhist heavens and

dhists

400; names for professed Budto

and lay members, 401

;

Brahmans, 406; terms relating

;

sacred buildings, 407

givers,

monks' robes and bowl, 412

alms and alms 417; technical

;

413; cremation, 415; Nirvana, 416;

relics,

terms such as Prajnil-Paramita, Bodhi, 418; Yii-lan-hui, 421

Nan-wu, 422
material and

T'o-lo-ni,
of

423

Buddhist sacred books and the

grammatical geographical
of

way

chanting, 424;
;

terms and names of places, 425

names

numbers and measures,

432
;

430

names

of minerals

and precious

stones,

names

for
;

trees, flowers

and vegetable medicines and other products, 435

names

of animals, 442.

Chap. IX.

THE INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON THE CHINESE LANGUAGE fGontinued.J

New
;

Chinese terras added by translation from the Sanskrit,

mode of proceeding adopted by early translators, 445 ; p. 445 names of Buddhas and P'usas, Sakyamuni, Jan-teng, KuanBuddhist yin, 446 Kei-ku-tu, 449 Lun-wang and Fa-lun, 449
;
; ;

clergy,

450

geographical and topographical names, 450

objects

associated with Buddhist monks,

452 ; San-tsang, 453 ; Chin-kang,

454; Sau-sheng, 454; other technical terms as Tao-pi-an, Mietu,

456; new expressions which are not translations, 458; Ch*u;

chia and similar terms, 458

transmit robe and bowl, 460

;

trans-

mit lamp, 450; sitting cross-legged, 461

wood-fish, 461

Name for

VI

CONTENTS.
terms for saluting, 462
transmigration, 464
;

monastery, 462

terms for begging, 463

terms relating to

terms for services

on

behalf of the dead, 464

teaching, 466
;

other terms from

Buddhist religious
;

sea of misery and ship of mercy, 466.

terms for

death, 466; Sui-hsi and Fang-hao-kuang, 467; miscellaneous terms

wliich include

name
;

of

Buddha, 468

some which have Kuan-yin,

;

469; Lo-han, 471

the Ho-shang, 471

Mara, 471

Seng-lu, 472

new meanings given

ior/a, 473
;

to old expressions,

472

Confucianists com;

plain of Buddhist misuse of hsing, hsin, &c., 473

chiao,
;

new meanings
;

474

Buddhist uses of Tao, 475

;

Hao-shi, 478

Kung-te, 479

pu-shi, 4:79

terms about mortal

life,

new mean-

ings to sheng and shi, 480

affected
places,

Wu-ch^ang, 482

belief in
;

Karma

some words, 483

;

wandering ghosts, 484

;

names

of sacred

485

various instances, 486

feel,

la,

a year

tHen, heaven,
;

487

Gh'u, to

488

Hsiang,

Fang-pien, 489

Ju-i,

490

effects of

Buddhism
in of

illustrated

by proverbs and common sayings,

Ho-shang, 494
;

491; proverbs
which that

which Buddha's name occurs, 492; some in

occurs,

Kuan-yin

493 ; P'usa, 494

;

monasteries and the monk's garb, 495

of the dead,

Karma, 495
the mani, 496

the king
universal

495

heaven and

hell,

495

sovereign, 496.

^ OF THE kiversity)
^
\

ESSAYS ON THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.

CHAPTER

I.

SOME WESTEKN OPINIONS.

The number
rightly be set
if

of

human
as

beings
of

who
its

^t present speak the Chinese

language in one or other

many

varying forms cannot

down

much

less

than 400,000,000.

For even

we regard

the population of China proper, as given by some

Western

writers, to be greatly overrated, yet

when we add

to it

those of Chinese origin

who, living outside of the Eighteen

still speak a dialect of their native language, we have sum which is perhaps even above the total just given. And the number of those who use the written language of China is

Provinces,
a

much
official

greater, for the latter

medium

of record

is to a large extent the literary and and communication in several countries

beyond China,
colloquial idiom.

each

of

which

has at the same time

its

own

Now

for a very long period the

Chinese language, written

of

and spoken, has

for

the
it

inhabitants

Eastern and South-

Eastern Asia, so far as

was known

to

them and used by them,

the social and political
to

embodied

all

that was highest and most desirable in civilisation.

The

rules for private

and public

life,

institutions of China,

handed down from age

age, surviving

dynastic overthrows and popular convulsions, have exercised a

great and lasting influence not only on the people which lived in

the fostering shade of the Son of Heaven, but also on the tribes

and nations not blessed

virtue but

to dwell

within the circle of his potent

beyond the
is

limits of the

Flowery Land.
In the history

In

its

own

sphere, which

not a small one, the Chinese nation has done

of the world,

much, though not unmixed good.

2
however,
has
it

Some Western Opinions.

it

has not played a great or very conspicuous part, nor

of other

wrought for mankind the noble works

also

nations.

But we must
and

bear in mind that we

know

the history of the language

the world only as told by Western authors.

literature of

Still,

China can never among people remote from that

country arouse any enthusiastic interest such as that with which

some

of the Semitic

and Indo-European languages have been and

studied by western scholars, especially within a recent period.

It cannot be maintained, however, that the language
literature of

China have failed

to excite the curiosity

and

attract

the attention of Western students.

be
its

otherwise,

at

least as to

we expect it to the language, when we think on

'Nor should
it is

nature and the

are

way

in

which

written, so unlike all that

we

familiar

with in

other languages.
at

As Geiger

truly

observes, no one

who aims
is

obtaining an insight into what

to

mankind

actually

can omit

take notice of the Chinese

language, partly on account of the enormous territory over which

it

extends, partly because of

it is

its

typical peculiarity,
first

and partly

because

a literary language of the

rank, having original

intellectual

monuments from
until about the

before the eighth century

B.C}
lan-

Yet

it

was not

end

of the sixteenth

century that
its

important and authentic information about China and

guage began

to

be acquired by European scholars, and the works

written by these show

how

the language puzzled and enchanted

for

them.

One

of its
its

great charms

them

at first

seems

to

have

been found in
*'

written characters.

These we find described as

Characters Eeal, which express neither letters nor words in

gross,

but Things or Notions

insomuch

as countries

and provinces,

which understand not one another's language, can nevertheless

read one another's writings, because the characters are accepted

more generally than the languages do extend; and therefore they have a vast multitude of characters, as many, I suppose, as
radical words.''
^

Afterwards, the qualities of the language, such

as

its

richness, terseness,

and

simplicity,

became subjects

of dis-

"

Bacon,

Ursprung der Sprache," Vor. S. xi. " Advancement of Learning," Book

p. 399).

ii.

(Ellis

and Spedding Ed.,

Vol.

iii.

Some Western Opinions.

cussion,

3
arose

and various and

and history.

conflicting

theories

about

its

origin, kindred,

For

a long time, however, little

was

done

to bring it practically

within the knowledge of "Western

scholars.
of

But within the

last fifty or sixty years the relations

China with European nations have undergone great changes,

result of these changes has been that the study of the

and one

language and literature of the country has been taken up and

pursued, almost with enthusiasm, in some cases, by European
students.
of

Hence we
for

find that within this period the production

Manuals

learning

Chinese,

Grammars,

Dictionaries,

Translations of Chinese books,

andjDf other works of a miscel-

laneous character on the language and literature, by European

scholars, has increased very quickly.

Of these books, many have

have

been compiled to meet practical wants, and not a few, being

merely mechanical reproductions

the student.

of others,

little

value for

But

the Science of

Language has

lately taken

up

Chinese, and

men

trained in that Science have tried to fix the

place and worth of Chinese

among

the languages of the world.

Consequently,

new and more

liberal

ways

of studying it

have

begun

to

be followed, and already there are good results and

hopeful prospects.

Hitherto our Western

scholars
it

who have

discussed

this

language
opinions.

have

held

about

varying

and often

conflicting

These opinions

differ

according to the point of view

from which the subject was contemplated by the investigators,

and according
judices.

to their learning

and the influence

of their pre-

They vary

in value,

some being the

result of careful

research skilfully conducted, and others being only theories with

little

or no attempt at verification.

We

have now

to

make

short and

summary review
it

of
will

some

of these opinions

and judg-

ments, and in doing so

three classes.

be convenient to arrange them in

The
of the
to its

first

comprises those which concern the origin

and kindred
have regard

Chinese language; the second those which

;

formal structure and character

of the

and the third

to its
feel-,

class contains

some

judgments on the language as

material contents,

its

capacity to express the thoughts and

4
ings of the people.

Some Western Opinions.

This arrangement,
it

will be seen, corresponds

somewhat, but not precisely,

to the three systems of classifying

languages, the genealogical, the morphological, and that which

proceeds

according

to

the

general

value

of

languages

when

compared among themselves

as instruments of expression.^

Beginning, then, with Western theories as to the origin and

family relationship of Chinese, we find them to contain
widely-differing
opinions.
this
it it

many and
have even

Some

great

authorities

harshly

ousted

language from the great clan of

human
'*a

tongues, and left

a lonely, kinless stranger on the cold heights of

"?

isolation.

Thus

was the opinion

of the celebrated Golius,

if

man
V

of divine

candour and a thorough Orientalist

ever there

was such," that "the Chinese language was not derived from the
old speech of mortals, but was constructed by the skill and genius
of

some philosopher"

'^invented
a

all at

once by some clever

man
It

to establish oral intercourse

among

the

many
we

different nations
call

who
/\/

inhabited that great country which

to us
to

China."

seems strange

given his assent

now that so wayward

man

like

Leibniz should have

it

a fancy, 'and perpetuated

in one

of his best philosophical works.

Within our own

time, also, the

all

eloquent and accomplished Farrar has refused Chinese

relationship, saying that it

family

" differs from other languages as

of another planet."

much

as

if

it

were spoken by the inhabitants

He

puts

it

in the miscellaneous gathering of languages ''(perhaps a

thousand) which are not Aryan, and not Semitic, and which have
not yet been grouped together by mutual
affinities."

To

these

languages he applies the

tionable terms"

''

excellent, easy,
i.e.,

and perfectly unobjec-

"Sporadic,

scattered,

and Allophylian,
family."
^

/.e.,

spoken by other different tribes of the

human
held

Very
by

few, however, have clung to the heresy of the special

creation of Chinese, though

itself

many have

it

to

be a language

without parent and without offspring.

In direct oppop.

On

this subject see

Whitney's " Language and the Study of Language,"

356 et sec. (5th Ed.).

2

Fourmont, "Med. Sin."

Phil,," p.

p. xiii.;

Bayer's " Mus. Sin. Praef." p. 103; Leibniz

"Op.

297

et sec.

(Ed. Erdmann); Farrar,

"Language and Languages,"

p. 376.


Some Western Opinions.
sition to

5
to

such opinions

is

the theory which

first

makes Chinese

have

been the primeval tongue, the

language,

that in which Adam

to

and Eve talked with the Lord God and the Serpent and
other as they walked

each

among

the trees in the Garden of

Eden
ear.f

and
liest

so the fore-mother of all other languages.

One

of the

and best known supporters

book on

of this theory

was John Webb,

an Englishman who lived at the period of the Restoration.

little

His

this subject

is

full of

rare and curious learning,

persuasive reasoning, and odd fancies, and he shows a thorough

knowledge
Kirclier,

of the best

works on China up

to his time.

Martinius,

Semedo, Mendoza, Trigault, are largely quoted by him,

to

and he seems

have gained from them a very

fair insight into

the nature of the Chinese language.

Webb

thinks

it

possible that

Noah may have migrated with

of

his family to

China and there

built his ark,

which modern
''

junks are but " degraded copies."

very

He

also says that

it

may

be

much presumed

that

Noah

himself, both before

and

after the
it

flood, lived in
exists, written

China."

He

thinks the Chinese language as

and spoken, came directly from Noah's son Shem, or

the children of the latter.

Whether
at least

their ancestor

had

settled in

China or had

not,

they had

moved eastwards

in time to

avoid the confusion of tongues, and so Chinese escaped the misfortune of being made a " confounded language." Edkins also, it
will be

remembered, thinks the

first

Chinese had gone eastward

before there was any Babel.

But

this learned Sinologist adopts

the heresy which

makes

Ham

the ancestor of the Chinese, a

heresy which Kircher and others once held, as will be seen, but

Webb

completely refuted.
all

In the course

of his treatise,

Webb

argues that Chinese has

the requisite characteristics of the

primitive tongue, which are these

ity,

Antiquity, Simplicity, Generaland Brevity, "

to

Modesty
is

of Expression, Utility, of

which by

some

added Consent
of

Authors."

The'* plain and meek"

to

language

his posterity down to Noah and thence through Shem to the original Chinese. The written characters even may have been taught by one of the ante-

A^am

was transmitted

diluvian patriarchs, for, not to mention earlier treatises, did not

Some Western Opinions.

Enoch, the seventh from Adam, leave a work on Astronomy,

which the Queen

Tertullian
'*

of

Sheba possessed, and

of

which one
?

so late as

had seen and read some whole pages

'^significative

"

The book

was written in letters

will
ters,

and hieroglyphical," and no one

apply to the Chinese charac-

deny that

this description

may

has

it,

and these have an antediluvian antiquity and are, as Kircher " hieroglyphicorum in omnibus asmuli," in all respects rivals

of hieroglyphics.

As

a clinching argument

Webb

writes,

"

And

as

if

all

things conspired to prove this the Primitive Tongue,

we may observe how forceably Nature struggles to demonstrate The very first expression we make of life, at the very so much.
instant minute of our births,
is,

as

was touched on
is

before,
first,

by
but

uttering the Ghinique

word Ya.
^

Which

not only the

indeed the sole and only expression that Mankind from Nature

can justly lay claim unto."

Many

others have supposed that the Chinese people and lanof that old
first

guage had their origin in the neighbourhood

with the soothing

country

name Mesopotamia.

That the

speakers of

the language also were the offspring of

able.

Shem seemed
arts
it
'^

very prob-

They had apparently

partial to
et

a knowledge of

and sciences

beyond other

tribes of the time,

and was

likely that

Noah
**

would be

Ham,

the son

who was
posterite ?

a reprobate,"

peu

respectueux
thinks that

maudit dans sa

"

Kircher, indeed,

Ham

conducted his colonies out of Egypt into Bactria

through Persia. From Bactria they may have passed into China, " the utmost nation of the habitable world, together also with
the
first

elements of Letters, which from their father Chafn, and

first
^

Mercurius Trismegistus, Counsellor of his son Misraim, and

inventor of hieroglyphicks, they had though rudely learned."

But

this opinion is regarded as heterodox, and, as

has been

stated, it has

been refuted by Webb.

As

to

the other son of

that

Noah, Japhet, he was doubtless taught by

his father all

Shem was
1

taught.

But Japhet,

or at least his children, evidently

"An
of

Historical Essay Endeavoring a Probability that the

Language of the
1669.
Sec.

Empire

China

is

the Primitive Language."

By John Webb.

pp. 62, 147, 196. > Webb's ' Historical Essay," p. 29.

Some Western Opinions.

lost the

knowledge thus communicated, as witness their long use

of stone

and

flint

tools

and their slow return

to

more

skilful

appliances.

But the

children of

Shem, including the primaeval

practical

Chinese, were shrewd and wise, and never lost what they had
learned.

Here we

see a very early instance of that

sagacity which has never forsaken the Chinese.

first

For when the

fathers of the race, urged by the resistless promptings of fate,

their

left

home

to

go Eastward^ whether before or after the

ly stopt, they carried

"unaccomplishable work'^ which Nimrod's race began was abrubtaway with them their " shovels, pickaxes,
trowels.^'

and

They took

also

a small collection of Primitive

Roots and the books which they had received from their fathers
written in characters which their descendants have ever since
retained.
total

These are

facts

which

satisfactorily explain the almost

tools

absence of

stone

and

flint

from the archseological

of

antiquities of the country,

and the very primitive character

and other

the language spoken and written.^

Most
aries in

of the early Jesuit

Roman

Catholic missionto

China and

their disciples at

home seem

have held

this

doctrine of the Shemitio origin of Chinese,

though they could not

t]^e

agree as to which of Shem's descendants was

diate progenitor.

actual

immesome

Thus there was

scarcely
first

enough

proof,

maintained, to identify

Yao

T'ang, the

great Chinese

Em-

peror, with Joktan, the great grand-son of

Shem.

Some,
of all

as has

been seen, have held that

Ham

was the father

such as

speak Chinese, and others have deemed them to be the oifspring

of Japhet.

Several authors have seen a relationship between the

language of China and that of ancient Egypt.

The

first

and

greatest advocate of the theory that the original Chinese were a

colony from Egypt

treatise

was De Guignes.
'^

He

boldly entitled his

les

on the subject,

Memoire dans lequel on prouve que

Chinois

sent une Colonie Egyptienne;'' but he supported his

hypothesis largely with word-resemblances of an artifical character.

Scholars

and Sinologists have held that Chinese and

Hebrew
1

are related, the latter having been regarded by

p.

some

of

See the Lettres Edifiantes, T. 34,

217

et al.

(Ed. 1832).

8ome Western Opinions.

as the parent language of

them

the world.

Many,
or

also,

have

believed

that

Chinese

is

one of the seventy

angels

seventy-two

tongues produced by as

many

when
^*

these were sent to

stop the building of the impious tower in the plain of Shinar.^

Dr. Edkins has tried to prove the

connection of Chinese
ancient

and Hebrew^' and

of

Chinese and

other

languages.

These, he thinks, had a

common

origin '*in the

Mesopotamian and

\ Armenian

region," a region to which distance of time and space

lends great enchantment.

According to Dr. Edkins^ the first Chinese " were probably Hamites ; '' but the Chinese language, '' like Mongol and Turkish, belongs to the Japhetic stock " and
;

yet

''

the ancient
still

Hebrew and the

ancient Chinese were probably

truly

dialects of a

more venerable mother speech which was

antediluvian and began with

Adam."

So Chinese has an
^'

'^anti-

quity of type " beyond other languages, for

first

being

itself of

the

descent from the primeval mother of

it

human

speech,

we can

trace in

no later elements."

Marshman,

whose defects

of learning are

somewhat comcould not find

pensated by his cautious and conscientious

proof enough to satisfy
either

spirit,

him

of an original connection

between

Hebrew

.or

Sanskrit and Chinese.

He

left

the question

undecided, though he would perhaps have liked to see an affinity

established between this language and that of India.^

Dr.

Chalmers,

in his study on the Origin of the Chinese,

''

includes language in his attempt

to trace

the connection of the

Chinese with Western Nations."

He

takes 300 Chinese words

and compares these with words

Sanskrit,

of like

meanings

in

Hebrew,
His

Greek,

Arabic,

Tibetan,

and other languages.

is

opinion as to the affinities of the Chinese language

as the following sentence

shows

"

conditional,

If the

Chinese came into this

race,

land, from the original

route,
^

home

of the

human

by the

direct

over the passes about Hindu-Cush, and through Tibet,

6, p,

Semedo's " Eelatione della grande Monarchia della Cinna," C.

"China's Place
in Philology," pp. 86, 67;
p. 203.
p. 139.

43.

(Ed. 1643).
2

"Notes and Queries," Vol.

ii.

p.

6; " Ch.
^

Rec," Vol.

iii.

Chinese Grammar,

Some Western Opinions,

and
if,

as

is

highly probable, they kept up communication from

times immediately with a Tibetan nation
civilised peoples

the earliest

and

through them with

seek

more remote

we ought to

among

the

Himalayan languages, including Burmese and

Siamese, rather than

among

the Tungusic or Mongolic classes,

for affinities with the Chinese."

And
is

the conclusion to which

Dr. Chalmers comes on the subject

simply that " The people

and the civilisation of China are derived from the West, and only some important inventions belong to the race." ^
Dr. Edkins dreamt of a universal kinship of languages, in

which Chinese was the oldest

to prove

liviitg relative.

In his dream,

along with other hard tasks he tried to work, he endeavoured

an

affinity

between the roots

or

so-called roots

of
we

Chinese and those of the Aryan languages.

afterwards undertaken
in

This task was

earnest by a distinguished

Dutch

Sinologist, Gustavo Schlegel.

In the treatise of

this latter

have the

first

scholarly

and methodical attempt

to

compare

Chinese words with those of the Aryan languages.

Taking, for

example. Pott's view that a resemblance between the verbs and

pronouns

of

the

two languages proves a

*^

unite

de race
this

anterieure/' he gives examples

which he thinks proves

unity between the Chinese and the

Aryan languages.^
it
is

As

to the monosyllabic languages to the west of China,

seems to be generally admitted that Chinese

as mother, or at least as elder sister.

related to

them

Logan, however, says

"

On

the evidence of language we may conclude that the present

or monosyllabic tribes, or their prototypes,

more western,
in

were

existence

when

Chinese civilisation arose.

Insuperable

difficulties

oppose the hypothesis of their having been derived

from any
zation."

of the

languages of China after the dawn of

its civili-

Yet from other passages

in Logan's treatise, one would,

perhaps, be justified in inferring that he regarded Chinese as

related to some, at least, of the living monosyllabic tongues to

which he here
1

refers.

Marshman,

also, says of

the

Anam,

Laos,

" The Origin of the Chinese," pp. 36, 78, et seq. " Sinico-Aryaca ou Reoherches sur les Racines primitives dans lea Chinoises et Aryennes."
^

Langues

10
Siam, and
ever

Sqii^ W^st^vn< Ofpinion^.

otl^er dialects
'^
:

They spring from the Chinese, how-

much they may have been affected by any foreign mixture, and in that language we may expect to find the origin of that
simplicity of construction,

which excludes every kind

of inflection.

From

that of

its

descendants^ therefore, the genius of the Chieasily inferred."

nese language

may be

Schott, Whitney,

and

others have given utterance to opinions of a similar nature.

in

And

1878 the learned Sinologist, Professor

Gr.

von der G-abelenz,

read a short but suggestive paper before the Oriental Congress^

in Florence.

The aim

of the

paper was to raise the question of

the possibility of proving a genealogical affinity between the

dialects of

China and the languages

of Tibet,

Assam, and the

Transgangetic Peninsula.

The

writer's opinion evidently

;

that such an affinity existed and could be proved

waa and we are

led to expect more light on the subject from labours in which

he was then engaged.

tion accessible even

It
is

must be admitted that the informaneither sufficient nor properly verified

to the

now

and arranged

to

warrant general conclusions as

kinship

between Chinese and the monosyllabic tongues on her

frontiers.

We

cannot, accordingly, accept without reserve the confident

assertion

made

several years ago

by our great

Indianist,

W. W.

Hunter.

He

tells

us

" Chinese has hitherto been looked upon

as a language standing
linguistic alliances.

by

itself,

devoid of ethnical kindred or

But

in spite of its inexactitudes, this

its

book

proves that China has given

speech not merely to the great

islands of the Southern Ocean, but to the whole Eastern Penins^ula,

.

to Siam, Tenasserim,

Burmah,

in a less degree to Central

tribes,

Asia, to

many

of the

Himalayan

and

to

some

of

the

pre-Aryan peoples

of the interior of India.''

It is

probable

that the above mentioned scholars would regard the old language
of China,

now dead

or lost, as the

common

parent of

all

the
title

living Chinese dialects,

,

and

of those included

under the

Indo-Chinese, so

far, at least, as

the framework or substance

of the latter ia concerned.

But

it

may be doubted whether

the

theory, even as thus limited, can ever bs verified.^

1 '' Journal Ind. Arch. " Vol. IV., p. 296; Marshman Ch. Gr., p. 193 ; Schotfc, Ch. Sprachlehre S. 17 Whitney, 0. C. p. 331 j Atti del iv. Cong. Inter. Vol. II.,
;

Some Western Opinions.

11

We may not pass unnoticed the opinions on the genealogical

affinity

of

Chinese held by our revolutionary Sinologist, M.

De La Couperie. As the result of long study and research, M. De La Couperie has been led to recognise in the an ancient member of the great Chinese spoken language known as UraUAltaic." He languages, agglutinant family of And in doing so, it may be necessary to establish a adds
Terrien
^'
:

*^

third division of that family's group which has been provisionally

constituted by recent discoveries,

and which might appropriately

first

be called Amardian

a group in which the

division

embraces

Akkadian and
Babylon.

its dialect,
^

and the second division Proto-medic,

this

Susian, and Kossian."

We are

brought back to dear old

Professor Douglas, in the preface to the paper which

contains the passage here cited, says of the 'linguistic facts

and suggestions " contained

in

it

''
:

Put

in a

few words, these,

be adduced in

and an abundance of others which

will shortly

support of them, prove an unmistakeable affinity between the

languages and traditions of ancient China and of Babylonia."

Then in another book we have the following characteristic statement by M. De La Couperie ^' China has received its language (since altered) and the elements of arts, sciences and institutions
:

from the colonies

of the

Ugro-Altaic Bak families v^ho came

from Western Asia some twenty-three centuries B.C., under the conduct of men of high culture, acquainted, through their
neighbours the Susians, with the civilisation which emanated

from Babylonia and was modified

general statement
the evidence in
its
is

in its second focus.

This

now beyond any

is

possibility of doubt, for

It is a pity that

favour

overwhelming."

the evidence has overwhelmed

M. De La Couperie and disabled

him from imparting

ever, for
p.

it

to

expecting students.
his

We

look,

how-

much

light

and leading from

promised works, the

283

"

Comprehensive Diet, of the Languages of Ind. and High Asia," by

Disser'n. p. 20.

W. W. Hunter,
1

Under the head "Turanian or Ural-Altaic (Ugro-Altaic)" Professor Sayce places two classes (1) the West Asia and (2) the Uralic Languages. In the former he has the two groups of obsolete languages, (a) Accadian or Sum:

erian,

and

(b)

Susiauian, Kosaaean,

Protomedic.

Introduction to the So. of

Lang., Vol.

II., p. 43.

12

Some Western Opinions,

of

" Origin
Chinese
:

Chinese Civilisation/'

and

^'

China

before
^

the

the Aboriginal and Non-Chinese races of China."

Professor Friedrich Miiller gives a genealogical classification

of

languages based on H^ckeFs

''Hair"

classification
it

of

mankind.
Corean,

His ninth
(1)

class is called

Mongolian, and
(2)

includes

the following,
(4)

the Ural-Altaic languages,

the Japanese, (3)

Tibecan and Himalaya languages, Burmese and Lohita languages, Siamese, Annamite, Chinese, and the isolating languages of the Indothe

Monosyllabic languages,

i.e.,

Chinese Peninsula.

This classification has been followed, with

considerable modifications, by Professor Sayce in his genealogical

arrangement

of all

known languages.

Sayce, however,
it

puts Chinese in a separate group, and he gives under

following curious
list

the

of dialects

" Amoy, Cantonese or Kong,

Professor Sayce did

Foochow, Punti, Shanghai, Mandarin."

" Punti " was a Chinese
dialect.^

not learn in any of the authorities quoted in his note that

The opinions which have been

say, chiefly

cited

above

are,

we may

on the material constituents

of others.

of the

Chinese language

as

compared with those

They

are based on a study,

little

or pretended study, of the roots or original elements, with

reference to the formal structure.

We

now proceed

to notice

some

of the opinions

which have been given on Chinese from

this latter point of view.

And

here

we do not

find a very great

diversity of opinion

among Western

scholars, although,

as will

be seen, there

is

by no means perfect agreement among them.

The

first to

make

a morphological classification of languages

was perhaps Friedrich von Schlegel in his treatise on the language and wisdom of the Hindus. Using terms taken from
natural science he divided languages into Organic and Inorganic.

In the

latter division

he placed

(1)

language without inflections

and composed

of

roots

which

suffer

no change what ever,

1 " Early History of the Ch. Civilisation," p. 19; Colquhoun's "Amongst the Shans," Int'n. pp. 29 and 40 M. De La Couperie, in ' The Academy," September, 1st, 1883.
;

' Grundriss d. Sprachwissenschaft v. Dr F. Miiller. B.I. S. 76; Sayce'a " Introduction to the Sc. of Lang." Vol. II., p. 48,

Some Western Opinions.

and
the
still

13

also

(2)

those called agglutinating or affixing, in which

is

grammar

formed entirely by

suffixes

and prefixes which are

their

easily separated

and retain

to

some extent

own

inde-

pendent meanings.
(3) those languages

In the former, or Organic division, he places

whose roots are subject

puts Chinese in the

to modifications

from

within, and in which the grammatical distinctions are expressed

by

inflections.

He

first,

or lowest class, as a

monosyllabic uninflected language, in which the particles denoting

modifications in the

meaning

of a root are single syllables

having
roots

always a separate and independent existence.

The Chinese
;

nqver sprout nor yield a branch o^ leaf of inflection

thus merely
lifeless,

they are

inorganic products.

W.

von Schlegel followed, and divided languages into three

great classes, those without any grammatical structure, the agglutinating,

and

the

inflectional.

Then we have Bopp, who

he placed languages which
of composition,

approved

of this division,

but distinguished the classes in a manner

the
first

somewhat
had no

different.

In

real roots

and did not admit

and hence
he assigns
to

were without organism and grammar.

Chinese, in which everything seems

To

this class

and only seems

of the

be root

and nothing more, the categories of grammar and the dependent

relations being indicated only

by the position

words in the

sentence.

In

the

second

class,

Bopp placed languages with

His third
class

monosyllabic roots capable of being compounded.

comprises those languages which have dissyllabic roots with three

indispensable

consonants

necessary

to

express

the

original or

primitive meaning.
of roots,

Bopp
to

also denied to

Chinese the possession

and what seemed

be such were not so actually.

Then

we have
compare
placed
it

W.
it

von Humboldt, who had studied Chinese and could

with

Burmese and other Eastern languages.

the

He

along with
of
''

Semitic

and Indo-European groups,

under the head

Perfect Languages," as one of those which

of their being,

develope themselves, according to the law

regularity and freedom.
related to

with

Humboldt

did not regard Chinese as

Burmese

either in origin or in structure.

it

An

important

distinction of Chinese is that in

the speaker or writer trusts

entirely to the mental activity of his hearer or reader

and

to the

14

Some Western Opinions.

arrangement of words in sentences.

He

writes

" I think I

can reduce the difference which exists between the Chinese and
other languages to the single fundamental point that, in order
to indicate

the connection of words in

its

phrases,

it

does not

base

its

grammar on
The
part

the classification of words, but settles other-

wise the relations of the elements of language in the concatenation

of

thought.

grammars

of

other
part.

languages

have

an

etymological

and a syntactical

Chinese grammar

knows only

this latter.^

Then we have
of languages, as
ing),

Schleicher's well-known three-fold

division

Monosyllabic (Isolating), Confixative (Agglutinat(Inflectional).

and Inflexive

In

the

first

division

are

''Languages which are simply composed

meaning-sounds. Monosyllabic,
e.g.,

of invariable disjointed

Chinese, Annamese, Siamese,

Burmese."
Professor

Schleicher's

distribution

has

been

followed

by-

Max

Miiller and others.

It forms the basis of Pott's

is

division of languages,
splits

which, however,

a four-fold one.

Pott

up the agglutinating into two

In his
first

classes,
class,

the Agglutinating

and the Incorporating.

that of the Isolating

Languages, in which matter and form remain perfectly separate,

he places the Chinese and Indo-Chinese languages.^

There are

also other classifications of

e.g.,

languages from

the

morphological point of view, as

that of

M. Lucien Adam.

In

this there are five classes, the first

being that of the Isolating

Languages, which are Chinese, Annamite, Siamese, Burmese, and

Tibetan.

Here, as in other classifications of languages on this

principle, Chinese has a

low place.

Judged by
It

its

morphological

constitution, Chinese
at the

is

an

inferior language.

and Sanskrit are

lie

two poles

of the speech-world,

and

all

other languages
units, they

between them.

In Chinese the words are

are not

capable of attachment, and they are not related in any recognizable

way

as

compounds or

derivatives.
of
S.

They

are not even roots,

according

to

Bopp and some

1.

his followers.
201 (3rd Ed).
(Ed.
Steinthal)

Max MuUer,

1 Bopp's "Vergleich," Gr. B. "Sprach. Phil. Werke," p. 649 Remusat, etc., pp. 2, 44. 2

et seq.

W. von Humboldt's Lettre a M. Abel

:

aimier,

" Schleicher's o)>. 0., p. 68.

Compendium," Part

I.,

p.

2 (Beudall's Translation); Fr

Same Western
however, treats them as
that in which
its

Opinio^is.

IS
language
is

roots, for his first stage of

"Roots may be used

as words, each root preserving

is

full

independence/' and this stage

^'best represented

by

ancient Chinese."

The

difference in opinion here seems to be

partly due to the fact that the writers attach to the

word Root

meanings which are

to a great extent unlike

and incompatible.^
of the

The thoroughly monosyllabic character

guage has
also

Chinese lan-

been called
first

in question

by some.

Remusat was

apparently the

to

do

this,

but his arguments have been long

ago refuted, aad he has been followed by only a few.

sinologist,

living

Dr.

W.

Grube,

is

disposed-to take the living language

of

China out

of the category of Isolating

it,

and Monosyllabic.

He

thinks that

like

Tibetan and the Burmese and other Indoh^^s

Chinese languages,
agglutinating.

a middle place between isolating and

The
as

classical

and

anti-classical

language of China,

Grube regards
It

composed

of monosyllables,

but these, he thinks,

are not of a primitive nature.*

is

generally admitted, however, that the morphological

basis

is

not a good or sufficient one for a system of classification

which

will

apply to

all

languages.

More

particularly the three-

fold distribution
Inflecting,

of languages,

as Isolating, Agglutinating,

and
to

and the theory

of progression

founded on

it,

have led

serious errors concerning the history

and character

of languages.

There remain now

to

be considered some of the opinions

critics

which have been formed by Western

general character.
ra,ther

on the Chinese
its

language written and spoken, when judged by

contents and
of a

The questions
and uniform

to

be answered here are

vague and general character, and they do not admit of

interpretation.

precise treatment

We are to enquire
to

whether Chinese has been found and declared

in its store of

be rich or poor

words and phrases

to express the spiritual

and
of

material wants of the people.

Compared
it

as
to

an instrument
do
its

thought with other languages, does

seem
to

work

in a

rude or

inartistic

manner, or does

it

seem

perform
245

its

functions
Mtiller,

^ M. L. Adam in " Rev. de Linguisfcique," T. xiv., p. " Lectures Sc. Lan.," Vol. I., p. 330 (9th Ed.)
^
*'

Max

Die Sprachgeschich. Stellung

d. Ch., " S. 19.

16
well

Some Western Opinions.

and neatly
?

Here,

also,

we

find differences of opinion

according to the standard of comparison and the attainmenta of

the critic in Chinese.

writers on China in the sixteenth

The missionaries and other European and seventeenth centuries,

and the simple
terse forms with

seem

to

have been for the most part quite enchanted with the

great compass of this language,

which

it

did

its

work unaided by

suffixes or inflections.
it

Semedo

praises even its conciseness,

which makes

indeed equivocal

but at the same time compendious.

Such

is its softness, also,

according to him, that when spoken correctly, as at Nanking,

it

charms the hearer,

flatters
is

the sense of hearing.

But he
it is

admits that while Chinese

very rich in characters

very

poor in words, that

is,

in its

supply of terms differing in sound.^

in this language

Semedo found a sweetness

The
latter says that
'^if

and

so did

Webb.

ever

our Europeans shall become

it

thoroughly studied in the Ghinique tongue,"

that the Chinese have very

will

be found

many words

'"'

whereby they express

themselves in such elegancies as neither by Hebrew or Greek, or

any other language how elegant so ever can be expressed.

Besides, whereas the

Hebrew

is

harsh and rugged, the Ohinique

all

appears the most sweet and smooth language of

others

throughout the whole world at this day known."

P. Premare,
right to speak

who was missionary and

this language.

sinologist

and had a

with authority, becomes quite enthusiastic on the subject of

Chinese Grammar, he says,

is

for the

most part
has
its

free

from the thorns which ours presents, but

still it

rules,

and there

is

not in the world a richer language, nor one

long.^

which has reigned so

to

And we

find like high praise given

Amyot, a very accomplished scholar, who knew both Chinese and Manchoo very well. He defends Chinese from several charges which had been brought against
the language by P.
it,

and argues
as

for its excellencies as rich

and

full.

He

regards

it

peculiarly

adapted for

recording

and

communicating

political science.
1

" 3

Semedo's " Relazione d. Cina," Cap. vi., p. 43 (Ed. 1643). Webb's " Historical Essay," etc., p. 196. *' Lettres Edif.," T. 33 Lettre.


Some Western
Coming down
to later years,

Opinions.

17

when

the study of language and

critical

languages began to be pursued in a thorough and

manner,

we have

W.

von Humboldt, as has been seen already, giving Judging from the point
first

great praise to Chinese.

of

view of gramit

matical structure, one might, he says, at the

as departing the most widely

glance regard

from the natural demand

of speech,

and as the most imperfect.

found
the

On

a more thorough examination,

is

however, this view disappears, and, on the contrary, Chinese

to possess a

high degree of excellence, and to exercise on

if

mental faculties an influence which,

one-sided,

is

yet

powerful.^
Steinthal, one of the latest

and most philosophical students

of

language and languages, has a two-fold division into Formless

and Form Languages.

only by juxta-position.

Lowest

in the latter
else.

is

Chinese, which, indicated

has matter-elements, and nothing

Form being

He

speaks of Chinese, however, as

being a language rich in terms for abstract ideas,

and in
in the

vocabulary generally.

It is also highly cultivated,

spirit, wit,

and

modern

literature

it

shows delicacyi grace,

Steinthal says, " a
'-^

and humour.

" The contrast between the means of the Chinese language and
its

productions

is,"

phenomenon

quite unique

in the history of language.''

A.nd

quence when he comes to treat of

Chinese.

Whitney warms into elothe history and character of

the most rudimentary and
:

Having owned
all

that *'in certain respects of funda'^is

mental importance" the Chinese

scanty of

which the
form

known languages," he goes on " The power human mind has over its instruments, and independent
is

of their imperfections,
this of speech,

strikingly illustrated

by the history
all

of

which has successfully answered

the

purposes of a cultivated, reflecting, studious, and ingenious

people, throughout a career of unequalled duration
;

which has

been put to far higher and more varied uses than most of the
multitude of highly organised dialects spoken
dialects rich in flexibility, adaptiveness
1

among men
of expan331 (Ed. A.
II., S.

and power

"

Ueber

d.

Verschiedenheit

d.

Men. Sprachbaues," B.

F. Pott).

" Charakteristik, " &c., pp. 108, 137 et al.

18
ision,

S'Sme Western Opinions.

but poor in the mental poverty and weakness of those who

^

should wield them."

So, also, a living authority

on Chinese,

Herr Georg von der

the greatest

Grabelenz, speaks of

it

as one of the most

highly developed languages of our world, and as having given

and best

literature of all Asiatic countries.

Chinese,

he considers to be not only the most important representative,

but also par excellence the ripest fruit of the Isolating class of
languages.^

On

the other hand, however,

is

we

find
its

it

not seldom

stated that the Chinese language

poor in
it

stock of words,

and that as a means

management.
It has

of expression

is

rude and awkward in

of our

been declared by several

of a

Western

scholars to be specially wanting in terms to express abstract

and

spiritual ideas,

and the requirements

high civilisation

generally.

Jesuit missionary of the last century,

who had

studied
there
is

Chinese

among

the people, writes from Canton that

not, perhaps, in all the world a

language poorer in

expressions.

He

gives this opinion as the result of study,

and
on

he proceeds throughout a large part of the

the failings of the language.^
similar phrases of depreciation,

letter to dilate

Farrar and others have used

and Sayce has called Chinese a

time-worn and decaying form

decried
it;

of speech.

No

one, however, has

in

such

bitter,

scathing language as M. Renan.

its

Though
its

this

savant owns that Chinese attains

ends as well as

does the Sanskrit, he says, '^Is not the Chinese language, with
inorganic and imperfect structure, the reflection of the aridity

of

genius and heart which characterises the Chinese race?

life,

Sufficing for the wants of

for

the technicalities of th6

manual

arts, for
is

a light literature of low standard, for a philos-

ophy which
of
all

only the expression, often fine but never elevated,^

common

sense, the Chinese

language excluded

all

philosophy,

science, all religion, in the sense in

which we understand
*

these words.

God
it

has no

name

in

it,

and metaphysical matters

are expressed in
^
'^

only by round-about forms of speech.'*

&o., p. 336,
5.

"
**

Language and the Study,"

and see

p. 367.

Chinesische Grammatik, " S.

" Lettres Edifs." T. xxxvii., p. 311.

'*

De L'Origine du Langage,"

p.

195 (4th Ed.)

Compare

also p. 216.

Some Western
It

Opinions.

19

must be owned that many

of the opinions here cited

were formed somewhat rashly and without knowledge.

evidently were the result of careful, intelligent study
parison,

Others

and com-

but without

sufficient authorities.

The information

necessary to enable us to form correct general judgments on the Chinese language as an instrument of expression and com-

munication cannot be said even

now

to

be

all

forthcoming.

we yet in a position to give a final opinion on its rank and value when compared with other languages, or on its descent and kindred. We have among us at present students who are from time to time adding new and interesting facts, which will
Nor
are

greatly help the future philosopher to form conclusions wide

and general and

at

the same time accurate.

But much

still

remains to be done before the genius and constitution of the

Chinese language are thoroughly understood, and before
its

rank and
settled.

value in the world's speech-tribes can be definitely

In some

of the chapters

which

follow,

an attempt

will

be made to bring together some of the materials which may be

used hereafter in the building up of accurate knowledge and
the formation of scientific deductions.

XTNIVERSITY

CHAPTER

II.

THE CULTIVATION OF THEIR LANGUAGE BY THE CHINESE.

Fkom
had
the judgments of foreigners on the Chinese language

we

pass to the consideration of the treatment which the language has

at the

hands

of natives.

To

tell this

with any fullness would

Chinese literature, and

be a work needing a great knowledge

it

of

would

not, perhaps, repay the labour.

It will be

enough here

to

attempt a slight sketch of the course which the cultivation of the

language by

its

speakers and writers has taken since the time

when

its

records begin.

Even such an

outline,

however, must
little interest

needs be meagre and imperfect, and, at best, of

except to
a

very small number.

For the

early part of the

for the

history, moreover, materials are

latter part they are too

few and doubtful, while

many

to

be properly made use of in a slight

this sketch all

sketch

like

the

present.

In

works are passed

over which are exclusively on the art of writing and the various

kinds of characters, as also

those treatises which

were only

designed to be commentaries on the Confucianist canonical scriptures.

Only those books or parts

of books are noticed

which are

specially devoted to philology,

and which show us the progress

made by
their

the Chinese in the intelligent use and cultivation of

written and spoken.

language,

Of such

treatises also, it
to describe

need scarcely be added, the following sketch pretends

or mention only a very small number, and in several cases the

accounts of the books have to be given at second-hand, the

originals being out of reach.
Still,
it

is

to be

hoped that the

imperfect outline here presented will help to give a right idea of

the

way

in

which the Chinese have studied and cultivated their

language, and will serve to correct some wrong impressions on

the subject.

Let us begin with the introduction of the art of

writing into literature.

Ilie Cultivation

of their Language by the Chinese.

21

We have,
Chinese
first

apparently, no

means
of

of learning at

what time the

began

to use writing for literary purposes.

We

know, however, that in matters

from a very early period.
ture of the

government

it

was employed

One

of the first occurrences in litera-

word shu (^)

in the sense of " writing," so far as I

^'

know,

is in

a passage of the historical classic,

Shu-ching."

The

Emperor Shun (B.C. 2255

his court.

to 2205) is there represented as giving

the following instructions with reference to the reprobates about

" Use archery to show what they are, flogging

their faults,
of the

to

make

them remember
record."
^

and writing (shu)

to

serve as a
(f|

In the reign

same sovereign the Baron I

of ceremonies,

J|)

seems

to

have drawn up a code

Penal Statutes

and

also to

have

set forth the

of the

realm for the information of

of writing occurs in the
Ep),

the

people.^

Another early mention

(:J^

historical record of the king Tai-chia

and
to,

it

also is

found

in the
'

" Shu-ching."

In the passage referred

we

are told that

^'

in the year B.C.

1753 the high minister I-yin

(^ ^)

made a
to the

writing" (f^

^ tsoshu) in which he gave excellent counsel

And
The next mention, perhaps,
to
is

new

king.

about two years afterwards the same minister

again makes a writing to congratulate the above king on his tardy

return to virtue.^
in the
''

that which occurs

It is there reto

Charge

Yue "

of the

same

treatise.

corded of the king

Wu
But

Ting (|^

-J) B.C. 1324

to

1265 that

on a certain occasion he made a writing

to his ministers.*
it

convey his instructions

is

to

be noted that the passages in the

as spurious

" Shu-ching, " just referred

to,

have been condemned

by some
Y

critics,

and there

is

some doubt

as to their geniuneness.
of the

We

know, however, that the ceremonial codes

to writing,

Hsia and
of

Yin dynasties were committed

survived the
fall of

and that parts

them

the latter.
the

But

records concerning the history

and

institutions

of

country

before

the

rise

of

the

Chou

dynasty (B.C. 1122 to 250) were even in Confucius* time very

*

Legge, Chinese Classics, Vol.

III., p.

82

" Shu-ching," chap. t.

(+ ~

Ed. by
2 3

Yuan Yuan).
LeggQ, C. C.
Large, C. C.
III.,

pp. 47, 595; " Shu-ching," chaps,

iii.,

xix.

III., pp. 199, III.,

205
* ;

''
;

Shu-ching, " chap.

x.

viii.

Legge, C. C.

pp. 250

Shu-ching, " chap.

22
scanty.

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese,

The

tablets of

wood and bamboo on which

lost.

these were

written were liable to be

They were

also occasionally stolen

or defaced by officials whose projects they were likely to thwart.

Hence, when search was made among them, they were often
found
deficient.

Among

the

official class,

writing seems to have been in comof the

^ mon

use under the early rulers

(

Chou

dynasty.

They had

a,

Secretary

r|

^ ssu-slm), who was in charge of the state archives,

of all public receipts
to

and had control

official

and expenditures.

Another

was appointed

keep

foils,

or duplicates, of all registers,

census returns, and maps, and he had to examine and verify the
public returns and accounts.

There was

also

one whose duty

was

to record

on wooden tablets the name, sex, age and birthTutors were appointed

place of each individual in his jurisdiction.

for the king's sons,

and one

of the subjects

which they had

is,

to

teach was the

''

Liu-shu," or Six Writings, that

the characters
seenpi

in their six-fold classification.

In

this the

Chou kings

to

have followed the custom of the dynasty they subverted.^ Another institution which the Chou rulers seem to have taken from their predecessors was that of State Interpreters. These had not only to translate the messages of the barbarian chiefs into
Chinese, and the
strange visitors
:

commands

of the

king into the dialects

of the

they had

also to teach these last

how

to

perform

their parts in the various state ceremonies in

which they were

required to act while at the royal court.

Moreover, in the seventh

year, after a royal progress, the State Interpreters were all

sum-

moned

to court in order to

have the various

dialects

compared and
this,

the king's orders harmonized.

In the second year after

the

blind musicians and the annalists of the state were collected at the
capital *'to

compare the written characters and hear the pronuncia-

tion"

(M

^^^M'm)'

Of the State Interpreters there were

There were the Chi (^) for the barbarians Hsiang the of the East, (^) for those of the South, the Tih-ti the West, and the /(|f ) for those of the North. (ilt IS) for those of
at first four classes.
1

Biot's

"Le
,

Tcheou-Li," T.

I.,

pp. 129, 132, 296

^ H,

chaps,

vi.,

vii.,

xiv.

^ ^^

Introduction.

Thh GultivaUon of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.
all

28
official

But

in

this period the

general designation for

Hiiimig-h>iii.

the

interpreters

was Ilsiang or

It

was the policy

of the

Chow

rulers to extend their dominion towards the South,

tribes of that quarter that they

and

it

was with the

had most intercourse.

Southern peoples

Hence the designation

came
to

of the interpreters for the

be given to

all classes of state interpreters.

its

In process of

time the term Hsiang was in

to

turn supplanted by /, which

came

mean

to translate generally

from one language into another.

It will be observed that this last is the only one of the four words

which actually supposes the use

preting between

of speech in the

work

of inter-

the

Chinese

at

the capital and their various

neighbours.^

In

this period colleges

existed at

all

official

centres,

and

schools of various kinds were to be found generally throughout

the country.

Books were written and

libraries formed, though, it

must be presumed, only on a small

were few and
writing,
insufficient,

scale.

The

written characters

much

time was wasted in the process of

and the materials used were rude and clumsy.

is

There

one treatise on the language which has at least a

show
first

of claim to be referred to this period.

The

''

Urh-ya '*

so-called Chinese dictionary

has

the

been by vague tradition

of

no early origin referred

to the

very beginning of this dynasty,

it

Chow Kung
his

being supposed to have composed

for the use of

it

nephew Cheng Wang.

And though
much

the work as

has come

down

to us is evidently of a
is

later period

than the twelfth

century B.C., yet there

reason for believing in the early exist-

ence of a treatise with this name.

refer to such a

Confucius

is

supposed to

work in a passage which occurs

asks

in the

Ta

Tai's

" Li-chi.'^

The Duke Ai
:

him about

''

small distinctions,'' and

is

Confucius says

" The

'

Urh-ya,' in studying antiquity,

enough
In

for the discrimination of language."

this passage

But the context shows that

would

at least

admit of a different rendering.

is

an earlier work we find what

beginning of the
1

apparently a quotation from the

treat the
xxxiv.,

'*

Urh-ya,'' and
Li,"

we may with some reason

Biof,

"Le Tcheou
It
|G,

T.
iii.

II.,

pp. 407, 435; " Chow-li," chaps,

xxxvii., xxxviii.;

chap.

(^

%\\).

24
first

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

part of the book as compiled during this period.

his disciple

We find

Confucius and

Tzu-Hsia credited with the composiIt

tion or enlargement of the treatise.

of

was plainly not the work

one

man

or one time,

and there may have been in early times

a small beginning to which Confucius and others long afterwards

made
rather

great additions.
is

This treatise
a

not,

properly speaking,
It

dictionary,

but

Thesaurus or vocabulary.

gives

the

terms and
life,

phrases used in the old classics and also those of

common

though

it

does not represent the store of words in existence at

its

the time (or times) of

compilation.
to

The

subjects are classified

is

under nineteen categories,

(

each of which there

a chapter.

These are explanations of old terms, synonyms, buildings, music,

heaven, earth, water, birds, plants, and other indefinite genera.

From
that
it

the study of the

work we learn that

was
rich
in

at the time

it

was

composed

the

language

some departments, and

nearly or quite synof the

contained

many terms which were

dijBPerent in

onymous though

origin.

Many

words in

it

have long ago fallen out

peculiar to dialects.

of use,

and some were, perhaps, only

*'

The phrase Urh-ya means

an attempt

approaching
standard
is

the perfect," that

is,

to give the correct or

terms and phrases of the language.

But the work

of
its

not in
it

any degree and

critical.

Its value lies chiefly in the

view

gives

of the vocabulary in existence at the time

compilation,

in

its

being an

early attempt

to

reduce the language to

order.
*'

Wylie, however, who

dignifies the title

it

by the translation

Literary Expositor," says

"

is

a dictionary of terms used in

is

the classical and other writings of the same period, and

great importance in elucidating the meaning of such words." usefulness has been

of
Its

much

increased by the labours of a series of

learned commentators, some of

whom

will

appear below.

It
re-

was long ago made a Ching (g) or canonical work, and

garded as a
sort of

appendix to the

classic

on

Filial Piety.

Though

not so highly prized now,

it is still

treated with respect

and quoted as an authority by native scholars. In the reign of king Hsiian (B.C. 827 to 782) the court

The Oultivation of
annalist

their

Language hy

the Chinese. of writing.

25
This

Chow (g)

invented a

new system

Ta-chuan or Great Seal character. The term chuan (^), however, is also said to mean " record," as if ch^uan (j|f), because this kind of writing was to be capable
as the
of

became known

recording

everything for ever.

Chow, who

is

often called

Shih-chow

{^

@),

is

said to

have written a

treatise in fifteen

chapters, sometimes called the

chow's Fifteen

Chapters."

"Ta-chuan" and sometimes "ShihThis work survived the fires of

Ch'in, but in the troubled period of

Wang

Mang's usurpation

six

chapters were

lost.

The remaining nine

lived on for a few ages

and gradually disappeared.

were preserved

A numbe-of the characters, however,

and were used as specimens
of

in other treatises of writing.

Chow's system
to

These characters are sometimes said

be merely altered forms of those called "tadpole;" they were

in

some

respects like,

and in others unlike, the old systems

of

writing {Kti-wen).

And
it

although Chow's system was an im-

provement on
to

these,

did not supersede them.

They continued

be used, at least for literary purposes, down to the end of this

period.

siderable

But Chow's invention had the effect of producing a connumber of new characters, and of restricting to a small
Yet growth in
is

extent the applications of those already existing.

number

said to

have been followed by an increase in the

misuse of characters.

These were written in many very different

to

manners throughout the kingdom, and the sounds given

varied
also.

them

One

state

wrote and pronounced in one way,

so,

another in another way, and

towards the end of this dynasty,

the language, written and spoken, was in a state of great uncertainty

and confusion.^
the Prince of Ch*in

When

China (B.C. 221) he

order and certainty.

set himself to

(^) was settled on the throne make reforms and bring

of

in

This proud, ambitious sovereign,

Huang

Ti,

wished

to

make
;

his reign the beginning of a

Ch4n Shi new state

* "Han-Shu," chap. xxx. Chu Fu-tzii writes to a friend chap. xv. that the " Urh-ya" was a compilation of the explanations and definitions given by the scholars of former and contemporary times made into a book, but that it has inaccuracies and cannot be regarded as old (^ 7^ d^ "i' fff

^^

^H

^^

chap,

lii,

26

The Cultivation of their Language hy

whole country.

the Chinese.
to

of affairs for the

He

wanted the Chinese

bury

their dead past

and begin

life

again as one nation, to be one

of

people, speaking the

writing.

same language and using the same kind

But

to effect his

purposes he used measures which were

barbarous and in the end only partially successful.

The check

which he gave
it

to the progress of learning did

not last long, and

was followed by a reaction which more than undid what he

had done.
end

But

in one thing, at least,

he succeeded, for he put an

to the use of the old styles of writing

the Kic-wSn, though

Ti's time eight

the canonical writings were long afterwards reprinted in their

original characters for scholars.

In Shi

Huang

kinds of writing, called the Pa-t'i {/\ H), were current. These were (1) the Ta-chuan i^-)^ ^) or Great Seal (2) the Hsiao'
;

chuan (>^
semblance

^)
to

Tallies; (4) the

(^Ij ^), Carved Ghung-shu (|| ^), Insect Writing, from its rethe traces of birds and insects (5) Mu-yin (^ fp),

or Small Seal;

(3)

the K'S-fu

characters used for seals; (6)

notices,
etc.
;

Shushu (^ ^), used

^), used

for official

(7) Shii-shu

for inscriptions

on weap-

ons; (8) Li-shu

offices.

(^

^), the square, clear writing for use in public

the
first

Of

these,

and second alone were used

for the

ordinary writing on tablets of wood and bamboo.

But Shi Chow's

writing had been found to be too complicated for

poses.

common
Ssii

pur-

So a simplified form

of

it

was devised by Li
Ti.

(^

^),

a Minister of State to Shi

Huang

It

was

this minister
kill

who

advised the

Emperor

to

burn the books and

to posterity with a

the scholars.

Hence he has come down

acknowledged as a

bad name, though

man
to

of learning

and

abilities.

The

style of

writing which he introduced, called the Small (or ChHn) Chuan,

was developed

in a

book

which he gave the name " Ts'ang-chie "

(^

rH)-

-^to^t ^^6 same time another scholar wrote a work called

the " Yuan-li"

(^ g), and a third composed the "Po-hsio" (ff Kao Chao ^). (|g Jg) was the author of the former treatise, and Hu Mu Ching (gg flr g^) of the latter. These three works,
which formed a
*'

treatise
''

called the
all

"San-ts'ang"

(^ ^)

or

Ts'ang-chie-pien,

were

written in the Small Seal characters,

to

which they gave a temporary popularity.

The Gultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.

27

But

these, thougli invented expressly to facilitate the transstill

action of public business, were

a cumbrous, inconvenient

way

of recording.

A
is

great improvement on

them was made

writing.

by the invention
of the Pa-t'if

of the Li-shu, or Official

Hand, the eighth

which

the parent of the

modern

invention
also

is

usually attributed to
official of

Cheng Mao
Shi

(jg
Ti.

The who ^),

was a distinguished

Huang
of the

Tradition

represents him as working out his system while undergoing

unjust imprisonment by the

command

Emperor.

It is

said that the latter, on perusing the^two thousand characters in

which the new system was taught, released the author and
restored

him

to office.
this period of

It is

from

Ch^n Shi Huang Ti

(^)
is

that the use

of the

term

tzl (if) or

"character" dates, and the change in

said to have been brought

name from win (^)

Mao. Hitherto,
pictorial
all

or shu

about by the modes of writing invented by Li Ssii and Ch'eng

inscriptions

and engravings had been mainly

chief
office,

or symbolic, expressing, as their

only

objects or ideas, but

And

it

now sounds also began to receive attention. may be mentioned in passing that the introduction of
pih (^),
for writing purposes,
is

hair-pencils,

generally as-

cribed to Shi

Huang Ti's

general,

Meng

T^ien

(^

^).

It

seems

probable, however, that, as some writers think, such pencils

were known in various parts

time,

of

China before Meng T^ien's

and that he only made improvements and brought the

pencils into use in his

si.

own

native land, Ch'in, the

modern ShenIn the

In support of this view the **Li-Chi" and ''Urh-Ya" are

jpih.

quoted as showing an early use of the character

former we read that on a certain state occasion "the annalist

has charge of the pencil,
'^

that

is,

writing
is

(^

JJ ^).

The

" Urh-Ya " simply

3^).

tells

us that pu-luh

called pih

The term pu-luh

its

(or lih) is said to

;

(;}; f^ || ;^ be only the sound pih

resolved into

elements

but

it is

also described as the

is,

name

which the pencil had in the

region.

Wu

country, that

the Soochow

It is agreed, however, that after

Meng

T'ien's time the

28

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chin ese.

name

for the pencil in his State

became the general

one,

and

it

has continued to he so

down

to the present.^

To the reign
a work
is

of Shi
''

called the

Haang Ti is Small Urh-Ya"

referred the compilaHon of

{t]^

a treatise in thirteen sections, and

(

is

This |i 3| or >], J|). generally ascribed to

It is only a small

K'ung Fu JL

Sfi))

a descendant of Confucius.

outline vocabulary, perhaps intended to form a supplement to

the large *^Urh-ya/'

The use

of the

word Kuang (^), '^expand-

ing," at the head of ten of the sections, seems to lend support

to this view.
sections,

It is also strengthened

by the

fact that the last

on weights and measures, supply information on sub-

jects left out of the larger treatise.^

But there does not seem

to

have been any thorough and

its

methodical study of the language, any critical survey of

quantity and quality until the time of the

Han

dynasty.

The

period which bears the

name
first

of this dynasty,

extending from

B.C. 205 to A.D. 220,

literary greatness.

is

regarded as the birth-time of China's

impulse to the study of the language

The

came from the awakened

history, social

interest in the old

books of song,

and

political institutions,

and philosophy.

These

having been hidden to escape the

fires of Ch'in,

were brought

back into the light

of

day

in the early part of this period.

The

writing on the tablets which constituted these books was

now
So
to

hard to make out, and there were many various readings.

at first the attention of students

was given almost exclusively

the composition and meaning of the written characters.

arose the sayings of

Hence

men

in after times to the effect that the

Han

scholars

acters.

knew the meaning but not the sounds of the charWith them the great object was to settle a disputed
in the old classics.

reading, restore a genuine text, or give the original sense of a

term or phrase

And

from their

tinje

down

the study of the language in China has been intimately associated with that of the early canonical literature.
*

"

Shuo.Wen," Pref.
:

^ ^, Pref. X ^ |^ ^,
;
;

chap.

iii.

Edkins, Int. to
;

Ch. Chars., p. 142

chi," ft
3

" Yuan-chieu-lci-lian," chap. cciv.

v.
;

| Jl

"

Urh-ya," chap.

^0 ^. chap. xxi. " Li" Wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao," chap, clxxxix.

The />

jJI

in the " Han-wei-tsung-shu."

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

29
is

The

''

Urh-ya," of which mention has been made above,

with good reason supposed to have been

otherwise improved during this period.

much enlarged and

little

But

or nothing
of this

seems to be known with certainty about the fortunes

book

until

we come

to the

Chin dynasty.

Among
guage

the writers on subjects connected with the lan-

in the early part of this period

was Ssu-ma Hsiang-ju

This man, more famed

(%

ft iD) of the second century B.C.

for his success with

song and lyre than for his literary accomis

plishments, was a native of what

jiow Ch'eng-tu in Ssuchuan.

()\^ }|f),

He composed
treatise

work

called the

".Fan-Chiang"

a short

which has been praised for not giving the same characThis work, published about B.C. 130,
it

ter twice for explanation.

was based on the *'Ts'ang-chie-pien,'^ and in

Ssu-ma used

the style of writing introduced in that work, but he also added

new

characters.

Nearly ninety years afterwards there appeared

the " Chi-chiu-chang " (f: gg ^) by Shi in the reign of Yuan Ti (B.C. 48 to 32).

Yu (^
("j^

Jj$),

an

official

This was followed in f^

the next reign by the " Yuan-shang-pien "

^)

of

Li

Chang (^ g).
racter,

These also were written in the Small Seal chaalso apparently based

and were

on the " Ts'ang-chie-

pien."

The "

Chi-chiu,'^ or

Ready Finder, soon became popular

It

among

scholars,

and was

for a long time used as a text-book.

was often reprinted and edited with annotations by distinguished

scholars, such as Ts^ao
It appears to

Shou

("^

^) and Yen Shi-ku

style,

(||

gjg

^).

have been written in an easy

and

to

have

abounded
of the use

in old phrases, sounds,

and characters.
of the
*'

The above
Fang-yen "

three treatises are of importance, however, mainly on account

made

of

them by the compilers

the

and ^'Shuo-wen.^i

About

this period,

first

century B.C.,

we

find that the

characters in the " Ts'^ang-chie-pien" had in some places become

nearly obsolete, that

is,

few could read them correctly and underIt

;

stand their meaning.

^

was only among the men

of Ch'i, part
;

" Han-shu," chap. xxx.

;

" Wen-hsin-t'ung-k'ao," chap, clxxxix.

;

" Shno-

wen," Pref

^ ^, chap. xxi.

Wt

fl^

^ ^> chap.

iv.

80
of

The Gultiuation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

Shantung, that the true pronunciation

of the characters

and

their right interpretation remained.

So the Emperor Hsiian Ti

(B.C. 73 to 48) issued an order that the system of those scholars

should be adopted.

It

was learned from these men by Chang

official

Ch'aug (58

Si), the famous

who
all

at

home

penciled his

wife's eyebrows,

and abroad crushed

rebellion.

He was

Prefect of Ching-chao, in Shensi, B.C. 60, and ten years after-

wards

of

Chi-chow

(^

ji\),

in Chihli.

Chaog Chiang communi-

cated his learning to his children, from

whom

it

passed to his
(i^ ^i),

daughter's son.

This last taught

it

it

to his son,

Tu Lin

who committed
'^

to writing

and composed two

treatises

on the
(3|

Ts^ang-chie-pien."

in Shensi,

and held
all

office

Tu Lin was a native of Mou-ling under Kuang Wu Ti, A.D. 25

But
it

^)

to 58.^

Nearly

the works just mentioned have ceased to exist,

lived only a short time.

and some

of

them

has fared

otherwise with a famous treatise supposed to have been composed about this time, the '' Fang-yen, " to wit. This work is
ascribed to

Yang Hsiung
to

(j:g

(or

^)

J|),

known

also as

Yang
lived

Tzu-yun (-^ ^), a native of Ch'eng-tu, in Ssiichuan,

from B.C. 52
^^(^

who

A.D.

18.

In childhood, Yang, who was a quiet,

thoughtful boy, was troubled with an impediment in his speech.

He had

a strong love for learning and was specially fond of

the writings of Ch'ii

addition to his better

Yuan (^ jg) and Ssii-ma Hsiang-ju. In known works on philosophy he compiled

its

a treatise usually cited by

full,

short title " Hsiin-tsuan

" in

"Ts'ang-chie-hsuan-tsuan"
Ssu's

(^

|||

^).

In

this

Yang

made Li

work the
all

basis,

but he made

many
of a

additions and

corrections, the result of

wide reading and

comparison of
5,

terms culled from

parts of the empire.

of

In A.D.

above a

hundred

scholars,

under the presidency

Yuan Li (^
to *^).

assembled in the Imperial palace at Ch'^ang-an

symbolic and phonetic writings"
their discussions

||), were " explain the

(^

The

results of
of

were used by Yang, as were also the works

;

" Shuo^ " Han-shu," chap, xxx.; " Wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao," chap, clxxxix. wen," Pref. Some take the "Ch'i-jen" (^ A) as referring to an unknown
individual

see

Tuan

Yii-tsai's

Commentary

in

S.

W., chap. xv.

1^

:fe

^,

chap. X7.

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

31

Tu Ye

{ij^

^), father

of

Ta

Lin, of

Yuan Li

the

chief
j).

among
fame

the students of the language, and of Ch'in Chin

(^

But the book which has given Yang Hsiung

in later times
is

his chief

the " Fang-yen."

Native scholars have tried

in vain to find out

how and why

the authorship of this treatise

came to be ascribed to him. It is not mentioned in the list of books in the " Han-shu/' nor in the life of Yang Hsiung in that
work, nor, so far as
is

known, dees Hsii Shen or any other

of

Yang's contemporaries refer to the book by name.

pendix to the "Fang-yen" two
letters are found,

As an

ap-

one from Liu

Hsin

(gij

^)

to

Yang, and the other the reply

to this.

From
safely

these two letters, and the facts above mentioned,

we may

adopt the opinion that the " Fang

the life-time of Yang.
to

Yen " was

gjj)

not published in

The

first

writer to ascribe the authorship

him was apparently Ying Shao (j^

who

lived in the

In the preface to his famous treatise, " Feng-su-t'ung-i, " Ying makes mention of Yang as the author But though of a treatise which is evidently the " Fang-yen."
second century of our era.

he even quotes from Yang's

the

letter to

Liu Hsin, he does not give

name

of the treatise.

From
The

his time

down to

the end of the

twelfth century there seems to have been no difference of opinion as to the authorship.
tradition
first

to challenge the truth of the

was

Hung

Mai (gt jg),

who

lived

A.D. 1123

to 1203.

His arguments against the genuineness of the book are founded

chiefly

on the supposed irregular use of certain characters, and

is made by But theoe arguments

on the fact that no mention of Yang's authorship

himself or by others of the same period.

have been answered by later students, and they have not shaken
the learned belief in the general tradition.

As we have it, the

is

"

Fang-yen"

is

in thirteen chapters
it is

and

said to contain 12,000 characters, but

fifteen chapters

supposed to have

been originally in
characters.

and

to

have had only 9,000

to its sources.

The full title,^ here given in the foot-note, points During the two dynasties which immediately
officials

preceded the Han, certain

the

*'

light carriage

envoys"

%'

32

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese,

were

sent periodically to visit the various states subject or

tributary to China.
different

Their duty was to observe and note the

ways
of

of speech,

and manners, and popular sayings,

to court they

and ballads
passed.

the towns and districts through which they

When they returned

At
had ceased, and

made

reports which

were put on record.

practice

the time of the

Han

dynasty the

in the first century B. C.

:

most of the

tablets containing the reports were lost

even the nature of the

duties of the "light carriage envoys"

But attention was

of
Hp).

was almost forgotten. them by the labours of a recluse Ssuchuan, by name Chuang {al. Yen ig) Chun-p^ng (^ ;g*
recalled to

He

compiled from the old records a vocabulary of more

ffi) al.

than 1,000 words, and Lin Lii (;^

J^^

Weng
made

(or

Kung ^)

(^

*? in); ^^s^ ^ native of Ssiichuan,

in Ssttchuan he

a summary.

While Yang was

with
Liij
Lii,

came

into very close relations

and, liking his

mode

of procedure, he

adopted

it

for his work.

Thus he not only used the extracts available

of

from the reports

former "light carriage envoys," but he also

investigations
collecting

instituted similar

himself.

For twenty-seven
his

years

he went on
as the

and arranging
to

materials,
still

and died,
unfinished.

book seems

show, with his work

The " Fang-yen "

large

is

mainly a comparative vocabulary of a

number

of the terms

and phrases used

in different states

and
a

districts.

It tells the areas within

which certain names and

also
it is

forms of expression prevailed.

dictionary, explaining the

To some extent
meaning

simply

of certain terms,

and

giving synonyms.

It does not give the

sounds of the characters

or any attempt at an analysis of them.

learn

From

it,

however,

we

many

of the dialectical varieties

which existed in the

first

century B. C, and

how

certain words

and phrases
words
in

of that time
it

have to be understood.
since

Many
text,

of the

have long

become

obsolete, or

have continued
as

to live only in the small

it

circuit of a dialect.

The

we have

now,

is

supposed

to differ considerably from that left

is

by Yang, and the work

said to have suffered otherwise in the course of transmission.

I'he Cultivation of their

Language hy

the Chinese.

33

But the zealous labours

of

Kuo

P'o aud other editors have

made

the "

Fang-yen " a standard authority on the language in

the time of the Former

Han

dynasty.^

{^^ M
chung
of

The next work to be noticed is the " Shuo-wen-chie-tsii" ^)> best known by its short title '' Shuo-wen/' The
'|^),

author of this was Hsii Shen (ff

with the second name Shu-

(^

;g),

who was

a native of Shao-ling

(Q

|^) in the south

Honan.

He

lived about the

end

of the first

aud the begin-

ning of the second

his birth for

century of our era,

to

but the precise dates of

and death do not seem

time, but he

be recorded.
life

He

held

office

some

had retired from public

and was

living

at

A.D. 121.

home when his death took place, which was apparently about The ^'Shuo-w^n'' was finished in A.D. 99, and in
But the work was

the next year Hsii composed the preface.

not published until A.D. 121,

(\^)

when
it

the author's son Ch'ung

P^^

i^

i^ order

and presented

with a memorial to the

Emperor An.

Hsu Shen was

of his country,

a devoted student of the orthodox literature

for

and was famous among his contemporaries

his great learning.

The

old texts of the canonical books

which

had been brought from

was

their graves in the early period of this

rise to

dynasty had, as has been stated, given

It
to help in settling doubts

m^ch

controversy.

and

difficulties
^'

about these that

HsQ composed
animadverted.
his
'^

his first treatise, the

Discussions of Variations

in the Five Ching'' It

(5

g^
like

fg),

on which Cheng Hsuan

was with a

end in view that Hsii prepared

Shuo-wen,'' the long labour of his last years.

For the making

of this

he studied, with the help of Chia K'uei

(^ ^), He

one of

the greatest of the

Han

scholars, all the accessible literature in the

old characters and in those invented in later times.

compared

the texts of the recovered tablets, collected inscriptions on ancient

vases,

and examined the writings

of his predecessors, such as

Shi

Chow, Li Ssu, and Yang Hsiung.

'mm^^ mf^mmmm:^mr wn.jmg.uen

^,
Preface; "Han-shu," chaps, xxx., Ixxxvii.
;

- edition);

m f&

" Wen-hsien-t'ung.k'ao," chap,

clxxxix.;

Edkins, Int. Ch. Characters, Appendix; " Shuo-w^n," Preface.

34

The GuUivation of their Language hy

the Chinese.

"wen

For the characters to be explained, the author of the '* Shuo" used the Small Seal kind of writing, and for the explanahe used the Li (^) writing. The work is divided into chapters (or books), and there are 10,600 characters
These are arranged under 540
classifiers, called also

tions

fourteen

explained.

Primitives and Radicals, beginning with one,

things.

the origin of

all

The

subjects which the Dictionary embraces are, accord-

ing to Hsii Cheung, the literature of the country, heaven and earth,

demons and
nature,

spirits,
all

hills

and streams, vegetable and animated

and
his

the affairs of men.

to

The author seems

to

have

meant
right

work

be mainly an authority for the true texts and

treatises

meanings
it

of cerain

regarded as canonical.

For

these

was

to

shuo-wen, state or explain the symbolic writing,

analyse
it

and

chie-tsii,

the

phonetic characters.

Some
mere

of

the

explanations which

gives to characters

seem

to be

trifling,

and the work can scarcely be considered

logical value.

as one of great

etymoall

Nor

is

it

to

be regarded as an index to
its

the

characters in use at the time of

feelings of reverence those

compiling.

It leaves out

through
of

which entered

into the

names

Han

emperors, and even in the author's

own
for,

preface are characters

which are not given in the dictionary.

to solve all the difficulties

Nor

does the work profess

as the author states,
to leave as

which occur,

in

some places he found doubts which he had

is

he found.

The '^Shuo-wen"
and a clue

of interest chiefly as the earliest

Chinese dic-

tionary extant which attempts to give an analysis of characters

to their sounds.

It

is

consequently a record of at least

a part of the language as used for literary and other purposes

before the end of the

first

century of our era.

The

analyses of

characters which

it

gives are doubtless those which

had most

authority at the time of the compiler, and the indications of the

sounds given to them are of value

to the

student of the language

of the characters

and

literature.

But

it

was with the writing

and

with their original or supposed original meaning that Hsii was

chiefly concerned.

It

is

for

what he achieved

in these matters
scholars.
as
it

that his

work has been highly prized by native

which forms chuan 15
of

The
was

preface also,

the treatise

The Cultivation of
published,
is of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

35

great value for the information

it

gives about the

book and about the cultivation of the language up to the author's

time.

The

*'

Shuo-wen " has always been

in high esteem

among
for

native scholars,
of the

who

regard

it

as necessary to the understanding

it,

books which were written before

and as the standard

those which have been written sinse.

While many
still

of its successors

have long ago

authority.
scholars,

died, the

"Shuo-wen''

lives

and has

its

old

It has served also as a text

of

on which many later

some

whose works

will appear below,

have discoursed

with various learning.^

Another

treatise

Han period is
his

the

*'

which illustrates the language of the Latter Shi-ming " (^2) or Name Explainer. This
(gij).

was compiled by a man whose surname was Liu

He

gives

name

as

Hsi

(EB), but others call

him Chen (^) apparently,

or Hsi (^),

and his second name was Cheng-kuo (j^ ^).

is

He

was, according to one account, a native of what

now

Ch*ing-

chow

(^

*m), in Shantung,

and he lived in the

latter part of the

second century of our era.

He

wrote a commentary on Mencius,

and was apparently a good scholar.

The "Shi-ming"
chuan.

is

a vocabulary and dictionary of words

distributed under twenty-seven headings,

and divided into four

The

first

category

is

Heaven, and then we have Earth,

Death and Mourning.

are mainly terms in

Mountains, Water, Food, Clothing, and others, the last being The " names " given under these headings

common

use,

and the explanations were

the unlearned.

evi-

dently intended, as the author

tells us, for

The

analyses and meanings are not convincing, and sometimes they

appear to be almost comical.

give help to the student.

But many of them are curious and The author explains /aw^ (g), a house,
is,

hy pang (^), the

the court.
is

side,

because dwelling-houses are on each side of

A well is ching (^), that

it is

chHug

(}||),

pure.

An island
(

tao

(^), because

a place to which
is

men

go, tao

Ji|),

for

shelter.

fatheVj/u (^),
life
;

fa

("J),

the beginning, because he

(flr), is

starts the

baby in

and a mother,

mu

7nao (gf ) to cover,

;

^ if ^. ed. by Kuei Fu-hsio and Tuan Yu-tsai Mayers' Ch. R. M., No. 202; Chalmers in Ch. Rev., V., p. 296, IX., p. 297; Edkins' Int. Ch. Chars., '* Hou-han-shu," chap. Ixxix. p. 151
;

^X

36

The Cultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.

because she covers the baby in her womb.

yi'i

Sii (f),

common,

is

(g)^),

to

want, what the

common

people

wan to

Such popular

etymologies as these gave those for

to the

whom

they were designed a clue

sounds of the characters, and at the same time supplied a

life.

reason for the use or meaning of the words of daily

The meanUnscientific

ing

is

generally right, though the reason

is

wrong.

derivations of words are not of teu correct, and

some

of those in the

" Shi-ming " remind us

of like ones at

home.

The

origin of the

word anchoress,
suit the

for example, as given

by an

old writer,
is

would quite

author of this book.

The anchoress

told

"

for thi

an ere

is

icleoped ancre and under chirche i-ancred, ase ancre under

schipes borde."
to
is

The

''

Shi-ming " does not seem

^*

to

be indebted

any

of its predecessors except perhaps the

it

Urh-ya," which

mentioned in

by name.

It is often quoted

by

later writers,

but apparently in the enlarged edition to be noticed presently.^

In addition to those here noticed there were several other

scholars of the

Han

period

who made

a study of the language.

(,g JJ) and his great disciple Ch^ng Hsiian (g(5 ^) al. Cheng Kang-ch*eng (j^ J5^). These, however, devoted themselves mainly to the old canonical literature, and

Such were

Ma Yung

it

was only with a view

to the elucidation of the

orthodox texts

that they studied the language.

From

the writings of these

glory to this

and the many other scholars who gave

ness and polish.
clearness
It

its literary

dynasty, the language acquired a considerable degree of exact-

became a medium
social

of

expressing with
political facts

and precision not only

and
their

and

doctrines, but also the nice refinements of literary criticism.

The characters already

characters were added.

in existence

had

meanings defined

according to the uses of classical authorities, and

many new

Long before the time

ever,

at

which we have now arrived, howhave their sacred books translated

Buddhist missionaries had comb from India and settled

in China.

down
and
^

In order

to

their religion

propagated in the country, they had to learn

)
;

^ J^
xviii.

(in "

Han-Wei-tsung-shu"

" Hou-han-shu," chap. Ixxx.,

j ^gW,

chap,

The Cultivation of
its

their

Language by

the Chinese.

37

language.

This must have appeared to them,

when com-

pared with their own, barbarous and ungainly, and incapable

of

reproducing accurately either the sounds or the teachings of

their books.

They accordingly
it

tried to introduce their

own
this

alphabet and have

brought into use in China, but in

they completely failed.

They succeeded, however,

in teaching
to

the Chinese, or at least in giving popularity

art of spelling, which,

among them
is

an

though rude and inaccurate,

better
-QIX

than none.

This

is

the procedure

known

as Fan-ch'ie

(R

horn fanJ to turn back, and chHsj to rub, an appropriately hazy

designation.

By
;

this

method the sound

of a character is given

by two other

characters, of which one forms the initial

and the
as to
final.

other the final

these two are manipulated in such a

way

yield the sound required, the tone being given

by the

The

process was at

first

called fan
ch^ie

was taboo and unlucky,

(R), and when this character was substituted but this was in
:

time replaced by the phrase

now

in use.

It appears, also, that

before any of the foreign missionaries

scholars
chHe.

came

into

China

its

had

to

some extent a system

of spelling like the /a?i-

Many instances of this are given, and it is probable many more might be added. One or two examples may be
presented.
tj),

that

here

The word p^o

(|p),

cannot, was spelled pu-k'o

(^

as the character p'o in the old writing indicates, the cha-

racter being self-spelling,

and
;

self-explaining.

So

also ho

(^)

was spelled by ho-pu (jp( /[i) and chu (g) by cM-hu (^ ^). The first marking and describing of the four tones at a later
date,

and the

classification of

human sounds according

The times
at

to the

physical organs employed in their production, are also generally

attributed to Buddhist missionaries.

which the

above steps were taken cannot be exactly determined, nor,

apparently,
is

any one

of the innovations uniformly associated

with any particular individual.

originated with Buddhist

All that

we

learn

is

that they

monks from

India, or at least obtained

currency through their teaching.^

'

|i^

f^

^,

chap,

iii.j

m S ^, " Yin-lun" TC;

" Kanghsi's Dictaonary,"

Preface.

38

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.
of

We

have now arrived at the period

Chinese history

known as that of the Three Kingdoms, or San-Kuo (^ @), when the country was divided into the Han, Wei, and Wu
kingdoms.

During

this short

but troubled period, extending

from A.D. 220

advanced.

to 265, the cultivation of the

language steadily
little

Up

to this time,

we

are told, there had been

care given to the spoken words or the pronunciation of characters.

But now these matters

also

began

to be thought of

importance.
characters,

The

first,

apparently, to write on the sounds of

(Tg"

was Ts^ao Chih

to 232.

fg) al. Ts'ao Tzii-chien

(^

^),

who

lived

from 192

He was
North

a son of the famous Ts^ao

of China. But Ts'ao Chih was a poet and a student, choosing the quite pleasures of

Ts'ao, Prince of Wei, in the

learning rather than the bustling turmoil of public

life,

nor

heeding the contempt with which he was treated by his warlike

relatives.

He was

the author of a work called

The Forty-two
of

Documents

(or Tallies),

(0

-f-

^),

in

which he treated

more than 3,000 Sheng

the same time Li

(5|), or

sounds for characters.

officer of

About

Teng (^ g), a public

the

Wei king-

dom> compiled the "Sheng-lei'^

this is said to

(g

|^) in ten chapters; and

to give a classification

have been the

first

book

of characters according to their sounds.

But
is
^

it is

to

be noted

that with these two writers the term

Sheng

used generally,

and not in the

In

restricted sense of " tone.''

this period

we have

also the

well-known

treatise called

"Kuang-ya'' (|f 3|) or "Po(t|)-ya." This was compiled by Chang I (g Jg), of the Wei kingdom, about the year 265. It is
a supplement to the "Urh-ya," the authorship of which work

Chang, in his Memorial

to the

Throne, ascribes to
classified

Chow Kung.
it

The "Po-ya''

is little

more than a large

vocabulary with

occasional short

comments

or descriptions.
is

As we have

now,

the pronunciation of most of the characters

the

given, but this

was

work

of

an editor in the Sui period, whose name was Ts^ao

Hsien (ig
1

,^).

The pronunciation
(^
1^

is

sometimes given in the/awi.

"Li-shi^yin-chien"

ffi),

chaps,

and

ii.;

"Yun-hsio"

{^ ^);

" Ku.shi," etc.

" Yin-lun "

The Cultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.

39

chHe way, and often by one word.

The

pairs of characters thus

represented as like in sound are occasionally interesting to observe.

Thus, for example, the character

as like

now

called

tvmg (^)
It

is

given

kung (^)

in sound,

and

this helps us to

understand

why
this

these two characters are found to be interchanged.

was

same

editor

who

in the

order to avoid using the

dynasty.
'^P'i

In addition

name of the book changed Kuang to Po in name of the Emperor Yang of the Sui to the " Po-ya," Chang I wrote also the

ku" (H

Ts'ang" (J^ ^), in three c^wrtn; the '' San-ts^ang-hsiinfll IS)> i^ three chuan ; jxndi two other treatises, all

on subjects connected with the language.

He is

said to

have been
is

a good scholar in this branch of knowledge, and he

often

quoted, but most of his writings seem to have been lost long ago.^

The
the Chin

period of the Three

Kingdoms was succeeded by

is

that of

()

dynasty, which lasted from 265 to 419.

In

this

period the
B3),

first

name

to

be mentioned

that of

Wei Chao (:$

who was famous

to
it

as a scholar

and commentator.

He
state

edited

the ^'Shi-ming,'' and greatly enlarged the original work, specially

adding

terms relating to government

and

affairs

generally.^

Another distinguished student

of

the language about the

is

same time was Sun Yen

(^,

*^\

This scholar

better

known

by his other name, Shu-jan

accession of

(^ ^), which he had to use on the Chin Wu-ti, who also had the name Yen. Sun was

a native of Le-an

{^

$), in the present province

of

Shantung,
is

and was born

in the latter part of the

Han

period.

Hence he

variously described as of the

dynasties.

Han, "Wei (San-Kiio) and Chin

of the teachings of

He

was a follower
Sun, who

Cheng Kangnative place,

his con-

ch'eng,
also

who

spent the last years of his

life at his

in

Shantung.

was celebrated among

temporaries for his great learning, was the author of several

treatises

on the old

classics.

Among them was

'^

one on the " Urh-

ya," in six chuan, and called

this
i

Urh-ya-yin-i

''

(^

Jf

^ ^).

In

he seems

to

have used the fan-chHe

'

spelling,

and some

^^

(in

" Han-Wei-tsung-shu "

to " Sbi-ming."

WSn.hsien-t'ung-k'ao," chap, clxxxix.

'^

Appendix

40

The Cultivation of their Language hy the Chinese.

was the
first

writers assert that he

native author to adopt that

editors of

method.
the
''

This treatise was

it

much used by subsequent

Urh-ya," but

cannot be said to have held a high place in

native esteem.^

The
period by
is

first

addition to the *'Shuo-wen^^ was

made

in this

Lii

Sh^n

(g
of

f^), a native of Jen (f), a town in

what

now

the Prefecture of

was a contemporary
but he
is

Yenchow, in Shantung. Lii Shen, who Sun Yen, was an official and a scholar,
as the compiler of the
^'

chiefly

remembered

Tzu-lin "

(^

^)
one,

or

Grove

of Characters.
six,

This

is
;

variously spoken of as in

three,

five,

or

seven chuan
to

or as in five chapters

(pienj.

It

was intended

be a supplement to the '^Shuoin it

wen," and many characters were given

which had been

left

out from the "Shuo-wn,'' either designedly or otherwise.

These

characters were derived from various sources, but mainly from the
old tablets and those in the Great Seal writing, and they were

new and unknown

soon came to take

to the scholars of this time.

its

The "

Tzii-lin"

place as an appendix to the " Shuo-wen,"

and
''

to

be regarded as a good authority.

of

Some
The

scholars have
of

even maintained that the text

the modern editions

first to

the

Shuo-wen,"

is

indebted to this work.

enrich the

"Tzu-lin" with notes and comments was a Buddhist monk,

Yun

Sheng

(^

^), but

little is

known
it

of

him

or his work.

The "Tzii-

lin," however, has been often reprinted,

and great additions have

to find.^

been made

to the text,

but

has long been hard

younger brother

of Lii Shen,

by name Ching (^), was

also a scholar

and a writer on the language.

He

compiled the

*'Yun.chi'^ (||
in five chuan.
lei

^),

called also "Chi-yun," or Collection of Finals,

This book, which was founded on the "Sheng-

" of Li T^ng, had the characters arranged according to the

musical notes.
It
is

five yin, or

in this work, according to

some

writers, that the expression

Yun-shu (^ ^), Book

its

of Finals, first

occurs; and the

1

first

use of yun in
;

restricted sense oi final is

in Sun's
2
*'

" Li-ahi-yin-chien," chap. " |1^ name ; " Shang-yu-lu," chap. iv.

|fll,

chap. 1^, where

is

used for

^
1. j

W^u-hsien-t'ung-k'ao," chap, clxxxix.

i.

H ^, chap.

;g

^ J^'s " Shuo-w^n," chap.

The Cultivation of
also ascribed to its author.
in this

their

Language hy

the Chinese.
first

41

But
is

others refer the

or

use of yun

technical sense to

Luh Chi

Luh Fa-yen.

On

this

point the general statement

that this use
(or
of

perhaps the correct one, to wit,

the character yun began in the Chin

after the

Sung

Chin Wei) period, or

middle of the third century

of our era.^

Contemporary with the above was Luh Chi

(^
of

ij^)

aL

Luh
His

Shi-heng
life,

^), ( j^ which lasted only from 261

he found time
to live.

the ill-fated poet, soldier, and scholar.

to 303,

was one

worry and

distress, yet

to write

above 200 chnan, which were

thought worthy

In one

of his writings the

word yun

is

found contrasted with wen, the spoken word with the written
character.

Some

writers, as
its

has been stated, regard

Luh Chi

as

the

first to

use ytm in
greatest

technical sense.

But the
period was

among

the students of the language at this

This
iWi

Kuoh P'oh (|[S JH) al. Kuo Ching-shun (;f; |jg). man, who lived from 276 to 324, was a native of Wen-hsi
^" ^^ present province of Shansi.

S)

He was

the son of an

official

and scholar and followed his father's example.

as

But

it

was more

an astrologer, and necromancer, and alchemist that

official

he was celebrated during his lifetime than as an

scholar.

or a

He was

from youth a lover

of all curious learning,

and

a devoted student of early literature.

He

wrote several works

on the ancient
rests

classics,

but his fame now among native scholars

'*

mainly on his labours in connection with the " Urh-ya

Fang-yen."

and

the

'^

He

edited the text of the former and added an

illustrative

many

of

the

commentary giving the sounds and explanations of This commentary was afterwards characters.

incorporated in the edition of the " Urh-ya " produced by Hsing

Ping of the Sung dynasty, and it is still an authority. The manuscript of the " Fang-yen " was put in order and published
by Kuo, with notes which give the sounds and meanings of rare
or difficult characters.
^

Native students

still

regard this work as

" Ku-shi,"
etc.,

" Yun-hsio," chap.

i.

" Li-ahi-yin-chien," chap.

ii. ;

^ |^

"Ku-shi,

etc.,

Tm.lun;" Mayers' Ch, R,

M., No. 436; "Chin-shu," chap,

liv.


42

The Cultivation of their Language hy the Ohinese.

a text-book and as the only authoritative edition of the "

Fan-

yen^"

The

old treatise

known

as the " San-ts'ang/' noticed

above, was also edited by

Kuo and

furnished with a commentary:

and he composed other bgoks on subjects connected with the

language.^

The

extinction of the Chin dynasty in

420 was followed by

South

that division of the empire

known

as

the

and North
however,

Dynasties, which lasted to the year 588.

this period,

only the portion embraced by the Southern Dynasties

and Liang (^), extending from 479

in connection with our subject. It

to

557,

is

of

Cli^i (^) much importance

marks an epoch

in the cul-

tivation of the language,

and

is

regarded as the period in which

the study of etymology began to flourish.

The
century.

first

name

to

mention

is

that of

Chow

Yii (

Jg)

al.

Chow Yen-lun (^

j^)

who
is

lived in the second half of the fifth

of

He

was a native
but he

Ju-nan, in the province of Honan,

as an author on the

and held
language.

office,

remembered only

The

treatise ascribed to bI);

him was the "Ssii-sheng-ch'ieto the

yun" (0
Tones.

-^J

Words Pronounced According

first

Four
and

This

is

said to have been the

native work in which

distinguished,

the four tones

also

PHng, Shang, Ch*u, Ju

were

one of the earliest treatises in which the fan-chHe mode of

giving the sounds was systematically adopted.

The work was

the statements

long since
of
in

lost,

and

its

contents are

known only by

subsequent writers.
told that

Of Chow Yen-lun the well-known story

when Liang

Wu

Ti refused to recognise the four

tones, the courtly

scholar convinced

him

of

their existence

by

the expression Tien-fzu-sheng-choh

ifi

(^'c

saintly wise.

This story

is

told

also

? )> Your Majesty of Shen Yo, and of his

(gfc
l|5),

disciple

Chow
to
(fTJc

Next
Hsiu-wen
(J^
1

Shi (^ j^).2 Chow Yen-lun comes Shen Yo

3iC).

al.

Shen

The

native place of Shen was

Wu-hsing

^)
**

in the present prefecture of

Ixxii.;
;

Hu-chow, near the T'ai-hu

Chin.shn," chap.
Infc-; :)^

Mayers' Ch. R. M., No. 304;

H M)^

If ii' Pref. 2"Ku.shi, etc., Yiu-lun," hsio " ; Ma T. L., chap, clxxxix.

^
tjl

i^

^.

chap.

^S^

Sfe (i^i

vi.
ii.
;

chap.; " Li-shi-yin-chien," chap.

"Yun-

The Cultivation of
in

their

Language by
to

the Chinese

48
offices,

Chekiang.
all

He

lived from

441

513 and held various

for

but

his love through

life

was

learning and the society

of scholars.

Several historical and other works were composed

his

by him, but

fame
'^

rests chiefly

on his contributions
treatise

to

the

study of the language.

These were made in a

called

|f 1) or Record of Finals (or words) This treatise did not survive according to the Four Tones.

" Ssu-sheng-yun-pu

(0

very long, apparently, but

greatly used and

it

did not perish until

it

had been was based

had gained a High reputation.

contemporary,

It

on the
two

treatise

above mentioned by^Chow Yen-lun, and as the

men were

Shen may have derived from

Chow
is

his learning

on the

*'

four tones."

But some think

that

Sh^n was the

first to

discover these and

represented as saying that

make them known. He though men had written poetry

distinction
tell

for thousands of years they

had not noticed the

Others

which

he alone discoivered by

silent thought.

us that Shea

was the
and

first

to present in

a tabulated form a system of initials

finals

according to the

four tones.

He

is

said

to
to

have
have

adopted Chow's system of giving the pronunciation, and

illustrated
of his
it

by the rhymes

in

the " Shi-ching," adding the results

own thought and

is

reading.

The
to

following description of the

four tones

sometimes ascribed

Shen Yo, but

is

it is

perhaps

due

to a later writer.

The p'wg sheng

It

said to be sad

and even,

the sharig fierce and raised, the c7/m clear and receding, and the/w
direct

and shortened.

is

interesting to

compare

this descrip-

ti(m with those given in other places, for

example with the one

given in the Introduction to Kang-hsi's Dictionary.

objection that has been
is

One

critical

that he wished to

made made

to

Shen Yo's etymological teachings

the sounds of his native place the

standard for the empire, to regard the dialect of

Wu

as the

language of China.^

That Shen
the "four
of doubt,
1

Yo was

not the

first to

discover the existence of

tones" and mark their differences scarcely admits

notwithstanding the assertion
to

the contrary

made by
" ghang.

" Ka-shi, etc., Yin-lun,"

xvii.;
1f^

yu-lu," chap,

Baddbism,

^% p

chap.; " Li-shi-yin-chien," chap,

ii.;

Edkius' Shanghai Gr., p. 10., and Chinese

p. 112.

44

The Cultivation of their Language hy the Chinese.

or bis biographer.

him

The

distinction

was most probably

it

first

observed by the Indian missionaries, and

scholars at least in the reign of Ch'i

was known
Ti,

to native
to

Wu

A.D. 483

494.

But

the discovery was not fully recognized and adopted until the

time of Liang

"Wu

Ti,

A.D. 502

to 550.

About

this

time several

other scholars also wrote on the subject of

it

the " four tones/' and

It

soon became a popular one, though not without protests.

does uot seem to have been well known, however, to another

contemporary of Shen
This was Liu Hsie
of

Yo
(gi]

who' also became famous in

al.

literature.

Tung-kuan

(^ ^)

in

gg) (g ^), a native Ti.Shantung, in the time of Liang

Liu Yen-ho
writer,
is

Wu

He

was a great reader and a good

and some

of his
its

works
author

have been preserved.

^^Wen-hsiu-tiao-lung,"

Among
(35[ i>
is,

these

one called by

Heart

of Literature, that
is

H| H), The Carved Dragon of the the finest ornaments of the best writing.
fifty

This treatise

divided into ten chuan containing

chapters,

the last of which gives some account of the work and the origin of

the

title,

and from
is
is

it

the explanation here given has been derived.

The work
jects,

a series of essays on various literary and other subwritten in a loose, easy style.
It touches on nearly

and

every subject

known
of

at the time connected with the origin

and

development of language and literature.

Its notices of the first rise

and meaning

new

expressions are specially interesting, though

it

not always correct, and

abounds

in references to old authors.^

The next

writer on the language to

come under notice

is

Chiang Shi (Ji ^) al. Chiang Fa-an {f^ ^), a native of Chiyang [^ ^) in Honan. He was the author of the *'Ku-chinw^n-tzii "
("S"

"^

^ )>

i'l

forty chitan, published in the year

614.

Chiang was a man

In the above

of inherited literary tastes

treatise

and

of great
'*

learning.

he made

the " ShuO-wen

his

standard of authority (^), and he seems to have read with care

all

the good literature bearing on the characters.

It

was

to these

rather than to the spoken sounds that he devoted his thoughts

and reading.^
^

^ 'D 81 ft (in "Han- Wei"

Kuei Fu-haiD'i
"

Collection)
1.

Wylie, Notes on Ch. Lit., p. 197.

Shuo-w^n," ohap.

The CuUivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

45

much more famous

author, however, was

Ku Ye-wang

^^- Ku Hsi-feng (IB ff (H ^||). This man was a native of K^uu-shau (g, jl]), in the Soochow Prefecture of Kiangsu, and lived from 519 to 581. He rose to high office under the Ch'ea

dynasty, but his reputation as an

as

official

was eclipsed by his fame

his

a great scholar and an author.

is

The work with which

name
^),

most associated

is

the dictionary called " Yii-pien " (3g

in thirty chuan.

This was finished and published in 54^, but

for a long time, the

no copy of that edition has been in existence

earliest

known

edition being that published in

675 by Sun Ch'iang

{^, 5S).

The ''Yii-pien" was based on

the

"Shuo-wen" and

followed the arrangement of that dictionary, adding and omitting

characters.
stituted in

it

The current style of writing the chiai {^) was subfor the now obsolete characters used by Hsii Sh^n.
of

It

makes use

542

classifiers

(radicals),

and gives throughout

this latter

the fan-cJiHe

way
'^

of spelling.

Whether, however,

was

the work of the original compiler

left

may

at least be doubted.

As

by him the

Yii-pien

''

is

said to have been very imperfect,

omitting
in errors.

many

characters, faulty in arrangement,

and abounding

Native scholars

who may bo
to

disposed to regret the loss

of the first edition

it

may

console themselves with the reflection that

was not

so

good as the one

latter

which they now have

access.^

To the
guished man,

part of

this period belongs

another distin-

Yen
in

Chih-t^ui (|g

^)

al

He
he

was born
office

531 and lived

to the

end

of the period.

Yen Tzu-fen (:? ^). As he

But he
This

held
is

for

a considerable time under the North Ch'i rulers

generally spoken of as belonging to that dynasty.

to posterity

has come down

only as an author, and specially as the

''

author of the " Chia-hsiin

treatise, as

(gj
is

I|),

or

Family Teaching.

we have
it

it

now,

in

two chuan, divided into twenty

subjects connected with the good

chapters; and

treats of

many

conduct and education of a family in a style easy and pleasant.

Several chapters are devoted to subjects connected with the language, and these are
1

among

the most interesting.

The whole

of

"Yii-pien" with
iii.
;

Chu

I-tsnn's Preface (Ed. 1704)

JJH&^HS"^ B%

ohap.

Edkins' Mand. Gr., p 73.

46

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy
is

the Chinese.

the eighteenth chapter, for example,

philology,

devoted to language and

and

it

will

repay a reading.

From

this

book we learn

that the *^^Shuo-wen" was at this period regarded as the ultimate

standard of appeal ;

its

readings of the canonical works were taken

against those of the current texts.

of

Yen

Chih-t*ui was also author

two works specially devoted

to

matters relating to etymology.

These were the "Cheng-su-yiurtsu"

shi"

(g

^ ^ ),

and the ^^Tzuthe

(^

5).

Yen was

a native of Laug-ye

(J||5 JjjJ),

modern

Yi-chow

in Shantung.^
this

About

time the son of one of the North

Ch4 Emperors
it

introduced to native scholars an expedient which, though

did
is

not meet with

much

popularity,
or

deserves

some

notice.

It

known

as TzH-chHe

{^ U)

Tzri^fan

(g g) and among Budexpressions having the

the

dhist writers as

ChHe-shen

(-^J

^)i
this

all

meaning
character

of
is

self-spelling.

By

expedient

sound of a

given in the composition of the character.

Thus
JJl',

the
to

sound

te
tsiy

is

expressed by

"J*
is

^,

that

is,

ting

"J*

and ye
i 5)?.

make

the initial tsu J

placed at the side of

initial is

Properly,
left

the character which gives the

placed at the

side of

that which yields the final, but the rule

was not generally observed.

This mode of representing sounds

derived from the Buddhists, but
it

is

expressly stated to have boen

was apparently used before the

translators of the Buddhist

Indians came into the country.

The

sacred books, however, used this method to some extent in transcribing Sanskrit sounds, and so

made

it

popularly known.

It

is

not improbable that a closer study of Chinese would show that

the apparently

meaningless composition of

many

characters

is

the result of an attempt to

make them

self-pronouncing.^

During the short-lived Sui dynasty, from 589 to 618, the

study of the language continued
to flourish.

Much

attention

was

now

paid to the tones and the sounds of characters generally,

rather to the neglect of other matters relating to the history of

the language.
^

We

find

mention of a book written about

this

time

i^ IW (iQ Han -Wei Collection). J& "I^i-shi," &c., chap, "Kn-shi, &c., Yin-lun" ;

ii.;

%1^ H,

Vol.

I.,

p.

36.

The Cultivation of
on the
finals, called

their

Language hy
(gj

the Chinese.

47

" Yen-tsuan "

H), by Tsun, Prince

of Ch^in

(^

1^)-

This work, we are

told,

the chief thing, and so differed from the

lin.'^

made the sounds of characters "Shuo-wen" and *'Tzuit

But

little

notice

is

found of the book, and

It

was apparently

not of

much

importance.

was added

to

the '^Ch*ie-yun" of

(g f^ "g), called also Luh Tzu-pei (f^ place in the history of the cultivation of the important has an J|), With the co-operation of Liu Chin (g|] ^) and seven language.
others, including

Luh Fa-yen, as a sort This Luh Fa-yen

of appendix,

by Kuo Chih-hsiian.^

Yen

Chih-t'ui, son^e

from the south and some

from the north, Luh made the phonetic dictionary with which his

name

is

associated.

This treatise was begun in 581 and

first

pub-

lished in 601, but no copy of that edition seems to

have survived

very long.

The

earliest edition

which became generally known

was that
hsiian

of 677.

In

this

year the work was edited by

title

Kuo Chih-

(|R
(pg

^)

and published with the

ill

"Ssii-sheng-ch'ie-

yun "

original text of

others
to

use

known what the Luh contained, for we are told that Kuoh and made many additions and corrections. The " Ch*ie-yun," the short title of the work, as Kuo left it, had the characiO fS)
ftve chuan.

It cannot be

ters

arranged under 206 finals according to the four tones.

first

It

was the

dictionary apparently to do

so,

and from

it

latter

works derived the system.

Luh and

his associates,

scholars well learned in the language, took the

who were all works of Chow Yenis

lun and Shen

Yo

as their basis,

and the "Ch'ie-yun"

described

by some as the lineal successor or continuation of Shen Yo's

treatise.

The aim

of

Luh and

his fellow-workers

was

to correct

the mistakes which had been

made by

their predecessors,

and

to

reform abuses in the employment of characters generally, adding

the correct pronunciation of these according to classical authorities.

They wished
establish

to

make and

transmit

uniform

language,

to

a criterion for ancient times and a standard for the

It is not

modern.
to

Luh

himself.

known how much of Some think that he

the

**

Ch*ie-yun " was due

only arranged and edited

the materials which Liu Chin and the seven others had collected.
^

Kuei's " Shuo-w6n," chap.

1.;

" Yun-hsiao."

48

The GuUivation of
to

their

Language by

the Chinese.
of reading,

These men seem

have taken a very extensive course

to

^and
Kuo

to

have otherwise gone

work very

earnestly.
to the

The employT'ang editor

invented
is

ment

of the

206

finals is

by some attributed
to

Cliih-hsiian,

and no one seems

it

know who

first

the system or
erally

when

arose.

The

" Ch'ie-yun,'^ however,

is

gen-

spoken of as Luh*s work, and

described as having been a

It

treatise of great research

and

careful execution.

came

to

be

largely used by later writers in the compilation of dictionaries

and

other works on the language.^

To

the Sui succeeded the T'ang dynasty, which

is

counted as
kinds

lasting from

618

to

906.

In

this period learning of various

was favoured and encouraged, and several

the old native classics,

of the

Emperors were

patrons and cultivators of learning and literature.

Not only were

especially the " Shi-ching,"

now

studied

with renewed enthusiasm, but the sacred and other books of the

Indian Buddhists also became well known through translations.

The

native language also was

now

studied with great learning and

to

ability,

and increased attention was now paid

the tones and

the sounds of characters generally.

Both Chinese and foreigners them was

state degrees or literary

now wrote on
titles

these subjects, and acquaintance with

required from the competitors for the

by which

official

employment was obtained.^

At

the beginning of this period

better "7C %R)>

known by

his other

we find Luh Yan-lang name Luh Te-ming ({*

(|^
B^)?

one of the greatest scholars of the T^ang dynasty.

He

was a

native of Soochow and lived at the end of the sixth and the be-

ginning of the seventh century.

well

Among
is

native scholars he

is

known

for his

writings on the "Yi-ching,''

and

for

his

treatise

on the old language.

This

called

'*

Ching-tien-shi-wen"

(@

:R

M %)>

Classics.
classics,
''

Explanation of the Terms and Phrases in the Dr. Legge says of it, " This is more a dissection of the

^^

excluding Mencius,

and including "Laou-tsze" and

Chwang-tsze," giving the sounds of characters, and the meaning

1

Ku-shi, etc., Yin-lun,"

"i*
'*

^^

&, Int.; "

etc.,

Yun-hsio."
chap, clxxxix.; Legge, Ch.
(1791).

'

"T'ang-shu," chap,

cxcviii.;
;

Wen-hsien,"

CI.,

Vol. IV. Prolog, p. 205

^ ^ i^ X, ed. by g ^ ^g and others

The Cultivation
of

of their

Language by

the Chinese.

49

them

single

and in conibination, than a

dictioTiary.

It is valu-

able as a repertory of ancient views/'

separate chuan on the

old vocabulary, the " Urh-ya,"

piled

is also

given as having been comlast in

by

Luh

Te-ming.
is

It is the

30th and

the edition

I possess, which

a good modern reprint.

Another scholar who

was already famous when the T'ang dynasty succeeded was

Ts'ao Hsien (g' -J).

The

native place of Ts'ao was Chiang-tu

and he lived in the sixth century (Zn S5) and the early part of the seventh. During the Sui period he had

Yangchow,

in Kiangsu,

composed several
of

treatises

which had made

his

name famous.

One

these was a new

edition, with revised text

and a commentary,

of the

"Kuei-yuan-chu-tsung" (ft
of Sui

by command
ya," also,

Yang

Ti.

$S ^), which was made For the " Urh-ya" and " Kuanggiving
to

Ts'ao

wrote commentaries,

the

sounds and

meanings

of characters,

and these he added

treatise

carefully edited.

Another

he by him was the " Wen-tzutexts which,

chih-kuei" (5C Ja If) o^* Gfuide to the Restoration of Characters, on the correct forms of the old writing. By these works
Ts'ao had

made himself an

authority on

all

matters relating to

the antiquities of the language, and his

fame

for learning in these

matters was over the empire.

office of

The T'ang

a congenial nature, but as he

him high had served the Sui dynasty,

rulers offered

etiquette forbade

him

to accept

preferment from the

new

rulers.

T'ai Tsung, however, esteemed

to refer to

him none the

less,

and was wont

It is
it was The new

him when

in difficulty about a

word

or phrase.

for his services in reviving a

knowledge of the language as

is

before the

Han

period that Ts'ao

best remembered.

learning of tones, and finals, and fan-chHe, had put out of fashion
the old learning taught by

Tu Lin and

his fellows.

But by

the

books which he published, and the great popularity of his teaching,

Ts'ao Hsien brought the attention of students back to the

structure

and derivation

of characters.^

Another scholar
only by his other
i

of great learning

and genius who adorned

the reign of T'ai Tsung was

Yen

Chou-ch'i
(SS !&)

name Yen Shi-ku

Ivii.,

(g | He was

^), known
a native of

" T'aug.shu," chaps.

cxcviii.

50

The Oultwdtion of
?ff)

their

Language hy the Chinese.

his life extended

Lin-yi (E|
645.

in Shantung,

and

from 681

to

The

notes which he added to his edition of the

"Han-shu"

are very useful to the student of the early language apart from
their value otherwise.
for a

To him

also native scholars are indebted

good edition

of the old

" Chih-chiu-chang "

(^

^ ^),

to

which he contributed a valuable commentary.^ In 675, as has been stated, Sun Ch'iang, another great student of the language, produced his edition of the " Yii-pien."
This
is

the earliest one

known
full

at present,
title

and the only edition

which has authority.

The

of the

work
'Q'

as

we have

it

now
is

is

**

Ta-kuang-i-hui-yii-pien "

{^

S|

S
of

3E M)' ^^^ ^^i^

seldom used.^

A
in the

commentary on the "Ch'ie-yun"

in

Luh Fa-yen was

^,
ff

composed

677 by Chiang-sun Noh-yen

(g

"g");

and

same year Kuo Chih-hsiian,

*'

as stated above, brought out

his edition of the

Oh'ie-yun."

This was republished in 751 by

title

Sun Mien

(Jg ff)

and others, with the

to the original
to

" T'ang-yun."
its

The
errors,

new

editors

added

work and corrected

were retained,
This
last,

but they do not seem

pronunciations
of

have made any great changes.

The
the

the

characters

and

all

arrangements of the " Ch'ie-yun."

i-eceived

however,

had

many

additions and undergone

publication,

many
*'

modifications since

the date of

its first

and the

T'ang-yun " apparently

reduced these to order.

Sun Mien and

his associates used a large

number

of

books

classics, histories,

and travels

beside the writIt has been

ings of their predecessors on sounds and characters, in the preparation of their work,

which occupied them several years.

first treatise in

said that this dictionary was the

which attention was

directed to the differences between

is,

modern and ancient sounds, that

was done systematically.
it is

perhaps, the
itsalf,

first

in

which

this

The

book

however, became extinct long ago, and

it

known only

by notices

of

in other treatises.
all

It has been

added that not only

the "T'ang-yun" but also

other treatises on rhymes or finals

produced before the end of

^

this

dynasty have long ago perished.^

'

" T'ang-shu," chap, cxcviii. Preface to reprint of " Yii-pien." Preface to reprint of *' Kuang-yun"

Ku-shi, etc., Yin-lun" J:-

The Cultivation

of tfveir

Language by

the Chinese.

51

The
(ij^

old learning, also, about this time received

attention

from a faithful adherent, Li Yang-ping

(^

^)

al.

Shao-wen
Li

S)' ^^^
office

lived in the second half of the eighth century.

was a
held

relative of the celebrated poet of the

same surname, and

under the Emperors Su Tsung and Tai Tsung (756

to

to 780).

In philology he claimed

be a reviver of the study of

the old language before the time of the " Shuo-wen."

To
*'

this

book he devoted himself with great

edition of
it

zeal,

and he published an
text of the
left

in thirty chuan.

wen '' was

out,

full of errors,

At this time the and much had been

it

Shuofallen

or

had

and Li wished

to restore
it.

to the state in

which he supposed

Hsii

Shen had

left
'*

So he introduced many characters from

earlier writings,

the old " Seal

others,

and

and altered the forms

of

and thus made what he considered improvements

to the

*'Shuo-wen.''
differently

But the

critics

who came

after

him thought

and regarded

his innovations as a cause of confusion.

for finding fault with the venerated

They were wroth with him

classic.

It

was owned, however, that few could equal Li YangLi Yang-ping

ping in a knowledge of the "SeaP' characters, a knowledge in

which he was said

to

be not inferior

to

Li

Ssii.

compiled a treatise on these characters and another one on unauthorized

''

or

forbidden

characters.

His learned work on the

to the cultivato

Shuo-wen," however, was his chief contribution

tion of the language,

and yet

it

was destined

have only a

short-lived popularity.^

Among

those

who about

the time of the

T^ang dynasty

contributed to the study and improvement of the Chinese lan-

guage we must not omit the Buddhist monks.

to

It is not possible

Of these and their philological works few particulars are given in books

do more here than simply mention a few individuals.

now
few

accessible,

and

it

is

in

some cases hard

to find

when and

where they
of the

lived.

Some

of the missionaries

from India, and a

Chinese monks who had studied in that country, wrote

books on the Sanskrit grammar and alphabet.

^

The knowledge
1. ;

ft

M 1|)

etc.,

chap.

Hi.;

Kuei's "Shuo-wen," chap.

Ma

T. L., chap,

cxc.

52

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

thus communicated was afterwards turned to account by native

authors in the study of Chinese.
of

We

now read

for the first

time

tzu-mu (*^

fl:), letters,

alphabet, or, in the narrowest use of the

initials.

term, characters employed as

We

are told that the

first

occurrence of the term

is

in the translation of a sutra, the " Wenis,

chu-wen-ching"
Sfitra,

(^

^ f^ g) that
(/fl

the Manjusri Pariprichchha

by Pu-k'ung
originally a

^), Amoghavajra.

This celebrated

monk,

century and spent

Brahman of North India, many years at Ch*ang-an

lived in the eighth

in China.

But the
centuries

use of certain Chinese characters to serve for the transcription of

the Sanskrit alphabet seems to have been
before his time.

known some
J^), an Indian

In
great

this period, also,

Shen-kung

(jji^

monk

of

learning,

taught the use of the tones and the art of

analysing and compounding the sounds of

human
said to

speech.

His

diagrams
to

illustrating his teachings are to be

found as an appendix

the

*'

Yii pien.''

Shen-kung

is

also

have selected

thirty characters, kien (^), etc., to represent the Sanskrit conso-

nants and serve as

initials.
TflJ)

This achievement, however,

another Indian
missionary,
if

is

also

ascribed to She-li (-^

these

two names do not indicate only one individual.

characters thus selected six
}g), a learned
treatise this

To

the thirty

more were added by Shou-wen

(^

monk

of

China or Corea and the author

of a small

The system of thirty-six initials which Buddhist introduced is known in literature as the Chungon the
finals.

yin-tzHrmu (4

^ ^ #) or Standard

Alphabet, Initials for the

Sounds

of

Correct Chinese.

These characters, sometimes with

slight changes, are in use at present as initials,

and they are

to

be

found so employed in Kanghsi's Dictionary and in many other

treatises.^

We

must needs
^^

also reckon the *^I-ch'ie-ching-yin-i"

of all the

"S ^)> Books, as a contribution

great
*

Sounds and Meanings

Buddhist Sacred
This

to the cultivation of the language.

work was founded on others

of the

same kind which have

Bud.

" Li.shi-yin-chien," chap.

Trip,

by Bunyiu Nanjio,

ii. ; |rJ Si i^. c^ap. vi. ; Catalogue of Col. 444, j " Yu-pieo," vol. iii. Appx.

The Cultivation of
long been
lost.

their

Language by

the Chinese.

53

It

was

originally in twenty-five

chuan and was

lived at

compiled about the middle of the sixth century by Yuan-ying

{%

J^), called also Hsiian-ying

(^

Ig), a

monk who

Chang-an.
difficult

The work

is

a glossary to the foreign, technical, and

It gives the

words and phrases in the Buddhist canon.

sounds and meanings of the Sanskrit proper names and terms of

religion,

and the

different transcriptions

which had been used.

Important Chinese phrases are

tion of characters given

also explained

and the pronunciagenerally

and

illustrated.

The compiler

bases his statement or interpretation of Chinese expressions on

standard native authorities.

the
''

Thus he

often quotes such works as

Ts'ang-chie-pien," the "Shuo-wen," the '^Yii-pien," the

classics.

*^Kuang-ya," and the commentaries on the Confucian

Though
consult,

native scholars quote this treatise freely

it

is

not easy to

owing

to the

absence of an index and the want of a good

arrangement.
it

It is also

pronounced

to

be faulty in the use which

makes

of the

characters.

Han writers and in the sounds which it assigns to Two chapters were added some time afterwards by a
These were the work
of

subsequent editor.
another Buddhist

Hui-yuan
after

(g

|g),

monk who

lived

some time

Yuan-ying,

and they may be regarded

of the latter's^work.

as a sort of

supplement

to the first part

But they do not show

the great learning

and industry

of the author of the ''I-ch*ie-ching-yin-yi."^

To

these

may

posed by Buddhist monks of this period.

be added the names of a few other works com" "

The

Hsiang-wen

(^ ^)
-jj)
;

a treatise on the

**

Yii-pien,"
(3!t

was compiled by Hui-li

fl|)

the " Wen-tzu-shi-hsiin"

^p
''

was by Pao-chih

(^ (g

|g); the

-Yun-ying"

(||
'^

^)

by Ching-hung

(^

gt)

and a

useful supplement to the

Ch'ie-yun

was contributed by Yu-

chih

m ^y
In several respects the period
of the

T'ang dynasty forms

began

an era

of great

importance in the history of the cultivation of the

language.

It

was the time in which China

first

to

have

a popular literature, and the classical works of antiquity were

now

published in a form which

made them

accessible to

all.

In the

'-mm^^ m> ea.

i869.

^4

The Cultivation of their Language by

the Chinese.

year 744 an Imperial order was given to the Chi-hsien

College to have the
in
''

{^ g)
disliked

Shu-ching " transcribed in the characters

common
li

use at the time.

The Emperor, Ming Huang,

the
to

characters in which the *^Shu" and other classics continued

be written.
to learn,

Moreover, these characters had become obsolete,

hard

and

liable

to confusion,

and only professional

scholars could read the canonical books.

The Emperor's

order

was carried out by

Wei Pao (^
Plays also

'gj)

and

his fellow-collegians,

and the editions

of the classics in the vulgar writing

soon super-

seded the others.

now began

to

be

written

and
little

performed and romances to be composed in a style often but

removed from that

tended to

of

everyday conversation.

These, however,

make

the dialect in which they were composed fashion-

able and permanent.

Hence we

find

it

stated that with

;

them
that

arose the

Kuan-hua

or standard language of the coaintry

of the

which thus became the language

empire having

been

previously only the dialect of Kiangnan.^

The invention
dynasty, though
it

of printing in
is

China dates from the T^ang

generally ascribed to

Feng Tao

(?

^)
five

who

lived in the succeeding period, that of the

It

Wu

Tai or

short dynasties.

was apparently Fng, however, who by cutting characters

in

intro-

duced the art

of printing

wooden

blocks,

and the

first

books to be thus

printed were the authoritative

It

texts of the canonical

works of antiquity.

was

not, however,

until the next dynasty that the invention led to great results.

The next dynasty was the Sung, which

period from 960 to 1280.

gives

its

name

to the

This was, according to general native

opinion, the time of China's best literary and philosophical activity,

the time of her greatest thinkers, her most thorough scholars,

and her most accomplished statesmen.

which the language
is

It

was

also th time in
its

supposed

to

have reached

acme, to have

become complete
sing the national
^

in all its formal

and material equipment, having

everything needful to

make it an effective instrument for expresmind. The invention of printing now led to a
Ivii.;

"T*ang-shu," chap.

:^

H i^

Int.;

Ma, T.

L., chap, clxxvii.;

Legge,

Ch.

CI., III., Prolog., p. 31.

The Oultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.

55

great activity in the production of books, and a general diffusion

of learning.

In the department of philology we find mention of

many new
value.

treatises, some of which were of great and permanent Old works half-forgotten or rendered obscure by corrupt

readings

the growth of centuries

were

restored to something

like their original state.

New

works

of a critical or historical

nature, and

some

of a speculative character

on subjects connected

with the language, were also published.

The
are

first

writers in this department to fall under our notice

the two brothers Hsii.

These jnen, who flourished in the

middle and latter half of the tenth century, were natives of Kuangling
in the

modern Prefecture

of

Yang-chow, Kiangsu.

The

younger brother was Ch*ie (/^ |^) al Ch*u-chin (g ^), and he came to be known also as the Hsiao, or young Hsii, to distinguish him from his brother.

He

was a great lover

of learning,

but specially devoted

to

an enthusiastic study of the ''Shuo-wen."

In order

to facilitate the use of that dictionary

he produced the

"Shuo-wen-yun-pu"
fell

into
*^

(^ 5C SI If) ^^ ^^is treatise, which soon unmerited neglect, a phonetic arrangement of the " Shuoto
tones.''

wen

was attempted, the head words being disposed according

the finals and the four

The

editor curtailed, however,

and

otherwise tampered with the text of his author, and the treatise " by which Hsii Ch'ie is best known is the " Shuo-wen

Hsi-chuan

(^
its

fl|),

or

Appendix
and

to the

''

Shuo-wen."

In

this

we have what
of

author regarded as a restored text of the " Shuo-wen," with

critical

notes

illustrative,

and the sounds

the

head

characters given according to the spelling of Hsii's time by a

scholar

named Chu Ao {^ ^).

classifiers of the

This part of the work extends

over thirty chapters, and they are followed by two other chapters
to

show that the

"Shuo-wen'' proceed

in a natural

order.

To
;

these succeed three chapters explanatory of certain

categories

one of criticisms specially on the innovations of Li

classifiers are

Yang-ping, one in which the

arranged in groups or

' It is possible, however, that they are right who say this work is erroneously ascribed to Hsii, and that " Shuo-w^n-yun-pu " stands for "Wu-yin-yun.

pu," a work of Li Tao to be mentioned presently-

56

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

classes; one in

which the raveled uses

of characters are

brought

into order

one in which the doubts about certain words are

last

discussed;

and a

one in which the contents of the thirty-nine

preceding chapters are summarized.

learning and genius, but
its
it

The work
and
said,

is

one of great

theories

criticisms are too subtle

and

fanciful.

Hsii Ch^ie,

has been

reverenced the '^Shuoto

wen
him

" as a canonical book, and no one

in the zeal

up

his time equalled

and learning devoted

to us,

to that work.

His great

treatise, as it

has come down

has

many

errors

and mistakes,
of revision.

partly due to copyists or printers

and partly
it

to the

want

A learned
scholar,

and

critical

examination of

has been

made by

a late

who has
and
his

pointed out and corrected the mistakes of Hsii

Ch'ie and his brother.

This reviewer
in

is

Ch'i Shun-fu

(f|3 f$,

'^

uL

"5^),

work

three chuan

is

now

published as an

appendix
This
out of

to the reprint of Hsii's

last

" Shuo-wen Hsi-chuan."

was originally published, been put fashion by the edition of the " Shuo-wen " which bears the
had, soon after
it

name
ch'^n,

of the elder brother.

This brother Hsiian (g)

also as

al.

Tingis

(^

g),

is

known

Ta

(or

Elder) Hsii, and he

quoted in literature as I-t^ung

office

(^

|g) from the

name

of a public

which he held.
Ch'ie,

He

was born

in the year 916, four years

before

and he lived

until 991,

surviving

his

younger

brother seventeen years.

pursuits,

These two brothers had

like tastes

and

and

it

was

at the request of the elder that the

to

younger

compiled his phonetic edition of the " Shuo-wen,"

which,

when

ready for publication, the elder brother contributed an introduction.

They both entered the

the younger,

state service,

but the elder, more

the

fortunate than
capital,

lived to enjoy public life at

though the end

of his career

was clouded by

official

disgrace.

His fame also rests entirely on his labours in connection with the " Shuo-wen." These were undertaken in obedience
to

the

commands

of

the celebrated

appointed a commission to
the text of that work.

Emperor Tai Tsung, who make a new and correct edition of At the head of this was Hsii Hsiian,
of several distinguished scholars.
treatise

and he had the co-operation

The

result of their labours

was the

known

as thu

''

Hsii

The Cultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.

57

Hsiian Shuo-wen-chu," which was finished in the year 986.

In

the preparation of this treatise Li Yang-ping's edition was taken

as a basis, but the fanciful corrections

and innovations

of that

editor were rejected.

many
to

corrections

The new editors, however, also introduced and made many additions. The latter are
(j|f
|J^),
'*

marked by the words hsm-fu

them.

newly added," prefixed

is

The pronunciation

of the

head characters

given

according to the teaching of

Sun Mien

in his dictionary of the

language published in the T'ang period.

tions

Criticisms and illustra-

by the editors are distinguished as theirs, and they often

Neither of these

quote from the work of the younger Hsii.

brothers gave

much

study to the phonetics of the language, and

later scholars object to

them that they overlooked the changes

of characters

which had passed over the sounds

between the

Han

and T'ang dynasties.

Some
tions

also

have found fault with Hsii Hsiian

to

for the addi-

which he made

the "Shuo-wen," and

specially for the

introduction of non-classical characters.

to

Yet
it

his edition remains

this

day popular with students, and

may

be regarded as

giving the authoritative text.

Hsii's
'^

Thus

in the

Kanghi Dictionary
reprints of the

additions" are treated as part of the genuine text, and

so in other

works

of authority.

One

of the

many

work

is

that published in
(^,

1809, carefully revised and edited by

Sun Hsing-yen

fff).^

About the same time

life

that the

"Shuo-wen" was
classic,

receiving

new

from the brothers Hsii, another old

the " Urh-ya,"

also

was revived.

In the year 999 a revised and corrected edition

of this thesaurus

was prepared by a commission

of

learned

men
from

appointed by the Emperor.

At

the head of this commission was

Hsing Ping
932

(JflJ

^)

al.

Hsing Shu-ming

(^

Bfl),

who
is

lived

to 1010.

Hsing was a good

official,

a learned scholar, and

the author of several treatises.

At

present he
Filial Piety
(Rept.);
;

perhaps best

known by

his labours

on the Canon of

and the " Urh-

'u-xm^'^^mm,ed. 1839, hj^^^y^

Sun Hsing-yen (1864 Bept.); "M. ccocxU.; |||*^,Pref.

T. L.," chap, clxxxix.

^^m^^,^? "
Sung.shi," chap.

68
yaJ*
texts

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

For

his edition of the latter treatise

he studied the various

and commentaries in existence.

of

These, and specially the

as his

works

Liu Hsin, Sun Yen, and Kao Lien he used

;

foundation

but he adopted as his text that of

all

Kuo

Po's edition

and retained

Kuo

Po's comments.
to

Classic

and commentary,
" Urh-ya-

however, were subjected

incorporated in the

a careful examination before being

short
title of this is

new work. The

chu-su," that

is,

the "Urh-ya'* with

Kuo

Po's explanations and

the commentary of Hsing Ping and his colleagues.

This edition
into disrepute
later

was

for a time popular

among

students, but
It has been

it fell

even during the Sung period.

critics as superficial
Still it

condemned by

and

unclassical,

and
it

as careless
is

and dishonest.

has been often reprinted, and

one of the Thirteen

Canonical Treatises in Yuan-yuan's edition of these.

last

But

in the

century

it

has been superseded apparently by the better work

to

of

Shao Chin-han,

be noticed shortly.^

Of other writers on the language during the tenth century

only two or three need be here mentioned.
fellow-workers was

One
^^"

of Hsii Hsiian's

Kou Chung-cheng (^
who
life for his

+ IE

a native of Ch'eng-tu in Ssiichuan,

lived from

Tan-jen iB ^), 929 to 1002.

Kou was

celebrated in

great learning and specially for

his thorough acquaintance with the antiquities of

the language.
assisted
is,

In addition

to his contributions to Hsii's

''

'*

Shuo-wen " he

in the compilation of the

Yung-hsi Kuang-yun," that

the

edition of the ''Kuang-yun'^

which was published

in the

Yung-hsi

period (984 to 988) of T'ai Tsung's reign.

the Khitan country, by

Buddhist

monk

of

name Hsing-chiin
title
''

(fj 1^) published in

997 a

treatise to

which he gave the

'-^'^^is

Lung-k'an-shou-ching''

(II ft

ffl)-

w^s a

sort of dictionary explaining about

26,400 characters.
the author, but
years after
its
it

It soon obtained popularity in the country of

was not admitted openly into China

for several

publication.

Another

of the

Buddhist monks who

contributed to a knowledge of the language at this period was

Meng-ying

(^
Ife

5^).

He
J

was

far seen in the old writings

and

^M
ccccxxxi.

S^

(13th ed.)

"Ma

T. L.," chap, clxxxix.; " Sung-shi," chap,

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese

59'

composed the ''Tzu-yuan''

of the
title
is

(^ ^)

in one chuan.
is,

The meaning
of those in the

"Source

of

Characters/' that

"Shuo-wen," the book being an attempt to explain the classifiers, The mention of Meng^ying suggests his critic of that dictionary. This learned and Kuo Chung-shu (|R f^. al. Shu-hsien 3& 5fc).

'

eccentric genius wrote several treatises, to one of

which he gave

the

name "

P^ei-hsi "

{%

Sf).
to

and the book was intended

" This means " Portable Piercer be an " unraveler " of the knots of

confusion into which the written language had been forced.^

About the end

of the tenth cQjitury

was compiled the

first

edition of the celebrated dictionary edition mentioned above.

" Kuang-yun/' the Yung-hsi

Kuang-yun" published during the T'ang period, but nothing seems to be known nor, indeed, is much known of the " Yung-hsi of that work Kuang-yun." The edition which has come down to us is the The full title of this is revised and enlarged edition of 1008. " Ta Sung Ch^ung-hsiu-kuang-yun '' (ffe ||), that is fi ff '^ " The second revised Kuang-yun of the Great Sung Dynasty. This title was given to the treatise by the Emperor Chen Tsung, who had ordered it to be compiled. For this purpose he had appointed a commission, the chief members of which were Ch'en
;

We

read indeed of a "

Peng-nien
Ch^iu

(^

^), a native

of

Nan-ch'eng in Kiangsi, and

Yung ( ^), men

of learning

and repute.

The names
It

of
is

these men, however, were not given in the published work.

acknowledged that the " Kuang-yun "

is

based on the " T^ang-

yun " and

it is

*'

Yii-pien," and some have not hesitated to assert that

a combination of these two books, or merely a reprint of the " T'ang-yun '' or the " Ch'ie-yun." One writer states that in his time the " T'ang-yun," " Ch'ie-yun,^^ and " Kuang-yun " were

simply one book under different names.

stated

This

is

perhaps over-

and

incorrect, but as the last is the only one of the three

it is

which has survived,

not possible to decide from a comparison.

The

*'

Kuang-yun "
206
finals

is

a phonetic dictionary arranged according

to the

beginning with tung {^).

In

this

arrangement

the characters to be described are distributed under the four

^
*'

Ma

T. L.," chap, oxc.j " Sung-shi," chaps, occoxli.

and

ccocxlii.


60
tones
first of

The Cultivation of their Language hy the Chinese,

P'ing, 8hang, Ch^itj

and Ju.
is

The pronunciation

of the

a group of characters

given by ih^fan-chHe or syllabic

are not those of the eleventh

spelling.

But the sounds thus given

century, but of a period at least two or three centuries before.

The meanings which

of a person."

it

gives are few

and unsatisfactory, often

putting one off with such stuff as *^name of a place, '* or

"name
even

The number
is

of characters of

which the " Kuangof these were,

yun'* gives explanations

26,194, but

many

in the eleventh century, obsolete or archaic.

This dictionary has

a value as the earliest one extant in which the sounds of characters are given systematically.

But

it

has never stood high with

it

native scholars, some of

whom

do not hesitate to speak of

with the petty

as a

Dodder-garden Book, a
of

treatise dealing

affairs

low occupations.

It has, however,

been often re-edited and

republished, and

it is still

occasionally reprinted.^

About the same time

edition of the " Yii-pien.''

that Ch'en Peng-nien

was engaged

in

the compilation of the "Kuang-yun'^ he was also busy with a

new

In

this

work he was

assisted

by Ch*iu

Yung and "Wu

Jui

(^

^).

The

additions and alterations which

had been made by previous

editors

were carefully examined, and

those which were approved were retained.

But

substantially the

new

edition

was only a corrected reprint

of that

by Sun Chiang
^

in 674, with a few additions.

It bears the title

" Ta-kuang-i-hui

Yii-pien," and

is still

the received text of the " Yii-pien."

The "Kuang-yun" was

quickly followed by the

"Chi-yun"

(^

]||),

another treatise of the same kind.

This work was begun

It also

apparently in 1034 and finished in 1039.

was undertaken

by Imperial orders and on the

found the

petition of certain scholars

who

"Kuang-yun"
it

faulty

and untrustworthy, and the object

to correct the faults
it,

with which

was compiled was

its

and supply

the defects of

predecessor.

Like

the " Chi-yun " also was

to a large extent a reproduction of the

meanings
1

of

words

it

" Ch'ie-yun," and for the was chiefly indebted to the " Shuo-wen."
of

"Kuang.yun," (Reprint
etc.,

Chu

I-tsun's ed.); *'Ku.shi," etc.,

;

f^ Ji;

" Li-shi,"
"

chaps,

i. ii.

" Ku-chin-yun-liao," Int.

I-tsan's ed.)
'
;

Phon. S,
L.,"

W.

Int.

" Yii-pien," (Reprint

Chu

Ma

T.

chap, clxxxix.

The Cultivation

qf their

Language hy

the Chinese.

61

The number
given
had.
tion
is

of characters of

which the meanings and sounds are

''

53,525, or above 27,000 more than the " Kuang-yun

its

Several distinguished scholars were engaged in

compila|[5),

and

revision, chief

among them being Sung Ch*i (^

Chia Chang-ch^ao
iiX), all

Ch^ng Ch^en

{%

g^),

(^

^
its

fj),

Ting

Tu

(T

&)> ^^^ ^^ S^^

*^

(^

men

of

famous learning.

Their

work, the

Chi-yun/' was taken at the time of

publication as

an authority for the sounds of characters, and

it

was several

By some it was ranked above and by others below the " Kuang-yun.'' The
times republished with additions and corrections.
original edition, however, seems to

have soon gone out

is

of print,

and the

earliest

which has survived

of

perhaps that brought out

under the revision

Ssii-ma-kuang in 1067.^ While the " Kuang-yun " was being prepared another new
of the

work

same kind was being compiled.

This also was produc-

ed under orders from the Throne, and was published at the same
time with the
** Kuang-yun." The name which it bore at first " was simply Yun-liao" (f| \9^), and it was compiled by Ch'i Lun

(M W)
and by
which

^^^

others.

The authors took the

^'

Ch'ie-yun " as basis,

liberal

pruning and careful selection produced a treatise

Their work was adopted as the auof

at once

found favour.

thority on the subject of

rhyming words by the Li Pu (Board

Ceremonies) for the State Literary Examinations.

In 1038 there

appeared a new edition revised by Ting Tu, mentioned above, and

issued by the Imperial
'*

Academy.

This edition received the

all
its

title

Li

Pu

Yun-liao," and the work through

title.

changes has

ever since borne that

The

careful
it

and scholarly way in

popular with students
it

which

this dictionary

was compiled made

generally,

and even during the Sung period

was several times

Originally
it

republished, usually with additions and alterations.

gave the sounds and meanings of only 9,590 characters, being thso
of

most frequent occurrence, but

this

number was not adhered

book was merely a

to in the various editions.

At

first also the

compendium
1

fliaoj,

containing only those head-characters the

;

" Yun-hsio."
Yin-lun," J;

Phon. S. W.

^^

" Ku-chin-yun-liao," Int.

" Ku-ehi,

etc.,

"Ma

T. L.," chap, ckxxix.

62

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

sounds and meanings of which were essential for one competing

at the state examinations to

know.
all

In a comparatively short
the

time,

however,

it

supplanted

previous
'^

pronouncing

dictionaries, being

much

preferred to the

Kuang - yun '' and

*^Chi-yun/'

About 1090 a new

(5^

edition of the ^^Li

Pu

Yun-liao''

was brought out by Sun

as in other editions,

^)

and the poet Su Shi.

In

this,

not a few additions and corrections were

success.

made, but
edition
son.
is

it

had not any great

A much

more important
short title

that which bears the

is

name

of the

two Mao, father and

This work, which

commonly quoted by the

" Tseng-yun" (ig fj), was finished before 1160 but not published until about thirty years later. It was begun by Mao Huang (^

and finished by his son Chii-cheng (^ J), natives of ChiiIn the " Tseng-yun " above 2,650 chow jj{) in Chekiang.

^)

(^

characters were added to those given by Ting Tu, but the original

number
literary
it

of finals, 206,
^'

was retained.

This edition of the " Li

Pu
Yet
and

Yun-liao

had

for a time great popularity, especially

among the

men who were

candidates for state appointments.

has been severely censured by Liu

it

Yuan and
substituting
for

later critics.

These have found fault with

incorrect

for

vulgar

ways

of writing

characters

those

taught by the

" Shuo-wen " and other standards.

Instances of this reprehensi-

|g (properly i) for the old for In these two cases it will and correct |^, and of kun. be seen that by the changes in the way of writing, sense and

ble proceeding are given in the use of

sound are alike

dicated
still

liable to

be confounded.

The misuse here

in-

continues, though educated

men

prefer to use the

forms of the characters taught by the old authorities.^

Turning back
a Buddhist

to the eleventh
''

century we have to note an

interesting work, the

monk

of

Yun-tsung" (f| H), by Chien-yii (g ^), Lo-yang. The aim of this treatise, which
by Ou-yang-hsiu, was
and
to guide
to give the true

was

in five chuan, with a preface

to the proper use of the Sanskrit initials,

and

correct sounds of characters.

The compiler was

well read in the

i"Wylie's Notes," p. 9; Phon. S. W. Ting-sheng; " Ku-chin-t'ung-yun," chap, i ; " Ku-shi, etc., Yin-lun," J: j " Tsu-chieo " (^ j^), Pref ; ' Ma T. L.," chap. czc.
.

The Cultivation of their Language hy

curious
religion.

the Chinese.

63

learning

of

China and

in

the literature

of

his

own

Another Buddhist monk, Hsiang Ching (^g J^), with the help of other men of learning, in the year 1034 compiled the " T'ien-chu-tzu-yuan '' (5c M)- The meaning of this title is Origin of the Indiail Letters (or characters), and in the book,

^^

which was in seven chtmn, the author gave the 12 vowels and
30 consonants
instituted
of the Sanskrit alphabet in

Chinese characters, and

comparison between the languages of India and

China.

To

this century belongs also

Wang

An-shi (born 1021, died

to a

1086), poet, scholar,

and statesman, but doomed

bad fame for

doing what was new.

of considerable merit

He was
and

the author of a philological treatise

celebrity.
title
*'

twenty chuan, bore the modest

criptions of Characters.
It

This work, which was in Tzu-shuo " ^) or Des-

was composed when

at

(^ Wang

was old

and broken, living in obscurity

given in
hui-i,
critics,
it

Nanking.

The

characters

are explained mainly from the point of view of the

combination-meanings, and the

author, according

to

his

makes
It

too

much

of this class of characters.

is

But the great

offence of the "

Tzu-shuo"

that

it

dares to censure the *^Shuo-

wen."

has also been blamed for refinements and hyper-

criticism,

and
it

it

was indexed

as

unsound.

Still

its

intrinsic

merits kept
often quoted.

from utter extinction, and up

to the present it is

By its bold

criticism

it it

roused orthodox scholars to

take up the " Shuo-wen " and study

with renewed earnestness.

Thus a

fresh impetus
treatises

was given

to philoligical investigations,
to

and several
teachings.

were called forth in reply

Wang's

These works were generally inferior in knowledge of

the language which they displayed to the " Tzu-shuo*," which was

vanquished by an author
(51
*'

to

be noticed below.

Wang's

son,

P'ang

al.

Yuan-tse
the

-jf^

|), also studied

his father

and wrote on the language.

of

With

help

of

he compiled an edition

the

Urh-ya " which has been praised for the thorough and methodHe was the author ical manner in which the work was done.
also of the
''

Tzu-shu-wu-tu "

{^

^^

|I),

Faulty Reading of

Written Characters.

"

64

The Cultivation of
Contemporary with

their

Language by

the Chinese.

Wang
in

An-shi and his disciple in philos-

ophy but not

in politics

was Luh T'ien

(^

fg)

al.

Nung-shi

(ji 65) of Shao-hsing

Foo

Chekiang (born 1042, died 1102).

Luh

T'ien devoted his studies largely to the "Urh-ya/' and

to

produced a treatise

which he gave the name " Urh-ya Hsin-i

of the " Urh-ya.'^

(M

H if K). New Meanings

treats

This book has

received great praise for the careful and thorough

manner

in

which the author

his

subject.

He

compiled also the

to

"P^i-ya" (J^
objects.

51), a

work which he designed

be a sort of
for

supplement to the "

Urh - ya,"

giving the

names

common
is

Dr. Legge says that in the " P*i-ya,"

Luh

'*less

careful in describing the appearance of his subjects than in The ''Shuo-wen " also discussing the meaning of their names.''

attracted Luh's attention,

and he

assisted in the preparation of a

new

and revised edition of that dictionary.*

Another contemporary
greatest opponents

of

Wang

An-shi and one of his

was the historian Ssii-ma-kuang (born 1019,

died 1086).

This latter also devoted

much

of his leisure to the

His contribution to the study and cultivation of the language. *' Chi-yun " has been already mentioned. As companion and
supplement
to

work Ting Tu suggested and began a treatise, which when finished the name "Lei-pien" (|g ^) was given.
to that
it was and published by Ssu-ma-kuang, whose name alone it
''

This work had to pass through several hands before

finished
bears.
^*

The

Lei-pien "

is

dictionary

in

which, as in

the

Shuo-wen," on which
classifiers.

it is

founded, the characters are arranged

according to

Of these there are 544 and the number

is

of distinct characters analysed and explained

31,319.

The

treatise

is

in

49 chapters, and thirty years (1038 In

to

1068) passed

while
the

it

was being elaborated.

"Ming -yuan" (^ ^).

author, taking the " Chi-yun "

To Ssii-ma-kuang we owe also this Garden of Names the as basis, arranged a large number
definitions

of characters according to their tones, giving also their composi-

tion according to the "

illustrations
1

Shuo-wen," and adding

classical

and

from the

authors.
iv.,

Another help which

" Sung-shi," chap, cccxliii.; L. C. C.

Prolog., p. 179.

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

65

Ssu-ma contributed
the language
is

to

an accurate knowledge and proper use of

the " Ch'^ie-yun-chih-chang-t'u," Pronunciation

as

made easy in Tables. In this we have twenty tables representing many groups of sounds which serve as finals. Each table
36 Sanskrit
initials at the

gives the

head, and under these above

3,000 characters in

all

are arranged according to the four tones

and other

technicalities of utterance.*
this century

Other writers of distinction on the language in

were Sung Hsiang

(^ J$) and Chang Yu (5i ^). To the latter the Chinese owe a book for which the orthodox student retains
great admiration and almost affection.
(fS
"6"

This

is

the "Fu-ku-pien"
is,

li)j ^

Book which Restores

the Ancient, that

the old

writing of characters and their meanings.

Chang Yu, whose

other names were Ch'ien-chung

(^ ^)

and Chen-ching
in

(^ ^)

was a native

of

what

is

now Hu-chow

Kiangsu, and lived

in the latter half of the

eleventh century.

His

*^

Fu-ku-pien,"

which occupied him many years, was not published until the
beginning of the next century.

The

chief part of this treatise is

a collection of characters in the "small seal''

mode

of writing.

These are given according

finals
;

to the four tones

is

and the ordinary

;

then the modern form of each

of writing,

given

the meaning,

wrong ways

and the spelling are added.

The book

contains also collections of

compounds and

of pairs of characters

similar in sound or form or both, but these refer rather to the

was a strong opponent of "Wang " An-shi's theories about the combination meaning," and it was " chiefly to combat these that he composed the " Fu-ku-pien
mere
writing.

Chang

Yu

which takes those characters which are made up

one significant and one phonetic.

of

two elements,
" has been
Its

The " Fu-ku-pien

it is still

many
seem

times edited and republished, and

consulted.
it

author wrote another treatise on the language, but

to

does not

have survived.^
to
(iji)

The next author

styled Yii-chung (g|
1
'

be mentioned is Cheng Ch'iao (gj 1(^) " one of the most erudite and renowned
;

T. L.," chap, clxxxix. (Reprint of 1203 ed.)

^

Ma

Supfc. "

Ma

T. L.," chap. xxv.

-tH

l #

^ "iJg (Reprint of 1781)

"

Ma

T. L.," chap. cxc.

66

The GuUivation of
of letters of the

their

Language hy
;

the Chinese.

men

Sung dynasty

distinguislied

by almost
Hsingto

universal knowledge."

He

was born

at P'u-t'ien in the

hua Prefecture
1162.

of

Fuhkeen, and

his life extended

is

from 1104

The

sobriquet by which he

known
of the

in literature is

Mr.

Chia-chi

(^ Jg

^ ^), from
retreat.

the

name

mountain

in

which

he had a lonely

In the monumental work

find

of this scholar
to

the " T*ung-chih" we

ject.

two sections devoted

'*

our sub-

in five chuan is BJ) ^^^ ^^ (7^ headed " Ch'i-yin-liao " (<t "a ^)- The former treats in a clear and copious manner of the six divisions of characters,

One

the " Liu-shu-liao

other

is

giving numerous examples and illustrations.

It also discusses

many

points of interest in connection with the development of

the language and the changes which words had undergone in

the long tract of time.
Characters, in which
is

The

*'

Ch'i-yin-liao " gives 43 Tables of

position
initials,

shown the
'*

which each character

the native
finals,

has under the thirty-six Sanskrit

four tones, and the
*^

the

Ch*i-yin

or seven musical tones.

It is in

these two essays that

his

Cheng compares the sounds and writing of own language with those of Sanskrit. He has been blamed
and
for

for carrying his theories of analysis to excess,

making

too

many

distinctions.

But few

are competent to judge his teachings

It
is

and decide on their merits.

hard even

to

estimate the

amount

of patient useful labour spent

all

on the above two works,

and yet they are not

the language.

that he wrote on subjects connected with

He

produced also a book in three chuan, " Shi-

ku-wen "

{^

X), in which he argued against the supreme

antiquity of the " Stone

Drums."

From

the resemblance of the

characters on these to characters found on objects of the Ch'in

dynasty (B.C. 255 to 206) he concluded that the

belong to that period.

Drums

also

Cheng composed

also a

commentary on
life.

the " Urh-ya," but this does not seem to have had a long

Some

of his early

works on the language were incorporated in

farther.

it is not necessary to refer to them The matchless learning and the great analytical powers which Cheng Ch^iao brought to his labours on the language have

those mentioned above and

made

his writings of peculiar importance.

They

are in an eminent

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

67

degree books for the genuine lover of learning, but unfortunately

they are not easy of access for the poor student.^

About
had

this

time the

*'

Yun-shu"

or

Pronouncing Dictionaries

cast into the shade the old classic

''

Shuo-wen/'

But there
short

now appeared
popularity.

a treatise which brought the latter again into some

is

This treatise

generally quoted by
|f), the

its

title,

"Wu-yin-yun-pu" (

i|

words '^Shuo-wen'^ being

understood to be prefixed.

Its compiler
"S*)

was Li Tao
^^^ "

(^ ^),
-

whose other names are Jen-fu (tl

Wen

chien

"

(X

celebrated scholar, historian, "S)' ^

and statesman.

He

was

a native of Tan-leng in Ssuchuan, and lived from 1115 to 1184.

In compiling the above work

his

object

was
it

to

render the

"Shuo-wen"

easy of reference and so

make
'^

popular.

He

arranged the characters given under each of the 540

that dictionary according to "

classifiers of

Luh

Fa-yen's

system of

finals in

the

*^

Ch^ie-yun."

This edition of the " Shuo-w6n " found favour

with students and put Hsii Hsiian's work out of fashion with

them
all

for a time.

Being easy

to consult, it also
its

took the place of

the old editions and maintained

popularity for a consider-

able period.^

Another important
tzii-lei" (^E

treatise of this century is the

" Pan-ma-

,i

).

This was the work of

Lu

Chi

(g 1^

al

Yen-fa
old

(^ g) who

lived

from 1133

to

1211.

In

this

work the
Pan-ku

and peculiar characters in the

historical writings of

and Ssii-ma Ch'ien are brought together.

They

are arranged ac-

cording to what the author regarded as their proper classes in the

current phonetic system.

Lu

Chi was a diligent student of the

In addition

archaeology of the language, and specially of the changes which

the written characters had undergone.

to the treatise

above mentioned he compiled two others.

^^

One

of these

was the and en-

Kuang-kan-lu-tzii-shu "

(^

)i^

? V)y
;

^ revised

^ " T'ung-chih" (^ ig), chaps, xxxi. to xxxvii. Mayer's Ch. E. M., No. '61 Bushell in N. C. B. R. A. S. Journal, Vol. VIII., p. 133 " Sung-shi," ohap. ccccxxxvi. Phon. S. W. Int. The Liao may be found as a separate book. They were published with the title j iS ''S' i^i 1550, and since that several new editions have appeared,
; ;

" Sung.Bhi," chap, ocolxxxyiii.j

1.

ti

chap.

^ M%

tS Pref.; "Shuo-wSn,"

68

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.
of

larged edition of the

"Kan-lu - tzu-shu"
iS)^ Sources of the

Yen Yuan -sun

(S
Han

JC

^)

^^ *^^

T'ang period.

The other was the " Han

Li characters in the
to the

li-tzii-yuan " (SI

literature.

S ^
This
is

regarded as a trustworthy guide

of the

Li writing found in books and inscriptions

Han

dynasty
of the

and the Three Kingdoms.

characters, their
tion of them.-^

It gives the

modern forms

Li equivalents, adding the history and explanalanguage about this time was Lo
(JgJ

Another student
y^jl}

of the

Yuan

(JK

^)

^-

Tuan-liang

g) who was
is,

born in 1136 and

died in 1184.

He

compiled a treatise to which he gave the

name

"Urh-ya-i" (W " Urh-ya." This

^M)
is
it

Wings, that

useful additions to the

a supplement to the original thesaurus, and

superior to the "

Dr. Legge considers

P4-ya "

of

Luh

T'ien.^

In the year 1150 appeared the

which soon became famous and
rity.

first

edition of a dictionary

to

some extent a standard autho(jBL

This was the " Wu-yin-chi-yun "

^ ^ !!)> which was

family of Chang-li
actual compiling

originally compiled

Chao-chow

(^

ij\)

by Ching P'o (fj J^) al. Yen-pao (g g) of in Chih-li. Soon after publication it was

taken in hand by several members of the

in the Chen-ting district of Chih-li.
of the

Han

Hence the

work

is

sometimes ascribed to one

of these

Hans, by name

Hsiao-yen

(^ ^), who

has in consequence received

much

praise

for the merits of the treatise.

Then about 1212 a son

of Hsiao-

yen, by name Tao-chao (^ J^ Hg) al. Po-hui (fg 0^) published a new and improved edition, and the " Wu-yin-yun-chi " is often

quoted as his work.

He

prefixed the words " Kai-ping "

to the title in order to

show that he had

altered

(gfc f and condensed is

the original treatise.

best

It is this edition

by Han Tao-chao which

known, and

it is

a peculiar and interesting work.

The

basis

of the "

Wu-yin-chi-yun" was the ^' Chi-yun,'' but other treatises, and specially the " Lei-pien " of Ssu-ma-kuang were also used in
compilation.

its

In

its

present form

it

combines the tonic and

syllabic analyses of
1

words with their arrangement under like

;

"

Ma
C.

T. L,," chap. cxc.

" Snngf-shi," chap, ccccx.

*'

Liu-shu-ka," Pref

'L.

C,

iv.,

Prolog., p. 181.

The Cultivation of
finals,

their

Language hy

the Chinese,

69

the ^^Yii-pien" being

woven

into a phonetic dictionary.

The

characters are distributed according to the five musical notes,

the four tones, the Sanskrit initials and a peculiar system of

reduced from 206 to 160, by There are 53,525 characters given, being about 27,000 more than were given in the " T'ang-yun." ^
finals.

The number

of these last is

omission of duplicates chiefly.

Another book on the sounds

of characters
is

some popularity and

is still

often quoted

which attained the " Wu-yin-pien-hai "

its

a^'m
short

W)'

This treatise, which

is

generally quoted by

title

" Pien-hai,'* was compiled- by "Wang Yii-pi

(J

|| |g)>
It

a native of Hou-yang, then subject to the

first

Kin

Tartars.

was

published in the year i ] 84 but

''

it

has been often reprinted.

^'

The

Yii-pien " formed the basis of the

Pien-hai/' but

Wang

rejected

some

of the classifiers of that

work and made a new

combined phonetic

arrangement

of the characters, introducing the

and

structural system.^

A
pu"
work
for
of

much more famous book

^), Rhyme
Restorer
al.

of this century
(lit.

was the

*^

Yunof the

(g|

Repairer).
{:jr

This was the

Wu Yii

(J^ |^)

Wu Ts'ai-lao

^), a native

Bohea
a

district in

the Province of Fuhkeen.

Wu Yii held office

In addi-

time

under the Kao Tsung Emperor, and he was a

distinguished scholar and a careful, methodical writer.

tion to the
classics
''

Yuu-pu '^ he composed

a commentary on one of the

and the " Mao-shi-pu-yin "

(^

H^

),

a treatise in

which he gives what he thought were the correct sounds and characters for the " Shi-ching." In compiling the " Yun-pu," also,

Wu's

chief

aim was

to restore to the characters in the old classic

poetry their original sounds, and to the texts those readings which

the rhymes required. The work was at first apparently only an appendix to the " Chi-ku '' ('^ ^) oi a writer named Hsia (J),
but
it

attained

fame

as a separate publication.

Wu

argued that
first

the political ballads and other poems of early times were at

sung, or chanted, or recited, and that they were not committed

to writing but preserved in
^

memory.
;

He

held that the minstrels

?JC

'M^M (Repriut) Pref i #

.

#5

e"

H tl (Reprint of 1589)
;

Wylie's Notes, p. 9.

3|g

|g (Ming Rep.) Pref.

70

The Oultivation of their Language hy the Chinese.

districts at the
'^

and poets used the sounds current in their several

changed and rhymed together.
In order
ballads,

time, and that words of different tones in the " Shi

to

were inter-

restore the original

rhymes

of the ancient odes

and

and the correct pronunciabe taken as guide

tions of words generally, he thought a provincial dialect such as

that of the

Soochow region

at his time should

and standard.

The

characters

given in

the

"Yun-pu^'
initials,

are

arranged under the finals in the order of the Sanskrit

and

some say
severely

Wu Yii was the

there

first to

adopt this order.

He

has been
of

censured for his teachings

texts,

about the use

forced
of

rhymes, for needless changes in

finals.

and

for

wrong bracketing

But

is

considerable difference of opinion on these

writers,

subjects

ing

among later Wu's facts and

some approving and some condemn-

theories.
to

He

is

recognized,

however, as

having been the

first

distinguish

in a methodical

manner

between the old and the modern pronunciations of characters. The former he called the " Ku-yin '^ ( ^) and the latter the

"Chin-yin "

{^ ).

To support and

establish his doctrines

Wu

marshalled a great array of illustrations and examples.

the distinction of being adopted by

He had
" Shi-

Chu Foo-tzu

as guide to the

sounds of rhyming characters in the

ching'' and *^Li-sao,'' though

latter's editions of the

Chu

did not always accept "Wu's

violent changes of text, as, for example, that

for the

which he proposed
"Shi-ching."^

well-known passage in the

last

poem

of the

To
more

Wu

Yii succeeded Ch^ng Hsiang

of less ( J|5 J^)

fame but

desert, according to late critics.

He was

the author of the

" Ku-yin-pien " {-^

or old

^)

in

which he reduced the

"Ku-yun"

rhyming

finals to six classes.

Ch^ng Hsiang's teachings on

the differences between the old and the modern sounds of characters are said to

be free from most of the errors which are found in

the writings of

Wu Yii.

They have, however, mistakes

of their
little

own, and they have never had much success, being, indeed,

known.
^

-^

L. Ch. C,
2

iv.,

mm m> Froleg.,

Int.;

&

4- il M. Int.; tl ^.Pref.;
:^

Ku-shi-yin-lan,"

p. 103.
0)J
;

Ku-chin-fung-yuu," the |^

^ i^ ^, chap.

i.

The Cultivation
In the
first

of their

Language by

the Chinese,

71

half of the thirteenth century

Wang Poh
(IE

d
W)-

fg), a celebrated scholar

to

and philosopher who lived from 1197

'^

1274,

compiled the

Cheng-shi-chi-yin "

4&

This

little treatise,

published in 1236, was

made up

of materials

taken from the works of Hsii Hsiian, Chia Ch'ang-chao, and

Cheng

Ch'iao.

It has

no claim
it

to literary merit,

but

it is

valu-

able for the information

gives about changes in the forms,

sounds, and meanings of characters.^

Contemporary with

Wang Poh
^).
to

(or

Pai) was
latter

Wang Tsung-tao
was a native
office

d
the

JE)

^^-

Yii-wen (]^

The
1265).

of

Feng-hu

in the Prefecture of

Ningpo, and he held

under

Emperor Li Tsung (1225

His claim

to

mention

here rests on two works which he composed to teach the proper

use of the Sanskrit initials with the rhyming finals.

These were

the ''Ch'ie-yun-chi-hsiian-lun"

(U
in

H jf S

o^)> quoted usually

by the short
teng-ti-t'u"

title

^'Chi-hsiian" (or

yuan %), and the "Ssii-sheng-

(0
is

S^H
that

H);

^^^ chuanp-

One

of the

most noteworthy books on the language in the

13th century
|g),

known

as the " Wu-yin-lei-chii"

of the

(5

which

also
its

was the work

late editions

Han

family of Chang-li.

This book in
of the page,

has a long

title,

given at the foot

which gives some clue

to its history
it

and composition.
has been several

It

was

first

published in or about 1208, and

times republished in the North.

the

The

basis of this dictionary

was

'*Yii-pien" as enlarged and re-arranged by

Wang
to

Yii-pi,

mentioned above.

The work

of compilation

seems

have been

begun by Ching P'o, already noticed, and

it

was continued by

Han
other

Hsiao-yen and finished by

Han

Tao-chao with the help of

members

of the

Han
is

family and of certain disciples.

The

arrangement

of the

book

peculiar.

The

characters are grouped

under

classifiers, of

which there are 444, being 421 selected from

These
classifiers are

those of the ^'Yii-pien" with 23 added.

taken according to their position under the thirty-six

initials

^m^mmm^^^Bm,
'

chap. m.

^ ^ ii ii.

cliap.

iii.

"

Ma

T. L.," chap. cxc.

'

72

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

derived from the Sanskrit alphabet, arranged under the four

tones and the physical organs employed in utterance.
first

Thus the

classifier

is

Kin

(chin

^)

which comes under the

K initial

{kien

molar teeth.

^), the pHng tone, and is a Ya-yin^ or sound due to the Under each classifier the characters are arranged

according to the

number

of strokes as in the

Kanghsi dictionary,

and the pronunciation and usually a few meanings are added.^

In the year 1252 there appeared a work which soon became

famous and exercised a great influence on the study
language.
of
(g|]

the
|^),

This was the celebrated treatise of Liu

Yuan

a native of P4ng-shui

(^

7J1C)

in

gave
liao
''

to his treatise

was in

full

(i

if

m.

% ll

m
is

The name which he ^' Jen-tzii Hsin-k'an Li Pu Yun" that is, The " Li Pu Yun-liao
Ssuchuan.
It

reprinted in 1252, the Jen-tzu year in the cycle.

this book, to

seems that

which Liu

Yuan
35^

indebted for the perpetuation of

his

name, was actually composed and published by a scholar

^R).

named Wang Wen-yii (3

P^ing-shui, and his book

This

man

also

was a native

of

bore the cyclic characters for 1229, the

year in which

it

was published.
to

Liu Yuan seems

for

to

have merely
to

altered these characters

those

1252 and then

have

published the work as his own.

The

treatise itself is largely

indebted to the labours of the two

compiler criticises these severely.

Mao

noticed above, though the

is

He
107,

famous

for reducing the

206 yun or rhyme-classifiers

together duplicates.

to

by omitting or putting
Liu
^^

By

doing this he began, according to some,

also

the confusion of the true sounds of characters.

characters to the number given in the " Li
treatise cast its predecessors,

added 436

Pu

Yun-liao."

His

and

specially the

Kuang-yun,'^ into

the shade for a considerable period.

the P4ng-shui system

Up

to the present, indeed,

fashion
ars

may be said to prevail, and it is in force and now with some slight modifications. Old-fashioned scholmourn over this and complain that Liu Yuan's system passes
Shen

in the world as that of

Yo

or as that of the " T'ang-yun.'^

^^#5.t-^mra^M,
'

(Ming Reprint).
;

'* - shi - yin - chien," chap. ii. Yun -hsio " " Ku-chin-t'ung-yun," Int. ; Phon. S. W., Int.

" Li

" Ku-chin-yun-liao," Int.

The Cultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.

73
its

In the year 1276 appeared a work generally cited by

short
title

" Ch'ie-yun-chi-nan " (-U f| f ^), a Gruide to the correct spelling and pronunciation of characters in classical literature.

This was composed by Liu Chien

An-hsi, in Kansuh.
of

(gij

|g)

al.

Shi-ming

(i

?B)' ^ native of

It

was founded on the

its
is

" Wu-yin-chi-yun "

Han

Tao-chao, and was regarded by

author as in a manner a supplement to that work.

first

The book

a series of tables showing the position of certain characters

initials,

under the Sanskrit

the finals of the

*'

Wu-yin-chi-yun,"

the four tones, and the physical organs concerned in pronunciation.

To the
and

tables

is

appended a small work

gave

of later date in

thirteen sections.
tables,

This shows the practical application of the

author
it

the

the

modest

name Jade-key

Expedients, " Yii-yao-shi-men-fa"

(^

15 PI &)j always

quoted simply as the " Jade-key."

To

this part succeed various

notes on distinctions in the sounds of characters.

useful of these
is

The most
for

the one on the characters which in classical

literature are used in

two tones with a separate meaning

each

tone.
(ch'i'l)

Thus wang
tone
is *^to

in the even tone is a king,

and

in the third

be king of a kingdom. "

Such characters the

(JJj

author denominates " moving and

the former use of the word by a red

quiescent "
circle.

^), marking

He

also distinguishes

between aspirated and non-aspirated sounds, calling the former

hu

(Pf), as
it

sending out breath, and the latter chi (gj), as not

out.^

sending

To

the latter half of this (the thirteenth) century belongs by

little

composition a treatise of no

merit, the " Liu-shu-ku " (7^ ^), Accounts of written characters in their six classes. The

author was Tai T'ung

in the

(^

j|g) al.

Chung-ta (f^ ^),

office in

of

Yung-chia

Wen-chow

Prefecture of Chekiang.

After obtaining the

the Imperial

Metropolitan Degree he was appointed to an

Academy, and thence transferred as Archivist to T'ai-chow in his native province. Then the Mongols prevailed and Tai T'ung,
unwilling to serve them, pleaded
seclusion.
ill

health and went

home

into

Here he occupied himself with the composition

(Reprint of 1577).

of the

^MfejE^^ia^l^

74

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese,
to his father's
is

"Liu-shu-ku, the beginning of which was due

teaching.

This work, which was not published until 1320,

in

thirty-three chapters fchuanj

with an introductory one called

or General explanations of
this is the

" Liu-shu-t'ung-shi "

aC

S 5E ^)

the six classes of characters.

best

To the western student

treatise.

and most interesting part of the

In

it

we have

the

author's theories as to the origin and development of writing, the

connection between

it

and speech, and various matters

of detail

relating to the language.

to be erroneous

Some
is
liar,

of its statements

have been found

and some

of its theories

have been declared faulty

or absurd.

But

the essay

written in a liberal, philosophical

manner, and Mr. Hopkins

it

done us a kindness by rendering

itself

into English.

In the book
of

the characters are arranged

under 479
derivatives, derivatives.

classifiers,

which some are primitives yielding

and others derivatives which again yield further

These proceed according
to

the order of the six

classes. Pictorial or

Symbolic, Indicative, and so on, and they are

titles

marshalled under eight

designating as

many
first

categories of

mental or material objects.

says

Following the " Shuo-wen," as he

of

(H

7{t

3!C)j

^ places pi (<) as the

numbers

at

the beginning and

to

makes

his first group that of objects related

Number.

To

this

succeed the

words which belong

to

the

categories of

Heaven, Earth, Man, the Animal and Vegetable

kingdoms, manual industries, and miscellaneous.

The author

gives the spelling of the character, the varieties of writing where

such

exist,

the meanings apparently in what he considered the

order of their development, and the derivatives formed from exist-

ing or conjectured primitives, generally supporting or illustrating

his teaching

by reference
early

to classical authorities.^

To

the

part of

the

Mongol dynasty belongs the

as the "

rhyme-dictionary commonly

known

Yun-hui."

This was
title

published near the end of the 13th century, with the

-7*

"Ku-

chin-yun-hui " ("j^T t% ^)> ^^^ ^^s, according to some, the work of Hsiung Chung (J| tp or ,g,), a friend of Liu Chien. In
* The y^ 297; Ditto, X.,

^ ^, ed.
p.

1784;

"

China Keview," Vol.

II.,

p.

175

Ditto, IX., p.

143; The "Six Scripts," by L. C. Hopkins, Esq.

The Cultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.

76

the year 1292 appeared the " Ku-chin-yuu-hui-chii-yao " (Jp

which was apparently a new edition

hui-chii-yao" has been ascribed to
of

of the above.

^), The " Yuq-

Huang Kung-shao
is

(^

S*

IB)>

Shao-wu

in

Fuhkeen.

This man, however^

more frequently

quoted as the author of the "Yun-hui" simply, the " Yun-hui-chiiyao " being assigned to Hsiung Chung. In the " Yun-hui" the

107 rhyme-classes of Liu

are arranged under

Yuan

are adopted, and the characters

to the Sanskrit initials.
is

them according

But

in thus giving the orthography of characters the book

said to

abound

in errors,

and the confusion in

this respect

which has since

This dictionary
it

existed is traced by

some

to the ''Yun-hui."

was based on Liu Yuan's

gives 12,652
edition of the

edition of the ''Li-pu*yun-liao," but

characters,
*'

being

many more than any

among the

previous

Li-pu-yun-liao " had given.

a show of popularity
fell into

For some time the

professional
It

"Yun-hui" had
students, but
it

afterwards

utter disuse.

has been

condemned
decessors.^

as a faulty, slovenly work,

much

inferior to its pre-

In the early part of the 14th century appeared a notable the " Yun-fu-ch'un-yii " (t| fl^^ 2), Jewels from the Treasury of Words. This was the joint work of two brothers
treatise,

surnamed Yin
were Shi-fu

(|), natives of

Hsin-wu

in Kiangsi.

Their names

Chung.fu

^) ah Ching-hsien (gj ^) Z. Shi.yti(gf Jg), and (+ ^) al. Fu-ch'un (S[ M) ^. Yu-ta (^j^ g)- They
(flf

belonged to a family distinguished for devotion to literary pursuits,

and they inherited a considerable amount

of etymological learning.

The
was

first

edition of the

"Yun-fu,"

finished in 1307, appeared

it

aboutl314, but as there was a great gap in the work, and as

in other respects very defective,
until
it

had not much

success.

It

was not

1590 that a new and complete edition was brought

out by another great scholar,

Wang

Yuan-chen

(J

% J[)

^^

Meng-ch'i (3 j^).
edition,

He

added words omitted in the original

and gave the spelling according to the " Li-pu-yun-liao.^' As thus published, the " Yun-f u '' is a copious dictionary of terms
1

"Yan-hsio"; " Ku-chin-yun-liao,"

Int.; " Ku.Bhi-j^in.lun," chap.

J^; Phon,

S.

W. Ting.shdng.

76

The Cultivation of
in use

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

and phrases
classical

writings.

among literary men or derived from earlyThe compilers adopted the "P'ing-shui"
to the phrases

rhyme-finals,
a duplicate.
ture, the "

with the exception of one which they regarded as

In addition

from the orthodox

litera-

Yun-fu"

gives also huo-fao

(^fg
;

^),

that

is,

quotations

in

common
to

use but of

unknown

origin

it

has also proper names

and phrases derived from Buddhist writings.

intended

The work was

its

be of practical

utility to students,

and

continued

popularity with them

testifies

to

the success of the intention.

This popularity
criticisms

it

has maintained notwithstanding the severe

it

which have been passed on

to

by succeeding authors.
ill-

According

one of these the compilers of the *^Yun-fu" so

treated the ^'Shuo-wen"

and the " Yun-liao"

of

Liu Yuan, that

the latter and Hsii Shen must be crying for vengeance in Hades.

The

criticisms of these writers are

its

apparently directed chiefly

against the treatise in

early form

when published
of that edition.'^

in 1314.

The Ming
errors

editor supplied

many

of the defects

and corrected the

which detracted from the value

treatise

Another etymological
%

of

the 14th century

is

the

/Chung-yuan-yin-yun

(pf*

]g

|g), a

Vocabulary of the Mandarin

of this

or standard language.
to

The authorship
-fg

book

is

ascribed
^^^

Chou T^-ch4ng

(jg

^), a native
to

of

Kao-an ("^ '$)

Kiangsi.

There seems, however,

title

have been an early form

of

the work, with the

"Chung-yuan-ya-yin''
that
is,

Elegant words
to distinguish

of China,

the Court language.

this,
is

Chou's edition from

f| ), the In order " the term Kao-an " was

(+ i^

prefixed to the former.

libraries it is

As

the work

now found
number

in shops

and

a small treatise in two chuaUj and edited by two

scholars of the

Ming

period.

It gives a
finals

of characters

arranged under nineteen pairs of

and four
ch'il.

tones.

The

latter

are Yin-p'ing, yang-pHng, shang, and

This distinction of a

yin and a yang p'ing was not in the

first

form

of the book.

It

was due

to a

scholar

named Hsiao (^), and was

This distinction

not published
is

until 1324, after Hsiao's death.

^

often said to
.

^^EX^M B

(ed.

1590); " Ku-chin-yun-liao," Pref

'

Yun.

hsio; Phon. S.

W. Ting-sh^ng.

The Cultivation of their Language hy the Chinese.

corrrespond to that of the p'ing tone into upper ani lower

77
( J^

and f*), but one can

easily see for himself that such is not the

case, at least not always.

The " Chung-yuan-yin-yun ^'

them
at the

further

distributes the ju or short-tone words, of

which there are seventeen

end
of the
it

groups,

among

the four other tones, adding

It

section to

which they belong.

also distinguishes

what

calls

pi^k'ou-ynn (Pg p ||)or "shut-mouth finals," of which there are three groups. The words of these classes in Mandarin at present
all

end

in w,

and cannot be distinguished as

to

ending from others

which

in this

work are
'^

in different^ classes.

But

at the time of
for him, as

the compiler the

shut-mouth finals" were probably

It

Dr. Edkins says, words ending in m.

must be remembered,
is

however, that the

'^

Chung-yuan-yin-yun "

not to be taken as

a perfect authority for the spoken Mandarin of any part of China

in the 14th century.
It

was compiled as a help

in

to the
it

makers
was
for

and singers

of plays

and ballads

North China ; and

these and similar persons that the proper distribution of the short

tone words was taught.

In the common speech of the people the

short tone words were used as such.^

To

this

period belongs also the

"Lei-yun"

(^

^), a work
generally

in thirty chiian,

which was published in 1321.

It is

ascribed to Li Poh-ying

(^

ffi

51^' ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^"^y ^^ ^ certain

His father, Mei-hsien (-^ |f ), began and a Poh-ying himself spent ten brother continued the compilation.
extent the compiler.
years in preparing the book but died before
it

was printed.

The

aim of the " Lei-yun " was

to correct errors in the

popular use of

words by supplying the true forms, sounds, and meanings from

old
authorities.

But the book

itself

contained

many

serious

errors,

and

it

does not seem to be

of Poh-ying,

much known.

nephew

by name W^n-chung

(^
(^

jiji),

in

order to soothe the

mind
In

of his

uncle "under the nine

hills,"

published a book which he called the " Tzii-chien "

f|) or

Mirror of Characters.

this

small treatise

we have

a large

Man.

^^Ma^ 40 and 79;

Gr., pp.
i.

(Rept. of Minged.); "Yun-hsio;" { 'M tft chap. vi. ; Ed. " Ku-chin-t'ung-yun," chap, i.; " Li-shi-yin-chien,"

chap.

78

The Cultivation of
of characters

their

Language hy the Chinese,

number
finals.

grouped under the usual four tones and 201

It gives the spelling of each, the original meaning,

and
the

a short analysis.
*'

For the two

last

it

generally

follows

Shuo-wen," but other works, such as those

also

of Hsii Hsiian,

Kuo
is

Chung-shu, and Ssu-ma-kuang, are

quoted as authorities.
a

Native students have a liking for the " Tzu-chien,*' which

useful little book

and

is

often reprinted.^
scholars
of the
ffi), of

who adorned the reign Mongols was Chou Poh-ch'i (^ fg ^) al. Poh-wen (fg
of the great

One

\/ P*o-yang in
(/^

Kiangsi.

He

was author

of the

" Liu-shu-cheug-o "

IE W)> The
is

Six Classes of Characters Right and Wrong.

This book gives a selection of above 2,000 characters, under the

tones and according to initials and finals.
old form
given, and the

Of each character an
added below.

modern way

of writing is

Then we have
its

the spelling and an explanation of the character,

variants.

meaning and right and wrong

the author of the
*'
*'

Chou Poh-ch4 was

also

Shuo-wen-tzu-yuan," Sources of the

Characters in the

Shuo-wen." This was an earlier and more ambitious work than the " Liu-shu-cheng-o," which owed its

existence to the earlier treatises.

sionally reprinted
authority.'^

The

later

work

is still

occa-

and consulted by students and others as a good

The founder
of learning

of the

Ming dynasty was a patron

efforts to recover

of all kinds

and promoted

and preserve the valu-

able treatises which had been lost or become very rare.

in various

He

also

ways encouraged the study

to

of the written language.

In his reign (1368

edition
of

1399) and by his orders a new and revised

" was prepared

the

"

Yun - hui

and published, but

In the meantime the

that treatise

still

remained unacceptable.

Emperor appointed a commission

pronouncing dictionary.
sion were

of learned

men

to

make
of

new

The
^^l!)

principal
al.

members

of this

commis-

Sung Lien (J^

and

Ching-lien (;^
(|j|

J'll),

Chin-hua and

(^ M)
^

^^ Chekiang,

Yo

Shao-feng

|g

||,),

officials

scholars of great learning and abilities.

They produced

a die-

'^

^ H IE S ed* by i| IE IT of Ming d/nasty.

ffii

(Reprint of 1685, ed. by

^ ^ :^),

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

79

tionary which, from the style of the Emperor's reign, was called

*'Hung-wu-cheng-yun^' (gt JJ J g|), Sung Lien's preface being dated 1375. In this work the meanings and pronunciations of

more than 12,000 characters are given, and these characters are
arranged according to a new set of
finals,

only seventy-six in
to

number.
followed

In fixing on these the compilers seem

the " Chung-yuan-ya-yin,"

have mainly
of

which was a standard

reference for them.

The explanations and

illustrations are chiefly

derived from the work of

courtly writers

Mao Huang and

it

his son.

few

who

lived about the. time of its appearance

have

praised the
literati.

''

Cheng-yun," but

has never had favour with the

still,

It contains

much

learning and criticism, but

as the

Emperor Kanghsi
Lien seems
to

says,

it

never could get into vogue.

of

Sung

have blindly followed the doctrines

Wu Yii.
in

He
of

also criticizes as teaching of

Shen Yo what was actually that

dialect of his native district

Liu Yuan, and he made the

of criticism.

In the reign of the last Emperor of the Ming dynasty there appeared the " Cheng-yun-chien " (jg " SR )}^), that is, the '^Hung-wu-cheng-yun with supplementary These notes were contributed by Yang Shi-wei (Jj^ 9$ ^) notes.

Chekiang the basis

a distinguished Confucianist of the seventeenth century.

are of three kinds
:

They

the Chien

()}5)

give sounds, meanings, and

illustrations for the characters in the original "

Cheng-yun " but

(
"jSf

supplementary

to

those already there; the " Ku-yin "

notes give at the end of each

yun

(section) a

number

of characters

with their archaic sounds; and the "I-tzii"

characters which

(^ ^)

are omitted

Yang

Shi-wei ventured to introduce.^

the learned men who helped Sung Lien in compiling "Cheng-yun," was Chao Ch'ien (^ ^) better known as Chao Hui-ch*ien (Jg ^). This man, a native of Yii-yao in

Among

the

Chekiang, lived in the second half of the fourteenth century.

He was

noted during his short lifetime of forty-four years, for his

great learning and philological attainments.

In addition
also the

to his

labours on the

"Cheng-yun" he compiled

"Liu-shu-

ed. 1632; " Kii-yun.piao-chun," ; Ed. Man. Gr., p. 82; " Ku-chin. H. tS t'ung-yun," preface, et al. ; " Ku-chin-yun-liao," Int,

80
pen-i "

The Cultivation of
(yf^

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

^ ;$ ^).

This

is

a sort of dictionary in which the

characters are given under 360 classifiers, an arrangement which,

was not adopted by

others.

The work, however, has been highly

its

praised by subsequent writers, specially for

treatment of the
the further

"Chuan-chu'' or "deflected" words.

designation "Ku-tse''
treatises
("j^f

Ghao,

who has
of

|!j),

was the author

of

two other

on the language, one

them being an extensive work

discussed

in one

hundred chuan}
by

The modern etymology of the language is Chang Fu {% ||) al. Tao-ch*ang (Jf %), a native
(Kadingl
(11
in

of Chia-ting

Kiangsu.
i"

He

compiled the " Yun-hsio-chi-ch'eng "

of the dis-

^^

JBS)

which he made a careful revision

tribution of characters in the four-tone classes.

In this book we

have twenty-one
shan

chief

yun or

finals,

being the nineteen of

Chou

T^-ch*ing with changes and additions.

(llj)

For example, Chang adds

omits Chiang ({X)-

and hui (Jc)^ separates mu ij^) from yii (^^J, and Under the above twenty- one finals are

subordinate classes which are said to be according to the finals in

the

" Cheng-yun."

The The

short-tone

words are distributed in

is

these classes in a methodical manner, and in what

supposed to

be a natural order.

''

Yun-hsio-chi-ch'eno " has been

it

much

praised for the correct account

ters

gives of the relations of characIts compiler

under their phonetic categories.

was

also the

author of
(iS.

another etymological treatise,

" the " Chi-yin-pien

^ S)>

^ut this latter work does not seem to be

much used
of

or

known.

The fan-chHe method of denoting the pronunciation characters had now been made practically as nearly perfect
possible,

as

but

it

was

still

found inadequate

to

represent sounds

precisely.

An

attempt
this

to

introduce an improved method was

made during
{'(%

period by a scholar

named Shen Ch*ung-sui

W^)'

-S^s

of two.

Thus
his

P^^^ required the use of three characters instead he represented the spelling of Tciai {chie ") by ki
*

(^)) ^^ (^)' ^^^

time,
1

(IS)-

Shen was evidently

in

in advance of his
it

for

method was not adopted

;

any dictionary, and

" Ku-chin.yun.liao," lut.

" Yun-hsio."

The Cultivation

of their

Language hy

the Chinese.

81

was even

said to be nearly like giving legs to a serpent.

But

in

recent times the attempt has been

made

to

represent foreign

sounds by a

tri-syllabic spelling.^

We

may

here notice some of the labours in philology of

certain Buddhist

monks

in the

century one of these monks, by

Ming period. In the fifteenth name Chie-hsuan (f^ ^), with

This
is

the help of several brethren compiled the " Wu-yin-chi-yun," the second treatise with that name.
of great

said to be a

work

research, the

result of

much study and

),
'^

investigation.

Another monk,
capital,

Chen-k'ung

(^
title

of

monastery in the

compiled the " Pien-yuu-kuan-chu-chi "

(^

ffl

K ^ ^)>
This
is

better

known by
It

its

short

Kuan-chu-chi.''

collection of eight short

treatises

on subjects connected with the

language.

was published

in

1498 with a preface from the

In the preface the
its

pen

of a metropolitan
is

graduate named Liu.

its

work

praised for

great and varied learning and for

usefulness not only to the Buddhists but also to the orthodox

student.

The

praise seems to be rather excessive

and the whole

short
treatises,

work

cannot be said to rank high.

it

In

the

however, of which

is

composed, the curious reader will find

information which he will scarcely find in other treatises.

"Ta-t'zii-jen'' (;^

The
lived,

^ \2) monastery, in which Chen-k*ung

monk who was
(ff^

produced another
learning.

noted for his great and varied

'^)

This was No- an

who published

new and
original

enlarged edition of Liu Chien's " Yii-yao-shi.''

edition

The

had only thirteen

''

keys," and No-an added seven.

The
a

new work was

In the
al.

edited by

Chen-k'ung and published

with

laudatory preface in 1513.^

first

half of the sixteenth century lived

Yang Sh6n

Sheng-an {J\ 1^) al Yuug-hsiu (^ ^), born in 1488 (ji %) and surviving to 1559. He was a native of Hsin-tu in Ssuchuan,

and one

of

the most remarkable

men

of the

Ming

dynasty.

In

addition to the poetry, political writings,

books on philosophy
life,

and natural history which he produced during his unhappy

^

" Li-shi-yin-chien," chap.

ii.

'

K * ^

(Ming reprint).

"

82

The Cultivatton of their Language hy

also

the Chinese,

he composed

several treatises on subjects connected with

the oral and written language.

antiquity,
his
of

Yang was

a great explorer of
of the

and studied specially the relation

to that of the early periods.
treatises
is

language of

own time
his

One

of the best

known

philological
"6"

the

" Chuan-chu-ku-yin-liao
old words of the class

(Wt " deflected."

^)> ^

compendium on the

Yang

uses the term chuan-chu or " deflected " to

denote the characters which came to acquire

new pronunciation
was a follower
of

and new

meanings.

To some
is

extent he

Wu Yii,

and this treatise and improved " Yun-pu."

("j^f

by some regarded

Like

Wu,

as an enlarged he gave the name " Old

rhyme-sounds"
tioned

fj) to sounds found in the miscellaneous The treatise here menliterature of comparatively late times.
is

said

to

show great learning but

to

little

criticism,

and

to

be marred by a love of display.

Yet students

of the

language

and

literature continue

regard

Wu

Yii

and Yang Shen as

sources of authentic information about the phonetics of the old

language.^

About the year 1570 appeared the " Shi-yun-chi-liao "

(^

b1 ti ^)> ^ methodical compendium of the rhymes in the '^Shi." The author of this treatise was P'an En (j^ [) a native of the Shanghai district and a distinguished scholar in the reigns
of Shi

Tsung (1522 to 1573). P^an adopted the "P*ing-shui" 107 finals, and his book, which is in five c/iuan,
Tsung and
His etymology
of these is largely
'*

Mu

gives 3,800 characters.

-Cjii

based

the

work

of the brothers

Huang Kung-chao.
time and
it is still

Yun-hui " of The " Shi-yun-chi-liao " was popular for a

it

Yin and on the

used, but
It
is

has not a high place as an authority

as learned but inaccurate

on the old language.

condemned

and unmarked by
to be appropriated

critical discrimination.

Yet

it

had the fortune

it

by a man named Liang, who had

printed
it

word
was

for

word

as his

own

production about sixty years after

first

published.

Liang's son continued the fraud, and Plan's

still

work wa? Ipng soldris perhaps

^

sold

as that of Liai^g.
]^ing.B,hi,''

" Ku-chin-yun-liao," Int.; " Ku-yun-piao-chun," Int.; "

J

chaps,

xcvi.

cxcii.

Wylie's Notes, p. 130.

The Cultivation

of their

Language hy

the Chinese,

83

The

treatise

had a

better fortune in being largely used

by Shao

Chang-heng

in the preparation of his work,

wbich

will soon fall

to be noticed.

Contemporary
distinguished for

with
his

P^an

En was
in

another

scholar

also

learning

the

antiquities of the lan-

guage.
of of

This was Ch'en Ti

(^ %)

al Chi-li

($

:ft),

a native

/^^/^
/

Foochow.

He

was the author

still

of several etymological treatises,

which two are

well known.

One

of these is the

" Ch'ii-

^) (^ J^ iSf found in the poetry of Ch*ii Yuansung-ku-yin-i "

that
is,

which
(J|5

treats of the

words
($|c

^^) and Sung Yii

with the language of the latter part of the fourth 2), / The second work is the " Mao-shi-ku-yin-k'ao '^ \/ century B.C. ^)) generally quoted by its short title *'Ku-yin(^ Hf iSf

k'ao," an

examination

of old

sounds in the " Shi-ching," in

This was published about 1606

four chuanf with an appendix.

with one preface by the author's friend Chiao

al.

it

(^^ j^) (II ^), and a second by the author himself. In Ch'en takes 500 characters in succession, and of each he gives

Hung

Jo

Hou

what he
first

finds to

have been
taken

its

old sound, supporting his view

by proofs

from the " Shi-ching,"

and

next by

collateral evidence

drawn from subsequent

writings.

Ch'en Ti

teach in a thorough methodical way that the " rhymes of the Shi " represent the sounds which the characters

was the

first

to

had

at the time the to

poems were composed, and that characters

age

have from age

undergone changes of sound.

These
also

doctrines he learned from Chiao

Hung, mentioned above, who

and a writer on
it

was a good scholar

the " Ku-yin-k^ao "
for local variations

in the language

seeking
of

to preserve its purity

is

and

historical correctness.
its

The merit

lessened by the neglect

author shows

and the modern sounds

of characters.

He
fs^'

went too

far also with his theory that

Eu-^v^hsie-yin (i^

Pf ^), the ancients did not alter the sound of a character for
a special occasion.

He

held, for example, that

when

yii

(^)

at

the end of one line has the character

as a

at the

end of the next

of this latter

rhyme, we are

to infer that the actual

sound

character at the time was something like

yiiy

say hu.

In after

84
times

The Oultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.

men
as

ignorant of the true sound of the character represent-

ed

it

pa and pe}
first

y/

In the year 1633 was published the

treatise, the
^'

edition of a small but

important

Tzti-hui " (^

by Mei Ying-tsu (|g /f

^)

al.

^). This was compiled Tan-sheng (|8 ^), a native of

It

Ning-kuo Foo
is

in the

Southern part of the present Anhui.

a dictionary in

which the characters explained are given

of strokes,

according to the
classifiers

number
of

under 214

classifiers.

These

are the

" Radicals " which were afterwards adopted the Kanghsi dictionary and other similar
in its original form did not give

by the compilers
treatises.

The " Tzu-hui "

spelling, but

any
its

syllabic

merely stated under a character that

so.

pronunciation fyinj was so and

the syllabic spelling
fully noted.
is

In later

editions,
of

however,

added and the variations

it

sounds care-

For many years

was very popular among students

and

it

has been often reprinted, revised and improved.

it

But

it is

considered inferior to later dictionaries as

writing characters

has wrong ways of

to

and makes mistakes

as

the

classifiers.

Moreover, the meanings and illustrations which are given even in

the enlarged editions are very few, and, as the
says,

Emperor Kanghsi
concise.
It

the

work

errs

by being too

brief

and

was

reprinted in an abbreviated form in 1676, in the complete form

in

1681 and again in 1688, and there are

it

still

to

be found

different editions of

in use, varying in the

retain.

quantity of the

original

work which they

In

its fullest

form the book

is

very useful and gives

much

valuable

information

about the

changes of sound and form which the characters have undergone.

It
is

to

be noted that the pronunciation which

it

gives for a

character often differs from that found in the ordinary dictionaries.

Thus

it

gives ch'i as the sound of

ngil as that of

fi), kU'i as

that of

(k^ou)j

and

-^

(nii).^

' " KuPlion. S. W., Pref. l# "a #> ed. 1606; Ed. Man. Gr., p. 267 yun-piao-chun," Int.; " Liu-shu-yin-yun-piao," Pref. Some late native authors quote Cli'en Ti simply by his name Chi-li (^ i) in citing his teachings, as though these and their author were familiar to everybody.
;

&

'-^

" Wu-fang.yin-yun," Pref.

S,

ed.

1676 and 1688 Kanghsi Diet., Preface by Nien Hsi-yao.

;

Ed. Man. Gr.,

p.

82

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

85

We now
teacher

come

to

one of the great writers on the language, a

all

who has

exercised great influence on nearly

who have

followed him.

This author, often quoted simply as Mr.

Ku (H
and was

J), belongs to the period in which the

Ming dynasty
in

fell

succeeded by that

now

reigning.

He

was born

1613

at

K^un-

shan (g^ ^J), in the Prefecture of Soochow, and died in 1682. His given name was Yen-wu {% Jf), and he had the additional names Ning-jen (@ A), and T'ing-lin (^ i^). In the depart-

ment

of philology

Ku

composed

five books,

which were published

This
is

together in

1643 with a short preface by a friend.

followed by a very interesting essay or letter addressed to one Li

Tzu-te

-^ f*) which is entirely devoted to the archaBology of the language. The first of the five books is entitled ^* Yin-lun "
Discussions on vocal sounds, and
it

(^

(!&)>

may

be regarded as

introductory to the others.

In

this

we have

extracts from

many

authors and

much
of the

interesting

information

on the origin and

development

Chinese language.
treatises,

It describes the technical

criticises

terms used in etymological

previous authors,
y

and gives Ku's own views on the use

poetry.
is

of characters in early
^'

The second book

to

is

called

''

Shi-pen-yin

(If

;$!

and
^
/

an attempt
*'

the

Shi-ching."

reproduce the sounds of the characters as used in The third is the " Yi-pen " TfC) which does

(^

the same for the rhymes in the " Yi-ching.''

The fourth

is

the

"T'ang-yun-cheng'^

(H

f|

]) in

which the

finals of the T''ang

writers have their ancient sounds given, these being substantiated

by a

collection of evidence
is

from old authorities.

is

The

fifth

book,
/

which
piao "

devoted to the old sounds of words,

called " Ku-yin-

("i^

^).

The author
was
at the

of these

works was a

man

of

vast learning, but he was also a thoughtful reader

who reasoned
and

and

criticised.

He

same time an

enthusiast, specially

in matters connected with the antiquities of the language,

carried his opinions to excess.

Ch'en Ti and
the proper

Lu Te-ming
treatment

were

the masters

whose views

as to

of the

characters in the early classical poetry he in the

main adopted.
This and

He

held that words rhymed in the old ballads merely because of

similarity of

sound and without distinction

of

toue.

86

Tlie Cultivation of their

Language hy

the Chinese.
later authors,

other doctrines of
hfe

Ku

have been disputed by

and

has been rather severely criticised for some of his statements

to his labours.-^

by men who were under great obligations

Another great writer on the language in the seventeenth

century was Shao Chang-heng
a native of
this subject
(g|J

g ^)

al.

Tzu-hsiang (-f

;fg),

Wu-chin
is

(^

Jg) in Kiangsu.
("[^T

His principal work on

the *'Ku-chin-yun-liao''
ancient

thesaurus

of

and modern words.

published

a phonetic ai This treatise was

until

^\

completed about 1660 but not

afterwards.
cal

thirty

years

In the introduction the author gives a good

account of the
chief
in

histori-

and

critical

among
to

his

predecessors.

Then
are

follows the

work proper,
tone's

which the characters selected

the

arranged under four

ac3ording

106

finals,

beginning with tung.

At

the end of each class are added (1st)

the old words which were

commonly regarded
same ending
different.

as of like ending,
to

and (2nd) those characters which, according

Wu

Yii

and

Yang Shen,
the
title

in old times took the

for

rhyme purposes
is,

though their proper sounds were

indicates,

So the book

as

compendium

of old

and modern rhyming

is

words.

As has been
on

stated above, the " Ku-chin-yun-liao "

treatise,

based

P'an

En's

but Shao

made changes and

of

important additions.

The
of

latter are generally

"Kuang-yun"

or one

the

editions

taken from the " Li-pu-yun-liao.''

of each section,

Those which he made himself are given

at the

end

and they have not received universal approbation.^

Contemporary with Shao Tzu-hsiang was

Mao

Ch'i-ling

(^

^ W)

^^-

Ta-k'o (;^ pj)

to

al.

Hsi-ho

(W W)of

This latter

lived from

1623

1713 and was one

century.

the most illustrious

scholars of the seventeenth

learning, of original views

He was

man

of great

and independent research, and he had

a clear and direct

way

of expressing himself in writing.

Of

his

many

contributibns to learning and philology the only one

is

we

notice here

that
3l

known

generally by

its

short
;

title

" Ku-chingig

VIS
^

K
-^

if

^
ft,

"Ku-yan.piao-chun,"

Int.

chap.

IS

^^

:^ IE,

viii.

ed. 1696.

The Cultivation of
t'uDg-yun "
(iSf

their

Language by

the Chinese.

87

Press in 1684.

-^ JJ bJ), which was published at the Imperial The full title (given in a note below) is explained
:

by the author thus

The words

'^

Kang-hsi-chia-tzii " indicate

is

the reign and the year of the reign in which the book

publish-

ed; " Shi-kuan-hsin-k'an " means newly corrected by Imperial

Archivists
;

and

*'

Ku-chin-t'ung-yun " shows that the work

is

concerned with a comparison of the words sanctioned as rhymes

now, with those so used in old

there
is

literature.

In the introduction

a critical review of the current theories on the origin and

history of the

modes

of representing the sounds of characters.

The

treatise

of

Liu Yuan was the

basis of the

''

Ku-chin-t'ung-

yun," which adopts the 106

finals of the period.

Mao

teaches

that in the old classical poetry there was no separation of the

pHng, shang, and

ch^ii tones,

but that words in the ju tone formed

criticisms

a class by themselves.
often severe,

His

on

Wu
it

Yii and others are

dictatorial

and he writes generally in a dogmatic,

is

manner.

His book

read by students, but

is

not sanctioned
^

as an authority on the subject of " interchangeable finals."

In 1705 appeared the

(IE

first

edition of the

*'

Cheng-tzu-t'ung

"

3ii)

compiled in the
is

last years of the

seventeenth century.

This dictionary

merely an enlarged and improved edition of

It

the original " Tzu-wei.*'

was compiled from the

latter

by

Liao Wen-ying

(0

Tj^

3^)
of

al.

editions bear the

names

Mei Ying-tsu,
to

Pai-tzu ("g -J), but the current the compiler of the

the editor of that work.

" Tzu-wei," and

last

Han

T'an

(@ ^)

The

named

is

also

sometimes referred

as the author of the

" Cheng-tzu-t'ung."

This work has been blamed for carelessness

of

and ina c curacy, and the compilers

are severe on its demerits.
for
its

the

Kanghsi
it

Lexicon
specially
to
it

Fault has been found with

assignment
its

mistakes as
or

to

the

of

characters

their
is

classifiers

radicals.

In

latest editions,

however,

valuable work and gives useful information on the sounds a,nd

structure of characters, not only in the body of the treatise but
also in the

parts which are supplementary.

comparison of

the " Cheng- tzu-t'ung"iwith| the

Kanghsi Dictionary wiU shew

"

88

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy
its

the Chinese.

that the latter followed the lines of

predecessor and

took

from

it

freely.^

The ''Tzii-wei" and the " Cheng-tzu-t'ung"

sionally

are

still

occaquite

reprinted, but

they

may

be said to have been

superseded by the " Kang-hsi Tzu-tien."

first

This dictionary was

published in 1717 and soon became the standard authority.

of a like character

Other works

have appeared

since, but it

has

not been displaced by any of them.

orders
it

The Emperor by whose

of the
'*

was made

also caused a

book on the phonetics

''

language to be compiled.

This was the

Yin-yun-ch^an-wei

(@ ii

of the thirty-six Sanskrit initials.

^)i which became the standard authority on the use The same Emperor also ento

gaged a college of scholars

treatise to
is

make under

his supervision the

which the name ''Pei-wen-yun-fu'^ was given.

This

one of the largest dictionaries and cyclopedias of reference ever

its

published, but
quotations.

usefulness

is

impaired by slovenly, inaccurate

It should always be used with caution

and

its state-

ments

verified

where

possible.

Ten years

after it

appeared a

supplement was found necessary.

This was compiled by the

title

Emperor's orders and published with the

" Yun-f u-shi-i

to the
*'

iM

yun-f

i^ M u

SS)'

Yun-fu gleanings.

As an index

Pei-wen-

" a very compendious

little

dictionary was compiled and

(gj5

published in 1821 by Cheng Chang-keng

'*

(8 ) This is the Ssii-yin-shi-i " (0 which gives the characters of the ^^ Pei-wen-yun-fu " according
to the

^ ^) Hsiie-t'ing p W> ^ work

<^il.

214

classifiers

with their spelling and the chief meanings.

The *^Ssu-yin"
explained
a
to
is

are the ''four tones,"

is

and

for each character

reference

added
'*

to

the tone and final under

which

it is

be found in the

P'ei-wen-yun-fu."
it

This

little

dictionary

very popular with native students and

seems

to be

much

needed.

Another index

to

the

great thesaurus

is

the

tonic vocabulary

named

''

Yun-hsio-chi-nan,"

guide to the

learning of the pronunciation of words.

This work has a syste-

matic arrangement of the characters under the four tones, and

according to the Sanskrit initials and the finals of the
^

*'

P'ei-

IE

^ j5, reprint of Liao's edition.

The Cultivation of
wen."

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

89
of

The compiler was

Wang Ch^n
is

(3E ?^))

a native

Ch'ang-lo in Fuhkien, and the work was published in 1848.

It

has been reprinted several times and

very popular with the

numerous students
the

of that province.^

In the year 1700 a small but important work was published,

''

Wu-fang-yuan-yin," the genuine words

of

the Empire.

This thesaurus was compiled by

Fan

T'eng-f^ng

(^

^)

al.

Ling-hsd

(^ ^)

of

T'ang-shan in the south

of Chihli.

In 1710

there appeared a revised and improved edition with a preface by

Nien Hsi-yao (r^

H g)

al,

Yun-kung

{%

3|), its editor.

The
this

work was further enlarged and

published in a
of the

new form
edition.

in 1780,

and there have been several reprints

and twenty

1710

In

dictionary the characters are arranged according to a

new

system.

There are twelve

two
classes,

finals

initials,

the former being in

each of six

finals.

The

first six

are called " light

and
last

clear " and they do not admit any ju-sheng words.

These
*'

are all lodged in the second class, the words of

which are

heavy

and
into

indistinct."

There are

five

tones, the
to the

pHng being

divided

upper and lower, corresponding

of

yin-pHng and yang^

pHng

Chou

Te-ch*ing.

It

is

acknowledged by native students

is

that the system of the " Wu-fang-yuan-yin "

not a good one,

edition,

and the work

is

not regarded as an authority.

The 1710
is

however, forms a convenient book of reference and

consulted by provincial students learning Mandarin.

largely

It has also

been used by Dr. Williams in compiling his Dictionary, and an

account of
it

will

be found in the introduction to that work.

calls a translation of

Dr. Williams has there given what he

preface,

Yao's

and

it is

about as bad a specimen of translation as could

be produced.^

We

next notice the contributions

to

the

study of the

language made by Chiang

Yung (Jl ^) al. Shen-hsiu {^ ^). Chiang (Kiang) was a native of Wu-yuan in Anhui and lived from 1681 to 1762. He was a man of great learning and ability,
^ B9 I' P? .il (ed. 1843) ^liWM' My copy of the " Pei-w^n-yun-fu" a recent reprint, and is perhaps an unusually bad one.
i

is

'

iS 3l "^ 7C

Q^

(reprint)

Williams' Dictionary, Int., p.

xiv.

Ed.

Man.

Gr., p. 38.

90

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy
and
'^

the Chinese,

archaeologist, astronomer, musician,

philologist.

In

this last

capacity he was the author of the

Yin-hsio-pien-wei "
-gO

^), the " Ssu-sheng-ch'ie-yun-piao " (pg /J the " Ku-yun-piao-chun " ("^ f| ^). The important and the only one of the three which

( J^ f| S) and
most

last is the
is

well

known

at present.

It

was composed

in order to correct

and supplement

the teachings of

Ku

Yen-wu, though the

latter

was evidently
is

Chiang's master.
it

The date

of its first publication

/g'

1771, and
is

was carefully edited by Lo Yu-kao (jg

It gives only thirteen
chU'l,

Jg).

The work

devoted entirely to the discussion of the ancient sounds of certain

characters.
classes

of finals,

under the

three tones p'ing, shang,

and eight under the Ju tone, and

the author regarded this as the proper system for the sounds of

words in the old poetry.

distinction of tones

He

held that in the "Shi-ching" the

was not observed in the rhymes, a shang

if

word rhyming with a p'ing word

sound.
the

the two approximated in

The

old rhymes, he thought, represented the speech of

at

people

the

time

and in

the

places

of

their

original

composition, and an important matter

was

to

keep old and new

characters have

pronunciations quite distinct.

The forms
and

of

changed in the course

attached to them.

of

time,

so also

have the sounds

The " Ssu-sheng-ch'ie-yun-piao," which was

Chiang
left

published at the same time as the above and by the same editor,
is

a very short treatise.

it

uurevised and so

it

has

not the full authority of a finished work.

tables in

It presents a series of

which a large number

of characters are

arranged under

the 36 Sanskrit initials and the orthodox finals according to the

four tones

the

fmuchHe

spelling

is

given,

and the physical

are indicated.^

characters of the sounds, as dental, lingual,

etc.,

To the eighteenth century belongs

was compiled by Chou
Soochow, who

also the

" Chung-chouThis work

{hj^

ch'uan-yun," the complete rhyme-words of China.

Ang

(J^

^)

al.

Shao-hsia

lived in the second half of the century.

^), of It was

based on the treatise by Chou T^-ch*ing noticed above.

nineteen finals of that work are rearranged and their

But the number

JTie Cultivation of their

Language hy

the Chinese.

91

increased

by

three.

The

introduction

gives

considerable

amount
the

of information

about the sounds of words classified by about previous

organs

concerned in their formation, and

specially criticises

writers.

The author

some

of the teachings of

P'an Lei (}f ^), who lived from 1646 to 1708 and wrote the "Lei-yin" (5|| ). Chou divides the pHng tone into yin and

yang p'ing, and

ch ^ing.

in his treatment of these

he follows Chou Te-

After these come the shang and ch'U, the ju tone words
to

being appended to the other classes according

affinities.

their natural

characteristic of this

work

is

the attention paid to

the physical processes by which words are uttered, and a minute

description of these
is

attempted.

The work has been

revised

and reprinted, but

it

cannot be said to be popular.-^

of the course of

peculiar

feature
to

modern learning on
the eighteenth and

our subject

falls

be noticed here.

In

nineteenth centuries

we

find a revived interest in the philological

is

works

of antiquity.

This

shewn

in

various ways, but chiefly

to

by the

desire to obtain old copies

and

reproduce these accu-

rately with needful additions

and suitable commentaries.

There

was a

^'

return to antiquity " which some took up moderately and

It

discreetly while others carried it out to excess.

to notice a

may

be of use

few

of the

more important

revivals

which occurred

during the above period.

The old-fashioned
in

little treatise

the

"Shi-ming" was taken

hand by the

illustrious scholar

Chiang Sheng (JI

^\ famed for
on the

his labours on the " Shi-ching,"

who

lived in the second half of

treatises

the eighteenth century.

*'

Chiang composed three

Shi-ming," supplementing the deficiencies and verifying the

statements of that work.

few years after his death the *^Kuang-

shi-ming," edited by Chang Chin-wu (gg ) was published In this work we find several additions made to the old (18)4).

book and references given

for the original explanations.^

The learned Tai Chen (^ %) took up the old " Fang-yen '* and produced a new edition with proofs and illustrations. He
'

^tr ^m^mi^A.

Man. Gr,

p. 39.

'

^ I ^

(reprint).

92

The Cultivation of
also

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

was

one of the three scholars

*'

who prepared

the Imperial
of

reprint of the

Fang-yen " with the commentary

edited carefully by

Kuo Po

which appeared in 1779.

Then the "tJrh-ya" was

Lu Wen-chao
edition

(S

3!C

^B);

who devoted
also

to it

two

treatises.

This old thesaurus

was studied
with

by P'u T'ang (f^

in the text.

$g),

who published an

many changes

His

treatise did not find

much

favour and his corrections of the current readings are not generally
accepted.

A better

edition

is

that by Shao Chin-han

(:g|I

J|g),

a very learned

official

who

lived in the second half of the eightto his

treatise,

eenth century.

Shao gave

which was published

it

in 1775, the title *^Urh-ya-cheng-i."

In preparing

he adopted

the text which he thought the best, and

Kuo

Po's commentary.

To the

latter

he added illustrations and references drawn from

It is
all

other commentaries and from classical literature generally.

stated that this edition of the

*^Urh-ya^' has superseded

others

with students.

Further, in 1815 appeared the edition

Yuan Yuan in his thirteen Ching, which gives the commentaries of Kuo Po and Hsing Chi with comparisons of As a sort of supplement to texts and other useful information. (gfc Hung Liang-chi "TJrh-ya," the "g), who lived from 1746
brought out by

to

1809, compiled the "Pi-ya'' (jt JS), a work which follows

the divisions of the "Urh-ya.'*

But most
which
it

of

the terms and

phrases which

it

gives

and

for

supplies references are

not in the ''Urh-ya.^'^

The " Yii-pien *' and the

published together in 1704.
of these works,

'^

Kuang-yun " were reprinted and

Great care was taken in the editing

and the veteran philologist Chu I-tsun {-^

It
is

^ ^)

contributed prefaces.
*'

this edition of the

*'

Yii-pien" and

Kuang-yen" which seems

to be the popular

one among students

of the present time.

The " Chi-yun "

also

found an editor and

was reprinted in 1814.^

But none
received so
'

of the other ancient treatises

on the language has

This book had
Jt il (reprint 1857).

much

attention as the " Shuo-wen."

(13 ed.)
;

mmMmMikl Yuan Yuan'8 " Urh.ya "

" Yii-pien"

and " Kuang-yun,"

ed.

1701

The Cultivation of

their

Language hy

the Chinese.

93

almost gone out of fashion and fallen into neglect during the period
of the

Ming
it

dynasty.

But

in the seventeenth century scholars

in
it

turned to

again,

and the interest then awakened

produced
of

several reprints and commentaries.

One

of

the

first

these

was an

edition with notes

by Chiang Yung, mentioned above.

Another edition with a learned introduction was published about

1772, the author of which was
the text of

Chu Yun

(-^ ^).

He

reproduced
in

Pao Hsi-lu (Q

^
^)

)
al.

which had been published

1420, and followed the arrangement introduced by Li Tao.

few years later Kuei

Fu

(;g

^ei-ku

(^ )

finished his

labours on the " Shuo-wen," though his treatise was not publish-

ed until long afterwards.

Kuei,

who was
to

a native of Chii-fu

(^
of

J^)

in

Shantung, and lived from 1736

1806, was a scholar

wide reading and a true lover of learning.

He

put out

all

his

talents in the production of a

new

edition of the *'Shuo-wen,'' a

labour on which he was employed for thirty years.

The name
its

which he gave

to

his work, " Shuo-wen-chie-tzu-i-cheng," or veof the

'^

rification of the

meanings

Shuo-wen," indicates

scope.

The

text of the original treatise

is

given in separate columns and

is

in large characters.

The commentary

full

and gives the

student nearly everything that could be desired to substantiate

and
as

illustrate the short

paragraphs of Hsii's text.

With

this last

commonly received he

did not interfere, for he had a genuine

*'

reverence for the words of the

Shuo-wen."

The doubts he had

on the subject and his views as to the purity of the texts in

use were put in writing, but he did not live to publish them.
It
is

probable,

however,
as

that

many
'^

of

them
not
it

are

embodied

in his

commentary
editions.
fifty
it

his views
**

of readings

found in various
published for

previous

His

Shuo-wen
it

was

more than
1870 that

years after

was

finished,

and

was not
it

until

became generally

accessible.

In that year

was

edited by Ting

Ken-shan

('J'

^)

and published under the

official

auspices of the distinguished living scholar and

Chi-t'ung.^

Chang

In the meantime two other editions of the "Shuo-wen" had

94

The Cultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese,

appeared.

One

of

these

was by Tuan
from 1735

Yii-tsai (|5
to

iS) ^^

Jo-ying

(^ ^) who

lived

1815 and was an

enthusiast in the study of the old language and literature.

He

produced an edition

of

the

^'

Shuo-wen " which

is

regarded as

supplementary

to that

by Kuei Fu.

Tuan

devotes himself to the

sounds rather than to the meanings of the characters, and his

notes are few but generally good and useful.
syllabic spelling of the characters,

He

gives

the

and

refers these to their places

under his seventeen classes

of

finals for old poetry.

''

parts of China students prefer Tuan's edition of the

to all others,

In some Shuo-wen "

it

though there are who say that he published

than to instruct others.^
is

rather

to glorify himself

The
Tuan's,
(:fc f|).
title,
^'

other edition, which

that

in

many
(-^

respects better than

is

by Chu Tsun-sheng

g)

al.

Yun-ch'ien
Its

This was finished in 1833 and published in 1852.

Shuo-wen-t'^ung-hsdn-ting-sheng,'' explains the aim of the

compiler, which was to give a historical account of the meanings

and sounds
of the old

of

the characters in the " Shuo-wen."

But instead

arrangement

of the characters, these are given accord-

ing to their sounds, which are grouped under eighteen phonetics.

The

final according to the current

is

system

is

also given for

each

character, the old form

tions of the

appended, and to the original explana-

"Shuo-wen'* the editor adds instances from various

authors of early times.

The introductory chapters by Chu

by
collecting

are

also valuable, and he has done good service

numerous

examples

of characters omitted

by Hsu Shen whether by chance

or design.^

In addition

to the above, Hsii Hsiian's edition of the "

Shuo-

wen*' has been several times reprinted within these two centuries;

and in 1839

all

the extant writings of his brother on the old

collected

dictionary were

and published in one

century

treatise.
find, in addition

Turning back

to the eighteenth

we

to those already mentioned, several treatises worthy of mention on

'

mX^^iS.ed.

1808.

Chalmers in 'Ch. Rev.," vol. ix. p. 297, and Lockhart Chu Tsun-sheng's worlc is known as the " Phonetic in " Ch. Rev.," xii. p. 63. " Shuo-wen and it is referred to by that name in the present work.
^

^SM

il

^ ^;

The Cultivation of

their

Language by

the Chinese.
of the

95
most

subjects connected with the language.

Of these one

important

is

the " Liu-shu-yin-chiin-piao.''

The author
published

of this

was Tuan
Kiangsu.

Yii-tsai, noticed above, a native of

Chinkiang Foo in
as

The work, which

is

now

often
is

an

appendix to the author's " Shuo^wen/'

a series of five essays

It gives
all

on the relations

of the ancient to the

modern language.

the author's seventeen classes of finals, under which he groups

the rhymes of the *'Shi-ching" and the old poetry generally.

Tuan maintains

that the

rhymes in the " Shi" are generally

its

correct, that at the time of

composition there were three tones,

to

the p'ing, shang, and/w.

distinct.

These three he finds

be kept quite

The ck'U-sheng he
fifth

considers to have arisen about the

fourth or

century of our era.

But words, he
is

thinks,

have

been

all

along changing their sounds and passing from one tone to

another.
tions

The

''

Liu-shu-yin-chiin-piao "

prefaced by contribu-

from the author's

literary friends Tai

ftfi) al.

Tung-yuan, Ch'ien

Ta-hsin, Ch'in Cheung (fc

Chi-fu

(^
]g)

),

all

scholars of

repute in this department of study.

Tai Chen

(^ g)
of the

al.

Tung-yuan

C^

al.

Sh^n-hsiu ('^

^) He

has been already noticed for his labours on the Fang-yen.

was a native

Hui-chow Prefecture
to

of

Anhui and

lived

from 1723

to 1777.

In addition
''

many

other works on various

subjects he composed the

Sheng-yun-k'ao " (g f| ^) in four chuan, the " Sheng-lei-piao " (g ^) in ten chitan, and the

"Hsii-yen" (1^ =). Tai's studies in the language embraced the forms and sounds of characters and also their uses and history.

He had
to

great natural abilities, which he improved

by a wide

range of reading.

Of a

sceptical disposition

he always wanted
he was taught

know
of

the

how and

the

why

of the statements

to accept.

This

spirit gives

them

more than common

a value to his writings and makes interest. Thus the '' Hsii-yen "

examines the different uses made of such words as tao (J), li (g|), hsing (^) by various writers and various schools of religion

and philosophy.^
'

:^m^mm

(reprint).

'

m'^m^my'l^m,

chap,

v.-,

mm

(reprint).

96

The Cultivation of
Ch'ien Ta-hsin

their

Language hy

the Chinese,

(^

H|f) ^^-

Chu-ting (ft tf),

of the '^Sheng-lei."

who

lived

from 1728
ful little

to 1804,

was the author

This use-

manual was edited by Ch'ien's friend "Wang En

published in 1825.

{^

^@,)

and

first

It deals with the written language*

of

and gives the peculiar meanings

literature.

words and phrases in the old

It also corrects mistakes in early treatises in the use

of characters,

and shows how words are used

for

other words

because of a likeness to them in sound or

philological information

way

of writing.
is of

The

which

this little

book gives

much
own

interest to the student of the language.

Ch'ien was a giant in

his

learning,

well read

not only in

all

the literature of

country but also in Western learning as taught by Ricci, Schall, and Verbiest. The " Sheng-lei " was composed very gradually,
the materials for
it

being collected while the author was engaged

in preparing his historical

for the

and other

treatises.
it

It

was intended
to

use

of students

and accordingly

was made easy

consult and of a practical character.^

One

of

the best

and most comprehensive works on the

language is that by Li Ju-chen (^ ifr ^) al. Sung-shi {^ ^). This treatise, named " Li-shi-yin-chien " or Li's mirror of words,

was

first

published about 1806 and

it

has passed through several

for its

editions.

Li Sung-shi was a scholar who loved learning

it

own

sake, not using

as a

means

for worldly preferment.

He

had the
pleasant
is

command of a large library and enjoyed the society of The Mirror of Words friends who had similar tastes.
In these the origin and history
finals,
initials,

mainly in the form of question and answer, contained in thirtyof the written
spelling,

three sections.

characters, of the tones,

modes

of

and

other subjects, are treated in a pleasant but learned and scholarly

manner.

Dr. Edkins in his Grammars has quoted from and

it is

given some account of this book, and

not necessary to dwell

on

it

further in this place.^

Another recent work on the language quoted from and

^

'

^ ^> ed. 1852 " Kuo-ch'ao-han-hsio," ^ 15 a" ii ed. 1808 Ed. Shanghai Gr.
; ;

etc.,

chap.

111.

(2nd ed.)

p. 51, etc.

Ed. Mam.

Gr. (2nd ed.) p. 38, etc.

"

The Cultivation of
described
(fff

their

Language by

the Chinese.

97

by Dr. Edkins

is

the

" Yen-hsu-ts'ao-t^ang-pi-chi

H :^ S ^
and

IB) by Pi Hua-cben

(H

$ jg).
of
it

This author

is

v/

oue of the very few native writers who have treated of

parts of speech
to be rare,

" the

and construction
tlie

of sentences."

The book seems

only through Dr.

present writer

knows

Edkins' Grammars.^

A recent
is

treatise

which deserves

to

be better

known than

it

at present

is

the " Ku-chin-wen-tzii t*ung-shi."

The meaning
Historical

of this

title, to

be gathered from the book

itself, is

explanations of written characters fi'om ancient to modern times.

It

was compiled by Lii Shi-i

(g

^tf;

^)

of Hsi-tsun in the

same
was

Prefecture as

Amoy.

The work was

until

finished in 18-^3 but

after

it

not published apparently

death.
tion It

1879, long

the author's

was then printed

at a private press with of

an introduc-

by Lin Wei-yuan, the great landlord

a pupil of Lii.

North Formosa,

who had been

knowledge

This latter was noted, at least in

his native province, for his great learning,

and

specially for his

of the language. He was a follower of Tuan Yii-tsai, and took the " Shuo-wen " as edited by Tuan for the basis of his

work.

The

characters given in the

"Shuo-wen"
The

are printed at

the head of the page in large type.

spelling of each is

given after

Tuan

next comes a short account of the meanings

character,

and uses

of the

and then the old forms

which
is

of writing.

The author intended

be as
it

his treatise,
to

in fourteen

chuan, to

were a supplement

Tuan's "Shuo-wen," correcting the

It

mistakes and supplying the deficiencies of that great work.

does not display
ical

much

originality, but

it

gives in a terse, methodtreated

manner important information about the characters

" Shuo-wen."
natives
of
^

of in the

The
dialects

parts

of

Kuangtung and Fuhkien speak

These
dialects

which are very different from Mandarin.

are from certain points of view distinct languages, and they have
their

own phonetic

dictionaries,
at
least

which are often re-edited and

these
dictionaries

republished.
1

Two
p. 58.

of

have been

Ed. Sh. Gr.,

98

The Cultivation

oj their

Language hy
used.
to

the Chinese.

compiled with care and are

much

But

since the time of

Kanghsi,

efforts

have been made

dialects.

substitute

the

standard
edict

language for the local

That Emperor issued an

commanding the

institution of schools in
of

Fuhkien and Kuangto the establishment

tung for the teaching

Mandarin, and he repeated his com-

mands

afterwards.

These instructions led

of certain schools,

and in course

of time

books were published to

Thus, for the

aid scholars in acquiring the national language.

natives of

Fuhkien a work named

Its compiler

" Kuan-yin-hui-chie-shi-i" was

published in 1748.
of

was Ts'ai Shi

(g

^), a native
province.

Chang-p^u

in

the

Chang-chow Prefecture
Peking and other
cities,

of

that

Ts'ai
it

had

travelled to
to

and he had made

at

his

business

observe

the peculiarities of speech

visited,

the

capital

and the other places he

having

first

learned

Mandarin.

When

old,

he retired and compiled

life.

this book,

which

he

published in the eighty-fifth year of his

It is a classified

vocabulary of simple terms and phrases such as are in

use.

common
The

The sounds

of characters are

sometimes given, and occais

sionally a short note of

comment

or explanation

added.

book was intended

chiefly for the use of those natives of

Fuhkien

who had

to travel as

mandarins or merchants.
of

It has evidently
it

been found by these

reprinted, and
it is

to be

some

use,

for

has been often

cheap and

portable.-^

Several treatises have been published at Canton also with

the view of teaching the people of that city and the surrounding
districts the

standard language.
of

the short

title

which

is

In 1785 was published a book " Cheng-yin-hui-pien." This was

composed by Chang Yii-ch'eng (5| j^) al. Ch'ang-ch^i (^ ^) of Pao-an in the Prefecture of Canton. The aim of the author

was

to

provide a guide to the use of Mandarin

the cheng-yin
The book
is

for the people of his

classified collection of

own province

specially.
in

Mandarin terms

common

use, with the

vulgar or provincial equivalent often added.

tion the autlior gives the general

In a short introduc-

characters of the four Tones.

He
'

next explains the

five yin,

which correspond

to

the five

W ^ ^ I* ^ iS|(a poor reprint)

The Cultivation of their Language hy the Chinese.

Elements.

99

Then he

gives a five-fold classification of characters

according to the five Regions and five physical organs.

Thus
words
This

under the categories of South and Tongue he gives the characters

for ting,
ti,

ning.

There

is

also another classification of

according to the physical acts required in uttering them.

yields sixteen classes,
^'

which are distinguished by names such as

closing the

opening the

lips/'

^'

mouth."
kind

more popular work

of this

is

the

'^

Cheng-yin-tso-

./

yao " by

Kao

Ching-t'ing
it

(^

^ f).

This book was originally

It is

published in 1810, and

has been often reprinted.

much

used by the Cantonese and by the Hoklos and Hakkas of the

Canton province in acquiring a knowledge

students

of

Mandarin. Western
of it in

know

the

work through Bazin, who made use

the preparation of his Chinese

in

making

his Chinese Speaker.

left

Grammar, and Thom, who used it The compiler was a native of

life

Canton, but he

that city in early

and lived

first at

Peking
not

and afterwards
of

at other places

where Mandarin was the language

is

the people.

His

little

work

very

useful

but

it

is

considered so good as the books composed by So I-tsun.^

This
Canton.

man So

I-tsun

[^

^ ^)

was a Manchoo resident at

For the people of that city he composed the "Ch^ngyin-pien-wei " and the " Cheng-yin-tsii-hua.'^ ^ The former was
published in 1837 and the latter a few years afterwards, and both

have been several times reprinted.

They

also are largely

to learn the

used

by the inhabitants of Canton who desire

language.

standard

These books give excellent vocabularies

of

Mandarin

terms in

common

use, rules for

the standard pronunciation of

Classic

characters,

the Thousand Character

with the correct

as
to

sound

of

each character,

and minute instructions

the

physical acts to be performed in

making the various

is

utterances.
all

The "
these

Cheng-yin-tsii (or

chi'l)

hua "

perhaps the best of

utility.

works and of the most practical

It

not only

^ There seem to be several editions of this book (ed. 1863). H. a" with slight variations of detail or arrangement.

H^

'

^ ^ M (Cheng-yin-tso-yao) a reprint. Man. Gr., p. IE ^ ^ St; lE # Bi ^;

jE
,

*^tl.

277.

100

The, Cultivation of their

Language by

the Chinese.
also

distinguishes between Cantonese

and Mandarin but

above

between

the latter and the Court dialect.

\J

later

treatise

than the

is

small one

named

" Cheug-yin-t'ung-su-piao," published

first

in 1872.

The author

was P'an Feng-hsi

Foochow.

He

j^ H), of Anhui extraction but born at also aimed at ascertaining and diffusing the
{'[^
it

cheng-yin or Mandarin language, so that

local dialects

might displace the

Empire.^

and become the one language

of all the

review of the sketch here given of the cultivation of their

language by Chinese scholars shows that generally they confined

themselves to the sounds, meanings,
of their written characters.

composition,

and history
is

The

sketch, however,

necessarily

very imperfect, and a more thorough examination of the native

literature

would perhaps reveal many works bearing on other

departments of Chinese philology.

the investigation of the language
scholars as an independent
science,**

But
is

it

must be admitted that

always an ''inferior

seldom pursued by native

It
is

study.

and gains importance only

as a help to the understand-

ing of the orthodox canonical literature.

From

the

'*

Shuo-wen "
have been

down
texts,

to the latest dictionary, all etymological treatises

composed with the expressed design

clearing

of aiding in the settling of

up the meaning,

or

ascertaining the sounds of

characters in the old Confucian writings or in the works composed

to teach, illustrate or

continue those writings.

One

of

the best

of the late treatises on etymoL)gy is that

by

Wang

Yin-chi

(J

This is devoted to the particles found 51 i,) published in 1798. in the ancient orthodox classics, and in some degree it performs
the part of a grammar.^
treatise,

But

there probably

is

not any native

at least of authority,

which can properly be called a

grammar.

by that term.

The language, indeed, wants what we understand Or perhaps we should say of it what Sir Philip our own language in reply to those who object of Sidney says *'Nay, truly, it hath that prayse, that it "wanteth grammar"

" Cheng.yin-t'ung-su.piao " (lE

^ il f# ^).

vol. iv.,

The title of the book is "Ching-chuan-shi-ssu" (Jji^ Prolog, p. 178 Julien Synr. Nouvelle, etc., T. i. p. 153.
;

^^

|sl).

see L.

C C,

The Cultivation of
that
it it

their

Language hy
:

the Chinese.

101

wanteth not (rrammar

it

for

Grammar
itself,

it

mighf^have, but
so

needes

not

beeiug so easie of

and

voyd

of those

cumbersome
a

differences of Cases, Genders,

of the

Moodes, and Tenses,

^

which I think was a peece

Tower

of Babiloris curse, that

man

should be put to schoole to learne his mother- tongue."

as

The primaeval Chinese,

we know from
seat

several

excellent

authorities, left their original

in

Mesopotamia before the

" second general curse " passed on the

human

race,

and so their

descendants have not to "reintegrate" themselves in the divine

benediction.
^

.-

Au

Apologie for Poetrie,

p.

70 (Arbeir's reprint).

CHAPTER

III.

CHINESE OPINIONS ABOUT THE

ORIGIN AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE.
Let us now go on
the Chinese about the
to

consider some of the views held

by

first

beginnings of their language.

And
and

the question of the origin and

development of their own

origin
it

language

is

for most native writers that of the

of

development

human speech

generally.

Now

must be
to us,

owned

that, so far at least as their literature is

known

Chinese philosophers have not treated this subject with any

degree of
as

full or

accurate thought.

Yet

it

were rash
of

to say,

some have

said, that the

problem of the origin

speech

never occurred to them, for we have reasons neither few nor

slight for thinking that
it

did occur to them, and that they

have had on it, at times at least, decided opinions. On the one hand we know that the Chinese hold their own language in very high esteem, and on the other that they have composed, as we have seen, many works treating of the history, structure,
sound, and meaning of
at least a certain
its

written characters.

amount

of probability in favour of the

Thus there is assump-

tion that the question of the origin of speech

to them.

And

not only

this,

had also occurred but moreover we do actually find

literature various

scattered here

and there

in Chinese

and

independent statements of opinion on the subject, though there

is not,

so far as the present writer knows,

specially.

any

treatise devoted

to

it

It is the

aim

of the present chapter to

bring

together a few
birth

of these native statements of opinion of

about the

and early growth

language spoken and written, and

of western

specially such as

may be compared with the theories

subject.

authors on the same


Origin and Early History of the Language.

103

To begin at the beginning, the theory that the first human who lived on this earth were speechless does not seem The books and common to have ever prevailed in China. traditions of the country generally represent those unknown
beings
creatures as a turps, but seldom or never as a

mutum

peciis.

They are supposed

caring
little

to

have herded together

in

dens or caves,

living on the natural fruits of the earth,

knowing nothing and

about anything beyond their daily round of wants

as they arose
like the beasts for food

They were not, however, and were satisfied. among which they Hved and which they hunted

and clothing, mere dumb animals.

the

On

the contrary,

most native authors who have written on the subject expressly

maintain that
arose

man spoke from when human life began in

is

beginning,

that

speech

the world.^

Han Wen-kung,
first like

however, says that people, that

the Chinese, were at

birds, and beasts, and barbarians.

They did not know how

and bury

to

grow

grain,

and build houses,

to love their parents

and honour
their dead,

their superiors, to nourish their living until sages arose to teach them.^

Here we

find barbarians
of

classed with birds

and beasts which have not the faculty

all

speech.

But from
as

time the Chinese seem to have regarded

foreigners

little

above

the brute

creatures,

and some

authors expressly state that barbarians

are as birds and beasts.

the I and
is

Ti

(H

j^)

Hence we

find the

character for

Dog
to

often used as the classifier of characters which

represent the

names

of foreign tribes.

The speech

of these also

compared

the shrill scream of the shrike and the calls of other birds.

The

people of Yang-shan in
to

Kuangtung were
and the faces
In
like

said by

Han Wen-kung
and they

have the speech

to

of birds

of barbarians,

were

him

barbarians.

manner

to other nations, for

example the ancient Greeks, the speech

like the utterances of birds and beasts.

of foreigners

sounded

Herodotus explains the

legend of the doves at Dodona by the supposition that Egyptian

1 See e.g. the Preface to the fgt j^ -^ ;^ face to the " Hung-wucheng-yim."

M'>

^f-

also

Sung
in

Lien's Pre-

2 Collected Works, chap. xx. This opinion is found also other authors and is based on semi^historical legends.

the works of

104

Origin and Early History of the Language.

women had at one time been brought over. The speech of these was unknown to the Greeks, to whom the strangers appeared to be chattering like birds talking like doves. When the women learned to talk Greek they were said to utter human speech.

The same author

dytes,

says of the swift-footed, reptile-eating Troglo-

that

they

did

not use
also

a language like any other but

cheaped

like bats.

So

^schylus makes the Greek Clytem-

nestra say of her words to the Trojan Cassandra,

"But
I,

if

she

has not, like a swallow, an unknown barbarous voice,

speaking

within her comprehension, persuade her by speech."

told,

We

are

moreover, that the Greeks, to

whom
''

also all foreigners

were

" barbarians," did not speak of the

only of their
*^

dialects" of barbarians but

tongues."

The
purpose,
result of

chief reason, perhaps,

why Chinese

philosophers have

not discussed the origin of speech in special treatises and of set

is

that they regard the faculty of speech as the natural

in his constitution.

man's existence, as inherent

What

may
and

be considered as the orthodox and national opinion on the

is

subject

that mafi speaks, just as he eats, and drinks, and sleeps,

loves,

and

fears,

from an instinct which forms part

speaks
is

of his

nature.
repeat.

" That

man
is

nature's work," the Chinese would

fact,

There

nothing divine or superhuman in the

nor

anything which shews that the faculty was one attained by slow
degrees and after
describes
in the

many vague

attempts.

One

native philosopher
air contained

man

as speaking

by breathing forth the

of the lips

mouth and throat by movements

is

and tongue.

The

act of speaking

like playing a flute.

Man's mouth and

throat are the musical instrument, and the

movements

of the

tongue are the play of the fingers on the holes.

speaking grows and
vital
fails

The power

of

with the growth and decay of man's

powers, and these need food and drink for their main-

tenance.

Hence

it

cannot be that the dead speak or that ghosts

wail and cry by

J

night.''^

Another philosopher explains sound

iv.

as

Str., L.
2

Herod., B. ii. 55, 57; B. i., chap, xxi., sec. 142.

in the

183; ^sch. Agam.

1.

1017-9; Clem. Alex.

Wang Chung

|^

f^, chap, xx.

Origin and Early History of the Language.

the result of the violent friction of air and solids.
air in violent collision

105
kinds of

Two

make sounds such

as echo

and thunder
the clap-

two

solids

make
;

noises like the beating of a

drum and

ping of hands
that

a solid acting on the air yields a sound such as

;

made by a fan or an arrow and the air working on a solid gives the human voice and the sounds of wind instruments.-^ Hence we find the vocal utterances of man classed with
those of other animals, with the song of the bird and the cry of

the wild beast

lifeless

and sometimes even with the sounds yielded by

These

matter, with the roar of thQ, thunder, the prattle of the

all

brook, and the ring of the struck rock.

of natural capacities

are the results

moved by outward

influences.

They

are

merely the audible results of the impact of the formless essence

of matter on

body
air,

of definite

shape; they are the

" air
itself
(P,^),

call or cry of

the elemental

for

the

whistles

and

roars.*'

Hence we

find such a

term as ming

for example, used for all

kinds of noises.

It is properly

and

originally, as the character

indicates, the call or song of birds.

But

it is

used for the roar of

thunder, the wind's whistling, the noise of rushing water, the

sough among the pines, the ring of a

cricket's chirr, the

bell,

the tones of a lyre, the

crow

of the cock, the dove's coo,

the ass's

bray, the neigh of the horse, and the manifold voice of man.

There

is

only, says the Confucianist philosopher, a minute

difference between
lost

man and

the lower animals, and even that

that which

is

by common people.

The wise man keeps

between

makes

the difference and so gains moral and intellectual perfection.

at birth there is only this difference
all

But

human
first

beings

and the lower animals, that the former have a perfect and
the latter an imperfect material organisation.^
utterances of

The

vocal

man

are those

made from

instinctive feeling,

and

are the natural universal sounds of

generally.
'

humanity and

living beings

The means which man has

chap. V.

for expressing his feelings

nM-:k^,

j^. introduction; ;^ Entwickelung d. Men. Sprache.

^
'^

t]!,*

g| f|, chap.

i. ;

cf.

Geiger Ursprung u.

Ein., p. 9.
viii.

See

^ ^^^

TtC

H i ^, chap.

and chap,

xi.j

Legge, C.

L.,

ii.,

201.

106

Origin and Early History of the Language.

Poetry, he says,
is

are briefly described by an early author.

emotional thought expressed in

language.

The The

feelings

are

moved within man and

of the latter are supplied

find vent in words.

deficiencies

by ejaculations and

sighs, the defects of

which

call for

utterance long drawn out in song, and, this not

sufficing,

the hands wave and the feet

move

to

and

fro.^

As

we know,
such

the cries and gesticulations of children and animals are

the spontaneous expression of their emotions

cries arose

when

stirred.

From

rhythmical vocal utterances which afterwards

poetry.

developed into

In general, writes

Han Wen-kung,

objects produce sound ouly

when

disturbed.

Plants and trees are

mute
and

until they are agitated

is it

by the wind, when they yield sound,

so

with water.

Metal and stone are mute, but they

give sound
speech.

when

struck,

and

it

is

the same as to

man
;

with

When

he cannot get his own way he speaks

his sorrow.

he sings

tis anxiety

and weeps

All the utterances which

proceed from his mouth are the result of his being disturbed.

Speech

is

the quintessence of

human

sounds, and literary composiIt

tion is the quintessence of speech.^

was perhaps from the

perception of the emotional nature of early speech that some

Chinese writers were led to the theory that their spoken language

had

its

origin in music.

By

this,

however, nothing more

may
first

be
in

meant than that man's emotions expressed themselves

inarticulate musical cadences,

and that from these he gradually

proceeded to articulate significant utterances.^

least,

One

author, at

states

the
its

above theory without bringing forward any

support, but others base
it

argument in

on arguments derived
that of
clear

from tradition and probability.

With

it

we may compare
of

Darwin on the origin of spoken language,

and suggestive manner.
cannot doubt that language owes
modification,

stated in his

wonted

In the "Descent
its

Man"

he writes, "I

origin to the imitation

and

aided

by

signs

and gestures,

of various natural

sounds, the voice of other animals, and man's

^

own

instinctive cries.

" Shi-ching," preface

Legge, C. L.,

iv., p.

34 of Prolegomena.

' 3

Collected Works, chap. xix.

See,
e.g.,

the IE

#^

git,

Int.

cf.

also the 1^

^j^

f^, Int.

Origin and Early History of the Language.

107

When we

treat of sexual selection

we
of

shall see that primeval

man, or rather some early progenitor

man, probably used his

voice largely, as does one of the gibbon-apes at the present day,

in producing true musical cadences, that
is,

in singing

we may

conclude from a widely spread analogy that this power would

have been especially exerted during the courtship

of the sexes,

serving to express various emotions, as love, jealousy, triumph,

and serving

as a challenge to

their rivals.

The

imitation by
to

articulate sounds of musical cries

might have given use

^

words

expressive of various complex emotions.''

But on

the other

hand there are

its

also

Chinese writers

who

suppose that music had

origin in speech, the latter having

passed from untoned to toned utterances, and thence to tunes

made

after laws sought out

from nature.

This recalls the similar

theory which Mr. Spencer expounds and developes with his usual

power in one

of the

most interesting

of his Essays.^
it is

Whatever be the immediate

in its earliest stage natural

origin of speech, however,

and spontaneous, the embodiment

of

the original tones of

just
as

Heaven and Earth.

The

first

men

spoke

the
find

wind blows, without

any conscious

effort.

The

feelings

vent in sounds which spring from

man's mind,

having their source in his constitution.

Articulate utterances

come from man's mind, others

power.

tell us,

and are natural; their form

cannot be altered by any conscious exercise of an individual's

Not even a king can change a word, and

of course

no one

of less influence can avail to

do anything whatever in this respect.

The

fashions in words as in other things change from age to age,

but no one can by taking thought alter the fashions.

ample, the people of a place

For exkong

whereas their descendants

is

may have once may now call it

is

called a river

kiang, but the one

as

good

as the other,

and each

right as the working of a

natural law.

With

these

statements

we many compare

the

emphatic declaration
natural product.
^

of the great

Professor

Max

expounder of language as a Miiller tells us " that although

Vol.

i.,

p.

56; see also his " Expression of the Emotions," p. 86.

igt,

'

^ ^ ^, the ^

chap.

i.

Spencer's " Essays," vol.

i.,

pp. 210 to 238.

108
\^

Origin and Early History of the Language.

is

there

a continuous change in language

it is

not in the power of

as well

any

man either to

produce or prevent

it.

We might think

of changing the laws

of

which control the circulation

of altering the

of our blood, or

adding an inch to our height, as

laws of speech,

or inventing
is

new words

according to our
if

own

pleasure.

As man
to

the lord of nature only

he known her laws and submits

them, the poet and philosopher become the lords of language only
if

they

know

its

laws and obey them.^

differ

Chinese opinions

as

to

what

is

the

first

articulate

sound made by the

huangy but this
five
is

human

baby.

Some

tell

us that

it is

huangof

only an a priori theory.

is

To each

the
ssH

elements a certain sound

is

assigned.
(|f ).

Thus water has a

sound, and that of metal

tion the element metal
infant, as soon as
>y
it is

huang

Now

in man's constitu-

represented by his voice, and hence an

can, cries huang-huang,^

first

But

other native
is

writers

tell

us that the

sound uttered by a human being

a
is

or ya.

Hence the

letter called

said to be rightly placed at

the head of Western alphabets, and some even go so far as to

declare that in every sound uttered
is

by man's opened mouth there

an a element.

It

is

considered, however, that a sounds are

natural to male, and

ei or i

sounds to female infants, and that

This, according to the

the distinction continues in after years.

Chinese,

is

the spontaneous result of the

human

constitution.

Our

forefathers

seem

to

have had similar notions about the

babies in their
first

distinctions

made by male and female

In an old poem

utter-

ances, though they accounted for the fact of the distinction in a

different

manner.

Hampole's
may
weman,

"Pricke of Con-

science "

we read that a
The author
" Whether
If

child as soon as born begins to^^ goule

and cry."

says that by the cry

it

be

known

be

man

or

For when it es born it cryes swa it be man, it says ^a, a,' That the first letter es of the nam Of our forme-fader Adam.
1 1^ Language,"

"g-

i^, chap.
i.,

vol.

p.

i. IW ^, p. 50; "Lectures on the Science of 40 C9th ed.) With Professor Miiller's teaching compare
;

the criticism on Language," Lecture

it
'^

by Professor Whitney
ii.

in his "

Language and the Study of

is

See, e.g.y the P the same sounds as ii.

^ i^

_
M,

chap.

ii.

The character

also writen

with

Origin and Early History of the Language.

109

And

if the child a woman be, When it es born, it says *e, e,' E es the first letter and the hede

Of the name of Eve that began om* dede."

It
is

a pity that the Chinese do not

know

the historical

explanation of this interesting fact.

is

But a

different explanation

given by

Webbe, who
it

did not take notice of the sexual distinc-

tions.

He,

will

be remembered, thought that

in

China

after the flood,

and he says
first
;

Noah

settled

*'

Wherefore

it is

not

unobservable that the very

birth yeeldeth
is

utterance that an Infant at his

if

yay ya,

ya

as

th^ Lord had ordained, either

we should be born with his name Jah in our mouths, which name is generally ascribed to him, when some notable deliverance
that
or benefit, according to his former promise

comes

to pass, because
all, life,

he

is

the beginning and Being of beings, and giveth to

all

and breath, and

things

Acts

17. v. 25

or

else,

that in our

swathling clothes

we should have something we

*

of

the Primitive

Language,

till

afterwards confounded, as

are taught to speak.

But, by ya the Chinois intend ExcellensJ'

This

may

not give the true explanation of the

first

utterances

of all babies over all the world.

The Chinese own

that these utter-

ances are only cries, and of a class with those of birds

beasts.
it is

and

The

infant has no language but a cry, and in this respect

not better than other animals, perhaps not so well supplied

creatures.

as other

Nor

is

the capacity for uttering articulate

alone

sounds the possession of

man

among mortal

beings.

The

ape-like Sing-sing and several other animals, according to Chinese

opinion,

are able to talk and understand

it

human
who

speech.
is

As
it

regards the Sing-sing, the statement that

can speak

doubted

by some and denied by

others,

while of those

agree to

not a few think that the animal

has the power of speaking can laugh and cry, however,

It
is

only

when
to

it

is

drunk.

That
all

it

seems

be the opinion of
is

authorities.

a creature of

uncertain appearance, and

described as having a body like that

of a pig, or as like a dog, a badger, or

an ape.

The

last is the
is

form

in

which
^

it is

usually represented in pictures, but the face

always

Essay,

etc., p. 62.

110

Origin and Early History of the Language.

supposed to resemble that of a

human

being.

Another ape-like
is

creature supposed to be able to talk and laugh

^^

and other ways).

it

the Fei-fei {^^

It also

assumes various forms, appearing

sometimes as a bear or an ape, and often as a

^

man

or

woman.

It has a wicked laugh and by this

it

lures unwise wayfarers into wise, however, can distin-

the wood, where

eats them.

The
of

guish between the Fei-fei's voice and that of a

the shrill squeaking character
the former.

human
The

being by
Tortoise,

ancient and mystical, which inhabits the fifth stage of the fabled

Sumeru Mountain,
speech.
to the

is

also credited

with the possession of

Among birds,

the mainah, parrot, and others, are

human known

Chinese as able to talk.

is

J), near the Caspian sea,

(tfi Sl)>

In the country of the Tiao-chi (j^ a monstrous bird called the Chi-chio
This bird
it

ttat

is,

perhaps, the Tiao-chi Magpie.

is

said

to

understand
is

human
first

speech but,

we

are not told that

can talk.
but
its

There

no doubt, however, that the mainah can

be cut or pared down,

talk,
is

tongue must

and

it

of great

importance that this should be done on the 5th day of the 5th

moon.
it

So also the parrot should have

its

tongue cut in order that

calls,

may make

the mimicry which our pious poet

"That
true,

odious libel on a

human

voice."

The

parrot can speak,

it is

without having this operation performed, but his power of speaking

is

not persistent, and he can be

made dumb by rubbing him

gently

down

the back.^

Now

though the above creatures can use man's words they

cannot be said to have the faculty of speech.

The

parrot, as one

author says, can speak but he cannot carry on a conversation, because he has only the capacity to speak, not the faculty of speech

he follows the lead

of others
it,

and cannot take the lead himself.

the parrot learns man's speech but
it

As

another author puts

cannot originate
intelligence.
1

new

expressions, because

has not any high

utters,

It learns the
li.,

words which

man

but not the

"Pen-ts'ao," chap,

f;

IS"

chih "
that
it

we

are told that the Sing-sing

il SE. chaps, vi. and x. In the "Poh-wuis Uke a yellow dog with a man's face, and

can speak

(
is

?H

^^

^^j

tlQ

f^ W). chap.

iii.

Another way of

writing Sing-sing

54 1&-

Origin and Early History of the Language.

thoughts of his mind.^

Ill

That

is,

the parrot has the physical organs

and
ing.

imitative faculty but not the intellectual capacity for speak-

Nor does the mere

parrot, for example,

fact that they talk raise the Sing-sing

of brute creatures.

and

from the rank

Birds

and beasts having an

nature at
all points.

inferior organisation cannot develope their

They may
of

in

some
in

respects

shew good moral

by heavenly

qualities, the

germs

which are

them

at birth

appointment, but they do not advance in moral and intellectual

culture.
its

The crow has

;

filial

piety and the wild duck

is

true to

mate

the fox does not forget th^ place of his birth, and the
all of its

ant helps
fox give

kin.

But does a crow bury

his

mother or a

way

to his elders ?

Do

the wild ducks wait for the go-beof worship ?

tween before they

pair,

and have the ants any form

The

parrot and the starling

may

talk but they have no sense of

the fitness of time and place, and so are no better than other
birds.

featherless biped,
li

as a native writer says,

may

speak,

but without
of doing

(jg) he
is

is

not man.

It

is this

sense of order and

what

right and becoming in the family and in society,

li

and the code

of obligations thence resulting, this

which

lifts

man

above the other creatures.^

Some

of these can indeed pro-

duce articulate utterances, after having learned them, by imitation,

as an infant learns
is

its first

words by imitating

its

mother.

But

it

human

sounds, not

human

speech, to borrow an expression from

Dante,^ which these creatures imitate, and they are not " capable
1 Huai Nan-tzu's Works, chap, xvi.; $|" On the P5 g^, chap. ii. other hand we read of men in former times who understood the langfuage of the lower animals. See, e.g., the Supplement to the " Poh-wu-chih" (j^ |^ jg), chap. iii. There are also instances on record in which the parrot is not merely an imitator but also initiates a conversation and shows tender feeling. So also a mainah when sold to a barbarian committed suicide, saying that he was a Chinese bird and would not go among barbarinns (^ Si ^Wi^^> chap, xvii.) or or "^ Some tell us that the mainah (^ "^ ^) in its wild state cannot speak, and it is only when domesticated it learns to talk, ' @^i' chaps, ccccxxi. and ccccxxxii.; "Li-chi," chap, i., and Confui^ 1^ Of the term Li (^), Gallery, an excellent authority, cian writers generally. writes as follows " Autant que possible, je I'ai traduit par le mot Eite, dont le mais il faut convenir que, suivant sens est susceptible d'un grande etendue Ceremonial, Ceremonies, les circonstances ou il est employe, il pent signifier Pratiques ceremoniales L'etiquette, Politesse, Urbanite, Courtoisie, Honnetete, Bonnes manieres, Egards, Bonne education, Bienseance, Les formes, Les convenances, Savoir vivre. Decorum, Decence, Dignite personelle, Moralite de conduite, Ordre social, Devoirs de societe, Lois sociales, Devoirs, Droit, Morale, Lois hierarchiques, Ofifrande, Usages, Coutumes.," " Li-ki," introduction, p. 16. See his " Delia Volg. Eloq.," L. i., chap. ii.

MA^M

=*

112
of

Origin and Early History of the Language.

language."

As

Lyell says, "It was a profound saying of

tliat
'

William Humboldt,

Man

is

Man

only by means of speech,

but in order to invent speech he must be already Man.'

animals

Other

may

be able to utter sounds more articulate and as varied

as the click of the

Bushman, but voice alone can never enable

^

brute intelligence to acquire language."

the power of speaking
is

Yet perhaps because

supposed to belong to the Sing-sing and

parrot, these animals are also credited with the possession of other

extaordinary endowments, for the Sing-sing knows the past and

the parrot the future.
interpret dreams,

This bird can

even understand and

it

and

it

has some notion of piety, for

it

has been

heard

to recite

Buddhist prayers, and

has been seen sitting in

ecstatic meditation seeking to attain that

supreme supernatural

intelligence

which

all

true Buddhists seek finally to acquire.

its full

But
of

the faculty of speech in

meaning

is

the property

man

only.

It is his characteristic possession, that

which makes

him man.^
vocal.

The

first

men

spoke as they were moved, without

aim and without

but their speech was only the air made music of an " oeolian flute," the free indeed, the It was,
effort,

whistling of heaven.

Still it

was only whistling, and,

is

as

an old

philosopher says,

human
is

speech

not whistling.

He who speaks
is

says something, and though in

absolute, yet there

what he says there

nothing

a difference between his speech and the

chirp of a chick.^
is

In man, writes a practical statesman,* speech

the handle of the moral nature, the lord of action, the motive
of the

power
with

mind, and the visible expression of -the body, and

man
that

alone words are capable of communicating ideas.

is to

The

object of speech

give expression to the feelings and thoughts.

But

it is

not a perfect instrument was long ago seen and ac-

knowledged by the Chinese.

1

Thus we

are told that as writing does

Sc. of Lang., vol.

"Antiquity of Man,"

p.

518; M. Miiller, Lectures on the

i.,

p. 394.
'

Ku-liang's

Commentary on the
in

" Ch'un-ch'iu "

(^

fjk

M^

S)B)j

chap.

ix.

'^

Chuang-tzu
See
"

the " Nan-hua-chiiig," chap.

cxiv.

i.

Hsin T'ang-shu," chap,

Origin and Early History of the Language.

113

not fully represent the spoken language so this latter does not
fully express the mind.^

Speech
is

is,

indeed, classed with seeing

and hearing, but

hears, so also
principle
it is

as

it

not the material organ which sees or

not the

mouth which

speaks.

It
li

is

the spiritual

by some called h^ing {'^) and by some

all

O), which goes

through

the body, seeing in the eye, hearing in the ear, and

speaking in the mouth. ^

to Yii, the

In the Great Plan which Heaven gave

second division was on the " Heverent use of the five

faculties " (^ fB

5 V)>

or, as

Legg
These

translates,

*'

The Eeverent

Practice of the Five Businesses."

seeing, hearing,
tells us,

XJiese

were demeanour, speech,

another philosopher
to

and thinking.

five,

are all natural to

man, but they need education

by which man acquires U
of

keep

them
little

right.

Without

this,

(j^),

he

is

better than the beasts

which want discourse

reason, and

he may even be found

read of tribes

to lack

the faculty of speech.^

Thus we

who
once

did not

know language (^
rich
to

^ g), and the

to talk.

" black

slaves,

*'

much used by

Cantonese, are said to

have understood human speech, but

have been unable

This, however, probably only meant that they could not speak

Chinese.^

Now, though the faculty

of speech developed itself in

primeval
first

man

without conscious action or reflection on his part, the

language must have been poor and rude.

But even

in

its earliest

stage this language began to receive enlargement and cultivation

from the higher

intellects of the time.

it

Hence human speech

as

we now know
of the world,

has a twofold origin, in the

into existence with all the

muddy

source

whence man emerges

myriad creatures

and in the mind

the

spiritual principle

which he

alone knows to cultivate and develope.

cries of fear

From
is

the former spring

and

calls for food,

shouts of joy and notes of alarm,

and much

of that stock of speech

which

common

property.

From

the mind proceeded such terms as those for Filial Piety, Man must have always had some idea Justice, Law, Humanity.
^

^ 3

S ^ ^ i^,

" Yi-cWng," the Ji ^, chap. xii. etc., chap. viii. p. 25, Commentary
vol.
iii.

H ^ ^ ^. chap.
a), chap.
i.

i.

Chinese Classics,

p.
;

323; " Fa-yen"

(^

" Huai-nan-tBu," chap.

iv.

" Kuang-tung-sin-yii "

(^

114

Origin and Early History of the Language.

of these virtues, for their

germs existed in him from the beginning.

But

it

was not

until the

germs were developed in thinking men

These and the correct

that terms like the above were invented.

names
the

of objects generally, say the Chinese,

were fabricated by

first

teachers of mankind, by those kings and sages

first

who
says,

taught in the

uncertain twilight of
is

human

life.

The Chinese

theory on this subject

well expressed by

Eenan when he

"It

is

certain that

we do

not understand the organisation of

d' elite,

language without une action d'hommes

X
authority around

exercising a certain

they believed best.

them and capable of imposing on others what The aristocracy of sages was the law of

nascent humanity; the leaven which produced civilisation could

ferment at

first

only in a number almost imperceptible of predes-

tined heads."

In some native treatises we find the work of " correct naming " ascribed to the semi-mythical Huang Ti, who
supposed to have lived about B.C. 2600.

is

He

is

said to
all

have

observed and studied the heavens and earth and

the then-

existing objects and institutions, and so elaborated the real

of things, the

names

modes

of expression

which corresponded with the

actualities of nature

and the mind.

But more usually the

glory

is

given to old sages generally, the " enlighteners of the people."

In either case the correct language thus made was produced by

degrees and as the result of observation and study.
It

had been
first

preceded by a language awkward and uncertain, for the

savages must have had, though only to
3.

limited extent,

names

by which they were wont

events of their lives.
correct

to denote the articles they used

this

and the

But
it

language of theirs was neither

for the rude fore-

nor fixed, and

was very meagre,

little

fathers of

humanity had few wants and

thought.

Hence the

founders of social order had to seek out and communicate a fuller

and more perfect phraseology; they invented, or rather discovered,

set

forms of language by which they could give a symbolical

" verba
view

character to the sounds of their voice, their thoughts and feelings

quibus voces sensusque notarent nominaque invenere."

all this

Chinese authors will have us believe that

to the introduction of

was done with a

good and settled government, and the

Origin and Early History of the Language.

115

improvement
moral or
1

of society.

They

are not content unless they see a

all

political

motive prompting

the actions of their early

But

if

speech

is

nature's gift to

man how comes

It

it

to

vary

from place

to place ?
to

That

it

changes from place to place has

is

been declared

be the working of natural law.

nature's,
alter,

not man's doing that the accent and pronunciation of words

that one term rises and another
follows generation.
of
falls

out of use as generation

But how

is it

that not only has the language

dialects of the barbarian tribes

China been always unlike the

and on her

in her midst
itself varies

frontiers,

but also that this language

from
the

district to district ?

too

we have

work
is,

of nature.

The answer is that here The " wind air " and the " soil

and water/' that

.

the natural conditions of a place, affect the

physical constitutions of the inhabitants, and thence gradually

influence also their moral qualities.

Then

in course of time the

character and conduct of the people react on the climatic conditions of a place,

over which they exercise

a mysterious but

undoubted influence.

Thus "wind

air'' (fi

^) means

not only

the physical qualities of a district, but also its

moral character.

It is the differences in climate, physical constituents,

character which

make

the variations of dialects.

and moral " People differ

in the quality of their natural dispositions and in the language

they speak

this is the

spontaneous result of climate, and the

product of continued practice."

So writes one native author

who knew by
speech.
tells us,

experience something about the varieties of

of

human

That the inhabitants

are firm and

one place, a popular writer

of another place are the

manly while those

opposite, that people here are smart

and there slow, that the

the
inhabitants
climatic
tribes

language of this
of that, all

district is

not understood by

result

from the assimilation

of the

local

influences

by the people.
all

The

children

of

barbarous

(5^

H),

writes another,

are infants,
^

make the same noises when they but speak differently when they grow up, and the
;

1 See ;?; "^ 3^ i^, chap. xi. and introduction !!L;i"De L'Origine du Lang.," preface, p. 25 (4th ed.)

::^

|^, chap. vi.

Benan,

116

Origin Early History of the Language.

is,

difference is the result of education, that

ill

of the circumstances
li

which they develope.

As

it is

by having
it is

(jg) that

man

is

higher than the bird and beast, so also

this li

which

distin-

guishes between the Chinese and the foreigner (barbarian), and

between the gentleman

Chinese.

(g ^)

and the cad

its

()J>

A) among
^^ *^

This

li,

however, depends for

existence and develop(J55

ment mainly on external circumstances

J5S ?b);

kind and degree of education or training which children receive.^

Without
a language.

this

li,

or sense of

what

is

right

and becoming in
is

his social relations,

man

could never have produced what

this,

called

To invent
of the

to find out

and

fit

on the due

names

of the objects

and phenomena

of nature

and

of the feelings

and thoughts

mind, was a great achievement.

As Hobbes

writes, viewing the subject from a different stand-point, but

expressing in clear direct words what Chinese writers have stated

though not
invention

so

well

" But

the

most

noble

and

profitable

of all

other was that of Speech, consisting of

names

or

appellations, and their connexion; whereby

men
and

register their
also
;

thoughts;

recall

them when they

mutual

are past;

declare

them one

to another for

utility

and conversation

without

which there had been

bears and wolves."
^

amongst men, neither

commonwealth,
lions,

nor society, nor contract, nor peace, no more than amongst

But spoken words are

too

air,

and

live a vague,

uncertain

life.

They fade

and

die

from memory

like

an echo

in the hills or a roaring of wind in the forest.

So even in very

early timds mfen

must Have sought

for a visible lasting record

and

evidence of their events and transactions, a

way

of perpetuating

spoken words and saving them from the fate of dark forgetfulncss.

And how

do Chinese think
\irords of

men

arrived at this ?

Let us

take for answer t^^

of

one of their students of this branch'

learning.
:

In the introduction to the "Liu-shu-ku" the

Visible representation
(35^)

author says

proceeds from spoken

1 Yuan-tsang in "Hsi-yu-chi " chap, i.; " Sacred Edict," Art. ix. Ampin.; chap, i.; " Huai-nan-tzii," chap. xi. Kang-hsi's Diet., preface; the :^ llj ^, chap, xxxiii. ; " Li-shi," etc., as above, chap. i. ; *' Li-chi," (H gg), ed. Yuan-yuan). chap.'xii. (+

^^^
'

^^,

" Leviathan," chap.

iv.

Origin and Early History of the Language.

sounds, that
is,

117

these precede and their delineation follows.

The

combination of

meaning and sound

There
is

is

not the product of this

of investigating the

visible representation.

no means

we may reasonably infer that men at first were naked and unkempt. They killed wild animals, skinned them and tore up their carcases for food and clothing. Their
origin of mankind, but

emotional natures were fierce like those of birds and beasts, and
their intellects

were undeveloped

like

those of infants.

They
to

could only by howling and shouting then

make known

each

other their likings and dislikings, -their joys and angers.

Then

as their intellects developed they gradually acquired the ability

to give

names

to things,

and

so they

had a supply
arisen,

of

sounds for
classes

shouting and calling.

of objects increased

Writing had not yet

and as

and their arrangement became more compli-

cated,

men

could not do without some evidential record.

(or

So in

time there arose the institution

cords.

arrangement) of knotted

Then

as

cunning increased and regulations became more

complicated, engravings were

records.

made on bamboo and wood

to

form

At

the present time, barbarians

(g

5|) and rustics

ignorant of characters apparently use such engravings, which are

called

chH (^), that

is,

tallies

or

indentures.

When

these

proved insufficient for

all

the vicissitudes of affairs the forms of

material objects were pictured and the essential features of immaterial objects were indicated.

the names of

all

objects

Thus engravings were made for material and immaterial, and thence

arose the knife-inscribed tablets called Writings (^).

The author
pictorial

goes on to shew

how

the

first

writing,

which was only

to

and indicative (or suggestive), came

demands.

be followed by other

developments until the wealth of characters equalled

human
few

The whole

of this introduction, in spite of not a of perusal.^

faults, is interesting

and worthy

It

was

necessity, the Chinese

own, which
aiding

first

struck out the

art of recording, the necessity of

memory and keeping

an excellent translation of the whole of this introduction. His rendering of the text from which the above passage is taken will be found at p. 5. Mr. Hopkins will see that his remarks on the rendering given in the China Review " have
'*'

led to

some

alterations for the translation given

iji

the text here.

118
evidence.
first

Origin and Early History of the Language.

It seems to be generally agreed that tke expedient

adopted was that of "knotted cords."

is

The inventor

of this

expedient

of course

unknown, but the prevailing

tradition

points to Sui-jen-shi
past.

(^

A J6)j

^ fabulous ruler in the mythical

Some

writers ascribe the invention to

and some

to Fu-hsi.

Shen-nung (jjif jg) In the commentary on the " Yi-ching,"

it is

attributed to Confucius,

simply stated that in the earliest times

cords were knotted for purposes of regulation (or government).

And
poses.

in other

old books,

such as the " Tao-te-ching," we find

official

reference to the use of knotted cords for

and private pur-

This use prevailed also among the ancestors of the present

it is

Manchoos, and
Miao-tzu.
of

said to exist
it

still

among some
some

tribes of the

In China

was

instituted,

tell us, for

purposes

Government.

Hence we have such proverbial

expressions as

Chiesheng-cM'Cheng

(^

|5|

l|5;),

the government of knotted

cords, to denote that purely mythical time the golden age of the

world's

life.

Others, however, suggest that the knotted cords

for purposes of counting,

were instituted and used

and

for pre-

serving records of transactions where

records of dealings generally.

number was concerned, and

is

matter of importance
(or knotted cord)

said to

have been
affair

signified

by a large knot

and a small

by a small
inventor,

one.

But whatever may have been the purpose

was invented, and whoever may have
were simple and free from were neither numerous nor
certain that the expedient did not succeed.

for

which
its

this expedient
it is

been

It served only so long as people

guile,

and the requirements

of society

important.^
It seems to have been for purposes of counting

and recording

matters which involved numbers that those very primitive and simple combinations called Ho-t^u
(JrT

^) and Lo-shu (^ )
of

were invented.

There are certain diagrams

these accepted as

the orthodox arrangements and, according to some, giving the

original figures.

These are

to be

found in certain editions of the

treatises.

" Yi-ching," and in various other

The Ho-tu,

or plan

^ 1^, chap. i. J " Yi.ching," the " Lun-heng," chap, xviii.; Tao-tS-ching, chap. Ixxx. wpn " (chap. xlix. in the iJ SP

Emm

fi BMi^m^V'
j

^ H Uh

54; the ^; Preface to " Shuo-

Origin and Early History of the Language.

119
is

from the Yellow Eiver, as shewn in these diagrams,

arrangement
of

an

55

circles, of

which 30 are dark and 25 hlank, in

numbers from one

from the river Lo,
in

to ten,
is

both inclusive.
of

The Lo-shu,
45 dark and

or writing

an arrangement
to nine,

light circles
fifteen is

numbers from one

such that the number

made up by

the circles counted in a perpendicular, a horizontal,

or a diagonal manner.

According

to certain old testimony,

the

Eiver plan and Lo writing appeared as a supernatural pheno-

menon
its

to Fu-hsi,

who used them

as

models or

hints.

Setting

out from these he produced the mysterious wonderful Pa-hua and

combinations.

By

these he shadowed forth the dark influences

of all
all
s^

heavenly and earthly powers in a manner abstruse beyond

understanding.

The

figure

known
regard
it

as

the Pa-kua

is

greatly

venerated by the Chinese,

their writing,
it

who

as the lineal ancestor of

and

also as a potent

Drudenfuss.

What

purpose

first

served or was meant to serve cannot perhaps be

its

now
the

ascertained, for all record of

lost

primitive use seems to have been

long ago.

It represents,

according to one statement,

primitive division of
x^
illustrations of

creation into male

and female, and gives

is

odd and even.

In

its

trigrams also

the hidden

spring from which writing had

its origin.

Some

native authors

think that the combination of the two kinds of lines were meant
to represent a

system of counting.

So

also the Jesuit Missionaries line repre-

Bouvet and Leibnitz were convinced that the broken

sented

and the unbroken

line I.

Leibnitz says that instead

of philosophic mysteries

having been hidden by Fu-hsi in the

"it was
the

combinations
which, as
it

of

these

lines,

Binary Arithmetic

seems, the great legislator possessed, and which I

have rediscovered some thousands of years afterwards." The " Yi-ching," which interprets the mystical meanings of the Va-

kua and

its

permutations and combinations,

is

regarded by the

Chinese as a sort of divine inspiration and as containing the

secret possibilities of all wisdom.^
1

Mayers, Ch. R. M., No. 177; "Yi-ching,"

;

Wuttke Geschichte d. Schrift, etc., p. 247 Leibnitz op. vol. iv. p. 208 (ed. Dutens). With Mayers' account of the Hb-i'w and Lo-s/iw compare the statement of Tsai Yuan-ting in the introduction of the TJsi i|.

y,

chap, x.;

jg

^;

^^

120
But,

Origin and Early History of the Language.

according
to

some Chinese, the next step towards was the use

to

writing, after knotted cords,

as tallies.

of carved sticks to serve

sticks

These do not seem

have been merely

notched
of

or indented.

They

are described as having also

some kind

inscription or engraving, even

from the

earliest

time of their use.

The expedient was, however, a rude and simple one common to the Chinese with other tribes. Thus the chiefs of the ancient Tungus gave warrant to their commands by means of such sticks,
in

Man (^) tribes in Chinese are said to have used them making agreements. Carving in wood seems to have been practised in China from a remote period, and to have been
and the
employed
for various purposes.

In the seventh century B.C. the

and palaces were someof carved tallies

projecting

beams

of the roofs of temples

times elaborately carved and coloured.

also arose at

The use
is

some early period, but there was apparently

first

no record

of its

beginning.

It too

confined to matters of

numbers, and afterwards extended to business dealings and acts of

government.

From

these ch^i (^), or carved

tallies,

some derive

the immediate origin of writing, while others regard the chH and

shu (^) as

coseval.

One
(^I|

of the eight kinds of characters

for use

the
was

Fa-t^ (7V

H) appointed

by Ch'in Shi Huang

Ti,

that called the K'e-fu

^)

or carved tally, noticed already.^

But
society.

such rude appliances as knotted cords and

carved

sticks could not long suffice to

meet the requirements

of a

growing

The Chinese,

accordingly, represent themselves as havof

ing

at

an early period

their

history

learned to

cut

and

afterwards paint, in
of objects.

wood and

stone and metal, figures or outlines

first

These were practically the

beginning of writing

for

them.

All the earliest characters seem to have been either

pictorial representations or

rough symbols

of natural objects

and

phenomena.
an outline
of

That
an

is,

they were either drawings which presented

object, or

drawings which by their composition

pointed to the meaning intended.

In Chinese language they

were Ssiang-hsing (Jg ^), Likeness-form, or Ghi-shi

1

(^

i^),
'?i'

"

(also called
;

v., p.

Hon Han. shu," chap, xc; "Sui-shu," the Nan-man-chuan ; ^^.r; M Legge, 0. C, ^, etc.), chap. xv. |t ji M l3c ^> chap. iv. '^ ^ ah-liang-chuan," chap. vi. (-f* i:; ^) " Me-tzii " (^ ^), chap. 106 " Kuh
;

i.

Origin and Early History of the Language.

Indicating-quality.

121
call

But

it

is

scarcely

correct

to

them

pictorial writing, for no far as surviving records of or about

shew, they did not so

much

reproduce as merely symbolise.

of things
first

were " marks " by which the names

and remembered, and hence they were

phrases denoting the objects represented.

them They could be known called "names."

or figures

This term, however, was applied properly only to the words or

The symbols

were called

Wen

(^), a term of very wide signification.

The
covered.

origin of this symbol-writing cannot perhaps be disIts invention

is

by some ascribed

to Fu-hsi,

and by

some

to

Shi Huang-shi

Fu-hsi.

Of

this latter it is

the

Pa-kua and invented

ft R), a mythical ruler who preceded expressly recorded that he " drew " writing '' literally, " writing

tallies

(M

9)'

Here, as in previous
is

steps, the useful point of

view

is

taken and Fu-hsi

said to

have instituted writing

to replace the

administration by knotted cords.

that the invention
is

But

it is

to Tsaug-chie

(^ g)
has an

most usually ascribed.

This

man

uncertain personality.
shi,

He

has been identified with Shi Huang-

Huang Ti, and with others. He is also said to have been one of Huang Ti's Ministers of State, and to have had four Not only did he make the first characters, but he also, eyes.
with
according to some accounts, greatly developed the art of writing.

Thus he

is

said to

have arranged the characters under the

though

six

classes called the Liu-shu, or six writings,

this is also said

first

to have been done by Fu-hsi, the "nose-ancestor," or ner of the art of writing. But there is a glamour on

begin-

all

Chinese

writers

when they attempt

to

describe

the
first

origin

and early
these

history of their written characters.

The

artificer of

can never be known, but he must have been men. To him> whether Tsang-chie or another, moved by the
far above everyday
secret force of fate, appeared

the mystical eternal tortoise.

Its

back was marked by lines which formed quaint devices to the wonder. He eye of the sage, and stirred his mind to think and of system writing. a devised and took the hints, as it were,
This invention was fraught with great consequences, and put the millet, ghosts wailed universe in commotion. The heavens rained

122

Origin and Early History of the Language.

by night, and dragons went into hiding.

writers

There are also Chinese

representation
for

who

regard pictorial or symbolical

as

coaeval with speech.

to depict as to talk.

They think

it

was quite as natural

man
The

This unfortunately reminds one of Dogber-

ry's assertion that " to write

and read comes by

nature.'^

representation of objects passed gradually, such writers think, to

the use of characters.

Then
called,

the pictorial gave birth to the

phonetic characters, as a mother gives birth to a child.

characters, strictly
children,
so

These

are tzH

(^)

as

if

^,

bearers of

or as

if

-y, sons,

begotten and begetting.

Hence

it

may

be concluded that the origin and growth of writing followed

a natural course.^

For the Chinese

ever
first

will not

have

it

that Tsang-chie, or

who-

devised their characters, invented symbols which were

artificial.

purely arbitrary or

\ aim and

rule

throughout.

On the contrary, he He studied in the

proceeded with

heavens above

their starry clusters

and

all their

charactery, the changing moon,

the unvarying sun, and the endless succession of all the elemental

phenomena.

Beneath the sky he noted the

tortoise's

bird's flight

and

its

footprints in the sand, the

carapace, and the varied

tried to figure forth

forms of nature in general.

knife and brush
;

These he
to

with

but

how was he

carve or paint an outline or

symbol
ness?

for

such words as mind, and law, and love and righteousto

There was nothing in the material world

which the
in

ideas represented by these words could be likened.

Not even

such cases, however, did the Father of Writing make arbitrary

signs, for those

which he instituted were the natural product

of the

pre-existing spiritual facts and principles.

He

cannot properly
to

be said

to

have invented such characters, but rather

have in

their discovery only given direction to the spontaneous tendency

of

man's genius.

It does not seem, however, that in the early

period of writing
jI Preface
^
.

many
i.
;

spiritual or abstract terms

^I
i. ;

were representi. ;

*E, chap. ^ t, chap. ^ Ji ^, iijg ^Mayers, B chap. 756 |^ ^j, chap. Ch. R. M., ^ |^ ^ j^, chap, the ir ~ i^ ed.) Preface to " Shuothe t^ ^ ^ gt ^ ii ^ chap. " Ho-kuan-tzu " wen;" Supplement to " Poh-wu-chih," chap, (| ^ ^),
etc.,
i.;
;

:No.

iii.

iii.

(in

v.;

chap. Ji, last pages.

Origin and Early History of the Language.

ed.

123

At

first

only material objects and their relations, dealings of

affairs

business,

and

of

government, were depicted in outline or

first

symbol.

The

chief

aim which the inventors and

in

improvers

of the graphic art

had

view was
It

to

make

a record which could

be appealed to as evidence.

was

in matters of government,

according to some native writers, that the use of writing began,

the design of the inventors being to facilitate intercourse between the ruler and his servants, and between these and the people, and
to register transactions of importance.

Thus, when in old times

the prince of one state invaded the. territory of another, slew the
inhabitants,

and carried

off

booty, he caused the event to be

silk,

recorded.
in metal

It

was written (^) on bamboo or

to

and engraved

and stone

be inscribed on

sacrificial

vessels for the

information of posterity.

Tsang-chie, says another author,

made

the first writing in order that distinct instructions

to officials,

might be given

and

for the efficient regulation of general affairs, that

the stupid might be able to remember and the wise extend their
thoughts.^

The
stated, to

primitive writing, whatever

it

was, seems, as has been

artificial

have gradually passed into a somewhat

system,

from which the present ways of writing are descended.

process of development
diate phases, of
first.

In the

it

had

to pass

through several intermeof the

which that called the Tadpole was one

Before the time of the

But some doubt whether

there ever were any bond fide

characters so called.

Han

dynasty (B.C.
practical-

200),
ly

we

are told the old styles of writing

had become

unknown.

When

in that dynasty the tablets of several of the

Canonical and other old works were discovered, the writing was

unknown

to the people.

So they called the strange characters of

the tablets Tadpoles, and this became the

name

of a certain

whimsical style of written characters.

The specimens given

in

some books are not unlike imitations of tadpoles and not very It is also stated that the kind of like significant characters.
1

^ ^ ^ 1, chap.
ziii*

xvi.

" Lun-heng," chap, xviii.

i.j

*'

Huai-nan.tzii," chap.

XX.; ' Li-shi-yin-chien," chap,

" Ho-han.san-ts'ai," &o., chap, xv.j "M6.tzu,"

ohap.

124
writing

Origin and Early History of the Language,

known

as the "

Tadpole characters " was that invented

it

by Fu-hsi, and again that

Tsang-chie.

was the kind communicated by

styles those

Of the other old

known

as the

Great

and Small Seal are perhaps the most important.^

The

written

characters long since ceased to be in any degree pictorial,

and

they have become chiefly a means of denoting sounds as names

of objects, sensations, or ideas.

And

it

has been the opinion of

feome that this

was

their original

and proper intention.

that
is,

Writing,

we
to

are told,

was born

of sound,

it

was

instituted to
is

continue and perpetuate spoken language.

Again, writing

said
is

be the woof and speaking the warp into which the former

Woven.

Elsewhere the written characters are described as the

pi'dduct of the reciprocal action of

ti'bh;

sound and
*^dots

visible representa*

and another author regards

and strokes"

as

the

lodging place of

human

speech

when bodied

forth in visible form.

Dr. Edkins also has stated that " the phonetic characters appear
to

belong to the same era as those that are hieroglyphic.

They

are found together

ture.

among

the earliest remains of Chinese litera-

According

to

the uniform national tradition, they must,

therefore, be dated about B.C. 2700."

set

down

as the prevailing opinion

It

But this can scarcely be among native students of the

of

language.

may

be

true,

however,

written

characters,

strictly so called.

The

earlier transcript of language,

which was

called

wen

(3!^), is

defined as the visible representation of objects

It is
also

attslnged according to categories (or classes).

stated

that

wen

is

the source of object-picturing or delineation.

But

may have been now merely give visible

whatever

their primitive function, all characters

representation to man's speech.

to

And

though the spoken words may be said

have called into being

and history

the written characters, yet these latter have exercised a great

and
of

lasting influence

on the former.

The

origin

Chinese

writing are described at great length in the learned

treatise of

Wuttke on

the History of

Writing.

The

sources

from which Wuttke derived his information

are, of course, all

Western, but he has compiled conscientiously and judiciously,

1

"Li-shd," &0'j chap,

i.;

"Ho

(or Wo)-hon.sau.ts'ai," chap. xv.

Origin and Early History of the Language.

iitid

125

his chapter on the present subject, notwithstanding mistakes,

will

repay a careful reading.^

The Chinese do not

writing and
inventor,
its

yield to

any in

their appreciation of
deified

developments.

They long ago

is
still

the

and

his

supposed tomb

a place of pilgrimage

for enthusiastic scholars.

of

From

the practical, beneficial point

view the invention has been the subject of much praise.

Let us hear one man, a Manchoo by origin, but a Chinese

scholar of rare attainments,

and a man

of culture
is

and wide

sympathies.

Writing,

says Kanghsi,

the most precious

it

thing in the world.

As

to great matters,

has transmitted

the philosophy which the ancient sages wished to transmit;

and

as to small matters,

it

keeps on record the miscellaneous

retain.

items which man's

memory cannot
;

It

can bring

to-

gether people separated by a long interval of time, and allow

them to hold intercourse and by it scholars of all the world, though living far apart, may take hands and talk their minds It makes a man's good repute, and aids him in his together. profession, expands his intelligence and supplies him with
evidence.

By

it

man

learns without study

and teaches without

his

speaking.^

With

the Chinese scholar generally

is in his

it is

own language

only which and the native writing only when he speaks of writing. The Chinese, as every one knows, are very proud of their language
sj)6ken

mental view when he speaks of language,

and written, but

insensible to

specially of the latter.

Yet they are

by no means
especially

the defects of the written language,

as the intended transcript of verbal
insufficient, says

when considered
It is square
is

utterances.

and

an author already
also very

quoted, while speech

round and complete.

There are
use
for

many terms and expressions in common characters are known to exist, and this is

which

no

true not only of the

uncultivated dialects but also of the general language.

1

For the
d.

Kanghsi's Diet., Int.

" Liu-sha-ku," etc., as above

Wuttke, " Gesoh.

Sehrift," etc., S. ocxli. to cccoxxi.

126

Origin and Early History of the Language.

part,

most

however, Chinese speak of their characters as sufficient

for a\l the needs of

human

life

and thought, as
six-fold

full

and complete,
writes

wanting nothing.

In their

classification,

one

author, the written characters embrace all the topics with which

man

can be concerned, the visible phenomena of heaven, the

unseen laws of earth,

lower nature.^

human

affairs,

and the rules appointed

for

For many ages the Chinese knew

with undisguised contempt.

little of

other peoples and

other tongues, and thought and spoke of

all

that was not Chinese

But

intercourse with foreign nations

introduced at least a partial knowledge of other languages, and

the Chinese had
to

compare their own perfectly harmonised

speech with the shrike-ton gued cries of barbarians, and their

own

matchless characters with the mere imitations of bird and beast

footprints used

by the undeveloped savages who had never been

blessed with divine philosophers.

One

of the

marks whereby a

barbarian

is

known

is

that he writes from left to right, another

being that he takes his food without using chop-sticks.

When

Buddhism came into the country its missionaries taught the Chinese a new language with sages and writings which they They could not put this new language in the could not despise.
same
class

with the rude dialects of their unlettered neighbours

so far as
to learn

and they went

cultivate
scholars,

from the strangers how

to

and improve

their

own language.

Thus the Buddhist

whether native or foreign, taught moderation and even

modesty in the comparison between Chinese and Sankrit.

author
tells his

One

readers that there are three original or primitive

systems of writing.

The

earliest is that invented

;

by Brahma,
is

which proceeds from

the third and latest

left to right
is

the second in antiquity

that

invented by Kharoshta, which

is

written from right to left ; and

that invented by Tsang-chie, which goes

from above downward.

opinions on this subject
treatise well written

But one
is

of the

most interesting native

that given by Morrison, taken from a

and scholarly, but defaced by blunders and

sometimes
as above. illiberal.

marred by a
1

spirit
etc.,

**It appears to

me,"

" Liu-shu-ku,"

Origin and Early History of the Language.

127

says the author, as translated by Morrison, " that the people of

Fan
is

{i.e.,

India) distinguished sounds

and with them the

stress

laid

on the sounds, not on the

letters.

Chinese distinguish

the characters, and lay

the stress on the characters, not on the

sounds.

Hence

in
;

the language of

Fan

there
is

is

an endless

variety of sound
of

with the Chinese there

an endless variety
of

the character.

In Fan, the principles

sound excite an
;

admiration, but the letters are destitute of beauty

in Chinese,

the characters are capable of ever-varying intelligible modifications,

but the sounds are not possessed of nice

and minute and what

distinctions.

The people

of

Fan
;

prefer the sounds,

they obtain enters by the ear

character,

the Chinese prefer the beautiful

what they obtain

last

enters

by the eye."

Within the

few years Western writing has received

This author has
it

consideration from at least one native scholar.

given a short comparison of

a liberal spirit in his
little

it

with Chinese, and written of

in

essay,

Plea for the Preservation of

Foreign Writing.^
* iic IfC, chap. ix. ; Morrison's Diet., Part i., vol. i., Int., p. vi. ; fl^ chap. iii. This comparison of Sanskrit and Chinese is curtailed from the 5th chap, of the " Liu-shu-liao," by Cheng Ch*iao. The passage occurs near the end of the chapter.

^^

^,

^^

The ft

#^

la.

by E^ f: ^.

CHAPTER

IV.

ON THE INTEEJECTIONAL AND IMITATIVE ELEMENTS

IN

THE CHINESE LANGUAGE.

we have
seen,
is

The

faculty of speech, as

regarded by Chinese

philosophers as a part of man*s natural endowment.

faculty needs the guidance and control of the

But

this

most

highly

endowed men

for its proper application

fit

and right development.

These men give

names and

correct forms of expression for the

various objects of sense, the processes of thought and feeling,

and

all

the outward acts of

life.

There

are,

however, expressive

sounds made by the human

voice with which the king and the

philosopher do not interfere.

Such sounds are prompted by

own no law save that of use and wont. The curious note them down as he hears them from the lips of may scholar He may tell also with explanatory theory how the the people.
nature and

common
differs

speech of one district has a set of natural sounds which

of another
district.

from that in the speech

But more
or,

than this neither ruler nor philosopher will attempt,

ing, will achieve.

attempt-

The

naturally expressive sounds here referred to are the

cries, calls,

mimicking

noises,

and

all

the picturesque expressions

which we are wont

tional

to

have

classified as Interjectional or

Emo-

and Imitative Language.

It will be seen as

we proceed

that in Chinese as in other languages

some

of the involuntary

and inarticulate ejaculations are adopted into the family of words, and that mere mimicking sounds may come to be used as names
or epithets.

Until lately such utterances as these were treated

philologists with

by grammarians and
it

contempt and neglect, and

is

only since the impartial and methodical study of language

arose that they have

come

to

acquire dignity and importance.


On
The
the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements,

129

old writers on

grammar could not away with

these ejacula-

tions

and imitations, which had no accidence whatever and could

not properly be counted

among the "

parts of speech."

Even

their place in a sentence could not be defined.

Nay

more, they

could not properly be called articulate

human

speech, but were

rather of a kind with the calls and cries of the brute creation,
as

though that were aught

to their

shame.

Now, on the other

For

hand, they are in danger of being raised to an importance beyond

their merits,

and

of

having

to

bear too heavy a burden.

some
all

will

have

it

that in these rude cries and mimicking sounds

root

human speech had its man passed from a mute

and beginning, maintaining that

condition to this stage of ejaculations

to artistic

and imitations, and thence by a gradual improvement

speech of various degrees.

But whether we take

this view, or

hold rather with those

is

who

teach that the origin of language

reflection, or

to

be found in a few abstract roots created by

adopt a theory intermediate between these, we

cannot deny

that Emotional and Imitative utterances are important elements

in

the formation and development of language.

It

must

at

least

be conceded that

they are the immediate source from

which a large part

of the vocabulary of

most

dialects flows,

and

that they yield these

expressions.

some

of their

most noteworthy and

forcible

The Chinese language

is

very rich in these nature-sounds

and "vocal-gestures'* which abound not only in the common

talk of the people but also in the popular literature

and

in the

writings of poets and philosophers.

They
worthy

are,

however, regarded

by the native scholar generally

as

of

nothing more than a

passing notice or a terse definition.

When
is

he meets one in a

book on which he

is

commenting, he

content to give merely

a short explanation of what he conceives to be or what he has

been taught
loose

is its

use or meaning in the passage.

for

He

has certain

classifications

these

natural
fitfully as

vocal expressions,

and

distinguishes them somewhat

" empty characters," as

aids to expression, as popular terms, or as sounds indicative of,

or imitating

or otherwise recalling natural

phenomena.

The

130

On

the Inter jectional

and Imitative Elements,

nature-sounds and vocal gestures vary greatly from time to time

and from place

quently

to place, and, moreover,

they are often unnoticed

Conse-

in dictionaries and other works bearing on the language.

we

cannot easily gain a just conception of their number,

the extent to which they are used, and the precise

application.

mode

of their

Many

of them, however, are apparently of little or

to enter into the composi-

no importance, and can scarcely be said

tion of the language, using this

word with a

liberal interpretation.

Others are interesting to the Western student from their use,

their form, the relation they bear to other elements of Chinese

speech, or on account of the analogy they have to the resources

of other tongues for performing
like

functions.
of the

brief

and

necessarily very imperfect review of

some

most common
Chinese

and some

of the
is

most important or interesting

of these

nature-sounds

attempted in this chapter.

The examples given

have been culled from the speech

of the people at various places

and from a few books by native authors.

laries

Some

of the

Vocabubeen

and Dictionaries compiled by foreigners have

also

laid

under contribution.
Describing the material or " elements of articulate speech,"

Canon Farrar writes

itself

"Now, the natural sensuous

of

life

expresses

in three kinds of natural sound, viz.. Interjections, Imita-

tions,

and those sounds, expressive

some

desire,

which

in

imitation of the

German Lautgeberden we may roughly

mere passing emotions

designate

as vocal gestures.
to express the

Aspirates and vowels are generally sufficient

of the natural life of
;

con-

sonants

are

more

the

expression

the

free

intelligence.

Interjections
sions
;

are the arbitrary expression of subjective impres-

Imitations advance a step further, spontaneously repro-

ducing something which has influenced the senses from without

Lautgeherden, though, like interjections, they have their source
in the subject, are not a

mere utterance

of passive sensation, but

an energetic expression of will, though as yet only in the form of

desire."

Long

before Farrar wrote the above, Endlicher in his

Chinese

Grammar had

devoted a section to the Interjections.

Under

this

head he includes Sensation-sounds and Exclamations

On

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements.

131

or Interjections proper, Imitations of natural sounds, and cries of

calling

and driving away.^

Beginning then with Interjections, which are words or

" parts of speech used
to express

some passion or emotion

all

of the

mind," we find the Chinese using these on

kinds of occasions.

Some

of

them are

to be heard

now

in nearly every part of the

empire, while others do not travel beyond certain limited districts.

Few

of these exclamations can be written out in letters so as to

give a fair idea of the

way in which they

and

are uttered, for they are

made up not only

them
little

of vowels

ctftisonants

but also of tone,

emphasis, and other elements.

The

characters used to represent

in writing, moreover, are not constant,

and

in

most cases

importance should be attached to the characters employed.

in

As

these ejaculations are

many

cases well

known, we need

not do more here than merely notice a few.

One
with
its

that

may be heard

every day
hai-ya.

is

the ai-ya of Mandarin,

is

variations

oi^a and

This

an exclamation of

surprise, or pain, or admiration, according to the circumstances in

which

it is

used,

and sometimes, when uttered slowly,

It

it

is

ex-

pressive of great suffering.

as

may

also be used as a

noun or
is,

verb,

when

it is

said of a

man

that he ai-ya-liao, that

shouted

ai-ya, literally

ai^ya-ed.

We

sometimes find this exclamation

heading the burden of pathetic and other songs.

Ai-ya-i-hu-hai (printed t^
frain of a song in
of her

Thus we have makes the sad reft]j^ Pf P^) which which a disconsolate wife mourns the departure

husband on a fighting expedition.

So

also

wa

or

wa-wa

is

a very

common exclamation
part
of the

of surprise or delight or great distress.

It also forms

refrain of

some melancholy
Pf ) of the

songs,
pitiful

as in the Wa-hu-i-tva-hu (printed

g Pf 1^

"Ten Flowers." The character used

several other uses which

to represent the

sound

wa

has

seem

to

be mainly imitative in origin.

It also stands for other sounds, such as wo, ho,

and

it is

of very old

* Farrar'8 "Language and Languages," p. 74; Endlicher'a Ch. Gr., S. 350. For much information and guidance in connection with the subject of this chapter the author is much indebted to the two works here quoted, to Lect. xiii. of Prof. Marsh's Lect. on the Eng. Lang,, and to Tylor's " Primitive Culture, Tol. i., chaps. V. and vi.

132

On

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements.

or otherwise tortured

date in the language.

While being beaten

or punished before a mandarin, or while suffering severe bodily

pain of any kind, a Chinaman will sometimes groan, uttering a

low prolonged sound

like heng-heng.

And

so

heng became a word

or groan.

which

is

generally represented in writing by Pf and denotes a

sigh,

moan, or

or groan, and to utter a

moan

An

instance of this last use of the

word

will occur to those

who have
a

learned the

Hundred Lessons.

In one

of these a friend relates to

another

how he went

to see a certain

man

about an

affair of

common friend, and describes the bad treatment which he received. At the interview, however, the horrid creature (k'o-wu-ti'tung'
hsij

was allowed

to

" pay out "

all

his stock of abuse, while the

visitor listened patiently

without uttering a single groan

"did

npt heng a single sound."

In books, however, and in

(or

official

documents we often find the double form heng-ho

in this way, as in expressions

ha) used

like SsiX^jpai-pan-tzu-mei-ko-heng-

ha, that

is,

he received four hundred blows without uttering a

This heng-ha, or a similar sound,
is

moan

of

pain.

made,

morever, by workmen while pounding earth or engaged in any

labour of a like nature.

\. which

is

expressed as

They also moan or sigh out a sound han or na^han while doing work which
This sound resembles somewhat the

requires vigorous exertion.

French workman's cry

of

han

or ahan, and this last

is

used also

as a legitimate part of speech.

The Chinese hum,

or moan, or

groan, or chant at nearly every kind of work which calls for

continued or united exertion.

howl, as their soldiers, for example,

military combats.

They sometimes even shout and when tilting in their mock

way
is

To

yell

in this

generally denoted by

the han or no'han (0^ J^) already mentioned. This term is also used to denote the loud shout or war-cry with which Chinese
soldiers attack an

enemy

or

make an

assault.

It is possible

that the cries and groans of the Chinese

are to be explained as Cicero explains those
athletes.

soldier

and workman
the

made by

Roman
body
is

The

latter,

he

tells us,

groan not from pain or lack of

ejaculations all the

courage, but because in

making the

kept on the stretch, and the stroke comes with more force.

On^the Interjectional and Imitative Elements.

133

common interjection is
X

the exclamation hu, with the variations hsu

and yu (written pj and occasionally ^). This expresses alarm, terror, or mental anguish, and comes to mean to sigh or grieve.
It also often indicates merely displeasure or dissatisfaction, but

the sound which

it

gives

is

an uncertain one. Hence

its

it

frequently

needs the help of another interjection to render

use distinct

\ and

precise.

With

it,

for example,

we

find the sound

now
!

tsie

or chie (g|) but formerly tso or

'P'w-shu

ts^o or cho.

Thus Eu'tso-mingThis

(PJ @| ft /P

ife) is,

" alas for the premature death "

tso or tsie is also originally

only an exclamation, and in the mouth

of

an emperor

it is

a mere
it

Lo

or

Ah

to call attention or

head

an utterance.

Then

becomes an exclamation of pity or

distress,

sometimes used singly, and sometimes repeated , and sometimes

with hUf tzuf or some other interjection preceding.
such expressions as Tsie-wo-fu-tzU (g| f^ Jf ^), "Ah and childen." Then it is verb meaning to pity, as in
shi-nii (il

So we
!

find

our wives
tsie

yuan-'

jS
**

25c)

"I

pify t^ ^^^^ of the far-off warrior."

In the

line tsie-tsieshi-yu-shen

(^

^)

it

means

to sigh or

grieve for.

I sigh sadly for the world and myself."

of the

As an example
sake of force,
let

heaping up of interjections for the

first line of

us take the

a celebrated

poem on the
hie-hu

Hardships

of travelling in Ssuchua.n.
PSI

The

poet says of the road,

I'hiiM'Wei'hu-haO'tsai (? PJ
perilous,

^$

i^ ^),

He

how

how high

But let us take the old

of this

sigh expressed in

sound

by

eij

ai,

wa, and represented in writing by the character now

read ai (g).

In the fortunes

word we seem

to

be able to

trace the ideal progress of language from the brute cry to the

speech of civilised man.

We find

it

as a

mere exclamation, an

in-

terjection of pity or pain or sorrow

the ouai, guai, wo of other languages.

alas
!

on the part of the speaker, like Thus ai-ai-fu-mu is " alas

sound serves to

my parents

"

Here the

repetition of the

express the subjective feeling of deep distress, as the commentator

says, it
ifc).

"emphasizes the sad

ai
is

affliction of

the person"

(g 3
!

SE

^
de-

used in the sense of a sighing, a sadness, as in the said to be i here), " Oh alas," phrase, Wu-hu-yu-ai (ti

Then

^^ ^

in Dr. Legge's translation.

Here yu-ai means, " It

is sad, it is

134

On

jectional the Inter

and Imitative Elements.

plorable."

used

it is

As a noun, ai denotes sorrow, distress, affliction, and so One name for the staff or of very common occurrence.

rod borne by a son at a parent's funeral, as will be seen presently, And in the " Shi-ching " we find is ai-chang, the staff of sorrow.
the statement "
ai,

Our

hearts are sorely distressed and mo-chihrwo--

no one knows our sadness."

As an

adjective, ai

means

sad,

mournful, to be pitied, compassionate.

In

this use it

sometimes

has the adjectival particle cho added, as in ai-chOf the compassionate.

(S^)

The
*'

particle is not needed, however,

and we find

ai-t'ai

sorry jade."

So

also ai-ko (5J), are woeful ditties, sad

songs which sung-Uu-yen ('^

It
will

*g*),

" go with words

of misery."

be remembered

also

that Confucius

characterised the

first

poem

in the "Shi-ching" as "joyful but not licentious, sad

who die young this word is given as a posthumous epithet by way of reverence. So used it means '^ the regretted," desideratissimi. The phrase or some such ai-tsai is sometimes simply equivalent to wo alas " exclamation. But it has also the force of to be pitied," " it is hard with" or "ill for." In the " Shi-ching " we find it
but not painful "

(^

lf5

/p

^).

To

those

contrasted with ho (^), which

means " to be well with."

Thus

the rich are said to be well

off

while the desolate are ai^tsai, in

a pitiable plight.

Then ai becomes a verb, and it is now explained as a synonym for shang (^), to be afflicted, or min (I3X to mourn for or with. So the expression jen-chie-ai-chih

(A

W "& ) means "everybody mourned

also

for him."

It is laid

down
as

that in
ai,

the religious services to one's parents the

this connection the

mourner must
meaning

and in

word

is

interpreted

"to weep aloud."

Hence comes the expression

is,

ai-hsiang (^), the noise of wailing, that

ing.

in a house of

mourn-

It

was perhaps from being used

of

in this
to
die.

way

the word came

to

to

have the meaning

death,

or

For reporting
term
is

Peking the decease

ai

of a tributary ruler, the prescribed

kao-

(^

^),

to

announce mourning.

The word

is

further used in

the sense of

to pity, as

when

it is

said of an emperor that he ai-

wu'hu (}| ^), pities the innocent. It is also applied to a horse, and we read in a popular poem of a good horse pei (^) ai, neigh-

On

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements,

135

ing woefully.

Then

ai

is

used as an adverb in such

common

expressions as ai-k^u (5g), to weep sadly, ai-chHu

(jjj), to beseech

mournfully, pray for earnestly, and ai-ai-kao-kao, very piteously

to call

and

call for

mercy.

It also

becomes an abstract noun meanai and lo are often mentioned

classified as

ing the emotion of sorrow.

together as sorrow and joy
joy, anger, sorrow (aij
;

Thus

and the Emotions are

and

delight.^

From
like our

the Interjections, properly so called,

we

pass on to the

vocal-gestures.

These
hallo
!

may

serve at times as calls or requests

hush

or they

may denote

assent or dissent, but

they always have reference to other objects.

They

are often

accompanied by

facial expressions

and bodily gestures, which may

occasion so requires.
!

be used as substitutes for them

is,

if

There

for example, the

Foochow exclamation hai or hai-hai

An

angry

woman

scolding another

woman

too far off to hear, scrapes

her own face with her fore-fingers.

perfricuistiy

This action means faciem

off

you are a shameless quean, you have scraped

the

modest powder.

"When she can be heard by her

of the face.

victim, the

virago cries out hai-hai, usually accompanying the exclamation

by the scraping
of

The
!

hai-hai intensifies the

meaning
intended

shame

or shameless creature

which the gesture

is

to convey.

So

also the cry of tsii or ch^u often

accompanies the

scornful, insulting gesture of pointing the middle finger at one.^

The
call to
belief.

cry hsil or hii has been already noticed.

It

is

often a

attention,

and often a whew

is

of dissent, distrust, or dis-

An

exclamation which
is

in

common

use over at least a

t^ssU.

great part of China

is

that which sounds like

When

this

uttered in a gentle, smiling

manner

it signifies

admiration or

pleasure, but

when

it is

uttered in a loud tone and repeated with

emphasis

it

expresses dislike or disgust.

it is

In

this latter use it

resembles our hiss, and

sometimes heard as such in theatres

It can be employed as a
46, 31

and other places

1

of public resort.
:

noun
:

L. C.
xi.
;

C,
iv.

i.,

p. 25,

C, iv., pp. 350, 520, 328, 261 " Shi-ching," chap, v., pp. Ku-shi-yuan" ("^ and " Lun-yii," chap, iii., p. 29 ;
*'

L. C.

^ jg) chape,
(X).
p. 40.

and

"Li-pu-tse-li," chap, clxviii.

See also Stent's Vocab.

s. v. ai

See " Manual of the Foochow Dialect," by Rev. C. C. Baldwin,

136
or verb,
shen-^mo,

On

the Interjectionat

and Imitative Elements.

ni't^ssH"
is

and we may occasionally hear the expression

meaning, at what are you hissing?
Tientsin,

This phrase

common about

where the use

fight.

of it

may

constitute the

second step towards a

presented in books by p,
It is used, as

Then we have pH (sometimes rewhich means get out, avaunt thee !

contemptuously and in abusing a

Premare

says,
face.

man

as

it

were to his
is

The

p'ei or p^ui of

Foochow and

other places

perhaps only another form of this

p 'i.
" Of
is

Foochow
all

people generally utter the p^ui with great emphasis, and some-

times

it is

used like^e, in " Fie,

fie,

for

shame."
like

swiche

cursed stories I say fy."

sense of begone! out of

Sometimes p^ui,

p%

used in the

my
is

sight!

Another remarkable and

ts'oi,
it is

well-known vocal-gesture

the Cantonese ch^oi or

which

may mean,
Some
hear
ei

according to the circumstances in which

!

uttered,
!

hush! shame

nonsense

or,

donH, though

wish you would

of these

seeming inarticulate sounds are in reality

actual words or the ruins or changed forms of words.

Thus we

in the sense of yes, quite so, but this ei is perhaps only a

(Pf|)

corruption of wei
as

with a similar meaning.

This wei (or yei) be found in early

sail of

an exclamation

of assent or attention is to

Chinese literature.

It

is to

be used in acknowledging the

a parent or teacher, and corresponds to yes. Sir,

It also implies

prompt and respectful attention

a or

to the

call,

while no

(^)

is

anon, anon, and conveys no hint of immediate answer.

old particle of assent
is

Another
which was
not always
to

aw
!

(f^), the use of

formerly regarded as very discourteous.

But
it

it

is

employed

to

denote Yes

or Here

and often

merely serves

indicate that the person addressed has heard the speaker.

The
is

shout of applause heard in a theatre or at a public meeting

only the word hao, good, uttered loud and emphatically by the
audience.

But the

hist

sound, which

is

employed
It

as
is

among
like the

ourselves to order silence, is a true vocal-gesture.

wheest

of provincial English.

Let us now go on

to notice

some

of the Sound-imitations in

Chinese, beginning with a few of those which are attempts to

reproduce or recall the

sounds

made by inanimate

nature.

On

the Interjectional

aud Imitative Elements,

137

Though with us
'*

these utterances cannot properly be called words,

yet in Chinese they often do the duty of a verb, noun, or other

part of speech," and in such cases they

may

claim to be regardlittle

ed as words.

These expressions have been

of this language,

attended to by

Western students
terms
*'
:

and Edkins, who gives ten

examples in his Shanghai Grammar, apologizes in the following

Words

of this sort occur so frequently in conversation,

that at the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious
book, they are here noticed."
is
^

In the present

treatise

mention

made

of only a

few

of the

more

striking of these imitations, or

of those

which are met with frequently.

for

The common word

it

wind

in

Mandarin

is feng,

but older

forms of this word are preserved in hung, hong, pong, varieties of

which occur in several

dialects.

These seem

to point to a primi-

tive attempt to imitate

one of the

many

noises

made by

the wind.

There are

also several
too,

names
seem

for particular varieties of storm

to

and

wind, and these,

apparently
is

be imitative in origin.

So also

there is a storm, it blows.

blow into
is

kua (^) the common term used with feng to denote And chhii (Jf^), which means " to sound," and then " to play on any wind instrument,"
its origin.

perhaps similar in

Then
it

for the

ways in which the

specific

wind blows, and the various noises

imitative terms.
is,

makes, there are

Thus

hsi-hsi-kic-feng

(^

^ JS)
(^)

is hsi-hsi,

that

gently breathes, the east wind.

So

also liu-liu expresses the

blowing of a moderate wind, and ch^en-ch'en

breeze.

that of a gentle

Then hu-la-la (g| |g Jg) is the noise of a fierce sudden gale, and sa-sa is a name for a sudden storm. Again, tse-tse imitates the noise made by the breeze among the dry leaves of a
forest in

autumn, when

'^

Es

Saiiselt der

Wind

in den Blattern."

The

whistling of a gale

is

expressed by sak-sah, and kuah-lah'

in

kuah'lahy given

by Edkins,

" the wind blowing on reeds," while

mu-mu

is

the moaning of a breeze in the shrouds of a vessel.

also

There are

several
it

picturesque expressions for rain,

descriptive of the

ways

comes down.
;

Thus we

find 'pa-ta-pafor the

ta for the pattering of the rain-drops

1

shua-shua

sound

Shanghai Gr.

p. 137.

136

On

the Tnterjectional

and Imitative

Meirients.

of a shower; p'ang-t'e'p'ang-t^e expressing a heavy downfall;

and ping-pang or pin^pak

for the rattling of rain

is

on the

tiles,

but according to Edkins ping-pang

hail.

also the noise

made
is

by-

The term
is

ch'en-ch'enj which, as

we have
it is

seen,

used of
the
it

wind,

applied also to rain.

is

In each case

not so
is

much

sound that
were, of

indicated as the fact that there

a series, as

little

breezes and soft showers.

The

drizzle is
is

mSng;

mSng j
is

the drip drip of the hesitating shower

tien-tien

and

siao-siao expresses

heavy driving

rain.

This same sound siao-siao

used also to express the neighing of horses heard afar, and the

susurrus of wind

among

trees.
it is

The thunder makes hung-hung, and sometimes

said to

make a

great hung.

This sound hung

as

is

also used for

any
of
to

rumbling, rolling noise, such

carriages or

that

made by
character
for

number

waggons, and
(J|)
is

hence
of

the
that

now used

represent

it

made up
is

carriage

with two

repetitions.

This term hung

of

a;lso

used to denote the thunder

6f a

company

horsemen galloping.

Another term

for the
is

rattling,

rumbling noise made by a carriage on a road

of his carriage continued to be

lu-lu.

Thus " the noise

had gone
lu'lu-yuan-t'ing

heard when he

far past the palace," is expressed

by kung-ch'S-kuo-ye

(g i ffi ffi jt )Other sounds made by inert matter when acted on from Thus the sound witliout are also fruitful subjects for imitation.
made by
ground
the falling of a large stone or other heavy object on the
is

expressed in the

Foochow

dialect

by pong-pong. Hence

any

dull,

heavy sound
2i

is

often spoken of by the

Foochow people
same
materials
will often

simply as

pong-pong.

In like manner

p*(^?2^-p^on^, in the

dialect, imitates the

noise

cracking and splitting.

made by timber and other So we find that a Foochow man

is

speak of a p'eng-p^ong instead of saying crack or

split.

The

sound peng, like our hang,

used generally

to represent the noise

made by a gun
is
^ni'

or cannon.

Hence a peng-peng-ping
peng-pSng mandarin
is

(or

soldier)

artillery-man,

and

a.

pidgin English

fbi^'a'n artillery officer.

Teng-teng and other expressions are also

used

to imitate the noise

made by

the firing of cannon.

A drum

On
is

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements.

189

ku, and the

made

by the primitive

Chinese do not

name was perhaps given to represent the sound drum when beaten with a stick. The commonly say that the drum ''sounds*' or "rolls/'
or kiai-kiai, or peng-peng.

but they say

it t^ong-'t'ong,

" Bang-

whang-whang goes
the
fife is

the drum, tootle-te-tootle the

Mo"

In Chinese

called ti (|"),

and

this

name
some

also

is

perhaps derived

from

its

sound.
to notice

Let us now pass on

sions

of those

words and expres-

made

to imitate or suggest the calls, cries,

and other sounds

will be seen, are
is

produced by

birds, beasts,

and

insects.

These,

it

often the rude matter out of which true speech

formed, and

not seldom they are themselves actual grammatical terms.

In

Chinese, as in other languages, such expressions often give their

names

to animals, especially to birds

and

insects.

The old popular poetry found in the " Shi-ching " and the " Ku-shi-yuan " affords many examples of these attempts to imitate or recall in language the inarticulate utterances

brute creatures, and these in

used in
begins,

many cases are common literature. The firsi poem of Kuan-kuan the chii-chiu. Dr. Legge
not needed.

still

well
*'

made by the known and

Shi-ching"

the

renders the line

rather funnily
''

by " kuan-kuan go the ospreys," where the word

go "

is

The

chii-chiu are rather wild

duck or wild

geese than ospreys, and the poet says, "

The wild duck quackand that drake and

treatise

quack."

By

this

he means

to

express that in the flock every

life,

drake has his duck, that they pair for

duck quack and

dilly in loving

harmony.

In the same

we

find yao-yao (or yu<ju) as the noise

insects,*'

made by
deer;

locusts or " grass

and the harmonious

call of
;

huang-huang the

noise

made by a swarm

of locusts
;

ao-ao (or gao-gao) as the

melancholy cry of wild geese

wings
;

suh'Suh the rustling of the geese's

ying-ying and mien-man as the notes of certain birds.

We

find the

same imitative sounds applied

find the call or

to different creatures,

including

man, and we

sound made by one animal

represented by several different sounds.

The songs

of birds
ears.

and In

the stridulations of insects do not sound alike to

all

England,

for

example, to one the nightingale sings whit, whit,

140

On

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements,

;

whit, and to another jug, jug, jug

to

at least a part of his song is

fie
!

some

ocyy ocy,

and
!

to

another " Fie,

fie

now would she

also, to

cry ; Tereu, Tereu

by and by."

So in Chinese

denote

the

call

of

one bird, for example,, we find in several cases a

number of very different forms of expression. The magpie calls {ming 0,|) cha-cha, or, as others hear, This bird is called in Mandarin hsi-chio, which is k^ah.
preted as meaning Bird of Joy
in origin.

h'ah"
inter-

f]|),

but

it is

probably imitative

In Foochow the magpie

is

called k'ah'ch'iu, the bird

which

k'ah'k^ah*8.

The Cantonese hear

the owl hoot lam-lum

and

so they call It
is

him lum-lum

or the lum-lum-tseuk (bird), the Ulula.

is

probable that

tended to other birds

lum4um, which which also make

purely colloquial,

is

ex-

nigbt hideous.
lib.,

The

oriole's

call is li-liu uttered slowly

and repeated ad

and hence comes

one of the bird's names, huang (yellow)-Zi-Zm

(^

).

But

some reproduce

his call

by

kiao-kiao,

and others by other sounds.

Partridge (Bamhusi-

Further, the learned say that the

Bamboo

cola) cries nihua-hua, ni'hua-hua (J^ \^ ^), and from this But to the country people this bird fact it gets one of its names.

says in
ho, that

its call
is,

hing-pu-te-ko-ko (fj /P

^W

"^); hing-pu'te-hch
this

" can't get on, elder brother," and

term
all

is

used as

a familiar

name

for him.

Man

brings an ear for

to his

he hears in

the world of nature.

So according

mood he

finds pleasure or

sorrow in the chirruping and chattering of creatures whicb chir-

rup and chatter from an inner impulse.

But we

also

know

that

the children of nature have been taught by her

to utter distinct

and

different sounds

when

excited by fear, pain or delight.

Cum

pecudes mutae, cum denique saecla ferarum Dissimilis soleant voces variasque ciere, Cum metua aut dolor est et cum jam gaudia gliscunt.

To one man,

or at one time, the swallow

may
To

"pipe and

trill

and cheep and twitter twenty million loves."

a different occasion,
circles in
it

another, or on
it

may

chatter (tsap^tsep) as

wheels airy

an agony

of despair.
is

To

the Chinese also the swallow,

or rather the house-martin,

sometimes distressed, and chatters

it

chiao'chiao or chow-chow; or
its

merely twitters

yi-yi,

and

so tells

proper name yi or yi-yen (IL or

^ Jg).

On
The

the Interjectional
is

and Imitative Elements,

(J^

141

cricket

called si-su

jf )

in

Mandarin, sik-sut

(or sik'tsut)

in

Cantonese, and ssu-tsze

it,

in the

Ningpo

dialect.

Another name

for

common
its

in

North China,
to

is ch'ii'ch'u {j^^ jft).

These sounds are plainly attempts

cricket,

imitate the call

of

the

what we

call

chirrj

as in

the expression

"not a
is

cricket chirr'd,"

and the French

call its cri-cri.

The cicada

properly called ch'an

{^)

or shan,

and the old pronunciation was

imitative. It is also

apparently tzan or zhan,

thus

evidently

known
din
is

as the

ki-liu,

from the

ki-ri, ki-ri it repeats

with painful

iteration the
to the

whole long days of autnmn.

This hoarse creature's

it

Chinese a melancholy monotony, for

is

calls the

hoar

frost

and warns them that the summer

at hand.

past, the

autumn

going,

and the winter

is

field

cricket, as long as its

mouth

From this arose its name Zoname which seems to be given also in some places to a cicada. The cricket has also local names in several dialects, as mei'hi in that of Amoy, and these, too, are generally intended to The domestic goose has never had a character imitate its chirring.
above ground, screams la-la-la'ta.
lo'kUf a
for tact or voice,
'*

and as

to the latter,

an old poet has said

This gaggling
is

truly,

The goose but gaggelith

in her gate."

represent-

ed in Chinese by the sound ni (or gyi) repeated, and hence

find the goose called, for

we

example in Mencius, the ni-ni-cho (|g |^

is

^)

or " cackler."

The crow
kiu-kiUf but

of the domestic cock

expressed sometimes by

men

also

crow,

and so kiu-kiu comes to

meau

to

hrag or hoast.

And

sounds imitative of the twittering,

chir-

ruping chattering of birds are made to denote the prattling of

children, the babbling of small- talkers,

and the wrangling

of the

angry.

Sounds

like

ni-nam, nan-nan, nang-nang, imitate the

tedious twittering of various small birds.

to represent

the chitter-chatter of
^^ *^^s

Hence they were taken small voices and the endless

beer."

talk

(^

/p

T)

^^^ "chronicle small

The crows

caw kua-kua, and hence they are called lao-kua, " old cawers."

Fond of

his

and, like

name, the crow calls it out with wearisome repetition, him, the cuckoo and and the poet each kua-kua'8 his own

name (g A

&

ffi

K 8S SS S

As we speak

of "

Chough's

142

On

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements.

*^

language/' so the Chinese have

for idle
tittle-tattle.

swallows' talk"

(^ ^) as a name
children
is
is

The

chitter-chatter

of noisy

chih-chUf the noise of a flock of sparrows;

and

chio-ts^ao
of

(^

P^)

the "cheatering" of sparrows

blers.

first,

and afterwards

human bab-

One cannot imagine any

one"

ghostly adviser in China saying to

a house of nuns, " Cheatereth ouwer beoden evere ase sparuwe deth
thet
is
is

chirp your prayers always, as does the sparrow that

sparrow alone
to ?

alone.

When is a
it

Then we have

the word tH
little
it

(pjp),

which perhaps was made

imitate the crying of a

baby.
is

But

has come to have a very wide application, and

now used

of the calls of several birds very unlike in character,

of

of

the warbling voice

young maidens, and

Thence

of the noise of

weeping.

The word hou

(J%) denotes the roar of a lion, or the

it

howl

of

any

fierce wild beast.

came

to

be applied to

the roaring and bellowing of people in a passion.

The next group

of imitative utterances to be considered is that

to

which contains the expressions used

laugh and other vocal noises made by
chiefly automatic

denote the cough, sneeze,

himself,

man

and which are

and

instinctive.

Such expressions are perhaps

under the influences
is

in

all

languages purely imitative, at least in the beginning, but

lose the traces of their origin of time

many
and
and

place.

The Chinese language

and early growth,
it

rich in these terms also,

and as they show us something

of its origin

of the material of the

language

may

not be useless to notice

a few of them.
simplicity,

As

the language preserves

much
in it

of its primitive

most of these natural expressions

aloud

have come down

either in their original forms or with only slight alterations.

The term
which make
inhaling air
;

for

to breathe

is

hu-hi (Pf {)> and this

is

expressly said to imitate the noise made.

this

Of the two

syllables

term, hu
is

is

said to denote the noise

while hi

the sound

made by exhaling

it.

made by Then
all that

hu-hi

came

to

be used for the process of breathing generally, and

hence the expression ssu-fang

breathe, all living creatures.

(0 "^yhu-hi which means

So
also nature
rises

(Heaven and Earth)

in unison

has a hu-hij a respiration which sinks and

with

man's

acts

and thoughts.

The

syllable hvL

we

l^ave already seen


Ofi the Int&rjeetional
in the exclamation

mid
!

IrrCitative

Elements,

143

wu-hu, alas

It is also used as a verb in the

sense of call, as to call a servant.

Hence
So

it

came
came

to

be employed

generally with the meaning of to call or address, and also as a

noun denoting
pien-yen (@{
inhalation.

style of address.

also hi

to

be used as a

verb meaning to inhale generally, as in the expression hi-shi-ya-

^ J| >r
The
noise

'M)y

<^o

smoke opium,

to take

opium by

made by breathing in air is also expressed by hsii (a), and that made by breathing out air by ch^ui (gj^). The former also means to breathe hard, and the latter, as has
been seen,
is

used of the wind blowing, and of playing on wind

instruments.

The term for to cough, h^o-seh (|^ BDj), is generally acknowledged to be only an attempt to reproduce the sound made in the
act.

The general term

for to laugh is hsiao (or sio

which was
are,

at the first apparently imitative or suggestive.

^), a word There

however, in addition to this word various sounds for repre-

senting different kinds of laughter.

Some

of

these are merely

is

exclamations or interjections.

hearty, jolly laugh

ka-ka, or

ha-ha, or ho-ho, or h^o-h^o, and such expressions are often used

with hsiao as a kind of gloss, hsiao being taken to denote the

facial

expression chiefly.

Occasionally

we

find full statements

like the hsiao-yen-ya-ya

(^

'

^S)-

These words seem

to

mean "laugh, saying ya-ya," and

the " Shuo-wen," with refer-

ence to this passage, gives hsiao as the meaning of ya.

From

it

perhaps were derived statements like ya-jen-hsiao-yue, " he said,

laugh ing.'^

Then

there

is

hi or hi-hij used to express a quiet

of derision.

laugh, sometimes with the implied meaning

" Shi-ching " we find a deserted mistress singing of

brothers, not knowing, laugh at

herself,

In the " My

me,"

hi^chH-hsiao-i

(g

^^
ti,

^).
that

Here the word hi

is,

is

explained by some as meaning hi-hi,

is

in derision.

The

character read hi

also

pronounced

and

it is

used to imitate a loud laugh.

So
is,

also

we have

p^u-chih'

ti'hsiao,

laughing with a p'u'chih, that

exploding in laughter.

But

in this sense p^u-p^U'chih-chih

to

may

be used without the

addition of any word for "

laugh."

The word hai (^) denotes

as a child,

a child, but written

it

means

to smile

and then

to

144
smile

On

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements,

These two characters are often
is
t'i

and laugh generally.

ThenViaiy with

interchanged, and the former

of the latter.

apparently only an older form

added,
is

from the expression tzii-sheng-hai-fi (-J f^ bahy*was born and could laugh and cry." For " to weep " the common term is k'u
ently of imitative origin.

used to denote a bahy, 58 P)j " when the

(5g), a

word apparand
at

But

there are

many

other terms to
;

express or denote the various kinds and degrees of weeping

it is

interesting to observe that the

same sounds may serve

one time to denote grief and at another time laughter.

the hsi-hsi fhi-hi) noticed as a term for laughter,
express a grief too great for tears.
is

Thus
several

used also to
are

Then

there

terms for the blubbering, crying, screaming, howling of babies.

Some of these, Such are huang-huang, i-i, wa^wa, hu-hu. perhaps all, are more than mere imitative noises. Thus i-ij or i
(Jg or ^) simply, is not only the puling of an infant, but also a So also wa^wa is the puling infant, properly a female baby.
crying of an infant, and hsiao'wa-wa
it is is

a small child.

only the wise children

all

who know

their parents, but

With us among

the Chinese
faculty.

children are supposed to possess this remarkable

And

hence comes the

common

saying, Ku-Jcu-chih-tzu'

kO'Chih-chH'ChHn (gKBKjJl

?lilft

M)>

every puling child

expresses

knows

it

parents.

The term ku-hu-chih here

what we

can only represent by youngest ; it denotes a child in the first or " To sob " is expressed by yin or gpin (Pf ) crying stage of life.

and

ti-ti

or

t'i't'i,

already mentioned,

is

to

shed tears drop by

drop, lacrimas stillare.

to the falling of pearls

The fi-tH

of the falling tears is

compared

from a broken necklace, reminding us of

the words, " Ah, but those tears are pearl which thy love sheds."

Then we have

t^i^k^u,

used of the wailing of an infant

and k^u-

k^U'tH'Vi or k^u-tHj used to express any sad and bitter weeping.

Further, p^v^su-su
tears
;

is

the noise

made by
of

gushini^

flood

of

and ya-tH and ma^ma are

to cry as babies,

and then

to cry

and howl generally.

Chinaman

my

acquaintance,

who

is

more than

forty years old,

when

suffering

from rheumatism

cries

ma-ma, ma-ma with much weeping and groaning.

As

the man'a

On
mother
is

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements,

like the

145
negro

dead he can scarcely be calling for her,

and the Indian of Upper California mentioned by Mr. Tylor. " To sneeze " is in Mandarin Vi (written pj and otherwise), a

word which seems

classical

to represent a lisping sneeze.

is

It

is

an old and
are

word, and

given in the " Shuo-wen.*'

But there

several vulgar terms the nature

and meaning

of

which cannot be

doubted.

Such are
to sneeze.

ha-yiy

and ha-chHj a sneeze, and ta-ha-ch^

chH-chih (written

itt ?& ft)

So

also

^)

and

ta-

ch^i^chih are respectively a sneeze

and

to sneeze.

There are

also

several other expressions of a like character

and

of local range.

In books and in the speech

snoring
is

of

the educated, the act of

denoted by han (ff ), the noise of breath emitted during sleep. In the rude dialects, however, and in the talk of the people
generally, this

word han

is

not very

much

used.

It

is

replaced

by such purely imitative expressions as the no-no

people, the hu-hu, ka-ka,

of the

Foochow

and k'a-ka

of other provincial districts.

Other terms are hou (|) and

like that

ta-'hu (fj

Pf ), which, like some of

the other terms here given, are used of a loud continuous snoring,

which the poet describes when he says

*'

of the

drunken

sleeper,

And thurgh thy dronken

As though thou

nose semeth the soun,

saidest ay,

Sampsoun, Sampsoun."

We
like

read of a

man

hou-Ju-lei-'hou

(^

Jn

IJL)*

" snoring
poems,

thunder roaring," and Han Wen-kung, in one makes a friend snore loud enough to make an frown and a stone man tremble with fear.

of his

iron

Buddha
and

For
terms.

defects

and

peculiarities of utterance of all kinds

degrees, the Chinese in their familiar speech

have appropriate
fit

Such

peculiarities are generally regarded as

subjects

for good-natured banter

and even
or

for

nicknames.

Thus the deaf

mute

is

called a ya'tzu

(g
is

g ^) or ya-pa, because he seems to

dumb but
or

be always trying to utter something like ya-ya.

is

called a ya-tztt

who

not

utterance

a Balbus.
is

And ya

But many a man much embarrassed in ya-ya may be used to express a

only

hesitation in speech or a difficulty in expressing oneself.

In the

Mandarin and book language, the expression

stuttering

for

stammering and
is

noh-noh, and another term for a trouble in speech

146
ki'hi.

On

the Interjeciionat
dialect

and Imitative
to

Bleftients.

But each
tih (or

seems

have

at l^ast

one or two

peculiar expressions for a difficulty of utterance.

Such are the

Foochow

tah or chih)-ma-ch*ok, and the tih^tih of

Amoy.

There are

also expressions

which are purely descriptive or

explanatory, as " to speak biting the tongue," " to speak with a

But terms like those mentioned above are the names commonly employed both in speech and writing. The work ki (chi |^) is explained by "hesitation in speech" and
stiff

tongue."

" trouble from the limping of speech," or stuttering.

By

the term

nak-^ah or noh-noh (written P^ p^ and fp^ f^) various kinds of impediments in speech are indicated. An early use of it is found
in the "Li-chi,"

where

it is

recorded of Wen-tzii (3C

if it

?)

that his

speech was noh-noh, like as

could not get out of his

mouth "

tfi ft D)- Sere noh-noh is explained in (K "s Pft Pft ^s meaning low and slow, but it is generally understood as denot-

ing

tb

hesitating in speech, or stammering.

pi'Overbial,

have become almost

native newspapers.

The words here quoted and one may see them used in the

Then

the word ^in or gyin (Pg), already

noticed in another use, sometimes denotes an inability to speak,

or at least to talk distinctly.

So

also
is

wa

((^) pronounced huo,

which has several other meanings,

choking impediment in speech.
are
still,

used in the sense of a

it

These terms,

will be noticed,

or were in their early forms, purely imitative.

So

also

are the

These terms

common may

k'o-k^O'pa-pa and the Me-kie {chie-chieyiia-'pa.

be used as verbs, as in the expression tsui-li-

k'o-k'o-pa'pa (j^

Jl 51

) ''he stammers,"

lit.,

in his

mouth he
they

k^o-k^o-pa-pa's.

They may
ti (ffj)

also be used as adjectives,

the particles chih (;^) and

being sometimes added, and

may

be nouns or adverbs also according to the context.

The

individual and the local peculiarities of utterance

among

the

Chinese are worthy of more attention than they have received.

These must have had, and must

formation and maintenance,

still

have, some effect in the

also
of

not only of dialects but

variations in the written language.

There are some Chinese

who cannot pronounce sh, and say sa and san for sha and shan. One man of my acquaintance could not pronounce words like pu


On
and aw and
the Interjectional
tu,

and Imitative Elements.

piiy

147 and his

but turned these into

and

sii,

and

tii,

children are reported to have inherited the peculiarity.

Many

Chinese cannot distinguish between h and /, calling a feng a hungj

and a huan a /aw/.

of

To the people of Foochow their neighbours Fu-ch*ing seem to make excessive use of the gutturals and the

Fu'tsing-keh-h^eh fFu-ch^ng-ko

jg

i|[ ?

bewrays the

man
the

from that

district.

So

also

the Pekingese

make fun

of

Tientsin talk, and speak derisively of the Wei-tsui-tzu

(^

Rg

^)

or Tientsin mouthers.

The next group

is

of imitative expressions to
of child's

be briefly noticed

that which

is

composed

language, comprising under

loquella

this designation not

only the infracta

baby, but also that used to the baby by nurse and mother.
utterances in this class also

made by the The

may be

said to flutter about the line

which divides speech from inarticulate language, as sometimes

they seem
to

be the link connecting mere cries with words, and

all

sometimes they have

the appearance of actual speech.

Chinese baby-language has not received

a few remarks on some specimens of

As the much attention hitherto, it may be useful ; but it

it is

must be premised that the acquaintance with

Voltaire says
:

very limited.

'^

Experience teaches us that children are

nothing was said to them they would

only imitators, that

if

not speak, they would content themselves with crying."

is

This
truth

perhaps a
little

little

overstated,

but

it

is

recognised
their

that

children are great imitators.

But

mimicking

tendencies

may have
calls
it

value and an interest to students of

his whistle

language.

Thus the Chinese baby says

his pi-pi or
pipe.

makes

pi-^i,
for

and

so

he

Hence
to

in

Foochow,

example, pi-^i and in

whistle.

Amoy pi-a, become names

is

for the

child's

This sound pi-pi

also

applied

other peeping,
This

squeaking instruments and the noises which these make.

child does not say that the dog barks but that
it

ou-ou, and so
is

ou

(or

ngao) becomes a word for the bark of a dog, and the dog

called the ou-ou, or simply the ou.

So

also the cat

makes mi-mi

or hi-hi, and hence these are baby-names for the cat and kitten.

Then

as mothers in

China often give animal-names

to

their

148

On

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements.

find

children to save

them from boy-hunting demons, we

name.
clucks or cackles, and this in

mi-mi
a

or kitten used as a personal

Further, the child says the

hen

t^e-lo,

that

is,

some

places

is

child-term, not only for the cackle but also for the hen.

At

Foochow the horse

makes kah-hak
ma,
in

is

known

to children as the

animal which
personates

trotting.

Now
whom

the

man who
But

another at one of the State Examinations has long been called the
or horse, of the

man

for

he appears.
it is

at

Foochow
Another
a fat

the term came to be well known, and so

there often replaced

by kah'kak,

to

the utter mystification of

all strangers.

Foochow
baby
is

child- word is nu-nu, or a

'*

sound like

that.

When

rounding

to a separate

mind '' he

distinguishes himself

as nu-nu,

owned that
noises."

and his seniors allow him the designation. It must be often an infant " see-saws his voice in inarticulate
finds

He

much
To
for

difl&culty in imitating certain sounds,

and hence he,

like his

elders,

often
as

makes utterances which

convey no meaning.

these,

not being articulate speech,

disparaging epithets are often applied.

ing people one

Among

the Amoy-speakthis is also

name

them

is li-li-la-la,

and

used

to denote the infantile prattling of grown-up people.

In Man-

darin the terms ya

together to denote the sounds

() and ou (Pg) are used separately or made by a child beginning to talk.

mean, not only the a-a
of a baby,

Then ya-ya comes

'^

to

but also

to prattle nonsense," to babble like a baby.

One

of the first

accomplishments of a baby

is

expressed

in English

by suck,
calls

"a word

imitative of the sound.''

So a

Foochow mother

her baby to sauk-sauk (variously given

also as soh'Sah, siah, etc.),

and thence we have the verb sauk in

to

such an expression as suak-neing,

thirsty infant cries for tsa-tsa.

suck milk.

In Tientsin the
calls for

In Shanghai the baby

for a
is

ma-ma, and

this is the

name

woman's

breasts there,

and

the name, for the same reason,

used in other parts of China.

Again, at Tientsin a baby

cries for food

by whimpering pei-pei,
little

and so the mother uses this expression to call the

to his food.

creature

The actual feeding of the baby is called pu or pu-pu, from the noise made by it during the process, and hence arose

On
the word

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements.

149

pu

(Pg also read p'u and fu), which came to

It is said of a

mean

to

feed or support.

mother and her child that the

feeds her child with her

former i-nai-pu-chih
breast.

(^

MM

^)>

The
to

child

is

also said to pu-JcuOy

munch
is

fruit.

Then

pu came
mouth.'*

be used in other senses, such as " a morsel in the

well-known instance

of this use

found in the

celebrated saying about

Chou Kung,

that i-fan-san't^u^pu

tt

ffi)

^^ ^^ meal he

thrice put out the food in his

mouth.

In the sense

of feed, or give nourishment^ the

word occurs often

in the saying ao-ao-tai-pui^

ing to be

fed.'*

#Jfi)^ "with sad whining waitThe terms tie-tie and ko-ho are perhaps originally

child-names for father

dada and
for father,

elder brother

respectively,

but

tie is

a recognised term

and ko

for elder brother.

of

It remains to notice a

few specimens

terms which are

imitative only

by metaphor.

Even

of those already
strictly

mentioned
but only
con-

there

are

several

which are not

imitative,

suggestive.

These, and the forms of expression

it

now under

sideration, mimick to the mind, as

were, or give an idea or

sights or sounds or
all lan-

picture of the effect produced

feelings.

by certain

Expressions of this kind are to be found in

guages perhaps, and they are usually of a striking and picturesque

character.

They

are

generally formed of a word or syllable

is

once repeated, or of a double word the second part of which

modification of the
first.

Thus we speak of "the deep, deep sea" and the "red, red wine," and we have terms like pell-mell, pitThe Chinese language luxuriates in suggestive or pat, zig-zag. The ancient classical poetry is descriptive terms of this kind.
especially rich in them, but the daily talk of the people is also

largely

made up

of such material.

few examples
kind will

of the

more
our

noteworthy among the expressions of

present purpose.

this

suffice for

the doubling
single

Sometimes one word or sound is repeated, and made to intensify or emphasize the meaning of the word. But often the double form of the word is the only one,
is

and does not necessarily bear the meaning of plurality or

intensity.

The
the

second part of the term also

first,

is

frequently not a repetition of

but a variation

of the

sound made for euphony, or ease of

150

On

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements.

pronunciation, or for some other reason.

One name

for these

repeated-character locutions;

compound and quasi-double words is tie-tzu-yii (g |g), and they are also known by the somewhat poetic name tzil-yen (^ BB)^ character eyes.

As our
for

first

example
^-^

of these expressions, let us take the

one

pronounced like

(^

^).
It

This term
to

is

used in old literature,

example in the ^^Shi-ching,"

denote a luxuriant appearance,

as of

young

millet crops.

is

thence transferred to the glossy

green foliage of trees in spring.

But

the syllable

i of this

com-

pound
term

is

seldom,

if

ever,

found alone, at least in the sense of

gives as
its

luxuriant, which the

"Shuo-wen"

meaning.

Another

like i-d is ch*i-chH

(^

^), which means "luxuriant looking,"

it is

dense or abundant.
(fi

In the "Shi"

said of the ko plant, wei-ye

:

S)

ch'i-ch'i,

luxuriant."

He

which Dr. Legge translates "Its leaves" were adds in a note: " Ch'i-chH expresses *the appearThis repetition of the character
is

ance of luxuriant growth.' "

constantly found giving

intensity

and vividness

to the idea.

Often the characters are different, but of cognate meaning.

The

compound seems
be applied

to picture the subject of the sentence to the eye

in the colours of its

own

signification.

This term ch'i-ch^i came to

to various

kinds of objects collected in great quantities,

together.

as to clouds

when massed

In a poem of a celebrated
:

author

we

find a passage to be read as follows

chHio-feng-yi-p^ei-'

pu'shu'shu-ming-pu'i
the autumn breezes
falling leaves

(^

tt

^H^
trees

?!

/j^

), ''Once
the

blow over the

the

rustling of

does not cease."

This poem, to which reference

has already been made, contains several other illustrations of this

kind of expression.

Then we take
of the oriole, but

the expression kaUhai or kiai-kiai

(^ ^)

with which we have met before.

it

This term

is

applied to the call

is

not meant to reproduce the note of that

bird.

It only denotes the harmonious sounds of the orioles calling

to each
similar

other as heard at a distance.

And

kiai-kiai is used Jn a

way

of
is

the songs of the

Feng Huang, cock and hen

used in this way, as in the

phoenixes.

It

applied also to the whistling and howling of

is

the wind, and the single word

On
line

the Interjectional

and Imitative Elements,

151

"The

north wind whistles "(Jt

Pg).

A tadpole is
which

called

by the Hakkas
is

of Chia-ying-chou, kuei'^yem^^yemy in
to indicate the
is

the *'yem-''yem
tadpole's
tail.

meant

wiggle-waggle of the

dumpling
its

some

places,

from

po-po (|^ '^) or pa-pa in rolly-polly appearance, perhaps. Then pacalled

pa, an apparently meaningless sound, gives the force of earnestly,

eagerly y to the word with which
El)
it is

used.

and wang (g)-pa-pa mean

to

Thus yen-pa-pa (gg watch or look for "with

^
all

your eyes," with great interest and attention.

The Swatow people

denote great fear by saying that tKeir heart leapt po-po

po-pois

tVu
for

and

this, like

the corresponding expression with us,

agitation.

used

any violent mental

Hard and

constant working
:

of all kinds is expressed

not only in
to

common

by the term k^u-k'u ({g Jg) and hence, speech but also in literature, k^u-k'u is used

mean

toiling

and labouring. hard

Thus k'u-k'wehHung-nien ({g

i^

M ^)
(0 ^)
hair.

^^i ^^ ijoork

all the year.

We have now to take

which the second part
sa
is

one or two of the picture-expressions in

first.

not a repetition of the

Such

is

san

used in the sense of long and shaggy, as applied to fur

and

The term

Vi-t'a

{i^ l^)

is

used to denote slipshod, as

in the direction to

wear shoes properly and not have them draggle

SS).

slip-shod (/p pj

^ @ 4&
is,

The Amoy people speak

of a very

bad road,

or a broken bridge, or a roofless ruined house as being

tap-tap-lap-lap, that
ruin.

having quite fallen down or subsided in

is

Douglas says the expression

tile.

used also of an old hat

dilapidated
of
|Ig

The term

ch'i-ch^u fki-kuj is used in the sense

(

rough and

zig-zig.

Thus the expression shan'lu-cM-ch'u

jlj

" the ascent of the mountain was a rugged zig-zig/' Id) means Here we have to end our notice of the Emotional and

Imitative Language of the Chinese.

One department

of this has

been

of

necessity

altogether

omitted, viz., that which contains

the calls and cries to domestic and other animals.

These also

are interesting in themselves and for the relations they bear to

the standard language and the varieties of dialects.

ment

of

them

is left for

some one more

fit

for the

The treatwork and with

better opportunities.

CHAPTER
THE WORD TAO
It has been seen that
different

V.
(Ji)

opinions

have been held

by-

Western
language.

scholars as

to

the material resources of the Chinese

this as poor,

Some regard
its
it is,

and others consider

it

to

be rich in
will

vocabulary.

But a
So

liberal study of the

language

shew that

as to terms, well supplied in

others.

some respects

and poorly furnished in

also are all other languages

is

known
to

to us, and, as

has been said, their vocabulary

considered

be a sort of index to the character of a people.

But

in the

case of the Chinese,

the judgments of foreign writers on this

subject should be received with great caution.

The words

of the

language are spread over a vast

field of

space and time, and the

means

of research are

even now very imperfect.

Nor can

the

opinions of native students be taken as authoritative, for they are

based either exclusively on a knowledge of their own language,

or on that

and a
if

slight acquaintance

with some others, and they

have seldom,
right course

ever, given special study to the subject.

The

is to

make

a careful examination for oneself of the

contents of the language as used in the literature of the country

and the conversation

its

of the people, to

collect facts

respecting

means

for denoting material objects

of

and

spiritual conceptions,

and the manner

employing particular terms and phrases.

single word, tao, is taken,

In the present investigation, a

and an attempt

is

made

to

shew the

chief of the
is

many ways

in

which that word has been used.

No

pretense

the historical development of these uses, or to

made to trace shew how they are

connected or related.
quire a knowledge of

To do
all

these things thoroughly would re-

the early literature of China and of the

this it is doubtful

modes

of the people.

Even with

whether the
In what
is

task could be accomplished in a satisfactory manner.

"

The Word Tao.

done here the reader
will often find renderings given to

153
which he

may

feel disposed

to object, or

which he

may

regard as quite

wrong.

Even

native scholars take at times different and irre-

concilable meanings out of a passage,

and one can often only

guess at what was in the

mind

of the author.

But the student

who

cares to investigate the subject will be able to correct errors

as to matters of fact
authorities

and mistakes as

to interpretation.

The

quoted to substantiate or illustrate the uses and

to the

meanings assigned

word are not always the highest that

could be given; often they are at^best only doubtful.

They
nor

were not examined with a special view

to this investigation,

were they read in any methodical manner.

also that,

It will be seen
is

though few, they are mixed up in a manner which

perhaps not warranted.

The word

selected, tao, is

perhaps one of the best that could

be found in the language to illustrate the variety of meaning

with which a single term can be burdened.

apparently has so

But no other word

and thus
it

many and
of

so diifferent uses,

does

not give a fair specimen

the

way

in

which the Chinese

attach-

employ
ed

their vocabulary.

The vagueness and uncertainty

word occurs are not
to

to phrases in

which

this

be attributed to

the language generally.

With
tao
is

these prefatory words of caution

we may now proceed to The character for

composed
of cho

the investigation of our term.

at present written of

^, which

is

^,

to go, a classifier

characters relating to

motion, and shou *^, meaning head or leader, but here, according
to

Chalmers and

others, phonetic.

In the old

styles

we have

the word written ^^ and }, the former composed of hsing

go,

^,

to

and an archaic form

of the

above shou

and the

latter, of

the

same character and

place.

ts'un,

an inch.

The pronunciation

of the

written symbol has varied from time to time and from place to
It

was

originally perhaps something like su or tu,

tao.

and

afterwards
dynasties
it

t'ao,

In the time
;

of

the T'ang

and Sung

was read

in the shang tone

" the " Wu-f ang-yuan-yin

it

puts

it

in the ch'u;

and Kanghsi's Dictionary assigns

meanings, and to the
ch^ii

to the

shang with one

set of

with another.


154

The Word Tao.

dialects the character is read dao,

In the Ningpo and Shanghai

and in the various
tUf

dialects of
it is

Fuhkeen and Kuangtung

of the character,
is

it is

read

while in Japan

read du generally.-^

One of the which many of

Thus
used, the

earliest

meanings

and that from

the others are derived,

that

ofJKay .or .Roadr

word

is

nearly or quite synonymous with certain

others, such as ti (jj), t'u

these, the first

literature,
still

(^ also written ^), and lu (J^). Of and second are often met with in the classical
much used
word, and
tao-lu
is
is
it

hut are not

at present.
is

Lu, however,

is

a very

common
Thus

often added to

tao as a

defining suffix.
tao'li,

a road, as distinguished from

also very

a principle.

But

lu

commonly used alone

and

is

interchanged with tao.

It

is

properly any road or path in

common
tion
is

use, while tao is a recognized

not by any means strictly

highway, hut the distinc" observed, and the ^^ Shuo-wen

explains lu by tao.

The

difference

between the uses

of the

two
in

words

is

shown

in the ninety-second of the

Hundred Lessons
his party

the "Tzii

Erh Chi."

There the speaker says that

went

astray having left the proper

highway

(taoj, but that

by making

inquiries as they followed the path fluj they were in, they at last

reached the lock.

is

tao

is

said to be a

way

for

one

to take,

it

is

to be tao (|), or walked on ; while a lu is so called because made apparent, (lu g), by having been trodden; the former
to

it is

made

be used and the latter

the two words, tao-lu,

made by use. When combined, sometimes mean simply a road, and someis
''

times they denote highways and byways, as in the

Chou-li,"

where Biot translates " routes

et chemins.''
is

In

this sense of

way

or road, tao
its

often found preceded

by

certain words

which particularise

application.

A few

of the

combinations of this kind are here given, and specially of those

which are used in more ways than one.

The term chou-tao

State, as lu
p.

(^

5E) denotes the

main road
;

to

the

Chou

{^ytao
yii-tsai's

1 '* Yu-pien" (3g, j^), Jh, chap. x. yuan-yin," J: ; " Ku-chin-yun-liao " " Shuo-wen," s. v. ^.

"Kuang-yiin," chap.iii.
P%), >*, chap.

35; "Wu-fang-

(^ <% j^

iii. ;

Tuan
**

Shih-ming " (!@ ig), chap.

i.

i.

"Chou-li," chap, xxxvi.

Biot,

Tcheou*

Li," T.

p. 413i

The Word Tao.

is

155
sometimes replaced by

highway
(^fy),

to

Lu.

In

this sense tao is

hsing
to

and we find chou-hsing

also used to denote a

highway

Chou.

Then

cliou-tao

comes
'*

to

mean any

long, wide road,

and a poem

in the

" Shi-ching

begins,

" Eiding on and on in

sometimes used,

my

four-horse chariot, the highway (chou'tao) winding a weary

distance.*'

The term chou-hang (^

is

fj)

is

notably in the ^'Shi-ching/' as equivalent to chou-tao in the sense

of

highway, and

so interpreted.

There are

also other terms for a

highway

fviaj, such as ta {J^)'tao

and k'ung (JD-^ao, each meanof nan-'pei^wang-lai-ta'tao

ing simply great road.

Thus we hear
highway

(S
may
road

4b

ffi

3$

::^

JE)> a
is

for travellers

northwards and
It

southwards.

ta-tao

not of necessity a great, wide road.

it is

be only a narrow path, but

to a place

the chief one, and the right

goes.

the path by which everybody

at present, a
official

With

it

are

contrasted the Irnao {)\\yfaOy and the ching (g), the

semita.

by-way or
for a

In the popular language

is

common term

highroad

huan C^ytaOf

road,

the recognized one by

which

officials travel.-^

The term ftmg

passage between two

(^^)'tao denotes a thoroughfare,

plnfMBs

an open

or

objects,

and thence

it

comes

to

mean

also to

make such

a passage, to open a tunnel.

It is often

used to signify a trade-route, as between. China and barbarian

peoples,

and

also to express the

opening of such a route, or clear-

ing

it

of obstructions caused

by brigands or otherwise.
is

A long,

narrow, winding road over mountains

called a yang-ch^ang-niao

(^ )^ or Jg t%)-tao, "Sheep's entrails bird way," that is, a mountain so bad and intricate that it is to be flown over rather
than walked along.
niao'tao or bird-way.

Such a path

is

also often called shortly a

term with a somewhat similar meanis

ing

is

chii

{^ytaoj which
sloping

used

to

denote any narrow, winding

road.

The

passages

by
called

which

city

walls

and

like

structures

are

ascended are

ma4ao

or

"horse-way."
channel

This term, which will appear again,

along

is

also applied to the

which horse-archers gallop when practising or exhibitC,

iv.,
i.

^L. C.

"Li-chi," chap.

p.

pp. 218, 247, 336, et 40,

al,;

" Shi-ching," chaps,

iii.,

iy,

and

v.

156
ing,

The Word Tao,

though chien {^ytaOy arrow way,
This
latter,
is

perhaps used

more

commonly.

however,

is

also

used for an archery

course generally, and another

name

for the

same

is

hou {^ytaOy

a shooting course. ma-taOj and the

A jetty or landing-place is
is
is

also often called a

;

name

extended to a mart or trading centre

a

for

these latter, however, ma-t'ou (J |g)

more

correct expression.

There are generally three

Chinese imperial and
official
is

parallel

walks or passages in
these, the middle one is

premises.

Of

always the

chief,

and

called the
is

chung (r^ytao, or middle way.

road, the Emperor's
or imperial

This in imperial premises

reserved for the use of the emperor,

and hence chung-tao comes

passage.

to

mean Imperial
also

Another term which

this is

means middle

way

is

yung (^)-to, but

extended also

to the raised

walk
to

which in a mandarin's yamen leads from the great outer gate

the middle of the principal hall.

The paths reserved

for

the

emperor are also called

all

yil {j^)'tao, yii

being a term applied to

for the
it

things imperial.

In old times a course was reserved

in at or near the capital,

emperor

to ride or drive

and

was

kept clean and clear except in bad years.

ch*ih

This course was called

of

{^ytao, or " riding road "

;

and the chHh-tao

Ch^in

Shi
is

Huang Ti was famous for its length. The term, however, now used simply as equivalent to chung-tao and signifies the
j

tHen4zu4a0j or Emperor's way; and

in a sense
still less

it

is

also

sometimes used
Again, the

restricted to denote a post-road.

term

lien

{^)4ao

denotes certain walks or

passages within the

palace inclosures,

which

are

supposed to be carriage roads.

When

the emperor goes to his

is,

harem

or other place of amuse-

ment, he

according to some accounts, conveyed along these in

a sort of perambulator drawn by his eunuchs.

This

name was,
accord-!-

however, early transferred to the heavenly regions, and

ingly lieU'tao became the

designation of a cluster of stars at the

" east foot "

of the constellation Lyra,

one function of which

is

to preside over the festivities of the Chinese emperor.

(Jjl)-^flo

A
The

ch'ing

is

a clear route, that

is,

one free from people, as when

are passing.
routes

the emperor and certain high

officials

prescribed for tribute bearers going to the capital

and returning

The Word Tao.

thence are called cheng (jE)-<ao, correct ways.

157
In popular
use,

however, they are generally called kung (^)-^ao, or Tribute

roads
place.
;

and cheng-tao

is,

in

common

speech, simply the

highway

to

It is contrasted
;

which ch'a {^ytao and hsie (^ytaoy

last

byways and wrong ways but the

figurative

term

is

mostly used in a

manner.
stairway
is
is

A
tao.
it

flight of steps or a

chie

{^)-tao or ting (jg)

The
and

latter term,

however,

used only of stone steps, and

is

applied to the spiral stairways of pagodas, to steps cut in

to the stone

rocks,

pathways made up mountains.

A suspen-

sion bridge
is

which connects two precipices or two

sides of a river

sometimes called chan-fang-kou

for the

[^

"fi

Bj)-^ao, or chain-bridge.

Another name
is

same

is

chan {^ytao, or plankway, which

laid across streams.

also used to denote the

is

wooden bridges

This term
^^^ (j^
is,

well

known from
^^

the expression shao-chueh-olian-

^ S M))

^^^^ and cut away the wooden bridges, that

over which one has crossed.

The phrase

dates from the coming

of

Han

Kao-tsu, and denotes an irretrievable committal to a

is

certain course, conduct which shews that there

a determination
find ko
of.

not to go back.

As

synonym
is

of chan-tao also the

^^-tao often used, and ko-tao

stars

we name

(^

or

a cluster of

in

Cassiopeia.

It

is

applied, moreover, sometimes to a

gallery which spans a court or square and connects the upper

chambers

of

two opposite houses.

is

But the more common term

is

for such a passage

fu-tao.
first

The word fu
points to the

found written

;}g,

g, and ^.

Of

these, the

wooden structure
it is

of

the passage, and the others to the fact that

parallel to one already existing.

additional and

The

third character,

which

is

by some considered

to

be the correct one, denotes originally a

wadded

or lined garment,

and so a fu-tao

is

described as one

passage above another.

of old times hsid fu-tao

The Ming-t*ang and

the A-f ang palaces

literature.

which are celebrated in Chinese

This term

is

applied also to the winding, cork-screw paths which

seem

to return

on themselves, made on the slopes of mountains

summits.

and leading

to their

The poet Su Tung-p'o speaks

to

of

those on Mount Li as connecting the clouds and reaching

the

158
golden gates of Heaven
passage below ground
is

The Word Tao.

(^

Ji JS

^ S* :^

P).

A long,

winding
speech

called sui (|^)-iao, or in

common
sui-tao

yen

(5S)-ifao,

the former denoting a winding, revolving passage,

and the

latter a long

burrow or tunnel.

The term

is

also
it

loosely applied to
is

any covered passage

or invisible channel,

and

used specially of tunnels made to graves.

is

A road well known

is

and worn by long use

rut or groove
taO'luei,

called a kuei

{^ytao, huei denoting the

rut in such a road
called

made by
this
is,

a wheel.

The

and

or was, a local

name

for

a wheel used in
of

reeling silk.

Verandahs or covered passages under the eaves

or

houses are called p'an (^)-^ao,

expression miao-yu-pan-tao (J

winding ways, as in the

Jg), the

^ |^
is

temple verandahs.

^cu

(^ytao
;

is

a place where one road cuts another at right

angles

and a

cliih (|o or

^-tao

a trivium or meeting of three

roads

properly.

There was once a well-known chih-taO'tHng

East.-^

about three miles from Chang-an to the

It is

common

in language to find the

is

word
road.

for road trans-

ferred to the journey which

inter vias cogitare " is

made by

Thus

'*

mecum

"to think with myself while walking,"

and
Griffith says of

while on the journey;

Cardinal

Wolsey,

"At

last,

with easy roads, he came to Leicester."

also

In

like

manner, tao

comes

to denote a

journey or yoyage.
denote,

So we

find the phrase i (^)'tao used to

things, an easy road

along with other

also

and an easy journey.

Thus

tao-yuan
its

(S)

is

"the way was long," and yuan-tao has

its

as

one of

meanings a long journey,

journey.
level road,

opposite being chin (5)-^ao, a short

is

A safe,
and

pleasant journey

expressed by p'ing

{Z!^)-tao,

name of a pair of stars which preside over roads and travellers. The phrase chung (tp)'tao now means " half-way," or, more loosely, " on the way " simply.
this is also the
*

"Han-shu," chap.
.

xlix.
;

9E), chap. xx. ; Kanghsi Diet, Kuang-shih," chap. i. ; " Liao-chai, ; s. V. ffi (^ etc., chap. i. (second story); "MaT. L.," chap. Ixxiii.; " Fang-yen" (^ ":), chap. The word fu (^) means to repeat, do again, return, and the phrase fu-tao V. is used in senses hke " return passage," "journey back." Such an expression

(It IE) chaps,

;

vii., vi., viii.

aud chap. i. "Shuo-yuan"

xviii.
**

<'Li-chi," chap.

i.

"Shih-chi"

(^

" I-li "

H), chap,

as, " he never will come back," going on distant expeditions*

is

in Chinese wu-fu-tao

(^

^ jg), used of soldiers

The Word Tao.

159

Thus chnng-tao-erh-fan

(4*

way

(or,

on the way).

5S S) is to turn back when half So "in media via" means "in the

middle of the way," and we find similar forms of expression in

old English.

Thus one poet

says,

" First sweare by thy best love in earnest Thou wilt not leave me in the middle street."

Another says

of the unfortunate Olinda,

" After that hapless nymph had heard her doome, As shee was led to th' rock, i' th' middle way, Perindus flying fast, calls out, stay."

as

But chung-taojlso means "to ^ake the middle when it is said of a son that when walking with
is

of the road,''

his father

he

does not go in the middle of the road (fj /p 4* Ji)-

To be on
This

a journey

expressed hj
is

yii

(-^ or "^ytao, and pu-te-yu-tao

progress on a journey."

(^

^ ? JS)

" not

to

make

phrase yii-tao denotes also a wayfarer, or a casual acquaintance

picked up on the road.
tsai (|3E)-^ao,

Another term

of

similar

meaning

is

on the road, and we read

of soldiers

having their
on a march

tsai'tao'jih'liang (^$

J8

tt)> daily rations while

is

or journey.

The phrase tang {^)-tao

It also

also

used in the sense of

"

to

be on a journey."

means

to obstruct a road, as a

man may

do, or stop a journey, as a serpent

may

do; and

it

has

several other applications.

In

this use of tao to denote a

journey

we sometimes
and
t'u
;

find

it

distinguished from kindred words such as lu

just as

we

find

words like

iter

and ma^ journey and path,

Cicero
tells

distinguished, the differences not being very great.

Atticus of writing a letter to him " in ipso itinere et via," while

on his journey and on the road, that

is,

not in an inn.

So we

have such expressions as yii-chu'tao-pi-yii-lu (j 5E JB? JK BS)> meeting him on the journey he avoided him on the road. To go
or be on a journey

hsing {fx)'^^^) ^^^ this phrase comes to denote travelling continued from day to day. The hsmg-tao-chih"
is

jen, or

men who

are [always]

making journeys,

are the
;

common
follow

wayfaring people of the world

ordinary

who may be
life,

fools

they are the

men and women

meaning

of

everyday

who mostly
Thus

the promptings of their emotional natures.

often has the
of " being

Used

alone, also, tao

on a journey."

tHen-tzu

; :

160
(5c

Ths Word Tao,

^ytao means " the emperor

while travelling

" and ssH

{'fl^ytao

sometimes denotes "to die while on a journey."

The

expression tao-tHng

(^) means " to hear by

the way/' to learn

while travelling, and Vu-shuo

(^

|8) " to talk on the road " of

it

what one has

is

so learned

is

to
is

throw
also

away.

To begin
for

a journey
for

tsu (j^-taoy and this

a literary

designation

farewell entertainment, the

common name
is

which

is

chieri^

hsing

(g

fj).

The word

tsu in this use

often written tsu (Jg),

to

and these two characters convey an allusion

services

the religious

performed at the commencement of a journey.

This
rare

again suggests the mention of a peculiar and perhaps use of our word.
worship," that
is,

now
"

"We

find

it

employed in the sense

of

to offer

to the dii vialeSy or gods of the road.

In the

regulations for the feudal chiefs under the

Chou
One

dynasty,

we

find

that before setting out on certain journeys these chiefs were

required to perform various ceremonies.

tao, to

of these

was
[ij).^

to

worship the gods of the road when leaving

(^M

We

may

next notice a

few

of the

many

phrases to be found
of our

which are connected with some

have been already given.
sions

of the

meanings
are the

word which
expresto avoid

Among these

common

pi {^)'tao and chuang (^)-^ao.

official,

The former means

a superior,

or

escape meeting an

especially

while on
official

a street or road, and the latter means to encounter an

one's superior authority in an unwished-for manner.

or
to

Fi

is

avoid and withdraw, and chuang

is

sudden and undesired meeting.

bump against, to have a very common expression also

to

worthy

of notice is

chia ('jf^ytao, to double flank a passage, to

space

make two parallel lines with an open To build walls on each side of a lane or
also is to plant

between them.
;

street is to chia-tao

so

rows of trees on each side of a walk or passage.

statements
like

We
(^
1

find

in

literature

chia'tao-chiao'tzH'pien

5S

^^

f^)> ^i^ passage

was flanked by mingled waggons

L. C. C, iv., p. 52 ; " Hsing-chmg" (M M), chap. Ji ; " Li-chi," chap ii. " Lie-tzu," chaps, ii., viii.; " Faber Licius," pp. 45, 208; L. C. C, iv., p. 261, 331 ii., p. 288 ; "Meng-tzu," chap xi.; **Li chi," chaps i., ii., ix. and chap. iv. (for "to worship"); "Hou Han-shu," chap Ixiv. (jjl ^) and " Ku-shi-yuan " (-^ jg) chap. V. p. 15, where we have the line 11 ai f^ P5'

The Word Tao.

and
carriages.

161

used of men.

But the phrase chia-tao is perhaps best known as Thus we often find such expressions as wan-Jen
is,

(M

Aychia-tao, that

a myriad people lined his

jS)> ^^^

way

and

lao-yu-chia-tao

(^
is,

^ 2K

^^^ young stood on each side

good prince or a

of the road, that

to testify their respect for a

just official at his departure or at his funeral.

chia-tao, or chia-taO'tzuy is also used
alley, or other

Then the phrase

sometimes to denote a lane,

passage between two rows of houses or trees, or

between two banks.

When
alley.

thus used,

it is

explained by shenis also

hsiang (g? ^), a deep

projecting upwards.

The name
is

chia-tao

given to

the top of a city wall which

flanked by the perpendicular walls

is chii

Another idiomatic expression

{"^ytao,

which means " to take by the way," as to take Pao-ting-foo on the

way

to the capital.

This phrase

is

found often in memorials from

the provincial authorities, and in other state documents.

We
own

may

also take note here of the phrase

fen (^)-taOj which means,

is

literally, to

part or divide a road.

It

commonly used
of the

in the

sense of taking different courses or directions, each going his

gate, literally

and

figuratively.

One occurrence
be
classical,
^'

phrase in

early literature

may

be said

to

viz.,

the expression

chih-shou-fen-taO'Ch'il

{^^ ^ M i)>
and

^^^7 clasped hands and

direction.-^

went

their ways," one in this

and the other in that

The

Chinese

language does not

verbs,,

make much

distinction

between nouns and

so ^ao is used to denote not only a

journey but also "to journey or travel."

to

Thus kuei {^ytao

also tao-Vu is
to

is

advance on one's knees, as in the presence of the emperor;

is

and hsien {%)-tao

to

go before.

So
it

walk

along a road, as Browning says, "If

should please
also say

path

this eve."

In old English a poet could

me pad the "On a time

as they together way'd."

We next notice tao used like

liberty of passage.

via in the sense of right of way,

Thus

for one prince to obtain

from another

the right of passing with troops through the territory of the latter,

was
1

called chia (iS)-^o.

Chia means
;

to borrow,
iii.
;

and chia-tao"Ku-shi-yuan,"

"Han-shu," chap.
iv. p. vii.

viii.

Yun.fa-oh'un-yu," chap.

chap.

162
yii'Yu (SJ

The Word Tao.

^) is

to borrow, that

is,

obtain,

from Yii the right

of

crossing the state.

It also

means
yu

to lend or grant

such right, but

a passage.

the correct term for this

is

(||)-i(ao, to give

In
to

popular language, however, chia-tao has come to

mean simply

get out or escape, as in the expression chia'tap-ywhou-men

(^

Jg
of

A^

f^)i to escape

by the back-door.^
a journey suggests that of the point
is

The

notion

of

departure, and the next use of our' word to be noticed

that in

the sense of "from."

Tjj^)

The expression
is

feng-tao-pei-lai (g, jg ^t

means "the wind

from the north."

So

also

we

find
is,

persons spoken of as tao-Ch^ang-an-lai

{^

g ^ ^X

that

having come from Ch*ang-an. J[njOqlloguial Mandarin the word

ta iff ) is very common in the sense of "from," and it is not improbable that the word so used is a phonetic corruption of tao.^

This
"region."
road,

word

has

the

further

meaning
in like

of

''

district

" or^

The Sanskrit word patha

also

manner means a

and

a country, as in udakpatha, the north country.

otfjiog,

So

also the

Greek

a path,

is also

used for a tract of country,

as in iKvSrjveQ ocfiov, to " the Scythian region."

told

We

are expressly

that

tao

is

synonym
is

of

kuo,

which means kingdom or

district

countryf and ^ao (^)-tao

defended.

an important

one

to

be well
as

The phrase yuan4ao, which has been mentioned

is

having the meaning "long journey,"

distant region, or far

also used in the sense of

chin-tao, its

away

places,

and

opposite, is
to denote a

now

a near district.

The term

tao

was formerly used

large extent of country generally subdivided into smaller districts.

Thus a commentator on the " Chow-li " says of the nine divisions of the kingdom there described, that they were
referred to three tao, and Biot translates this

political
all to

be

word by "zones."

In the

Han period

all

those political divisions which marched with

savage territory or included barbarians

tion

(^

g|) in their jurisdic-

were called

tao.

Thus the

Ci^rt;^^

(^-(ao was a

district. __
,

attached to Lung-hsi, and had a mixed population of Chinese

and ChHang.
1

The word appears

xviii.
;

also in
i.

many

other names of

" Huai.nan-tzu," chap,

^ ^ ^, chap.

" Shan.hai-ohiug," chap. xvi.

" Han-shu," chap. xliv.

The Word Tao.

political districts,

163
of

an d

it

w as^ also
(Ji]^)-tao

the

name

a fipuntry.

The

terms nan

(^'^)-taG

and pei

denote respectively the south

and north countries, that is, outside of China. A word for " Har^rian " is generally understood before tao thus used, but
sometimes we have
(Jin

it

expressed as in the phrase

chih-nari'-i-'tao

5S)> ^^

reduce to order the south /country.

The C hin
and the

(^)

dynasty divided the empire into fifteen provinces, which were

the T^ang dynasty divided
it
it

called tao;

into ten ^ao;

tao.

Yuen
of the

divided

into eleven sheng

l ast

and twenty-three
asu

The use
a district

word

in this

manner,
still

designation of a^cjrcuit or

subdivision of a province,

continues.

tao

is

now

or department of a province composed of two or

more

prefectures,

and

under

the

administration

of

on mandarin,
still

a Tao-t*ai.
official

Traces of the older use of the word are

to

be found in

documents and in the

titles

of the censors.

These

officials
is

are

distributed according to certain tao, and, so used, a tao

cases a province

in

some

and in some cases more than one province.

is

The

ching-chi (jg ^)'tao

a special circuit, the censors for which

of the capital

watch over the administration

Mongolia.

and

of

Manchuria and

The

chi

was

originally the sovereign's private domain,

and something
of the term.
style

of that idea appears to survive in the present use

The whole province of Chihli is called in literary Ghing-chi'tao, and this name is applied also to the province
is

of

Corea in which the capital

situated.

Then we have the

(li) of

expression tao4i
to denote the

(^

),

that

is,

the miles

the road, used

geography

of a region, the directions

and distances

of places with reference to the capital

tao-li

and

to

each other.

But

also

often means simply

distance,
li

especially

measured

distance.

Thus

tao-shih-'li is

" ten

away," and tao-li^yu-yiian

It even comes
tells

" the distance is very great." (Jl fi fS ^) is to be used as a verb, as when Huai Nan-tzu
world's area cannot be told in miles (71 J^
Po-ya ( (There were in
^

us that the
M)-"^

pf

3S

3PI)>

chap,

iv.;

all

twenty
;

tao in the

"Han-shu," chaps iii., v., xxviii. "|C, Ivh'., Ixxix. empire under the Han dynasty, that is,

twenty frontier district magistracies. We read under this dynasty) %^Wi^i chap, vii.;
chap.
**
i. ;

|g

Huai-nan-tzii," chap.

chap. ^ ^, xx.

ii.

p.

"fi

"X^^ % chap.
?ig,

also of thirty-two tao as existing

Ixxxi.;

chap,

i.,

the

^ MM^, g M Poem


164

'

The Word Tao.

By
follow.
orbit,

a natural process the idea of

way

or road is transferred

to the course

which

inanimate objects are seen or are supposed to

And

so tao

becomes the equivalent

of

such terms as

course, channel,

and other words

of like
lio

meaning.

A river

has

its

course, " proprio cammino," and

[^^-tao denotes the

changed, the river
is

way
hu

of a river,

its

course.

This

may become

taking a
('iJf

new

direction,

and the deserted course

then called

or '^ytcto, the old way, as in the expression tvan^kuei-hi'

tao (Jg If -^ Jg),

lead the river back into

qualifying

its

old

channel.

When

not

preceded by any

term, ho-tao denotes

specially the course of the

Yellow Eiver, the observation and

of

control of

which form the anxious care

This

many

officials.
is

Further,

the current of a river or other body of water

tao,

called shui {^)

the water's way.

is

the course which the water takes

in obedience to natural laws, for

we can
But

see

how " sciat

is

indociles

currere

lympha

vias."

So hsia Cyyshui-tao

to

follow the

current, to go with the stream.

also a sea-route, or a

this term, shui-tao, denotes

to

journey by water as opposed

in other uses.

one by land;

and

it

will

come before us again

The term yun

(jg)-iao, transmission road, denotes the course,

by land and water,

assigned for the transport of the grain contributions from the

provinces to the capital.

Then we have

the term kuei {^)'taOj

already noticed in the sense of a well-travelled road, applied also

to the

heavenly bodies.

The

sun,

moon, and

stars revolve of

necessity in their proper orbits, their grooves

kuei-tao

the paths

which they have followed from the beginning

Again, jih {B)-ta0j sun's way,
the
is

of their existence.

the "Solar road," the course of

sun from east

is,

to

west ; and yue

(^ ytao

is

the path of
ecliptic is
is

the moon, that

the succession of her phases.

The

usually called the Yellow Wa)^, hiiang {^)'tao, and as this

symbol

of

the

predominance

of

the yang influence, the term

luck,

huaiig4ao,}xs^s

come

to

mean good

and a lucky day; but

Other

there

is

another explanation which will be given below.

names

for the ecliptic

are chung (tpytao, the middle way,

and
the

kuang (^ytao, "the bright ecliptic road." chih {^ytaOj or vermilion way; and there

The equator

is

are white, black, and,

The Word Tao,

azure tao in "the Heaven's wide pathless way/'

165

The term

t'ienr-

taoyoT Heaven's way,

is

sometimes used in the sense of the way

pursued by

celestial bodies seen in the processes of

sun and moon,

of the

in the succession of

day and night, and the revolutions

itself,

seasons.

Even used by

the

word tao seems

to

have

occasionally this meaning.

Thus Dr. Legge

translates tao-ping^

hsing

(^

"jf^

" The courses of the seasons, fj) by,

collision

and moon, are pursued without any

These words, however, have received

and of the sun among them."

also another interpretation,

and one more natural perhaps than, that adopted by Dr. Legge.

Then

in the

human

body, and in the bodies of other creatures,

or
to

we have

hsie (jSl)-^ao,

"blood

courses."

But

this

term
its

does not releF~W'

much

the flowing of the blood as to

the body.
is

action in certain definite parts of

The name hsUe

and necromancers.

{^ytao, or " cavity-way "

rence, specially in

literally,

one of frequent occur-

the

writings

of

doctors

Chinese doctors distinguish in man's body, and in the bodies of

other creatures, real and imaginary, a large
parts

number

of points or

which they regard

as of importance.

These are technically

called hsiieh (^), that

is,

cavity or lurking place; and the spaces

hsiieh-tao.

between two of these are called

used to denote the places
lurk

This term

is

then

where the

vital principle is
is to

supposed to
be mortally,

fatal spots.

To be wounded

in a hsiieh-tao

or at least dangerously wounded.

is

thus defined

In the " Tzu-erh-chi " the term " In anatomy the space between the joints ; the
is

points at which in acupuncture the needle

in

introduced; applied
liver,

geomancy

to the features of
is

ground."

The

which

is

the

source of the blood,

somtimes called

tao, and, so used, the

term

corresponds to the hsilan (2), dark colour of heaven.

The term

shui

(7jC)-^o,

noticed

above,

in

the body denotes the ureter.

Under the term ye

or i (jjj) are included the various secretions of

the body, and these are connected with the organs of sense each

by a separate channel, called

i-tao.

Thir,

term reminds us of the

statement of Cicero, "viae quasi quaedam sunt ad oculos, ad aures,

ad nares a sede animi perforatae," and of a curious passage in the " De Natura Deorum." The courses of a meal are also called

166
tao,

The Word Tao.

and sarh'tao-ch^a (^) does not mean "three cups
It is the
of tea,"

but

"a

three-course" tea.

name

given to a slight refreshment

consisting of a decoction of lotus-root, one of almonds (or apricot

seeds),

and a cup

of tea,

and

is

served as a token of respect to a

guest.

So

also the succession of crops in a year is in

some places

spoken

of as^ tao, the first crop

being called t'ou (f^ytao, and the

second one erh C^ytao}

The notion
to

of

resemblance or analogy to a road

lie of

is

extended

many

objects.

The

the fur of a skin

is

called the

mao

{%)'tao, or hair- way, and comes to stand for our \^^rd quality.

ray or stream of light

is

i-tao-kuang

Jii

3)>

one wayis

brightness; and a golden sunbeam, or any ray of brilliancy,

i'tao'chiri'kuang, a
says,

way

of golden brightness.

So a modern poet

" From the rock where I stand,

to the sun, is a
is

pathway

of

sapphire and gold."

The term tao-huang

used of the long

bright streams of glory which proceed at times from a

or

Buddha
is

one of the Genii, and the phrase hsiang-hwang-wan-tao

(M

^ ^

JIX a myriad rays

of auspicious

brightness,

of

frequent occurrence
or current of air
is
is

when such

beings are mentioned.

stream

called i-tao-ch'i

(^)

a wreath of incense
is

irtao'hsiang

(^); and
;

a bank of

cloud

i-tao-yun

(J).

The bands
are
(

or bars seen athwart the sun near the time of setting

called

tao

and we read

of jih-chung-yu-chmg-se-ssu-tao

4*

WW
A
),

colour.

'M)y the sun having four bands of dark fe wreath of smoke rising from a chimney or a pipe is
;

i'tao-yen (j^)

and hence the expression i-tao^en-tsou-liao

off like

(
the

JE

ffl

^f

he went

smoke, that

is,

he quickly disapfire,

peared.

The term huo

which

{lJf^)-tao

denotes the course of a

line of direction

it

takes.
is

Even
It
is

flavour

is

spoken of as
is,

having a way or course, and

spoken of as wei (^ytao, that

the good and proper flavour.

praise to say of an article of

it

food or a literary composition that

taste in it
;

has wei-tao, there

is

some

and tao-wei has quite an opposite meaning.

this

Then

word
little

is

applied to all kinds of things which have

much
1

length and
i.

breadth.

road
vi. p.

is

represented on a

map
i.

L. C. C.

,p.

2U1

Chung.yung, chap.

26 j the

^M

flS> etc.,

chap.

The Word Tao.

by a
line,

167
oi a line.

and tao comeaJ;a. have the mea/iina

is

Thus

to

draw a line on paper or other substance

strike a line.

ta (fj)'tao, literally to
their combinations in
is

The

lines of the

Pa-hua and

the " I-chiug " are often called tao, but there

generally also a
Coolies

deeper meaning attached to

the word when

so used.

who supply water

ing lines on a wall. the

to houses in the north

keep a score by drawtao,

These scores are called

to

and the use

of

name and expedient extends

is

other

affairs.

split or

chink in wood

called a tao.
of

row

of trees or shrubs is a tao,

and a gardener speaks

that
is,

of trees.
tao.

mei-huaox mei-kuei-hua ( J^ 't^)'tcio, row^ of red, roses, as Yirgil uses via for a row or avenue A stripe or band on clothes is also in some places a
corporals

Thus the

among our
stripes,

soldiers

were in the north

sergeants

called

erh (Zl)'tao, or

Two

and the
to

were

san-tao, or Three stripes.

of the

This latter came

be the designation

Consular co nstable,

who was

actually in

some cases a

sergeant emeritus,
'

The word

tao

is

sometimes used in a peculiar way like our

This
in the

word time,

in such expressions as three times, four times.

of the

meaning may have been derived from the use

sense of a score to keep tally.

word

manner somewhat similar in *'alne way" and "alles weies."

respectively,
of torture

Our word " way " is used in a " always," which in old English was
In Chinese,
i/

twice" and

" thrice " are in certain cases expressed by

and so with the other numbers.

Jg and JE There is a kind

or

punishment which consists in tightening a cord

of the body.

round the neck or other part

a certain

The

act is repeated
is

number

of times,

and the technical phrase

that

it is

done so many

tao.

So

also

we read

of barbarians like the

Hsiung-nu shu-tao'Ju-sai
within the frontiers
several ways."

Jg /\ ^), coming several times boundaries but the term also means *' by

(^

Then we

find this
call

word discharging the humble

a Numerative or Classifier.

functions of

what Sinologues

Thus used
with which

it

cannot properly be said to have any meaning, but

only to point to some quality of the object indicated by the word

it is

associated.

So

it is

often prefixed

to,

or

combined

168

The Word Tao.

with, the terms for wall, bridge, river, wound, eyebrow, wales on

the back,
(J5),

and

splits

in stone or timber.
is

river is i-tao-ho

and the milky way

i-tao-tHen-ho (^-

^ ^C^S^y

^^^^

tao

is

used in this manner with the words for Imperial Edict,

Proclamation, Despatch,

and various other written or printed

documents.

Thus

i-tao-chao

(U)

is

an Imperial order in writing,

and and

lu {^)-i-tao

is to

make
is

a copy, to transcribe one copy of a

is

document.

charm drawn up in writing

i-tao-fu-lu

(jjj

^),

sarh'taO'pei (J!^)

three stone tablets with

inscriptions.

"When

associated with such words as wall and river, tao, for

to

which tHao (^) may in such cases be substituted, may point

the line-like appearance of the objects indicated.

With

the

words for Edict or Proclamation

it

may have been

suggested by

the rows or columns of characters

which form the document.

Edkins

calls it a

'*

significant numerative,''
(3ij),

and regards

it

as such

in the phrase i-tao-kuang

'^

noticed above, which he translates,

certainly only a vague

a stream of light."

There

is

narrow

line

of separation
line,

between the use of the word with such meanings as

ray,

stratum,

and

its

employment

as

a numerative,

or
1S)>

classifier.

The
two

expression liang-tao-chou-mei

(H

JE

literally,

lines

broom eyebrows, denotes a

pair of long

bushy

eyebrows.

Here

tao,

though perhaps only a numerative, must be

regarded as having a meaning, and there are

many

instances of

a similar nature.^

Like the corresponding words in other languages, tao comes

to

be used in the sense of means or manner.

Thus employed,

it

denotes the

way

in

which an object

acts,

and the mode or process

of attaining or accomplishing anything.

tao,

The phrase wang (I

of

which has several other meanings, is often used in the sense " the way to the attainment of kingly power," the right and

peaceful

way

to

become sovereign

of a country.

In

like

manner
that
is,

Confucius says that chun-tzu-yu-ta (;g

there
is

^ ^ :^)-^o,
;

a grand

way

to

become sovereign
:fi)'^^^>

and he

also says, to the

sheng-ts'ai-i/a-ta

(^

^^

there

is

a grand

way

attainment of national wealth.

^

This last sentence has passed into

viii.

Mand.

Gr., p.

136 j Cf. "Tzu-erh-chi," part

sec.

iii.

The Word Tao.

169

common
shops

use,

and

it

may

be seen written up over doors of small

all

over the empire.

it

But they who

so appropriate it

mean
if

no more by
they can.
to

than that they desire to

make money
of the

honestly

In the present application

word

tao, it is said

be the equivalent of such words as fa

(f^), or fang {"^yfa,

which denote a means or

to

method.

Thus

in the question put

Mencius,

pu

tung hsin yu tao hu (;p

resolved state of

>&
tao

^
is

JE ^)> "^^
explained by

there a

way

to a

mind?"

fang^fa,

means or method.
of preserving life

addition to several other meaningj that of "

is,

The term sheng {^)4ao has, in way of life/' that

ssu

means

and

(J^ytao denotes " a

way

of

death/' or a means of killing, a course which ends in death.

So we read
death."
tells

in Proverbs of the

"path
his

of life"

and the "ways of

In the Introduction

to

"Liu-shu-ku" Tai T'ung

is
is,

us that

"for the prosecution of research, writing

''

the
the

most important means

{^

Hj^

MU M #)>

that

means which
tao is the

affords the

most material.

The phrase

chin

(^)
*

way
set

M i,

li^)

means, as in ff ;5^ Jg i^ free for him the golden way of becoming a god.^
is

of gold, the golden

With
synonym

the above
art,

closely connected the use of our

word in

the sense of
of

device,

expedient.

It

is

now

said to be a

shu

{%\

originally also

a path or road, and the

are sometimes

common term

for art or artifice.

The two words

of

combined, and tao-shu denotes plans or expedients, good or bad,

specially political.

In the administration

government there
which tend
to

are. seven

an {$)'Shu,

"peace

arts,"

devices
;

make and
The term
to

preserve a settled state of affairs

and there are six

state.
fall

wei {^)'tao, arts which tend to produce disorder in the

tao-j en

(A)

is

used in several ways, some of which

it

be noticed below.
tao shu chih jen
(

Here
JE

comes before us in the sense of

A)^ that is, a man who has which pretend to give long life

yu

fiR

arts

and

devices, specially those

and supernatural knowledge.

tao and
1

In "

Lie-fczu "

we

find the terms

tao'shu interchanged,

and Faber
iii.;

translates

the

latter

L. C. C.,'i., p. 242
iii.;

chap,

;^

^^

"Ta

Hsio," chap,

L.

CO.,

ii.,

p.

02; " Mcng,"

Int. p.

20 j Hopkius' "Six Scripts,"

p.

lb;

"Hsin-shu"

(^ ^j

chap.

iv.


J 70

The Word Tao,

by

by " Geheimes Verfahren," or secret procedure, and tlie former '' There is often a Mittel," means, or " Geheimniss," secret.
suspicion of wickedness or impropriety about the term tao-shu,

and even

tao

by

itself in this

use

is

not always above suspicion.

is

One

of the

meanings

of

yu {^ytao

to

have an

art, a

method,

whether for catching

country.

crickets,
is

committing robbery, or ruling a

clever device

chH {^ytao, but

to

this rather hints

at trickery. of living;

Then

tao

comes

mean

one's occupation or

means

and the phrase t^ung {^ytao denotes, along with other

things,

to be of the

same occupation, the same way

of living.

Some

professions are considered low or base,

and these are called

doctors and fortune-

small arts
tellers.

hsiao

(>J>) tao

such as those of
is

Music, on the other hand,

ranked high, as we learn

is

from the old saying,

greatest''

"Among

the arts of the people music

{^

S: i,

ching tao ye
is

(jf;

^
i

M M

1^ :k)-

I^ the expression shih

explained as tao

^^ ^), teach him the art of reverence, tao (), art or means, i denoting also ability,

cleverness.-^

Loosely connected with the above is the use of our word in In the common list the sense of " abilities " or " attainments."

(jE f* fc Wi)i ^^^ ^s sometimes said to denote natural abilities. It is then said lo~tie the equivalent of ts'ai i (^ ^), genius,
natural

endowments.

So

also

the

expression

fan-yu-tao'cho

*^ JE )> "^^^ ^^^ h^LYQ tao," is interpreted to mean those {fL who have great natural abilities" (^ zj' ^), and Biot translates

*'

des

hommes

instruits."

Again, we learn that ''great genius

is

not a utensil"

{:kMX>

^)>

or, as

Gallery explains the phrase,

" une grande capacite ne doit pas etre (bornee a un seul usage)

comme un

ustensile."

Again, the term tao-ta

is

used of one

having broad views, and means " a large or liberal way of

thinking," but
^

it

also denotes the possession of great abilities or

;

The term

Kanghsi's Diet. s. v. $K; " Han-fei-tzii," chap. viii. *' Han-shu," chap. Ixxv. tao-shu, however, is often used in a good sense. Thus pu chih tao shu (/fs ^n M. V0> ^s "not to know the right way," the proper means; and yu*' men of expedients," that is, men of practical abilities. tao shu cho denotes also ' Shuo-yuan" (|^ ^), chap. xvi. " Hsin-shu," chap, v.; "Lie-tzii," chap, viii.; T'aber's Lie, p. 197; chap, ii.; Faber, pp. 8, 18, 55; L. C. C, i., p. 204; " Lun-yii," chap. xix. ; " Li-chi," chap. vii. p. 22 ; chap. vi. p. 74.
;

The Word Tao.

attainments.

171

The word

tao

is

used in this sense of attainments

specially moral or spiritual very frequently, but one or

two examples
with

may

suffice.

In the "Lun-yii" Confucius says

to Tzii-lu,

reference to the self-respect and the unoffending but independent

spirit of

the latter, " These attainments

JpI
*^

fall

short of high virtue "

(:g

JE

as saying,

>E

^ H) which are beyond me,

We
next
notice
It

JE 1 M)- I^ another place Confucius is represented There are three attainments of the Model man (g

to

be virtuous without anxiety,

^

wise without scepticism, brave without fear."

the

use of ^our

word in the sense

of

must be admitted, however, that in some of the passages in which it has been so rendered, some term like
"characteristics."

" attributes "

or

*'

qualities "

would perhaps

suit better.
J^l

Thus

of the statesman Tzu-chan, Confucius says,

^ ; ?

J^ 0, he

has four

of

the characteristics (or attributes) of a

Model man.
Model man
something to

Of Yen Hui and others the Master spoke

which the individual possessed.

in similar terms, in each

case stating the characteristics or attributes of the

Used

in this sense, the tao of the

it is

Model man

are said to be inexhaustible, but

have even three or four of them.

Again, of a simple, good

man

(^ A)

it

is

said to be a characteristic (tao) that he does not

merely keep in the footprints of others, and that at the same

time he does not become a
disciple.

Here the word tao

us that

is

used

somewhat
of

in the sense of description,

and introduces the meaning

tells
it

the

term shan-Jen.

Then Mencius

is

characteristic of the people (JJ

.

j^ <&) that having a certain livelihood they have certain convictions, and without the former
they are also without the
latter.

^^

So

also

we

learn that affection

;

and respect

for his parents are proper in a filial son

and " an

awe-inspiring

dignity

and

severity of

manner

are not used in

serving one's parents,

they

are the characteristics of a

man,"

1 "Li-chi" (13), chap, i.; "Chou-li," chap. xiv. Biofc, "Tcheou Li," T. ii. p. 28; "Li-chi," chap, vi.; Gallery's "Le-ki," p. 81 ; ** Shuo-yuan," chap. xvi. j L. C. C, i., pp. 89 and 150; " Lun," chap. ix. p. 35, and chap. xiv. p. 42.
;

p.

" Lun," chap, v.; "Shuo-yuan," chap. xvii. ; L. C. C, i., 2 L. C. C, i.. p. 42 C, ii., p. 116; ** MSng," chap. v. j "Li.ohi," chap! 107; "Lun," chap. xi. ; L.
;

172

The Word Tao.

Following our word in
its

metaphorical applications,

we
is

find

it

used to denote the path or course of

human

conduct.

It

even

said to be

an equivalent
is

of hsing (fj), action or conduct, but this

statement

justly

condemned

as inaccurate.

We

are told that

/J>

conduct

is

either virtuous, or not virtuous (jg

is

fc ]^

t)*
of

This, however,

a statement attributed to Confucius by Mencius,

ascertained.

and

its

precise

meaning cannot be

The pursuit
as in

virtue

and the following

of vice are in

China,

western
is

lands, represented under the figure of a journey.

But there

a difference in the conception of the nature of the journey.

the ethics and religion of the west the path of vice
is

In

generally

represented as a wide, large road, level and free from obstacles,

and

for the

most part straight

an easy and smooth road and very

it

attractive.

Virtue, on the other hand, has a narrow, pinched

the immortal gods have put

path, steep and thorny, and before

sweat-producing
are

toil.

It is scarcely necessary to

add that there

many

exceptions to this

way

of teaching,

as in the

Book

of Proverbs.

But with Chinese

moralists the

way

of virtue is

always the grand highway of humanity, the broad road which

man
hand,

is is

by his nature disposed

to follow.

Vice, on the other

with them the narrow, devious paths into which

man

is

constrained by evil influences from without.

Thus the phrases

chou

{^ytao and

ta-tao, already noticed in the sense of high-

way, come

to denote the

path of virtue, and in this usage Callery

renders the former by " les grandes vertus.'^

are the hsiao
(>J')-^ao,

Opposed

to these

or small ways, that

is,

the narrow paths

which branch
of vice,

off

from the highway and lead into the wild spaces

parallel to nature's course."

''Ways that run not

Again, shan{^)'fao, or good way, which has several other

meanings, denotes also virtue
denotes vice or wickedness.
;

as its opposite, o
also

{^ytao, bad way,

So

ktmg (^)-tao, or public way,

Another term

which has various

course, fair

significations, is

used to denote a disinterested

for virtue is

and

unselfish conduct.

The term jen-tao denotes the characteristics of a man also in a viii. p. 37. material sense, and a man genitalihus orhatus is spoken of as ^, " Chou-li," chap. xxiv. See also the " Liao-chai," &c., chap, vi., the words

^ A^

H + irUdPtS^^^A^.

The Word Tao.

173

cheng {j)-taOj which has heen seen to denote originally the

correct road or highway. It is

now

the one perfect

way

of life as

many wrong paths into which men wander. "The highway of the upright is to depart from evil; he that keepeth Contrasted with cheng-tao are the his way preserveth his soul."
contrasted with the

hsieh {^ytao, or hy-paths, which lead astray and end in confusion.

This term hsieh-tao

denotes unchastity.
filial

is

always used in a had sense, and often

course, for a
to

The proper (cheng)

raise

Chinese
If

son

is to

marry and

up children
life

his father.

he

cannot marry he should lead a

to the teaching of

oi continence, acting according

an old poet,

" Wholly abstain or wed. The bounteous Lord Allows thee choice of paths; take no byeways."

Another name
*'the primrose

for lewdness
to

is

hua {'^-taoj

or flower way,

way

the everlasting honfire."

points to the fact that

This phrase,
life

when used
wanton

of

woman,

inthe gay

of

lawless love, beauty's flower never ripens to any fruit, the fair
dies like the primrose

forsaken and unmarried.

is

Moral

integrity, or

honesty of speech and action,

often expressed by

chih C^ytao, straight or direct way.

slates
is

In one place Legge tranit

this

phrase by " the path of straightforwardness," and

there wu-ssH-chu

said to

mean

(^
it

jfJi

^),

to

be without private

bias, neither slandering

nor

flattering,
is

but speaking the straight-

forward truth.

As

uprightness,
;

opposed to wang (Q)~tao,

it is

the crooked ways of dishonesty

to chii

and

as impartiality,

opposed

{^ytao, the winding ways

it

of partiality.

As

blunt frank-

ness of speech

is

contrasted with and set above ch'iao-yen (t^

=), or artful words.

Tao

is

often used alone in this

denote the way, the right course, or virtue.

manner to Thus one of the

with virtue,

meanings

of i {X)'tao is rightly, or in accordance

and Confucius says that the Model man cannot be pleased with
anything "not accordant with right*'
i-tao
is
{7J^

J^ ^).

Opposed

to

yu-taot wrongl y o r wickedly.

But

this latter has

come
is

to

have a very

definite signification of a peculiar kind.

It

the

legal term for one of the shi-o (-p

^), or Ten C rimes

o^f

the Penal

Code.

In the

Han

period this crime was the murder of three

174
individuals of one family.
little different,

The Word Tao.

The

present definition of the term

is

but

it still

denotes a heinous crime with a terrible

punishment.
the

Some

explain the use of the term by saying that

man who commits

is

the crime, in the act turns his back ou

virtue,

man's cheng-tao or right and natural course.

often used for

And

the

phrase pu-tao

what we

call

unnatural

in the

sense of violating the natural relations, as of ruler and minister,

father and son.

Thus the Emperor Yung-cheng describes a certain

proposal as ta-ni-pu'tao-wu-li

{:kW,^M^
The phrase

8)> very impious,

is

unnatural, and unreasonable.

ta-ni-pTutao

an old

one, being found in the " Han-shu," and perhaps earlier, but the

emperor gave

it

new

force.

Again, Confucius told Tzii-lu that

of

he would go away from the kingdom

Lu

leisurely,

and Mencius

says that this was c^hu'fu-inu-lcuo^chih-tao)y

(^

"SS

# ^ ^ M))
So we find

the right

way

to leave the country of one's parents.

such expressions as
explained as ho-yu,
is right.

yen ("^ytaoj speech

correct,

where tao

is

(^

"^ytao, that

is,

in accordance with

what

In

like
'^

manner the phrase

{^ytao,

i-yil

(^

M)'^^o,

is to

follow

what

is right,

suivre la bonne voie," as Gallery translates.

to miss the

To

err or go astray is shi

way,

to

wander from

virtue

and

to return to virtue is

fan {J^ytao,
f), to

as in the expres-

sion fari'tao-tzU'hsin

(^

jg

return to virtue and

reform.

But

these two phrases have other meanings also, and

is

the latter, fan-tao,

is right.

used in the sense of rebelling against what

The
is

contrast between taoj

what

is right,

and

o,

what

is

wrong,

well

brought out in the aphorism,

makes

friends from agreement in goodness; the

"The good man bad man makes

"? 1
|pJ

a partisanship from agreement in wickedness "

(S

JS

Then
comes
to

as tao is used in the sense of to

walk or

travel, so it
is

have that meaning

figuratively.

Thus tao-chung

to

1 L.O.C., ii., p. 169; " Meng," chap, vii.; "Li-chi," chap. vii. p. 34; Gallery, "Le-ki,"p. 108; L. C. C, i., pp. 165 and 195; "Lun," chap. xv. and xviii. L.C. *' Lun," chap. xiii. " Han-shu," chap. viii. " Yung-cheng Edicts," C., i., p. 137 4th y. 10m 25 L. C. C, ii., p. 247 " Meng," chap. x. ; " Li-chi," chap. i. ' Hanshu," chap. vii. ; " Kan-ying-pien," chap. vii. p. 28, Note. The phrase ta-ni-putao may be sometimes found used of a crime such as that which we understand by the name *' high treason."
;
;

The Word Tao.

walk in the mean, and, used
walking in the right way.
alone, tao has

175

sometimes the sense of In the " Li-chi " we are told that the
is, it

law of

social rites

*'

may

not be followed ftao) vainly," that

must be observed

sincerely

and thoroughly.

In

this place tao is

explained by hsing (fj), to go or travel, as on a road, and this

word

is

often used as the equivalent of tao.

is

Thus, for example,

in the " Lun-yii," Confucius

represented as saying that as he

could not "get

to

men pursuing

the due

medium

{tp fj) ^ ^^^

this

take the eager

and the cautious."

Mencius quotes

statement but substitutes chung'tao Jor chung-hsing.

Again, to

pursue learning
Constant

is is

Mean

tao-wen-hsiao (38 3C ^^^ to w^^k in the tao-chung^yung. In these places tao is said to

mean yu[^), to go along, or hsing, to walk in, that is, to practise. The statement that " the model man is reverently attentive to
his moral nature

(^

great battle-field for

followers.-^

(g '^) and pursues learning," formed the Chu Hsi and Luh Chiu-yuan, and their

The next use

of state

of our

word

to

be noticed

is

that in the sense

or condition.

We now

find that the

iQvmjen {X)'ta0j

in addition to its other meanings, denotes the state of a

human

being,

and man's

estate, or

manhood.

The

expression yen-^ao-?i

JE A)y man's way arises, means " a human being is formed." To cap a youth and give him a name in the presence of

(A

witnesses effects his manhood, ch'Sng-jen-chih-tao (jS

A
as

;^ JS),

makes him a man.

ghost or
birds

Then huei {^)'tao

is

the state of being a

is

demon ; chHn-shou

and beasts
and

(^ "Texistence des
is

^)-chih'tao
betes

the condition of
Callery
its

brutes,"

translates.

So ^hofu ('^ytao
;

fatherhood, which has

origin

in heaven

fit-fu

(^

i%)-tao the state of husband and wife,

that

is,

the state of matrimony.

first

T^ung {"^ytao
In a family or

is

boyhood or
it is

childhood, both

and second.

village

of

great importance to keep

up

feelings of

harmony and
also

friendship.

To

lose these is shih-hou

(^

^ytao,

to lose the genial state,

the
is

cordial relations
1
i.,

among neighbours.

So
vi.
;

ho (ft)-^ao
j

L. C.

p. 136,

C, i., p. 286; " Chung-yung," chap. and ii., p. 374.

"Li-chi," chap. v.

L. C. C,
^
''

>^^^eS ^

Libr,^,^^

Cf THE

'\

176
condition of

The Word Tao.

harmony such

as should prevail in a household or

of

community.

Again, the term chia {^ytao denotes the state

a household^ or family.

Thus chia-tao-shen-pHn (:g

J)

simply

means the family

sion

is

very poor.
is

A common
is

euphemistic expres-

with the same meaning

that
is,

chia-tao'p'ing'an

(^

^), the

family has peace,

there

no trouble with property,

such expressions

because there

is

none.

Opposed

to these are

as chia-tao-chin-tsung-yung

(^

^), the family are in very

comfortable circumstances, and chia-tao-hsing-lung

household,
is

(^ ^),

the

prosperous and flourishing.

This phrase, chia-tao,

often points to the reputation of a family for wealth, learning or

virtue,

and Morrison translates

the

it

by

'^the

ways or circumstances
her household."

of a family."

It reminds us of the statement that the virtuous

woman "looketh

well to

ways

of

The

expression chia-tao-hao {ff)

in good circumstances

means that the family stands

fair

well, is

and has a
is

reputation.

To

establish a

household,
in

all

that

is

needed

that husband and wife live together

harmony

"

let

if il 51 J^)> ov, as Morrison has it, husband and wife agree and then the welfare of the family

(^

W^^
we

will be secured."

So

also

are told that that household

is

per-

fect (well ordered) in which husband and wife observe their duties of mutual obligation (^ if Jt IE)- Again, the phrase shi {-^ytao sometimes denotes the moral state prevailing

^^^^^

at

any time in a country, and sometimes the condition

of affairs

generally, the fashion of the age.

Lie-tzu relates that Tzu-Chan's

elder brother, through excess in wine, pu'chih'shi'tao'chih'an-wei

(/?> ift tS J^ )S)> ^i^ ^ot know whether the state of the world was peaceful or troubled, that is, did not know whether the

country was in a state of order or of anarchy.

Faber

translates,

" Er kannte nicht den Frieden oder die Gefahr des Weltganges," but this does not seem to express the author's meaning
fully.

The phrase
feelings, or

shi-tao has been explained

hy Jen-chHng
is

If ); man's

human
is

affairs,

but the explanation

not satisfactory.

It

is

often associated with jen-hsin

(A

&)>

man's mind or heart.

Thus there
literally,

the

common
is

saying,

*&

7 &

iS Ji

H fj;
to

man's heart

not ancient, the

way

of the age is

hard

The Word Tao.

follow, that
is,

177

people are not like what they used to be, and

succeed.

plain honest

men cannot

We

read that the shi-tao-

shuai-wei (iS JE Wi)' ^^ morality of the world is fading away, a process through which it has been going ever since
history began.

Again, ku (i^ytao denotes the "old ways,'*

the manners of our fathers which seem stupid to their children

Let us now turn to a group

of

meanings very

different

from

those already noticed, but originally derived

of them.

We

are wont to speak of a road as leading

" qua

from some
te

diicit via, dirige

gressum,"

and the mode

of speech is extend-

ed to figurative applications.

Thus the way

of friendship

may

be a path which leads by tracts that please us well, while

''The paths of glory lead but to the grave," and
Raphael,
" Well hast thou taught the

Adam

says to

way

that might direct

Our knowledge."

All education
counsel and
tao
itself
its

is

a training in the

way we should
guide,
teach,

go,

and

instruction are guidance.

In Chinese the character

advise.

has

the

meanings

of

to

lead,

From
was
in the

composition

we might

infer that its original

meaning

to lead,

and one of the commentators on the definition given " Shuo-wen" says that there it is read tao (^), which means

to guide or rule.

When

thus used as a verb, our word here, as in

other cases,
suffice to

is

said to be in the ch'ii-sheng.

of its
is

A few

examples will

shew the nature

meanings when so employed.

("gj),

To

lead the van of an

army

tao-chHen

which

is

contrasted

with yung-hou (J^ ^), to press on in the rear. Again, wei (;g) tao is to take the lead, go in front, as in the saying of the people
of

will

Chu to the ruler of Cheng, translated by Dr. Legge, "If you now vent your indignation on Sung, our poor town will lead the
for

way

you "

{%

S^

Jg).

When

used in the sense of telling

is

the way, or guiding on a journey, tao

^

explained by ahih'chih'i-

chap

(H

" Hsing-li," chap.viii. ; " Li-ohi," chap. x. ; " Le-ki," p. 67; "Hsing-li," xxi.; \^ jg ^ chap. Ji; Sacred Edict, Art. 3., Amp.; " San-yu-faug-chi" - Int. H, chap. X.; " Kan.ying.pien," chap. viii. p. 41, S: " Hsing-li," chap, xxv.; "Lie-tzu," Morrison's Alphabetic Diet., s. v. ; note"; chap, vii., aud Faber, p. 165; " Kan-ying-pien," chap. viii. p. 36, note.

Ml

178
tao-Vu

The Word Tao.

(^

;i 1 Jl S)> to

*e^l

\P^ shew) one the right road.

it, is

To

lead or guide an army, in the sense of conducting

;

tao-chiin

(5)

places

Chang Ch'ien was said to lead his array (tao'chiln) to where he knew there were good grass and water. To inas
is also

troduce, as at court,

expressed by taoj and

to present

it

was the

office of

the Yu-ssa^ in the

Han period,

and escort chiefs

of causing a
is

of foreign

states while at the capital, as

when we read
jft

Yu-ssu to

introduce a Shan-yii ('^ >^ "^

of

?.).

It

also used in the sense

welcoming and escorting, acting th^-host-to^ne

generally,.

Thus
a

inihe "Shu-ching" we read that Yao ordered a Hsi

guest the sun at his rising, and a

to receive as

Ho

to

"convoy the

setting

sun;"

and

in

the '*Shi-chi"

used both for the

life

we have ching {^-tao, reverently attend, welcoming and convoying. Then in the journey of
So Heaven has ordained that there should

man

is

always tempted to leave the right track and go in the

of error.

narrow ways

always be wise and good

men to

teach and guide aright the ignorant

and erring multitude.

chih-i-li (J8 jj^ jg,

And

thus

we

find such expressions as taosocial

to jjU),

keep the people right by

jJl

customs

and ceremonies; and

li-i-chih-tao ^jjil^

3S)is, according to Dr.

Legge, "the guidance of propriety and righteousness."

read that chun-tzii-tao-jenH-yen

Again, we
is,

(^

'f

MA

HI m)* ^^^^

in
les

Gallery's rendering, " Le sage se sert de

la parole

pour diriger

hommes

(dans la voie du bien)."

to

native commentator explains

tao here by hua-hui (fl^ |),

impart culture, to teach mild

intelligent ruler, also, leads his
,

ways and gentle manners.

people in the right
to

The

way

( tao-chih-i-taoj

that

is,

he takes measures
is

have them trained only in the learning which

(taoj of the people

orthodox.

In one passage the guiding

of

by the ordinances

government

is

contrasted with the guiding of

personal influence.
tao

In

this

them by good passage a native commentator explains

by yin-tao (5| ^), to pilot, lead in the right course; and another explains it by hua-yu {^ ^), like hua-hui above. The
sage
is

said to-be in his active life a guide ftao) to all the world,
tao-i-te ({ (g), leads

and he

men by

the example of his

own

moral character.
is

The work

of learning truth, of acquiring

wisdom,

a journey entered on in childhood and ended only at death

The Word Tao. and the

sage's

179
be thus described.
it,

mode

of instruction

may

He

shews the way but does not drag anyone into

he confirms

resolve but does not insist doggedly, he opens a passage but does

not carry through.

explained by hsiin
or instruct.

Used

in the sense of

" teaching," tao

which mean
to

is

( J||)

or chiao (15;), words

it

teach

We sometimes find
of

joined to the latter word, as in

the expression i-chiao-tao-min, "pour Tapprendre au peuple."

In the sense
occurrence.

"advise'' or "counsel," also, tao

is

is

of frequent

Thus Confucius

represented as telling

Tzu Kung

that a friend should be faithful in rebuking and good in counsel-

& IB M)> or> as Dr. Legge translates, "Faithfully admonish your friend, and speak to him kindly." Again, t'an
ing

{&

hsiao'crh'tao

(M
(

^ M JE)
So
also

is to

advise (or dissuade) with gentle,

pleasant words.

counselled
to attack.

him

"

tried

we have the statement tao-chih-fa [^ fjg), to persuade him " in Dr. Legge's version)

The

sense of leading, or directing, sometimes implies

and

is

associated with that of ruling, of ordering another's footsteps.

of

The use

our word in this

way may be

illustrated

by a quotation

from the " Han-shu."

In that treatise we find the Emperor Hsiao

of leading the people (JE

Wen

saying, "

The way
is

J5 j^ S&)

lies

in

attending to what

essential."

And

afterwards he says he will

" order each

the people
this

to follow his

own mind

in order to lead (or govern)

(^

#S
to

way

also

1 5E 15)- Our word is applied in the lower animals, such as horses and camels.
5it

Thus we read that liang-ma-i-tao

easily

(^

^ ^ jg), a good horse

is,

is

managed, or

easily trained, that

as the context shows, a

horse which has a good natural disposition can be easily trained

to bear a rider.^

Now
And

in accordance with
to teach to

the genius of
also

the language, the

is

word which means

so our

may
have

mean

that which

taught.

word comes

siich

significations as doctrine,

^ "Shuo-wen," by Hsii Ch'ieh (^ ^), s. v. tao (^) L. C. C, v., p. 19; "Han-shu," chap. viii. "Li-chi," chap. viii. p. 54; L. C. C, ii., Proleg., p. 82; "Li-chi," chap. ix. p. 54; "Le-ki," p. 166; "Hsiin-tzu" (-^ =f), chap, xvi.; L. 0.
;
;

C,

i., p. 10; "Lun-yii,'* chap, ii.; "Lun-yii," (13), chap, ii.; "Li-chi," chap, vi.; "Le-ki," p. 24; L. C. C, i., p. 125; "Lun-yii," chap, xii.; L. C, ii., p. 303; ** Meng-tzii," chap, xii.; L. C. C., v., p. 199; " Tso-chuan," chap, xii.; "Han-shu," chap, iv.j " Shuo-liu-hsiin " (|^ ;^ ||i|), quoted in the fft jE, chap. ii.

180

The Word Tao.

In
this

teaching, system of philosophy or reh'gion.

usage

it

is

said to be an equivalent of chiao {^), or of shuo (^),

literally

which

means
is

to speak.

Thus the expression hsie-shuo

(5(5

^)

in

Mencius
is

explained as heretical teaching ftaoj,

and the
though

context

apparently in favour of this interpretation,

Legge

translates the expression

political doctrines

by

'^

perverse speakings."

The

moral and
his
tao, or

which Confucius taught are called

philosophy,

or

teaching,

and he and others often

lament the failure

world.
of

of these doctrines to

make

their

way

in the

Mencius speaks

of I-yin delighting in the learning ftao)

Yao and Shun.

Legge here

translates "principles," but the

to mean that he delighted Yao and Shun. So also in

commentators explain the expression

in reading

the odes and records of

certain

cases

Wen Wu

chih-tao denotes the doctrines of

Wenis

wang and Wu-wang.

The Chinese reverence

recommendations
of

for

antiquity

seen in the oft-repeated

the teachings of
it to

these and the other sages of antiquity.

Mencius took

be his

duty to defend these

the hsien-sheng-chih-iao and

Yang and Mo.
"We even

to repel the

invading heresies of
itself

find the

word by
says

used in the sense of old teaching, as when

Hsu Hsing

of the ruler of

T'eng that he wei-wen

(^

^ytao, which Legge'

Again,

translates,
taoj

" has not heard the real doctrines of antiquity/' the

being those specially of Shen-hung.
is

or

doctrines,
call

what we
the

Confucianism
;

Ju-tao, the system of the learned,

or Confucianists

Fo-tao

is

Buddhism, and Tao-tao

is

Taoism,

way of Tao. similar mode of

In our own language we find there was once a

speech, as in the stanza which says of St George,
" Against the Sarazens so rude

Fought he full long and many a day Where many gyants he subdu'd
In honour of the Christian way."

Further, Confucianism, the orthodox system,

of simply as the

is

often spoken

emperor

says,

way ftao). Thus a Mandarin addressing the " Our dynasty esteems Confucianism and respects

(fIJ D) fi JE ft), and the word is often so used. religion was at one- time called Christian the that us reminds This

Confucianists "

simply the

Way.

It is

so

spoken

of

several times in the Acts

The Word Tao.

of the Apostles,

181

and

St.

Paul says

to Felix,

" But

this I confess

unto thee, that after the

so serve I the

Way

which they
In

call

a sect (or heresy)

God

of our fathers."

this

usage of the word

tao

it

may sometimes
it,

be rendered by religion^ and Dr. Edkins

like

so translates

though a vaguer word

his

system would perhaps

be better.

Faber in

translation of "Lie-tzu'*

sometimes

uses religion, and at other times teaching or system.

One

of the
is,

meanings

of the

term tao-jen

is

man

in religion, that

one

who
also

has renounced the pomps and vanities of the world and

of religious- teaching

embraced some system

and

discipline.

So

men

of

eminence in learning or philosophy have a tao-hao

(S

u)j designation in philosophy, or

"name
of

in religion."

Thus
had a

the famous Shao Yao-fu

(%

^ ^),
is

the

Sung

period,

name Kang-chie (^
term
is

fg),

which

called his

tao-hao, but the

of

applied

liberally.

Now
adheres

the
is

system

religion

or
is

philosophy to which a

man

for

him orthodoxy.

It

thelvaj (tao), or the correct (JE) way, or the right-hand (:g) way. What is not his system is heterodoxy outside ways (^fi Jg), or

left-hand (2) ways, or

or,

wrong by-ways

(f|S Jg).

The term

tso4ao,

more

fully,

tso-tao-pang-men

and

side doors, is used

{^ Jg by modern Confucianists
But

f^), left-hand ways

to include all re-

ligions except their

own.

tso-tao are not only the tenets of

Buddhists, and Christians, and

sorcery,

White
if

Lilies,

but also witchery,

and superstition generally

not Confucianist.-^

Now
as

the doctrines which a good

it,

man

teaches are the truth

he sees

or the

knowledge which he has gained.

So we find
as truth

our word used to express what

we denote by such terms

it

and wisdom.
cianists to

But, thus used,

is

supposed by modern ConfuThis

have always a human or practical limitation.

is

supposition

not quite correct, and specially does not hold good

for the early literature.

Confucius says that a scholar

who

is

en-

gaged

in the quest of truth (jg J55 Jl^),

is

and yet

is

ashamed

of

bad

food and clothing,

i

not

fit

to

be talked with on the subject.

;

In

L. C.
ix.
;

and

161., et

C, ii., pp. 160, 238; i., p. 210; ii., pp. 159, 123 J' Meng," chaps, vi. "Lun," chap, xix.; "Meng," chaps, vi. and v.; Faber's Licius, pp. 4:2j Sacred Edict, Art. 7, Amp.; " Kan-ying-pien," chap. viii. p. 21. al.
;

182

The Word Tao.

another place he says that the Model

(gg jE)> ^^^
is

man (g

?) aims at truth

distressed

(g)

about

it,

and does not take thought

ridicules

for his material comfort.

In " Lie-tzu," one Yen Hui

(fJJ

the notion that the learning of truth

J^) brings wealth; and

Lie-tzu says that with the very handsome and the very strong

one cannot talk of truth

nicht iiber

(^

pf Jl

m S
the

&)

''

^^^^ ^^^

o<^^

Wahrheit reden."
life
is

Further,

all

wisdom necessary
**

for

the conduct of

contained in
first

Confucianism.

It

was

in

Heaven

canonical writings of

The Lord

possessed

me

in the beginning of his way, before his works of old."

From

Heaven it came at the dawn of human life to the first holy sages who in Heaven's stead taught wisdom ( ^) to men unenlight" Truth," says one philosopher, " originated in Heaven ened.
(JS

JSS 5c)>

is

completed in man's mind, manifested in the

affairs of life,

and contained in books."

to scholar, true

From

sage to sage and

from scholar
through
all

wisdom

(tao) has

been handed down

from the habitable part of " Truth," the earth nor gone quite away from the sons of men.
time. It has never ceased

says one,
:^).

*'

does not go away and not return "

jg
is

It

is

a clue or thread, one end of which

latest

ft iffi /R with the first

sage

and the other with the

expounder or defender of
tao-t'ung (j^), the
is

orthodoxy.

Hence we have the common term

There

line of truth, the thread of orthodoxy.

a short treatise
of the

called " Tao-t'ung-lu" (Jg |gg transmission of the truth from

this

f|^)

which gives a summary

to

Fu Hsi

Chu

Foo-tzu.

Used

in

way, tao

is

said to be
;

chuan (^), transmitted;

also chi (ig)

continued, unbroken

and

chileh (j^), broken off or discontinued.

Chu Hsi

says,

'*

Truth (tao) never disappears from

(O the world,
continued

but as entrusted to
(If),

man

it

is

broken

off (|g), or it is
is

and

so

its

course (fj) in an age

clear (Bfl) or obscure

is

(^)."

Again, the truth, when made known,

believed by some
find

and doubted or rejected by others.

Hence we

such expres-

sions as hsin (fl^)-^ac>, to believe the truth,

and hsin-tao-pu-tu
that
is,

(7
it

M)>

^0

have only a weak

faith in

it,

not to be

established in the truth.

is

To have

a firm trust or strong faith in

^)-t<^Oj to

expressed by yu-fu^tsai

(^

have confidence

The Word Tao,

placed in truth.
in order to get

183
learning reads books

Further,

the lover

of

wisdom

to

search for truth

(^

JIO

while the

worlding
*'

(ij>

A)

reads only for material advantage (tH), to gain

useful information/'

and

so obtain

employment.
is

So tao-hsiao

1,^), the study of moral and political wisdom,

contrasted with

su-hsiao (fg jj), or vulgar learning.

shi-tao'hsiao'fou

But
is

the question chun-

(S

fi JE i^

S)
a

used with the meaning

?
*'

simply,

'^

Are you,

Sir,

a disciple of Confucius
Jg), as

Again, books
or

convey true wisdom

passengers
is
;

(^

waggon

carries ((J) cargo

and a well-written bok which does not teach truth

in

no better than a sham waggon tricked out

in rude

gaudy

colours.

Yet wisdom may be borne

to

and homely words, according

the saying wei-sheng-tsai'tao

(^

^ J|
is

Jg), that

is,

clownish

accents convey

wisdom ; a phrase which, however, has

also other

meanings.^

Now

one of the results of education

that a

man comes

to

adopt principles and order his conduct according to them.

The
and

knowledge which he gains from the teachings

the formation of personal convictions as to

of others leads to

what

is

right

wrong.

These

convictions, acting

as motives

of conduct, are a in this

its

man's
sense,

principles.

And we
man's

find our

word very often used

give

denoting the motives of action which

It
is

conduct

character.

settled convictions as to

how he should
and
social life.

act in all the varying circumstances of private

The Model man, we are

regard to himself

told,

settles

his

own

principles

with

(g

"f

^ JE

E)> ^^^

institutes laws with

regard to the people,

la doctrine

or, as

Gallery translates, " le sage expose

il

de la vertu d'apres ses propres sentiments, mais

n'institue des regies

;

que d'apres
;

(les forces)

de tout
;

le

monde."

" Lun," chap. iv. L. C. C, i., p. 167 " Lun," chap. xv. 1 L. C. C, i., p. 32 "Lie-tzu," chap, viii., and Faber's Lie, pp. 188-9 " San-yu-t'ang-wai-chi," chap, "Hsmg-li," chap, xi.; " Yang-yuan-chi " (^ iv. ^), chap. xxix. "Chu-tzii. ch'uan.shu" (^ ), chap, lii.; L. C. C, i., 203; "Lun," chap, xix.; " " San-yu-t'ang-chi," chap, Hsing-li," chap. xvi. "Fa-yen" (;^ ^), chap. i. iv. ; " Hsing-li," chap. ii. ; Memorials to Yung-cheng Emperor, chap. i. p. IQ. The phrase ju (A) -too is used to denote the beginning of wisdom the entrance into truth and i^ /?> is to get knowledge without wisdom ; ^, chap. Ji. The tao here is of course the truth of Confucianism; ef. also ju-tao *' Hsiao Hsio-chi-chie," chap. v. in
; ;

^^

A^

184

The Word Tao.

find tao opposed to yil

We now
shih
to

(^),

desire or

appetite,

and

to

(If,) acts of

conduct.

The phrase t^ung

((p|) ^o
is to

now means
in

hold the same principles, while Vung-shih

do the same
active

thing.

Mencius says that Yii and Chi remaining

service abroad for eight years in a time of good government,

and

Yen-hui enjoying in
government,

his

house obscure poverty in time of misagreed in principle.

all t^ung-taoy

which they acted were the same, and placed

circumstances they would have acted alike.

The motives from in the same

Here t^ung-tao
is

explained to

mean they had all the same mind (^ kX> The term hsin in this explanation is used in its higlier sense, denoting the mind which judges and decides on what is right or
wrong, and, as will be seen presently,
it is

^^ 95 B)-

in this use a

synonym
the
will

for tao.

They

serve to express the heart fixed, and

is

determining what
to pursue.

in every action

which

arises the right course

We also find principle

(S
$!!)>

(tao) contrasted with laws

and statutes

^^^^ ohq^^ ruler (g), with the virtue of sympathy or

kindness (t)^ ^^^^ 'Vfiih. man (A)> or what is human and erring. One of the requirements of the high morality {^ f}) is that a man
should obey principle rather than his sovereign

(^

M ^ ^ S)(||1}

The sage
|J Jg),

represses the

human and
is

follows principle

Bff

while the worldling represses principle that he

may

follow

the human.

We

are told that he

called a great minister

who

serves his ruler according to principle (]^ J^),

and the word in

root in a perfect
or
i-ch'i-tao

such cases

is

said to denote that

which has

its

mind and pure motive.

But

the

phrase i-tao

JE) is of frequent occurrence in the sense of simply acting (t The phrases j/u (:) as one thinks right, having one's own way.
tao

and

tvu (^)-tao,

now mean

respectively to have

and not

to

have good principles ; and the unprincipled (ivu-tao) are described The as those among the bad who are perverse (or rebellious).

man
bend

of solid

worth in

office

or out of

it will

not iDa7ig

(^^E)"^*^^*

his principles,

make them

yield to ignoble motives.

It

is

well for
official

him who can hsing {ffyiao, carry out his principles in Nor is he less to be praised who can only or private life.

The Word Too,

shou i^ytaOy keep or hold his principles in times of
trouble.
lets
trial

185

and

But

it is ill

for

go his principles,

falls

him who shih {^)-tao, misses the way, away from the high aims and good
Mencius describes the bad conse-

rules with

which he

set out.

quences to the state whose ruler "has not good principles by

which
and

to determine his

conduct"
is

(^

^
to

g|).

The phrase shan

{^ytao, noticed already,

to

now found

denote good principles,

" shew the goodness of one's principles."

tao
ig

But

also nsp d fnr pituapLaa-^iid^ieiifits,

of^*^

whether good

o^bad^ Jhus I-tzu [^ -J) speaks

the principles of the learned, that

cM chih tao (fl|

^^

JJ),

is,

speaks of these simply as tao,

; and Mencius " the true principles " in Dr.

of Confucianists

Legge's translation.

So we have

also

Yang-Mo- chih-tao, the

Ti (the "

principles of the philosophers

Yang Chu and Mo

Yang

and
to,

Mih"

of Dr. Legge).

These were to be

hsi (^g,), put

an end

extinguished, while those of Confucius were to be set forth or

illustrated

(^).

There are

also hsiao (i]\)-taOj

mean

principles

or inferior motives, which are contrasted with tao, or correct

principles.

So there are shih

of

(Tfi)-^ao,

the ways of the market,

the

principles

Philistines.
is

In

this

world of

continuous

deterioration there

no

stability for

good principles.

They wax

and wane, and come and

lost.

go, at times

even seeming to be quite

and again " fading away " {^), or falling as in abeyance ; at one time as into disuse (^), wearing away like old clothes, or quite cast
of

So we read

them

as

now

in the ascendant (^),

aside as useless
(fif)>

j).

At

other times they are said to be in vogue

or flourishing

desires that the principles

Every good man (^), or in esteem (^). he has adopted should not suffer by
life.

him, but rather gain lustre from his

say,

"In

active life I do not dare to

iss

shame

;p St
^

t te
i.,

mv
ix.

He wishes to be able to my principles" (f} g

;

" Li-chi," chap.

viii.

"Meng," chap.
L. C.

p. 51

p. 35, and " Le-ki," p. " Hsing-li," chaps, xxi.

xi.;

156

L.

C,

ii.,

p.

211
ix.;

and

xxii.;

chap, ii; "Lun-heng," (|^ ^) chap, xi.; L. C, ii., p. 166 ; Meng," chap. vii. (here tao is explained by g, principle of rectitude); "Ch'ang-H-ch'uau-chi," chap, xv.; L. C. C, ii., p. 14u C, i., p. 76, and ii. p. 370; "Lun," chap, viii., and "Meng," chap, vi.; L. "Meng," chap. xiv. ; L. C. C. ii., pp. 134 and 159 ; "Meng," chaps, v. and vi.; "Ku-liang (13), chap, i.; " Ch'aug-li-ch'uan-chi," chap, i.
p.

C,

109; "Lun," chap,

"

/h

^ M ^)

"Li-chi," chap,

16

The Word Tao,

Let us now turn back
in thought to the use of our

word in

the sense of to lead or guide.

closely connected with
it, is

Derived from

this,

or at least

that

now

to

be noticed, the use of the

word with

significations

such as rule, government, principles of

transition

state administration.

The

from the thought

of guiding

to that of ruling is obvious

it

and natural, and in Chinese writings

is

often hard to decide in which sense the

word tao
do this

is

used.

Eulers are appointed by Providence to teach the people their

duty and lead them in the right way

their interest

and

to

is

at once

and their
**

glory.

So the poet

says,

to guide nations in the way of truth saving doctrine, and from error lead To know and worship God aright, " Is yet more Kingly

But

By

than
all

to gain great

wealth and power.

The

first

sovereigns were

holy sages

the

who tamed mild ways of human

wang (^), because
is

their savage subjects

life,

and taught them

rule should be

and

all

who bear

guides and models to the people.

as
if

A king is called

wang

(3E),

to

him
ti

all

the world should resort (-^)

and the emperor

(Iff),

called

examine into the principles

Q^) because he is supposed to ti One philosopher also of truth.

is

says that huang (^), emperor,

he who understands the primal

(taojy

unity; U, emperor,
king,
is

is

he who investigates nature

and

tvangj

he who

is

thorough in virtue.

In the old

classical literature

we

often find tao used in the

sense of to rule or regulate, and other kindred meanings.

The

well-known phrase tao ch'ien ch'eng chih kuo (J^ [read as ^] " to rule a country of a i, B) is translated by Dr. Legge,

; thousand chariots " and chih (^), to rule well, is given as the meaning of tao here. This latter, however, is rather the li (g|)>

or underlying principle, while chih denotes the active measures

resulting from the principles.

Nor, indeed, does tao here

so

much
good

mean

to

rule well as to

aim at ruling

well, to lead to a
^'

government.

The passage perhaps means,

faith,
is

he who aims at ruling

well a large state attends reverently to the affairs of government,

and keeps

economical, and kind

to

men, using the

people at the proper times.''

We

have

also such expressions as

The Word Tao.

tao'jen, to rule

187

men, and tao wu ch'ang chih hsing

(that
is,

'^

;J^

fj),

to regulate the action

the active influence) of the five

cardinal virtues.

Then
the phrase

^ao

is

used to denote government, as

civil

of^good anT'bad,

and military, government.

when we speak Thus we have

good

wang C^ytaOy having,

as one of its meanings, " royal

as chih {f), a

government,'* explained

hy commentators

and constitutional administration.

As

a preliminary to the attainaffections of the

ment
(f

of this the ruler

must gain the

people
their

^ K^), so that they can maintain their living and bury

is

dead without having any angry feelings towards him.

This

"kingly way "

spoken of in an old song as free from prejudice

It is contrasted

and
with

partiality,

and perfectly straightforward.

pa

i^)'tao, a government obtained

its

by force or fraud and

tyranny.
;

dependent on force for

maintenance,
;g|),

It is also

contrasted with ssu-ch^uan (^^

private authority
it

and in the
he

bad character given

abolished

to

Ch'in Shih Huang-ti

of

is

said that

the

government

the

[old]

kings and set up an

authority of his own (Ig JE iffi jt fil ^)- "W'e read also of wang-tao'shuai (3E JE ^) royal government falling into disuse, that is, good institutions becoming neglected and ceasing to have
effect.

Here wang-tao

is

explained as meaning the government

of

the ancient kings

(5fe

;5l

JE),

and

this

was simply the

improvement

adjustment of the natural and

of education,

social relations, the

and the amelioration

of the
jgj;),

of

manners and customs.

is

The

" government
jen-cheng

ancient kings "

elsewhere explained as
is,

{^

benevolent administration, that

a govern-

ment which imposes only easy burdens on the

leads by precept

people,

and gently

and example.

We
as

now
Chou

find the phrase chou-tao

with

another
in

new meaning
use during

denoting

"the

system
as

of

government

the

period,*'

hsia-tao
like these

means that used by the Hsia dynasty.

of the person, or family,

But phrases

are also used in the sense of " the political influence " or prestige
or dynasty.

Thus tao-shuai (g) may

it

be found in passages where we must render

" the decay of the political influence."

by something

like

We

read, for example,

188
of

The Word Tao.

the

Shang dynasty

in

its

later years,

shang tao shuai chu

*'

hu huo pu chih
to court to

(^

MM M ^^
its

J>

^l

as the prestige of

the Shangs had fallen away, the feudal chiefs perhaps did not go

pay homage.'*
rules, the statutes
tao.
(gj[

The laws and

and precepts
this use the
official

in force in a
is

country are also called

In

word

somestate

times explained by cheng-ling

regulations.

^),

commands,

Thus we
life

are told that robbers and murderers do

not enjoy long

or peace,

and

it

is

added that

if

people

comply with the laws

of the land they will

have their desires

(6

S S ii A # S
to

*F),

and

if

they disobey these they are

dislike.

certain

encounter what they

Again, the phrase

chun-tzU'chih (g -J i,)'i(^o, in addition to several other meanings, denotes " the institutions of the ruler " and these are
:

said to be his decisions as to rites and ceremonies, weights

and

measures, and forms of writing.

In the Chou period

to sit

it

was the

duty of certain " princes and dukes "

with the king
Biot translates

and talk government

this occurs

(^

jlfl

I&

JS)-

^^ the passage where

lun-tao by '^pour deliberer sur les regies du

gouvernment,'* and a native commentator explains the phrase by

"deliberate on positive laws for the government of the country"

^)- 1'^ same phrase lun-tao is explained (SK in another passage in a similar manner by several commentators.
"We read there
period, that
institutions
of

MS SiK

three

high

officers instituted in

the

Chou

they were to lun tao ching

pang (^ ^),

discuss

and regulate the

states.

Dr. Legge here translates

lun-tao by " they discourse of the principles of reason,*' and some

native
others,

scholars

seem

to

find

in

it

similar meaning,

while

perhaps with better reason,

prefer

the interpretation

given above.

In the passage

last referred to, tao

may

be taken to denote
it is

the means or principles of government, J.hemler's policy^ and

often used
in this

manner.

Thus the expression

tao tsai

puh

ho

chien (jE ffi i)^ rT being invisible," that

the "Shu-ching,"

S)
is,

i^eans "the

way

of

governing

lies in

the ruler must keep his policy secret.

In

King Wu-ting

speaks of himself as

"in reverent

The Word Tao.

silence thinking

189

on the way

to rule properly

(^

^ @ 3g).

Here

tao

is

explained by chih {f^)-tao, which Dr. Legge translates

principles
**

"the

and course

of

good government," and Gallery

renders by
of

le secret

de gouverner en paix."
told,

These principles

good government, we are

are fair, and do not

grow old

^)- I* is an old maxim among Chinese fln JE (^ political writers that government should be carried on without any show
ethical
of governing, a

and

political philosophy.

maxim common to the The doctrine

fit

various creeds of
is

expressed by

one old writer in the words,

tao^mo ta

yil

wu

wei

(^

^^

:ht^

M)y

there

is

nothing greater in government than to be

without show of action.

with other things, to

is

The phrase hsiao {^)-tao means, along learn the way of ruling, and chih (^^)-tao

to

know

this

way.

As

principles or policy of government, tao

is

now

contrasted with cheng, the active administration, the

policy.

mode

of carrying out the

It has

been

said, for

example, of

Ch'in Shih Huang-ti that he neither changed the policy nor

altered the administration of certain other rulers

(^

^ /f ^

But one
is

of the

commonest meanings
naturaFeffects.

of tao in this connection

a state of peace and order in a country

good

government

realTz'ed

and pro3ucing

its

TKus we

often read of a

kingdom (kuo)

or a state fpangj or the empire ftHen-hsiaJ

yu

tao

(^ tS) ^^ expression already noticedhaving good government,

being in a peaceful condition of law and order.
is

Opposed

to this

wu (^ytcw,

without good government, in disorder and anarchy,

lawlessness

or yin (^),

and confusion, a

state in

which the

teachers of virtue cease and law becomes disorder, a state like that

described by the prophet

*'
:

Now

for a long season Israel

hath

been without the true God, and without a teaching priest, and without law." Confucius is represented as saying on one occasion,
"

The Chi kingdom by one change

would
attain to perfect

for the better

would attain

to

the state of Lu, and this latter kingdom by one change for the
better

government

ftaoj ."

Here the word

tao is interpreted as

meaning hsien wang chih

a

tao, the administra-

tion

of

the

ancient kings,

government perfectly good and


190
thoroughly
fair.

The Word Tao.

The word

in this use is otherwise explained in

a passage of the ^*Tso-chuan.^'

to

There an

official,

Chi-liang, says

the chief of Sui, *'I have heard that a small state can put
opposition to (match) a large one
(tao)y
if

itself in

the small state has good

government
is

and the large one has anarchy (yinJJ'

is

What

called

''

good government "

explained as

'*

true

sympathy

with the people, and sincere faith in the gods."

*^

Again, in the
in succession
it is

Shu-ching,"

of

three great ministers

who had
is,

helped in the establishment of order in the kingdom,

they t'ung
ti yil

said that
it

tao

{^

^^
:

J^), that

arrived together [as

were] at good government.

chill

Here

tao

is

explained as chih-chih-

of

The effects (15; Jg ^ytao, the way of perfect government. " described The influence this are then of your government

permeating by good administration will benefit the people of the

Kingdom " CMI^^ia R)' persuade the barbarians, make the king happy, strengthen the dynasty, and leave a fair
fame and bright example
in praise of
for posterity.

WM^

Further, Mencius says

Wen Wang
was not

that he continued to regard his people as

though they were

as
all

suffering,

and looked

for a state of order ftaoj,

is

though

it

visibly existing.

Chinese rule

supposed by
of their

Chinese to

civilise barbarians,

and the introduction

mode

of administration is regarded as the establishment of

good

government.

Thus we

find the results of

two years' work in

attempting to establish Chinese rule among certain barbarians,

stated thus
(fp tE) for
:

" Though the

officials

carried on good government

civilisation

two years, a state

of

(or

good
J^)-^
all

political

order

tao),

was not

effected'' (fe

38 I^ 1^ 5E

We

next find this word tao used to express

that

we

denote by such terms as rule, law, standard, example.

In the

Ti.'U. CTTTp. 4; 'Lun," chap, i.; " Chu-tzu-i-shu " chap, i.; (^ "Li-chi," chap, vii.; L. C. C, ii., p. 7 "Meng," chap, i.; L. C. C, iii., p. 331 ; iv., "Shih-ching" (13), chap, i.; L. C. C, ii., p. 165 ''Meng," chap, Proleg, p. 35 C, i., p. 28 9; vii.; "Li-chi" (13), chap, liv.; "Hsiin-tzu," chap, xvii.; L. " Chung.yung," chap, vi.; '' Chou-h," chap, xx vii.; Biot's " Tcheou-Li," T. ii., p. 457; L. C. C, iii., p. 527; "Shu," chap, v.; " Shu-ching" (13), chap, xviii.; "Han Fei-tzu," chap, i.; L. C C, iii., p. 250; "Shu," chap, iii.; Gallery's "Leki," p. 83; " Hsiin-tzii," chap, xviii.; L. C. C., i., p. 56; "Lun," chap, vi.; L. C. C, v., p. 47; "Tso-chuan," chap, vi.; L. C. C, iii., p. 576; " Shu," chap, " Chu-taii-i-shu," chap. viii. vi.; L. C. C, ii., p. 202; " Meug," chap, viii.; *' Han-shu," chap. Ivii.
; ; ;

^ M W*
C

The Word Tao.

*^

191

Great Learning" we read that the sovereign has a rule by which

is to

he
is

proceed in the active administration of

aflfairs.

This rule
testing
(or

described as a hsie chfi chih tao

It is the

(^

^g

jj^

Jg),
of

adjusting) square rule.

law of reciprocity,
affection.

shewing

filial

piety, brotherly kindness,

and parental

As

the carpenter

uses the material instrument to

squares,
so

make and

to test his material

the ruler frames his conduct and tests his govern-

ment by
him.
riches

this rule of treating others as

he would have others treat

Contrasting prayer for moral advancement with that for

and honour, Mencius says ^f the

is

latter,

'^

Though the

seeking (praying)

according to rule (5^

i,^
is

M)i while the

Here

getting depends on fate, in this case the seeking does not assist
in the getting,

and

is

concerned with what

external."

Legge

translates yu-tao

by "according

to

the proper course,"

and Faber by " hat feste Eegeln." Some native scholars explain tao here as " the law of right drawing the line for me as to what
is

not to be sought"
it

(3

i:

fljg

iU

;?;

g ^ If

and others

explain

as that

which controls
(^).

(fij)

the seeking, not that which

makes

this right

In another place Mencius says that the

philosopher
ical

Mo
of

(Mih) in funeral arrangements made an economthe rule

plainness

{^^^SX^I^^ Jl).

By

reference

to the

works

Mo Tzu

and Chuang Tzu we find that

tao is here

used as the equivalent of fa (^) or fa'Shih (f^ ^), a rule or law. Then we have such expressions as yen yii chih tao (b* |g j^l ?S)
the law
of

conversation, that

is,

the general principles which

;

should guide and control one in addressing others

and wei

shang
term

(^

^)'chih-tao, the rules for wearing clothes.

or jen-chih-tao
is

The

je7i

{\)-tao

occasionally

rendered by
yil (Jig J5&)

Gallery "
tao

la loi chez Fhomme," and he translates shun by " ob^issance complete a tout ce qui fait loi."

He

is

dutiful son

not

who for three years after the death of his father does make any change in the appointments (or arrangements) made by the latter (^ ^)- ^^^SS^ translates, Bit iSS $C *' If for three years he does not alter from the way of his father," and there are diverse interpretations of the passage. One of the meanings of ku (]5f) or ku-chih ("j^f ^ytao, is the old rule," the

^^

'*

1^2

The Word Tao.

opinions or judgments of the ancients, which should always he a

standard for the moderns.

with

a gloss

hy the Person,
of

So the prophet Jeremiah, as quoted says, " Stondeth upon the weyes,
is

and seeth and axeth

sentence,

olde pathes, that

to

sayn,

of old

which

is

the good way, and walketh in that way."

is

As

a law or standard, tao

sometimes said

to

he " the conduct of

saintly kings "

(M'^

ff

^)>

^^^ regulations of princes are

is

the sound, and the learning of these by the subjects

It
is

the echo.
is

also

used to denote "the proper thing," that which

as in the statement that

prescribed,

the

official

black hat called

ivei-mao

was the rule under the Chou dynasty

is

(^
to

|^

JE

&)

This word

also in this use

of

it,

as in other circumstances,

treated as a verb.

Thus Confucius, according

to do,

Tseng
it,

Tzii,

on

hearing of

something good
of

proceeded to do

" and then

made r rule

it" (gc

^ Jt ^V
which
also is

We pass on to another use of our word

derived from, or at least connected with,
its

perhaps

use in the sense of to

it

guide or teach.
of
tell,

This

is

the employment of

with the meanings

allied signification.

talk,

discourse, and other terms

of

How
of

these meanings arose, or

how

they are connected with that

satisfactorily

Way,

has not apparently been

explained by

native scholars,
silence.

who seem to have passed over the difficulty in The character tao (JJ), sometimes said to be in the ch'u-sheng in this case, has the meaning " to speak," as chiachiehy

or

borrowed

one,

meaning not

in

it

originally

or

naturally.
transition

Wuttke

refers this use of the

to

word

to the ordinary

from sense perceptions

mental concepts.
of a

The road
can come

became the word, because by means

into intercourse with another.

road one
says,

man

Meadows

" The step from

the expression and inculcation of truth in language, to the use of

language generally
of

from
;

the meaning of teach to the meaning

speah

is

not a wide one.

At

all

events, however,

tao

came

" Ta-hsio," chap. iii. p. 34; L. 1 L. C. C, i., p. 237 C, ii., p. 326; "Meng," chap, xiii.; Faber's "Mencius," p. 71; L. C. C, ii., p. 133; " Mdng," chap. v. p. 57; "Mo-tzii," chap vi.; " Chuang-tzii,'' chap. x. ; |g fg, chap, i.; Gallery's Le-ki," pp. 61 and 110; L. C. C, i., p. 24; " Lun," chap, iii.; L. C. C, i., p. 6; "Lan," chap, i.; " Li-chi," chap, v.; "Hsin-shu," chap, ix.; " Shuo-yuan," chap. xvii.

^g

The Word Tao.

to

19S

be used in that sense ;

i

it is
n M^i r
ii

commonest
form

^^^- I__^_^^^_^^_^__ _^__Bj>aM^ r iiii

y iiw- r
i

signitications/'

the fact that 'to speak/ is one of its ~j-T' m ^" Advice or instruction often takes the
laii

gai o

rr- i--iyrrr-niiii

'

lJl

ii

nll ii

--^-

r-"--'-

'

v'>*m^

'

of a lecture,

and a sermon, as Dean Swift's parishioners

is

objected to preaching in general, "

a perfect road of talk.**

In the " Shu-ching

declare or confess.
is to

we find tao used in the sense of to The king warns the Prince of K'ang that he
**

punish with death offences which, though small, are inten-

tional.

Then he adds
on them
**

that in the case of persons

who commit
is

great crimes, but by mischance and without design, death

not to

be inflicted
(E

once they confess their guilt unreservedly"

M &tM ^)-

These words are explained by a commentator

thus,

taking Legge's translation, "

When

they have themselves

confessed, presenting fully all the circumstances, not daring to

conceal anything.**

In the same

treatise

we
5^

find
-ft*),

it

recorded of a

king that he tao yang

his last

mo ming
to lecture

(jg

declared openly

commands, proclaimed

his dying charge.

Then_ ^ao means

on or discuss a subject.

Thus

we rekd

of

Men cius

tao hsing
at

shan (jg
birth.

man*s nature being good

{J g), discoursing on The commentators here

explain tao by yen ("g), to speak of or describe, and one gives as

the meaning of the above words,

*'

stated that
'S*

men
to

at birth

all

have a good moral nature** ("g

translates

A ^

^^
^)

the clause,

*'

Mencius discoursed
So tao ku chin
to
(j^f

^). him how the

is to

Legge

nature of man

is good.**

discourse

of old and modern times

compare and contrast them.

It is also used with the

meaning

of to relate or report, as

when

it

is

said

that

Ch'en Hsiang reported

translates, "related with approbation"

or,

as

Legge

to

Mencius the words

used by Hsii Hsing (Jg ^, fr i, u)- ^^ old times there was an official called Hsun-fang-shih ( J|| "fi J^)j one of whose duties

was " to report

to the sovereign the

'*

measures of government of the

iS :$). The reports (H J5 in the and put state archives, tao came to be thus made were
used in the sense of a record, a written statement.

feudal chiefs of the kingdom

Thus the

Hsiin-fang-shih had also to read to the sovereign the reports

which were on record, as Biot translates

**Ils lui lisent les


194

Th^ Word Tao.

**

documents traditionnels des quatre parties de Fempire

(|j

i:

51)-

Then
T^an-jen

tao

also

means

to

describe

or

explain.

Thus the
period,

(^ Ai

or Investigator, an official in the

Chow
is

explained the measures of government, the state regulations as to

imposts and such matters, to the feudal chiefs.

the words tao law chih cheng shih
translates

This

stated in

{^

2l !& ^^)> ^^^ ^iot

by " expliquer

le service

r^glementaire du go uverne-

ment.*'

When

Confucius on one occasion had spoken modestly of

said to him, Fu'tzU tzH tao ye

himself, Tzii
)l^)f

Kung

{^
is,

"?
'

J8
are

" Sir, you are describing yourself." The meaning

You

using the language of modest self-depresiation,' and tzu-tao

in use as a classical quotation with this sense.

is still

Our word
signify.

is

also

used in the sense of to denote, mean,

*^

Thus

of

an expression in the
in
i^),

Shi-ching,'* ''as
it

if

pared

and
(JE

filed''

(jp

Confucius says that

tao hsiao ye

&)>

means

or "indicates" the
Wu Kung.
is

learning, signifies the

(|ffi

labour of education of

The phrase wu4'a

^)-tao

sometimes means " there

several other meanings..

Of another statement
(tao)

no other explanation," but it has also in the " Shi-ching,"

"that by gaining the people the an expression in the " Shu-ching,"

Confucius says that

it

means
So

kingdom
he says

is

gained."

also of

it signifies

ftaoj that virtue obtains

and

vice loses the

decree to rule.
like

It is probable, however, that in

some passages

those

just

quoted, and in

others like tao hsing shan,

we

should render tao by some term like " proves " or " demonstrates."

Though yen
is

is

often given as the equivalent- of tao, yet there

properly a difference.
is

Tao has a deeper, more serious meaning

It is said that one

than yen, which

simply to speak or talk.

it is

" can (tao) discourse to a wise man, but

hard

to talk (yen)

with a clown."

But

this distinction is not

much

observed, and

the two words are often found in the same clause to add force
or

emphasis

to a

statement.

The phrase chih

tao cheng yen

(iS iE JE b") Dieans frank and correct in speech; and chHao (3^) y^^i hsu (^) tao, denotes artful words and empty talking
specious sophistry.

The Word Tao.

195

But

tao also

means

to

speak

of,

talk about.

Thus Mencius

says that there were none of Confucius* disciples

fiaoj the affairs of

who

talked of

Huan and Wen.

To

talk of the good points of

others
also

is

tao Jen shan

(A ^)j

tell

their virtues, but this phrase

It is a virtue in a

means

to give others

good advice.

man

"not

to talk

about old affairs"

stories against others.

So pu-tsu

(^ jE (^

B tk)>

^^^^ ^o

rake up old

&)-t^o, means not worth

is

talking about, not worth mentioning, and mien {^)'pu-tsti'tao

" we need not talk about his drunkenness."

The word

is also

used in the sense of "to mention^" and Gallery in one place

translates
it

by " fait
plays,

I'eloge de."

In novels,
find this
relate,

and modern light literature generally, we

isense

word constantly used in the

of to say,

tell,

or

sometimes alone, but often joined

to shiio

(^), meaning
it

"to say" or "speak."

in this sense
its

One

or two peculiar idiomatic uses of

may
we

be mentioned.

The phrase nan {^)-tao,

tell,"

like

equivalent nanshuo, means, literally, " hard to

and in

old literature

find nan-yen {") with the sense of to avoid as

mentioning.

Premare regards the phrase nan-tao

and the expression nan

merely

making
hua Uao

a question,

tao shih ivo yen

chHng

(8Ji SfJ8SBt?2T)^e
But

translates thus,
is

"an

affusa est meis oculis caligo ? "

the expression

evidently

meant

to

be an emphatic denial that the speaker's vision was

obfuscated, and niim would apparently be better than an in an

accurate rendering.

Morrison says that nan-tao means "

it

must
of
to

not, cannot, will not be;" and in one of the

the " Tzii-erh-chi " the phrase

is

Hundred Lessons rendered by "you don't mean

a

maintain, do

you?"

This

last

shews the real force

of the idiom as

part of a question, the answer to which must be

negation.

Again, the phrase

lean

i^^-tao

is,

literally, " venture to state," and

-

pu kan

tao is

I do not dare (or presume) to say.

But

kan^tao

is

often used in the sense of

"I venture

to

argue"

maintain the
of

truth of a certain

assertion.
is

Another peculiar expression

everyday language

chie-h'ou

(^
to

\\yt^Oj literally, "borrow

mouth speak."
another,
to

This means
to

put

words in the mouth of

sentiments

attribute

u person the utterance of


196
or statements which he
is

The Word Tao.

may

not have made,

which,

in fact, lie

supposed not to have made.

Further, tao often means to talk, to express in language, or to

utter in speech simply.

tao, to

Thus,

to talk like a stranger, is

wai

{^)

speak from the outside, sc, of the family.

In the " Tzii-erhstranger,'^

chi "

it is translated,
is

" you talk

as

if

you were such a

and the phrase

of one's being

explained in a note by ^'reasoning on the basis

an outsider."

To congratulate another
to condole

is tao-hsi is

(:g), tell one's joy to

(fg),

him and
;

with another

tao-nao
as

a phrase which
tell,

is

interpreted in the

" Tzu-erh-chi "

nao,

meaning "to
sorrow."

sc,

my

sympathy with your

trouble,

The

iphrasepu-k^o
;

[^

"vjytao sometimes
is

means "cannot
''beyond power

be put in language " hut pu o sheng {^ytao

of expression in language,

more

or greater than can be told or

described.
ij^ytaOj
(jgy^fifo,

sometimes expressed by yu-hsin (jj to say in the heart, but the more usual phrase is hsiang
is

"To think"

hsiang

meaning

to

think.
is

Here
in a

tao

adds

little

or

nothing to the word

or metaphorical, like

preceding, but

manner picturesque
to

the Scripture expression that such an one

"saith in his heart."

In other cases
affix to

tao

seems

be merely

added as an euphemistic
{"^ytao
is

the principal word.

is

Thus ma

simply to scold;

wen {^^ytao

to

ask; and ho

(|lg)-^o is to shout.

This

last

term also means

to clear the

way
of

of all passengers, as a mandarin's attendants do,

by going ahead

and shouting.
*'

In

all

these

cases,

however,

the

meaning

say " or " speak "

*

may
d,

be involved in the particular phrases.*

Schriffc," S.

Wuttke's " Geschiohte

261

C, iii., pp. 388 and 558 ; "Shu," chaps, iv. and their Kebellions," p. 355; L. " Meng," chap, v.; (13), chap. v. Jt; " Ch'ang-li. vi. ; L. C. C, ii., p. 110; '" Lun," chap, xvi.; " Kan-ying-pien," ch'uan.ohi," chap, xix.; L. C. C, i., p. 177; C, ii., p. 123; "Meng," chap. X., p. 29, note; " Li-chi," chap, vi., p. 63; L. chap, v.; "Chou-li," chap, xxi.; Biot's "Tcheou-li," T. ii., p. 284; L. 0. C, chap, xiv.; L. C. C, i., pp. 227, 239, 240; iv., p. 91 ; "Ta-hsio," i., p. 150; "Lun," chap, ii.; L. C. C, ii., p. 14; "Meng," chap, i.; "Ku-liang" (13), chap, ix.; Premare " Notitia," &c., pp. 62 and 135 ; " Tzii-erh-chi," Hundred Lessons, Nos.

Meadows' "The Chinese and

^^

There is an interesting passage in Tso's Commentary on the "Ch'iin-ch'iu," where tao seems to be used in a pecuhar manner. The speaker says that at court, and at meetings, the chief oflBcer of the sovereign is to speak so as to be heard over a definite distance, and to fix his look on a point midway hetwen the girdle and collar of the person addressed. Tlie object of the latter, he says, ig

63, 71, 76.

The Word Tao.

197

We
first

now come
seem
to

to notice certain uses of our

little

word which

at

sight

have

or no connection with those already

mentioned.

To the

native scholar, however, these

new

uses are

quite as natural and proper to the

word

as the others.

They

belong indeed chiefly to philosophy, and are found mainly in

books intended for students.

root from

But

at the

same time they are the

arisen,

which many

of the other

meanings have

and

common applications of the word. now said to be another name for the T'ai-chi Meadows has^ well translated "tJItimate (ik, &)} wKfcli'Hr.^ The term c/d denotes the ridge-pole of a house, the Principle."
they underlie the most

The word

tao is

setting of

which in

its

proper place
It
is

is

the

first

step in the erection

of a Chinese building.
of

the highest and most central part

all

the framework, and the basis of union for

the rest of the

is

materials.

So in one sense the T'ai-chi or Grand Bidge-pole

the ultimate form of existence, the primal

monad from which

all

being has developed.

It

is

the farthest point to which reason

can go in
so
it is

its

attempts to account for the origin of the world, and

the starting point for the

mind

in

framing a system of the

universe.

In philosophy

it is

often symbolised by a simple circle,

writers replace the

"Epical
circle

of its

unmixed perfection; but some

Matter and

by a parallelogram.

spirit in their first

and

purest natures coexist originally as one substance forming the

T^ai-chi.

Viewed

as material, this is the primal essence of matter

which assumes the two forms pang and yin; the former male, and the latter female, dark, negative, bright, positive, active
;

inert.

Regarded

as immaterial,

it is

the spiritual principle which

coexists with the eternal simple essence of matter, and which

continues
tao

immanent

in this throughout

its

processes of evolution

yung mao !%) *o give expression to the deportment of his face, that shew his respectful bearing. He adds that the Shan-tzu in giving his sovereign's orders did not raise his looks above the girdle, and so mao pu tao yung, his countenance did not express becoming deportment, did not show gravity and respect. He adds farther that pu tao pu hung, where there is no expression of it there is no respectful demeanour. Dr. Legge in this passage translates tao by "fitly regulate" and "regulations," but>these renderings do not seem to give the meaninof of the text. The commentators tell us to road the character for tao as if ^, but some term like " express " or " indicate " is
is,

(M^

to

chuan "

apparently required. L. C. C, (13), obap. xlv.

v., p.

632; "Tso-chuan," chap, xxxvii.

"Tflo-

198
and developmen
itself
.

The Word Tao.

Indeed
this ch'i (^), air or essential matter, is

fine
it

and
and

subtle,
spirit.

and no clear
It
is like

line

marks the boundary

between

our fore-fathers'

" Spirits animall Whose matter, almost immateriall, Resembles heaven's matter quiatessentiall."

Now
But
it is

tao

is

used as the equivalent of the Tai-chi or

as material

"Ulti-

mate Principle," whether viewed

chiefly of
it

or as

immaterial.

when regarded
as the
is

as the immaterial principle

all

which reason requires

material

antecedent and concomitant of

action that tao

spoken

of

as

its

equivalent.
is

So

the T'ai-chi of Confucius'

to

Appendix

to the
is

" Yi-ching"

declared
is

be tao; and in another work

first

it

said that the T'ai-chi

taO'chih-chi, the

and highest

spiritual principle.

Properly,

tao

is

only the law or

latter is

mode

of operation of the

Ultimate Principle.

Thus the

always passing from one form of the primal

is

essence to the other, and this law of alternation

called tao.

In

the Appendix to the " Yi-ching "

^ao

1^

^ ;i
of

II JE),

we read i yin i yang chih wei which Meadows renders "Once a

:

Negative, once a Positive,

operation the

is called

taou, the

Way

(or

method

of

Ultimate Principle)." Native commentators,

considerably
in
their

however,

differ
it is

interpretations
is

of

this

passage, and

not quite certain that the text

it

correct.

We also find

stated that tao

is,

is

the Tai-hsii

( jj;

^)

or

Grand

(ultimate) Void, that

the perfectly matterless state which in

thought precedes the existence of matter, or did actually exist

before
it,

as

some

teach.
;

Then

tao is contrasted with ch^i (^),

matter of definite form

cally, visible substance,
this.

the former preceding, at least theoretilatter

and the

coming into existence

after

Hence

tao is used as the equivalent of

to

wu (^),
it is

the

imma-

terial, as

opposed

yu

(:), the

material

and

defined as " the

name

of the incorporeal" (5|[ 55

H^

2)-

^^ is also stated in
is

various places that ch% (^), essential matter,

visible form,

that which has

is

while that which has not visible form

tao or

spiritual principle.

But though

in thought tao
it

may

be contemit

plated as distinct from the matter

pervades, yet in fact

has uo


The Word Tao.
separate
existence.
is

199
matter, in
its

Apart from
:

essential

two
it

aspects there

no tao

it is

only in the operations of this that

so our

(tao) can be discerned.

And

word may now be rendered

by expressions like " spiritual principle," or "law of being,'* or " principle of action." "We are told that the T'ai-ohi is called
tao, because it is by it that all existing creatures proceed. In the passage quoted above from the " Yi-ching " " Once a Negative, once a Positive, is called tao " Chu Hsi explains tao by li (jg).

Herr Grube

finds fault with

this identification of tao,

him, and says that on account of " die Normj" with li, " die Vernunft/'

"ermangelt seine Begriffsentwickelung des logischen Fortschritts."

But Chu Hsi

a

is

right,

and Herr Grube did not quite understand

the course of thought in text or commentary.

To

is of ten

used as
;

synonym

for

li,

meaning law
is

of order, principle of reason

but

sometimes the one

Interchangeably.

represented as including the other, and this

Further, as

order or law,
it

though ^ao was

its

always existent, yet there was a time when

far as

had

beginning so

man

is

concerned.

For

far

back in the unbeginning past of

This
things

the universe

all

once was tohu-hohu, without form and void.

state passed, melted gradually into

one of order, and

all

quietly

became ship-shape.

It

was in the passing that

tao ,the

spiritual principle of the universe, took its rise

order came

forth

from chaos
It

{M

ih

^&

!$)

may

help us to appreciate the part which this word tao

plays in the

common works

of

orthodox philosophy, when

if

it

is

viewed as the ultimate principle or universal law,

we

learn

what terms are

or less degree.

in this use regarded as its equivalents in a greater

In doing

so

let

us begin with
says,

remarkable
to the right

statement by Mr. Meadows.

He

" The key

understanding of the Chinese Sacred Books, with their established

annotations, as comprehending a theory of
all

mental and material

existence, lies in the perception of the fact that the above fourteen

words or terms
taou'le (Ji

tae^heih
le

(^

;g),

sing ('^),

sin

(^{J),

taou,

a),

(31), tih (fg), shang-te (or Te)

{ ^),

teen

i^yt^^n-li

X^

^), teen-taou (5c

(gj),

jB), rning (^), teen-ming (Jf

the m7ne\thing
:

^), and ching

mean

one

and

the Ultimate

200
Principle of

The Word Tao.

my

exposition."

This statement appears rather curt

and dogmatic, and it needs to be amplified by native writers. One of these says, " That which spoken of as pursued is called tao,
spoken of as inscrutable
always producing
says the
is

is

called spiritual

(jjif ),

and spoken

of as

called ^change' (^).'*

Another philosopher
is tao,

mind
most

(^jji) is

the Ultimate Principle, and so also

the

natural law of the universe.

after the
is

modern

scholar, one

who

lived

straitest sect of orthodoxy, writes,

" T'ai-chi

(^ ^)
In the

the general

name

for all spiritual qualities

(g).

In Heaven
(fj).

it is fate

{^)y and in
is

man

his moral constitution

heavens

it

the order of their succession (;7C pf

5pJ

^); and in

man
law
the

it

is

humanity, rectitude, observance of

Since
it is
;

social requirements,
call it

and wisdom.

it

has method and no confusion we

O)
Way

as

that by which all

it is

mankind proceeds
(4'); as
;

it is

called

(tao)

as

without any deflection, neither too

much

nor not enough,

it is

called the

mean

it is

altogether true
it is
;

and honest

it

is

called perfect truth

it is

{^

because

absolutely
it is

pure and sincere

called moral perfection

(^ ^)

and as

the ultimate pole of existence

(rfc

we

call it

the

Grand Ridge-pole
tao
;

S)-*'

Another philosophical writer says that

and unity

are forced
is

names

for spirit

{^

H 1$
is is life

the immaterial principle which

acts

&) and spirit j21 SS everywhere present, by which

in all that lives.

mind
it is

on mind, and which

After

all,

only as an absolutely spiritual principle that the T'ai-chi can

said
to

be

be

tao.

We

must dismiss from our minds the

of the central principle,

consideration of the material Ridge-pole, get rid of the influence

of metaphor,

and think only

chung

(t|),

immaterial and eternal, which gives the source and the law of
being and action to all the universe. The T'ai-chi is the "pervading spiritual law " of the universe, not to be defined or described,
the source and disposer, the distributor and maintainor of
exists.
all

that

It is

when viewed

in this light that

it is

properly said to
t^ai-chi

be another name for tao. Some Taoists identify the

with

their tan (j^), which in its highest sense is tao, the ultimate This tao is self-existent, alone, and unprospiritual principle.

ductive, but

it

is to

be learned or acquired or amalgamated with

"

The Word Tao.

,

201

himself by the
himself of
all

man who
is selfish

is

pure and wise, who knows to empty

to follow

that

and mortal and

Nature

in a

-gradual process of refinement to perfection.

The

doctrine

in

^his form and the use

extent

of tao in this

manner

are both to

some

common
to

to

some Confucianists and

as tao

certain followers of

Lao-tzu.

Both regard the Vai-chi

when

these terms are

employed

denote the ultimate spiritual fact of the

universe

and

of existence.-^

As

all

the objects which exist in the universe derive their

existence or at least their law of being from taoj this

to denote the

word comes

nature or

Law
In

of all objects
this sense
it

animate and inanimate,

is

organic and inorganic.

used very
says,

Hooker uses the word Law,

the force and

of

which he

much as "That which

doth assign unto each thing the kind, that which doth moderate

power, that which doth

the same

appoint the form and

a

measure
{if^-tao

of
is

working,

we term

Law."

Thus shui
translate,
instincts

the nature of water,

or, as

Legge and Faber

and

the laws of water.

Ma-tao

is

a horse's nature, that

is, its

and

habits.

So
is

also for birds to fly in the air

it is

fish to

leap

in the water

their nature, just as

for bears

and

lions to

growl and

fight.

It

is ti

{^ytao, the nature

of earth, the

law

of her being, to have hills and rivers,

downs and marshes, and

that these yield products according to their several qualities and

capacities.

Used with reference

to all

that

is

below

man

tao

denotes the fixed inevitable law which created things follow from
blind irresistible impulse.
of time

The

reign of law

knows no bounds
and dispassionate
itself

or space.
all

It bears

sway inexorabk

through

the universe of existence.

Changeless

and

subject to no influence from without law exists and rules impalpable to human senses in all the changing elements of " all this
" Chu.tzu-ch'uan-shu," chap. lii. ; Yi, Pref., p. 1; " Chou-yi-hSng-ohie '-Chinese and their Kebellions," p. 374; Legge's " Yi," 'II 8?) 1*-' P- 1^5 " Yi," chap. iii. ; Yi ching," (13) chap. vii. ; " Chou-yi-h^ng-chie," chap. p. 355 " v, p. 12; " Huai-nan.tzu," chap, iii.; v.; " Chou-yi-tsim-shu
1

(^

'^

(M^^^).vol.

"Hsing-li," chaps, iv., v., vi., viii.; "Yi ching" (13), Int., chap vii., p. 32; "T'ung shu," by W. Grube, T. I., p. 9; "Chinese and their Rebellions," p. 351; "San-yiit'ang-chi," chap, i.; Esiao.sau.shv, (/> ) chap, ii.; Ch'ang-tao.chen-yen chap. f. p. 27. ff (Pg m)' i^ee also Chao.tzii-yen-hsing.lu (M J-

ME

W>

202
changing world."
but at least
it

The Word Tao.

It brought the heavens into being, say some,

is

only by following

its

requirements that they

continue to exist.
invisible tao is

As

coiitrolliug

their operations visible

ti

and

sometimes called

or God.

The expression

tHen-taOj heaven's law or way, has a variety of meanings.

We
manof the

have already noticed

it

as the designation of the course

pursued

by the heavenly

bodies.

It will help us to understand the

if

ifold applications of

our word

we now look
is

at a

few

other ways in which the phrase t'ien-tao

used.^

The
meanings.

character t'ien {JQ,

It
it

it

will be

remembered, has several

the heavens,

is

used to denote the sky,

and

Heaven, and
not

has several other significations with which we are

now

concerned.

So the phrase Vien-tao expresses the law

as pervading
it

of the heavens or heaven, the Pai-chi

is

them.
is

It

the law of heaven {t'ien-tao) to be round, as

it is

that of

earth to be square; and

to

heaven's law or nature (t'ien-tao)

be alternately yin and yang, dark and bright, passive and

active.

What we

call

the climate of a place

is

is its

heaven's law

{tHen-tao).

This phrase

also used to denote the order of the

seasons,

^s when we read that the natural law of yuan^ heng, li, chen {%'^ 8) is called Heaven's law. The M, S

^^

terms yuaUy heng, 1% cheuy taken from the

to denote respectively Spring,

'*

Yi-ching," are used

Summer, Autumn, Winter. The means to take advantage of yung tHen^chih-tao expression (|B)
is,

heaven's law, that

to

make

the due use of the seasons of the

year as they recur in regular undeviating order.

And

this

law

of the succession of the seasons is sometimes described as heaven's

spiritual (or mysterious)

course which celestial

phenomena through
is

law {Ji i, %^ jS)- In general the all time follow spont-

aneously and without error

Heaven's law, and the words ho-chu

''

('&
les

S)

tHen-tao are rendered by Gallery

ciel."

se

met en accord avec

phenomenes du

But
the

the phrase tHen-tao denotes also the law from heaven,

or course which
it

way

ordains.

In

this usage it is said to be

^ L. " Chia-yii "

C,

ii.

p.

319; "
i.
'*

(^

^), chap.

ghu"

(<h E3 ll) <2^^P' "

p. 38; " Chuaug-tzu," chap. vii. "Hsing-li," chap. x. and chap, vi.; "Hsiao-ssuSan-yu-t'ang.chi," chap. x.

Faber Licius,"


The Word Tao.
203

equivalent to Vieri^ming {^), heaven's decree or appointment.

The The

intelligent king, says the Minister

Yue, respectfully observes

is,

heaven's decrees

($

g
is

5c jS)?

^^^^

obeys G-od's statutes.

established and

visible order of things, the uniformities of

nature are called heaven's

its first

way

tHen-tao

the

order which

is

law.

Thus

it

said not to be in the order of things

ftHen-taoJ that a serpent should assume the form of a man.

this

In

usage of
le

it

the phrase

is

translated by Gallery "I'ordre etabli

par

ciel."

Then we

find that the great relations of politi-

cal, social,

and domestic

life,

that

isj-

those of ruler and minister,

father and son, husband and wife, brothers and friends are called

tHen-tao, heaven's institutions.

in a country, and the people

When

bad government prevails

moral

and

rulers fall into a state of

anarchy then

'*

Shang Ti"

is

said to regard tliora as throwing into

confusion ''the settled arrangements of

is also

Heaven" (^ 5c

JID-

-^^

said to be the tendency of proud old families to violate

these institutions of heaven and so bring ruin on themselves,

but

the reverent observance of

them brings a good

explained as
It

destiny.

Thus
destiny.

also

tHen-tao comes to denote what

it

we

call fate or
gj{),

So we find

tang-jan

(^

that

which must or ought

to be.

was once thought

to be

" tHen-tao

chih-ch'ang " (^), a law of destiny, that a sage should appear

in

China once in about 500 years.

Without bounds
is

or parts,
its

dark and mysterious, destiny

action.

ftHen-taoJ

uncontrolled in

Heaven and earth cannot

demon nor
spirit

violate,
it.

nor saint nor sage

is

oppose, nor
ance,

cheat

Fate

Heaven's ordinIt
is

and must be noted and observed by man.

with flecks of sin,"

heaven's
all life

ordaining that perfection does not exist in the world, that

is
'^

dashed

and

so

it

is

not the business of

one state to oppose the growing power of another on account of

some moral imperfection.

itself is

Then tHen
fate.

is

often omitted and tao by

after describing

used in the sense of

Thus a writer

how

only those

who

are destined {yu tao

'^

Jg) obtain and keep

is

sovereignty over an empire, adds a precious thing for

all

therefore Heaven's decree

time;"

Chow Wu-wang

said "receiving

the Decree" (or destiny)

{^

MM m, ^ ^ M ^^ B ^

204
'^ ^).
Iq

The Word Tao.

this passage tao

and tHen-tao are evidently treated as

it is

having the same meaning, and

often said that tao

his

is

Heaven.
of

"Law

is

God, say some/'

Every man has

life for

due portion
It

the Vai'chi, the spiritual basis of

the universe.

is this

which shapes
his death
;

all

man's

life,

beginning at his birth and ending at

that a man's lot in fate
is

and
JK
in,

so
jfi

we read
pI

called his

destiny

(^

'&)

^e

are also told that " going out

to

and coming
[according

having and not having,

(tao).

live

and

to

die,

are

to] destiny''

Connected with

this last use of the phrase tHen-tao is

another

which

it

has occasionally in literature.

([^)

It is

found interchanged

with hsing

in the sense of

man's nature, the constitution

which he receives from Heaven.

The

spiritual principle of the

world, the perfect law of the universe becomes embodied in man,

as

God "embosoms

in

us" his "glorious law."

man's nature (hsing),

Thus one
is

writer

says,

"What
;

is

called

Heaven's law

(tHen-tao) "

and another says that man

is

at birth has a tHen-tao^

and

this

term

explained as hsing, moral constitution.

So

also

an old writer exclaims, "

in

Was

not Heaven's law (fien^chih^taoj

is

Confucius?" and here tHen-tao

explained

as

the five

cardinal virtues.

Again, as God's ways, of which behemoth

his works, so tHen-tao
its
is

is

the chief, are

used

to

denote the operations of heaven,

works and influences.

It does not grudge these (^f

its

^^

Jfi),

says one author, but sends down, for example,

dew

to bless

the land.

Again we read that the influences or operations of heaven and are brilliantly conspicuous. In its (5C JE) descend to enrich nature heaven is spiritual' and inscrutable, and its activity (tHentao) is in

making

or transforming.

The word
explained as

for

heaven

in Chinese as in other languages

is is

largely used as a substitute for that for God.

So used
jij

t^ien

"the

lord of all the

gods" ("g

^)

or as

" the sovereign

of all things "

H ^ ^ i ^).
this

Thus

the phrase

tHen-tao, God's way, denotes also something very like

call

what we

Providence, a term by which

phrase

is

sometimes trans-


The Word Tao.
lated.

205
ft^ien taoj

The model man esteems Providence

it

because

he sees

to

be unceasing like the endless succession of the

its

courses of sun and moon, to give

to
effect its object

existence free course to endure,

to

without visible means, and

shew

its

work
Male-

openly when accomplished.

Here Gallery
is,

translates the phrase

is

by

^'la

Verity

Celeste,"

that

God who

truth.

for

branche had shown before that li (S)j which is another name tHen-tao, really denoted " la Yerite Celeste," or God of
Christianity.

But tHen-tao
yu

is

rather the moral forces of the

all beings.

universe which act on, but are independent of

expression chih

The
is is

(^ ^)

tHen-tao means to recognize there

a Providence in the affairs of men.

We

read that tHen-tao

it

without private feelings of aversion or liking, and that

according to natural law without regard to man's feelings.
the

acts

It is

way

of

Providence

ft^iefi-taoj to

protect the good

and

to

abhor

wicked persons, such as greedy usurers.

like to believe,

It does not,

as

some
but

curse kings
desert

and

bless

peasants

as

such,
to

rewards according to
circumstances.
to

and without regard

ftHen taoJ
is to

worldly

Then Providence
The
genial
is,

be served, and

be held in awe.

mildness of spring and the

justice are equally

stern rigour of autumn, that

mercy and

shown by Providence.
man's deeds.

Like shadow and echo following form

of

and sound, so are the retributions

to

Providence (5c ?E >^

it

We

must not say that

fien tao

does

M)
not

take notice of an evil procedure because the guilty one seems to

escape punishment.
of

Do we

not see that the sons and grandsons

bad mandarins grow up

to dishonour,

some
their

falling into poverty,

?

some becoming dumb, and some losing

Providence
is

memory
is

Further,

described as ch'eng (|^), Perfect truth, or, as the

;

word

is

usually rendered, sincerity Virtue,

and

it

also described as

"V^isdom,

Benevolence,

Rectitude (jg (*
('{J)

^ ^).
t'ieii

The
means
from

teaching of Confucius about man's nature

not for

and

tao was

every

body.

In

this
it is

place

t'leii

tao perhaps

Providence or Destiny, but

signification of the

not possible to

settle the precise

term in the passage.

is

What is Providence

one point of view

Destiny from another, the former referring

206
to the

The Word Tao.

unseen agent, and the latter
to the visible effects.
his.

Thus

"Wen

Chung-tzii" says that Confucius ended

(J^Jl

Ch^un-ch^iu on

account of Providence

5c M)f while his own Yuan-ching

(TC S) ^^^ ended on account of human action ( JgJ V). Here tHen-tao is shewn to be the equivalent of yin t'ien ming chih

ch'iung

(0

^^

was exhausted.
season,

i, M)^ because the destiny decreed by Heaven The ch'i lin was sent by Providence out of
its

and Confucius knew that and disposes

appearance meant that the

end.

destiny of the dynasty was near

tao superintends

its

As Providence,

T'ien-

all

the affairs and events of the

the Li

world.

Hence the President

of

Pu

(|g

^)

has the
all

title

T'ien

Kuan

(5c 1) because he has general control over

other
affairs

officials

as Providence has

supreme management

of

all

From
of

this

we

pass on to notice the use of tao in the sense

spiritual

man's moral nature, the

element in his constitution

makes him a responsible creature. This is the t'ai-chi as lodged in man and working in him. Lie-tzu gives a quotation, found also in Chuang-tzu, in which the question is asked, ' Can
which,

the moral principle (or moral nature) ftaoj be acquired ?

'

that

is,

can a

man

say that he owns the "Urprincip" as Faber here trans-

lates tao.

The answer
the

is

that he cannot, just as he cannot call his

body and nature and children his

stores
of

own

since all belong to the

universe (3^

J-jfc

;^ g),

and are not in man's

decrees to

power.

The Chung-yung
(tao),

says,

"What Heaven

man

is

called his natural constitution, that

which follows

this is called
is

his moral nature

and that which

cultivates the latter

1 " Strng-pen-shih" chap, i ; " Huai-nan-tzu," chap, iii ; " Yi," (5J$ 7|C Vol. 2 et ah; /> chap, iv; " Li-chi," chap, v., p. 17, note /5? Int., " Hsiao-ching " (13) ^., chap, iii; Ma, T. 1., chap. 129; Call. Le Ki, p. 116 j L. " " C.C. IV., p. 570; Shih, chap, viii; Shih-ching" (13), chap, xix; Chung-yung," chap, i; '* Hsing-li," chap, ix; L. C. C. iii., p. 254; Shu, chap, iii; " Lun-heng," iii., pp. 183, 294, 575; "Shu," chaps, iii, iv; "Chia-yii," chap, xxii; L. chap, vi; "Lun-heng," chap, iv; " Meng," chap, xiv, p. 61, note; " Lie-tsii," " Hsin-shu," chap, ix; " Hsing-li," chap, iii, p. 40; chap, vi and Faber p. 143, " Meng," chap, ii ; " Hsing-li," chap, iv ; Chang Heng ch'ii chi (5g |^ ^), chap, x; "Fa-yen," chap, i; "Li-chi," chap, iv, p. 65; " Yi," chap, i p,. 34; " Han-shu," chap, xxvii, _t:; "Sung pen shih," chap, "Hsing-li," chap, iii; i; "Chia-yii," chap, iii; "Lun heng," chap, xxiv; Sac. Ed. Art. 3. Amp.; L. C. C. III., p. 186; "Hsing-li," chap, v; Edicts of Kanghsi and Yung

^)

;^MMb^

^^

C C

Cheng; L. C. C. I

p.

277;

II.,

p. 179;

"Meng," chap,
vii.

vii.;

L. C. 0.

i.,

p 41;

"Lun," chap, v;

"Wen

Chung-tzii," chap.

XTKI
The Word Tao.
education."

207
gives
is

As

the constitution whicli

it

Heaven
to

originally

pure and perfect,

naturally

came
it

be identified with the

((5j)

moral nature, and so we find

tao are identical.
said to

taught that the hsing

and
is

As

denoting man's moral nature this word

the love of kind.

mean jen {{^,

(||),

But

it is

more usually

explained as composed of this with rectitude (^), observance of

due rules
(4)

and knowledge (^). For the last two chung the mean, and cheng (J) perfect, are sometimes substituted,
is,

but the commentators explain them as having the same meaning.

Man's moral nature

birth

according taMencius' teaching, good at

and

alike in

all,

the same in

Yao and Shun

that

it is

in

any

Chang

or Li of to-day.

But the

influence of his body

and

his sur-

roundings tends to pervert his nature and destroy

its

authority.

Mencius

also says that

"Man

has a good moral nature" (tao), but

without education he becomes like a beast.

as

Here some explain

is,

tao

meaning

^'"an

order-observing natural constitution," that

an

inborn disposition to observe the moral law decreed by Heaven.

Every one has

throughout
life

this

moral nature, as has been seen, but

all,

it is
ffi),

not

the same in

It is

a hsu-wei

(^

an

empty

place,

an unoccupied stand, where there can be the perfect

It can be cultivated

and the imperfect man.

it

and developed, and

Confucius

may

be neglected and allowed to become atrophied.

it is

says that

in man's

power

to develope his

moral nature which

does not develope (or enlarge)

man (A lb ?i JE |^ jg i A).
The emperor

This saying, which has received several very different interpretations, is often

quoted in books and state documents.

for example,

Yung- cheng,
literati

uses

it

to

enforce

a lecture to the

on the

liberal cultivation of ceremonial strictness, rectitude,

self-restraint,

and

self-respect,

(jjli

^S
is

5S)-

It is only

man who

can develope the tao with which he

born, and he can do so only

loses the purity

by a good moral
and power
wise
of his

training.

The common man

natal gift and falls into moral ruin.

But the
its

man

keeps the heart of his childhood and gives to

development.
{J3)
it,

moral

nature

its full

He
it

guards

(ijjp) it,

follows
last

it

{f}\

and developes

or gives

expansion.

This

he

effects

by doing righteousness (fj ^), by acting

in all things in a fair

208

The Word Tao.

others.

and unselfish manner toward

moral constitution
(:),
is

The
is

chief element in

man's

the feeling of kind, the instinct of humanity

ni-jen-tao

and

to

act

contrary to this

(^

A M)>
is

to

thwart or oppose man's moral nature.

to express cruel

Hence the phrase

used

inhuman conduct, such

as that too often displayed

by oppressive mandarins.

The habitual

exercise of charity, of

mercy and

kiiidhess to others reacts on oneself,

and so we read

also

of hsiu-tao-i'jen (fif Jg SI tl)y cultivating the moral nature

by

human

kindness.

In the
while

saint
it

this

moral nature

is

of far-

reaching greatness,
flourishes

embraces every detail

;

of life; it

when

the right

man comes

and only he who has

in

him

perfect virtue can develope his moral nature to perfection.^

The moral nature

of his
life.

of

man

forms, at least in theory, the law

to it

By

it

he regulates his conduct, and

he refers
all

instinctively all questions of right

and wrong.

Man

alone of

earthly creatures has a faculty to discern good and evil and to

make
**

choice between them.

like that in

way which we employ such terms as '^conscience" and

So we

find tao often used in a

the moral sense," as

"

when God

says of

Adam

and his posterity

And

I will

place within

them as a guide

My
Thus
tao
is

umpire conscience."

said to be the clue to (or discriminator of)

right

and wrong

(^

|^ ^^

jffi),

and
(taoj

as a mirror

shews the defects of

of the

the body, so conscience

shews us the imperfections

mind.

But the

conscience

must

be educated, instructed by

orthodox books and teachers.

It is expressly stated
is

by one

writer that conscience without learning

not intelligent, and

learning without conscience

is

erroneous (JS
jig),

Jp

i^fi

03 Jp ^f

jE /F W)-

T^^ phrase i-tao (1

noticed above,

may

in

many

places be appropriately rendered by

conscientiously.
;

And

some such word as kung {^)-taOj which has many other

'

1 Lie-tzii, chap. i. and Fab. Lie, p. 19 ; " Chuang tzii," chap, vii.; L. C. C, i., 247 and note Chung, chap, i., p. 10, 14; "Wang-yuan-ming-chi," chap, ii., p. " Hsing li," chap, i.j In the Yii-pien the phrase fl is given 48 Yi, chap, iv.; as a meaning of the character for tao; " Li chi," chap, x., p. 66 L. C. C, ii., p. " Hiao-hsio-chi-chie," chap, i.; L. CO., i., p. 166; Lun, 110, 127; Meng, chap, v.; " Hsing-h/^chap. ii.; Hanshu, chap, chap. XV.; Yung Cheng's Ed. ts 5y. 6m. 17; ^), chap. ~f. viii.; Chia yii, chap, iv.j Chao.tzii-yen.hsing-lu

p.

(M^m^

The Word Tao.

meanings,
that
so
is

209
is

often

" the sense of what

right,"

and especially

common much importance.

conscience of the majority to

which Chinese attach

Jcung-taO'tzu'tsaiof

Thus the popular saying

jen.hsin

(^

JE

ffi

)&) means that a sense

what
is

is

socially right is naturally in

man's heart, that

is,

public spirit

natural

human

instinct.

Again
it

to

say to a community with

respect to an individual in

ni-men'hung'tao''pU'jung4a, means,
right will not endure him.^
as the Ultimate Principle, the

your

common

sense of what

is

When
is

it is

said that taOy

life, is

spiritual basis of

also

man's

hdn

or mind, this latter

word

used in a definitely restricted sense.

its

It does not denote that

which having
hunger.

seat in

the heart feels heat and cold, pain and

is

The

hsin which

said

to

be tao

is

only the mind

considered as that in

man which knows

pity

and shame, and

there
is

aversion and self-denial, and moral judgment.

distinction

Hence

the
taO'

between the jen^hsin or " man-mind," and the

hsin
said

or " law (or spiritual) mind."

to

The former
it,

is

sometimes
latter the

be the mind of
as

man

as

he makes

and the

same mind
a general
designation

made by Heaven. But many regard jen-hsin as name for the appetites and passions, and tao^hsin as a
for

the heaven law in man.

In the Shu-ching

it is

written

jen-hsin^wei-wei tao-hsin-wei-wei

(A

i&

111

JE >&

" ^^^ man-mind is dangerously fickle, the Law-mind is 'Hi WOf dimly minute." This famous pas;sage, with the change of to

;^,

is

quoted by Hsiln-tzu as from a

regard
it

*^

Tao-ching.'*

Some

native
of this

scholars

as

an interpolation from the work

philosopher, while others, like

this passage

Huang

Tsung,-hsi, think that from

the philosopher just mentioned derived his doctrine

is

that man's nature

bad

originally.
its

The passage has

received

several interpretations, and

meaning perhaps cannot be yet

of all thought,

said to be settled authoritatively.

Some take the jen hsin to be the mind as the lord

and the tao hsin as the source
is regarded as the popular

of all natural laws; or the

former

and the
^

latter as the
Fei-tzii,

( Jg ^JJ), unstable and unquiet, moral sense which, when enlightened, brings
i.j

mind

Han

chap,

Sitored Edict, Paraphrase, Art. 12.

210
stability

The Word Tao.

and quietness
nature (i^)
to the former.
('['f ),

Others say that the man-

mind denotes the

feelings
;

and the Law-mind denotes the

human
after
it

the latter being the infant

mind pure and

perfect as fresh from heaven,

and the former being the same mind

has been acted on by surrounding objects.

No

one, say

the puzzled critics, can have two hearts or a

reflecting

double mind, not

how many
to
is
it

there

are

thus superfluously endowed.

intelligent principle in
it

According
one, but

some the hsin as the

not homogeneous
;

man,

is

partly belongs to the

human

mind and
the due

partly to the spiritual

i& jS J@

jE >&)

JB )ii Neither part can be neglected, and to keep

respect to

mind (5^ :
them

medium with
is

is best.

Some

say that

intelligence having the source of its development in

man's native
its

constitution

the Law-mind, and intelligence having

is

genesis

in external objects

the

man-mind

the former being exercised

in spiritual principles, and the latter in material affairs.

Others
desires
;

think the man-mind

is jen-yii is

(A

Wi) ^^ appetite,

human

and the Law-mind

in

Pien-li (5J

man

as his nature.

3), Heaven's law embosomed The former is to be servant to obey, and

the latter lord to command.

But

as the

two are not radically

and

essentially distinct the

unquiet heart, the wayward

control from the

human

mind may by enlightenment and by

attain to unity
fit

Law-mind

and identity with

this latter, as appetitus inhiantis

is
;

amor

fruentis.

Again the man-mind

is

likened to a sailing

vessel of

which the Law-mind

the helm

and the

latter is also

said to be " the lord of all the body."

Premare

translates the

two terms jen-hsin and tao-hsin by

of virtue" respectively.

*^

heart of

man " and

prone

" heart

Dr. Legge thus renders the passage in

the Shu-ching, *'The mind of

its

man

is restless,

to

err;

affinity for the right

way

is

small."

This

is

not a translation
it

of

the text but of

a commentator's gloss,

and

cannot be

accepted.

Dr. Legge,

who has

a learned note on the passage,

elsewhere translates tao-hsin by

"mind

of reason,"

and

this is

much

better than the rendering quoted above.

is

A native

scholar,

moreover, says, heart (or mind)

hsin and the jen-hsin.

a general term including theitto

follows conscience (or reason)

When man

TJie

Word

Tao,

211

taoj

he becomes a saintly sage, but when reason follows

man he

becomes a mad enthusiast (^). Another account is that the taohsin is the heart in which charity and respect for others {^ jg)
aca_maia4fmied; these raise conscience in man's mind to the
lordship,

make

reason the ruler.

In popular language tao^hsin

often

means a "good heart," a heart with noble impulses, guided

Alaeighbour

by reason.
fine sense of

what

is

having chmg-li (3^ right, and iao-hsin, a generous heart.^

is

praised for

g)

In some

of the

above passages reason jseeoi^ Jo be a better

rendering than conscience, and

using this word or
its

we "find western

scholars often
tao.

Latin equivalent to translate

But

reason and ratio also have a great variety of uses and meanings.

For the present we have

within
truth

to

do with them only as denoting that

man which

discovers and judges of good

of

and

evil

and

and falsehood, the faculty made up and

inferring.

"sagacity and
Hsiin-tzu,
it

illation" or invention
for example,

The philosopher
scales,

says of tao, used apparently in this sense, that

weighs past and present fairly in the

judges impartially

between ancients and moderns.

Reason

ftaoj, again, is said to

its

be

the mind's craftsman and statesman, doing

ting
its

work and transmitits

orders.

Though

of

heavenly origin reason has

root

I "Han Fei-tzu," chaps, i. and viii.; L. 0. C, iii., p. 61'; i., p. 114, note; ii., p. 201, note; "Shu-ching" (13), chap, iv.; Shu, chap, i.; " Shu-ching-heng-chie," chap, i.; Premare's Not. Ling. Sin., p. 196; " Sun-tzii," chap, xv.; " Wang-yangming-chi," chap, ii.; ** Sau-yii-t'ang-chi," chap, iv.; Cheng. hsiao-pien (g^ S^ Jg), chap, iii.; "Chung-ynng," Pref. by ChuHsi; Chu-tzii-ch'uan-shu, chaps, xxxiii, Iii. " Hsiao-ssu-shu," chap, ii.; "Meng-tzu," chap, viii., p. 47, note. The difference; between tao-hsin and jen-hsin, as expounded by some Confucianists, is like that between will and appetite. Let us hear the Judicious Hooker on this subject. *We must have special care," he tells us, "how the will properly and strictly taken, as it is of things which are referred unto the end that man desireth, diflEereth greatly from that inferior natural desire which we call appetite. The object of appetite is whatsoever sensible good may be wished for ; the object of will is that good which reason doth lead us to seek. Affections, as joy and grief, and fear, and anger, with such like, being as it were the sundry fashions and forms of appetite, can neither rise at the conceit of a thing indifferent, nor yet choose but rise at the sight of some things. Wherefore it is not altogether in our power, whether we will be stirred with affections or no whereas actions which issue from the disposition of the will are in the power thereof to be performed or stayed. Finally, appetite is the will's solicitor, and the will is appetite's controller. What we covet according to the one, by the other we often reject neither is any other desire termed properly will, but that where reason and understanding, or the shew of reason, prescribeth the thing desired." Eccl.
:

Pol. B. I. sec. vii.

212
and growth
in

The Word Tao,

man.

But

it

will not stay

where the passions

make
it

din

and tumult and

all

within

is

anarchy.

Man must
This term,

" put away strong liking and disliking and empty his mind that

may become
is

the lodging-place of reason

(J|;

^y

taO'She,

translated by

Premare "palace

of reason/' but shS is

only the lodging or dwelling place, the place in which reason comes
to stop

(^

Jj^).

Premare

translates also the tao

which accords
of nature,"
is

with man's nature in the

Chung yung by "light

naturelle.
it

lumen naturaUf the lumiere

two
different ways,

This term also

used in

but in each of these

corresponds to tao

employed in the sense

the

of reason or conscience.

Bacon says that

"

maxims
that

of

the moral law truly interpreted are " a voice

beyond the
is it

light of nature."
is

He

afterwards adds

How

then

man

said to

have by the light and law

of nature

some
two

notions and conceits of virtue and vice, justice and wrong, good

and evil?
several

Thus; because the

the one that

light of nature is used in

senses;

which

springeth
to the

from

reason,

sense, induction,

argument, according
is

laws of heaven and

spirit of

earth

the other, that which

instinct,

imprinted upon the

man

by an inward
is

according to the law of conscience, which

first

a sparkle of the purity of his

is

estate

in

which

later sense

only he

participant of

some

light

and discerning touching the

perfection of the moral law.''

It is of the phrase

when used

in

the latter sense that tao

is

properly the equivalent, though

it is

also used in the other sense.

Canon McClatchie

often translates

tao by reason,, .but generally witli a different

meaning from that

given above, and his translations are not to be trusted. Dr. Legge
also

sometimes renders the word by reason, but the propriety of

is

the rendering

in

some places open

to question,

and he

also uses

reason in different senses.

In his translation of a passage in Hsiin-tzii we find the following " So that they might all go forth " in the way of moral government and in agreement with reason
:

(ffi'i'ffiJSSip'S^KJI^'lfc): and compare the two sentences

the above occurs
tion

JBut

if

we examine

the context

antithetical to that in

which

we

find that this rendering violates the construc-

and does not bring out the author's meaning.

Some term

The Word Tao.

like civil order or state of settled peace

213
to

seems

be required here

for tao.

Hsiin-tzu says that " the ancient Saint-kings because

man's nature was bad, dangerously depraved, licentious

anarchical instituted for
it

and

social

and moral

rules,

and enacted

laws and regulations to curb and embellish man's emotions and

nature while making them correct, to tame and refine man's

emotions and nature while giving them guidance, causing

issue in good
is

all to

government and join in moral order."

passage in
is

Then

there

a celebrated

translates

"This

Mencius,

which Dr. Legge

thus

the passion- nature:

It

is

the mate and

it,
:

assistant of righteousness
state of starvation."

and reason.

"Without

man

is

in a

Julien renders the passage

" This

too is

what the
If

vital spirit is like.

it,

It unites righteousness with reason. If reason

is

the body lacks

it

starves."

here used as the

light of nature^in the second of the senses described

by Bacon

it

may

perhaps be admitted.

But the renderings do not agree

to

with the interpretations of native scholars, according

tao here
is

whom

man.
*'

of Heaven as embosomed in The passage may perhaps be rendered somewhat thus:

Law

the

natural

Law

The natural

spirits as

such go with man's sense of duty and his

moral nature, without which they would starve."

ho-t/U'tao,

But the phrase

word tao

or shortly

hO'tao,

seems to be often used with the

meaning "

in accordance with reason."

The

single

is

and the phrase yen-tao (g* jg) denotes " language in agreement with reason." Sometimes man's mind
also frequently so used,
is

said to be reason,

and sometimes the

is

latter is said to

be born

from the former which

reason.

thence called tao-mu or mother of

(>& ig

^ JE #), the mind (or heart) with which

mother
of reason.^

man

is

born

is

really the

law be that
^

That which law commands becomes one's duty, whether the of Nature, of Heaven, or of society. So we are in a
and compare, Bacon's Works,
xvi.; "Han Fei-tzii," chap, ii.; Premare Not Ling. Sin., p. 214, " flfj j(^ corde sic fixo, ratio et doctrina para vol. iii., p. 479 (Ellis and Spedding Ed.); L. C. C, ii.,

"Sun-tzu," chap,

p.

243,

est ;"

Proleg., p. 82.;

"San-tzu," chap, xvii.; L. 0. C, ii., p. QQ; "Meng," chap, iii.; (13), chap. iii. _t. Julien's Meng Tseu, T. 1, p. 104. ''Ipse ad /iwc talis est vitalis-spiritus. Conjuugit asquitatem cum ratione. Si corpus caroat illo,

"Meng-tzu"

tunc esurit;" ^hi-hsiu-kuau-wei-hsiin

(g

^M

ii;

|M) Ch'ien-chi, chap.

i.

1214

The Word Tao.

to find our

manner prepared
the "stern

word used in the sense

of duty, alike

daughter of the voice of

God" who
is

whispers her

inexorable will in conscience, and the sense of obligation which

circumstances impose, the conduct which

in his relations with others.

required of a person

The phrase

chih-y/'i (jg

'^-tao has

been seen to be used in the sense of application to truth. It is now found meaning " Be earnest in duty ;" or, in Dr. Legge's
translation,

'^Let the will be set on the path of duty."

In

this

use, as in others, tao corresponds to the Sanskrit

it

dharma, as when

is

said that
it

it

is

the

dharma

of a

king to administer justice.

Thus

is

chiin {j^ytaOy the duty of a sovereign to be kind or

to his ministers;

humane (t)
to

and

it is

their duty, ch^en

{^ytao^
it is

be faithful {^) to their sovereign.

In another place

said

to

be the ruler's duty to be firm and decided, and that of the

to

ministers

be
51^)

very yielding.
to

Again,

it

is

the

sovereign's

business
affairs.

(i
One

know men, and

that of his officers to

know

of

the meanings

of the expression shih-chiin-chih

(9k

i,ytao
is,

is,

to fail in the duties of a ruler, as shih-ch^eu'

chih'tao

to fail in

duty as a public servant.

all

To do

all

that

is

expected of a sovereign, to perform thoroughly

his office is for
perfectly)

the functions of

him chin (^)

of

chiin-chih-taOj to exhaust (accomplish

the duties

a sovereign.

has,

along with other meanings,

the technical one of

duty in his capacity as a member of

to raise himself to the position of

The phrase jen {A)-i^o "man's a family." Thus for a man

kingdom
to his son is

king and then confer a posthuto leave a

mous

regal

title

on his father or

jen-tao-chih-chi

(A JE ) *^ extreme point which man's duty to father or son can reach, the highest service that can be
This phrase jewfao
is

rendered.

also often

used

elliptically for

the

duty of

man

as

a son.

Thus we have the well known

(

dictum jeU'tao-mO'ta-yii'shoU'shen

?E

^ ^ JK ^

jfr);

^^^
It
is,

as a son has no greater duty than to preserve his body.

moreover, the dharma, the natural obligation of a son as such to

practise
filial

piety

(^

^ ^), and that

of a father to
office is

be tender-

hearted

(^

JE iS)*

Further, our word

used to denote a

post or appointment and also the duty or conduct associated with

The Word Tao.

a position.

215

Thus a man does well

it to

to desire the office of a bishop,

and when he has got

teacher and the
'literally '^east

rear

and teach are

is

his wife's office.

So

the phrase shih {^)-taoj for example,

office of

used for the duty of a

an instructor.

The phrase tung {^)rtaOj

a hostj because in China

way/' denotes the

to

office of

the host

sits

the east of his guest.

But

it is

commonly used

in the sense of a bribe, the full expression being tung-tao-yin

" is ()> or bribe money. This phrase " host's office money used chiefly of the [bribes given by litigants in a mandarin's

yamen, and the

an invitation

fiction is

that the

money
owe

so given is in place of

to a feast.

Then
is

there are yu (S)-^ao, or p^eng-yu

to

(48 M)'^^^i t^6 duties which friends

intercourse.

each other in their

One

of these

that a

man

should reprove for his

good those faults he perceives in his friend, a duty which cannot

exist in those

having the relations of son and father.

friendship, form, ojxa of the five sets of duties

The duties^f
which are

of universal obligation (5c of

T ^ ^ tI)^ ^^^ these are

and minister, father and
friends.

the mutual obligations

son,

sovereign

husband and

wife, brothers

and

They

are not all

equally binding, and so they

may

be classed under two heads, as

they are of perfect or of imperfect obligation.

called cheng {J), perfect,

The former

are

and the

latter

ch^uan (ig), expedient,

is

matters of expediency.

Thus

to

maintain one's parents

perfect duty, cheng-taoj one

from which no departure can be

duty

made.

But

to get their permission before taking a wife is a

which may be dispensed with in certain peculiar circumstances.

On

the death of his father a

filial

son goes through three courses

of duty, called san-tao, in regular succession.

The same term

is

applied to the threefold stage of woman's subjection to man, her

duty as a child

to

honour and obey her father, as a wife

to serve

her husband, and on his death to be subject to her son.

phrase yu {^ytao, already burdened with meanings,
is

The
found

specially in writings of a political character with the sense of

doing one's duty.

In the "Tien-lei" the expression Huang'?

is

shang-yu-tao

is

translated ''when there

an Emperor who does

his duty," but this is perhaps scarcely an adequate rendering.


216
The Word
Tao.,

The phrase chin ^)'tao,

referred to above,

means

to fulfill all

one's obligations, to accomplish thoroughly the

has prescribed, and to finish one's course.

work which fate Thus we have the

^^^^ ^^^
^^S"

admonition

ko'chin-ch'i^tao

(#
To

^^
to

*M)} ^^^

charge his duty thoroughly.

piety
^*the
is

satisfy the obligations of filial

is

chin hsiao tao, which in the Hsin ching lu

of

translated

exact fulfilment

his

duty

his

parents."

So

also

chin-shih-ch'iri'chih'tao

(^

MM
as
all

i> ?E) i^eans he performed

translates the expression.

thoroughly

all

that belongs to the service of parents, " erfiillte die

Pfiicht des Elterndienstes,"

Faber

The

die

when
is
is

life's

work

is

finished,

when

the appointed

journey

ended

is

chiri'chH'taO'erhrssu

(^

do this
for

the long hope and patient desire of

^^ ?) tE all good Chinese

whom

indeed
" Death's consummation crowns completed Or comes too early."
life

Nor

in order to perform the duties of life need

man " wind

His

himself too high" and waste his energies

impossibilities or vain

among magnificent
obligations.

phantasms

of

illusory
lies

path of duty
of

of

among the daily affairs " The observance life, the trivial round, the common task." filial piety at home and of the respect due to seniors and
is

clear

and bright, and

superiors abroad, the practice of self-denial and charity can be

accomplished by
&c).
is

all,

and these are parts

life at all

of

man's duty
all

(^

^Wj

In

all

the affairs of
it is

times and in

places there

duty ftaoj and

the business of the student to investigate

li).

the principles involved (tao

When

calamities

afflict

others, to

succour the

afflicted

and

to

have compassion on one's neighbours

are matters of duty (tao), and they

will be blessed. to be a

who thus do their duty (fj 3^) One who might have been almost persuaded
:

Conf ucianist says

*'

The primal duties The charities that

shine aloft like stars

soothe, and heal, and bless, Are scattered at the feet of Man, like flowers."

With

reference to the phrase tung tao, noticed above,

we may

observe that in modern literature tung tao cAw (;^ jg

i)

is

The Word Tao.

host or hostess.
-In old literature^
^'

217
is

however, this phrase

found

the very different sense of

Chief of the East Territory."^

Connected with the ideas of law and order are those of

relationship.

human

The degrees and

duties of Jnndred

among mankind,

and specially in China, are matters

of social or state adjustment.

And the various domestic, social, and political relations in which men come to stand to each other have in China their rights
and obligations
laid

down with

considerable precision.

In some

passages of the classical literature in which

for tao rendered by, "duty ^' it

we
like

find the character

to substitute

would pei^haps be better

''relation"

or

some other term with a

meaning.

Thus

there are cases

where the expression tHen-hsia-ta-tao, noticed

above, does not refer so

much

to the duties

which are always and

which prevail among
which has already
domestic

everywhere obligatory as

to the relations

mankind everywhere.
occurred frequently,

The phrase ye?i

is

{/i)-tao,

used in the sense of man's

relations, explained as those of father and son, husband and wife,

and brothers, and in this use of it Callery translates the phrase by " I'ordre naturel entre parents.'' One meaning of the phrase /wtzu'chih
(;3J

^)4ao
of

is

"parental and

filial

relations,"

which
'[jJ).

are said to be natural, to be of man's heavenly constitution (JJ

So one meaning

fu-fu

(^

^)-chih'tao
to the

is

"the

relation of

husband and wife."

it

In an appendix

" Yi ching" we find

stated that "the relation of

husband and wife must be lastino"

;

(*

:^ -&) or, in Dr. Legge's translation RT t ?i " The rule for the relation of husband and wife is that it should

^i

be long-enduring."

In a modern

treatise

we

learn that while

others disparage the married state

(^

^^

J^), the relations of

it.

husband and

wife, the wise

man

finds repose in

We find

also

"the expression chileh

1

(j^ytao in the sense of " severing relationvii.j

L. C.

C,

i.,

p.

60; "Lun," chap,

"Chu-tzii.ch'aan-shu," chap,

xlvi.;

L. C. C, ii., p. 168; "Meng," chap, vii.; " Chow-li," chap, xxi.; "Han-shu," chap, i.; ' Hsun-tzu," chap, xix.; Sac. Ed., Art. 16, Ampn.; "Han-shu," chap, viii.; L. C. C, i., p. 270; "Chung yung," chap, iv.; "Meug," chap, vii., p. 55; " Li-chi," chap, viii.; ' Hsiao-hsio," &c., chap, ii.; L. C. C, i., pp. 209; ii., pp. 326, 302; " Hsin-chin^.lu," pp. 26, 49 (vol. 1); Faber's Mencius, p. 131; L. C, ii., pp. 191, 178; "Meng," chap, vii.; L. C. C, i., p. 257; "Chung yung," chap, iii.; <' Huching.chai.chi" (^9 if %), chap, i.; L. C. C, v., pp. 160, 217 j " Tso Chuan," ohapa. z, xiv.; " Liao- chai," &c., chap. ii.

218

The Word Tao.

ship," cutting off intercourse say with the kindi:ijaL^.diYprced

wife-Zriulhis use of tao

it is

interchanged with tsu (;^), kindred.

With

reference to the orderly arrangement of the relatives at the

chi*' uses the expression jen-tao-chieh

annual family dinner the "Li

(A

?E ) which Gallery

translates,

"se trouve accompli Tordre

naturel qui existe entre les parents.''

native commentators as jen-lun-chih

Here tao

is

explained by
that
is,

(A

fft i,)'^<^o,

the

orderly disposition of man's relations, the arranging and treating

the individuals assembled according to their degrees of near and

distant relationship.
to denote the relations

This word lun

is

the term
it

commonly used
found in
this

among mankind, and

tao.

is

way interchanged with

Strictly

lun

is

simply the relation,

and tao the duty resulting therefrom, but each word is used The occasionally to denote both relation and duty attached.
sage kings of primeval times instituted marriage iWt

which

is

the source of

all

relations of kindred
(-^J

i9 f&)^ and then they

prescribed the duties of husband and wife

The

relations

between ruler and minister are those

:^ Jf ;^ jI^). of duty

"Pflichtverhaltniss" and these cease when people lack food and

clothing.

In Ku-liang's Commentary on the

''

Chun-ch^iu " there

occurs a curious statement which illustrates the use of tao

now

under consideration.

With

reference to the

first

year of

Chuang

Kung, Confucius records that ^'in the third moon the wife withdrew to Ch'i." The wife here was the widow of Huan Kung,
father of Chuang, and she
plicity in the

had been

guilty of incest and of com-

murder

of

her husband.

The mention

of her in this
to

peculiar

manner here by Confucius was, according

Ku-liang,

to stigmatize her conduct, and he adds, "

man

with respect to

Heaven
speech;
off,

receives

commands through

the duties of the

human

relations, and with respect to

if

men he
is

receives

commands through

one does not accord with these duties Heaven cuts him
cut off by

and he who disobeys commands

men" {A

'^

3c4tmsrSA&iUgS^;j;ei5m^5cM
4;TiSiS's^Al&-t4)a particular application, otherwise
render the word tao in
it it

This passage seems to have might be better perhaps to

by reason or conscience, the sense of

The Word Tao.

219

what

is

right in

man.

But

there are several sayings

among the
given;
are

Chinese which seam to favor the interpretation

first

Thus one
in

of the expressions to signify

is

that marriages

made

Heaven

fii'/wchih'tao-mmg'pe

{^

Mi M^
matrimony,
is

&)> the

relation of

husband and

wife, the state of

decreed

by Providence.^

The next use

sense
-Sreat
of
essentials,

of our

word

to

which we advert

is

that in the

or

important or necessary elements.

:

The
to

Learning begins in Dr. Lenjge's translation thus

is to illustrate illustrious

^'What
;

the Great Learning teaches

virtue

renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence."

the text rendered,
hsio-chih'tao

Here
is t^ai^

"What

the Great Learning teaches"

(^

^^
is,

J^).

Native commentators

differ as to
it

the use and meaning of the word tao here.

Some

explain
to

by

hi'fou

(I^S-

BK), that

the course

others think
or

it is

be taken
of

in the sense of fang-fa ["ff f^),

means
the

method; but neither

of the book.

these interpretations seems to suit

best explanation apparently
is

rest

The

that which regards tao as denot;

ing something like kang-ling (US $^)

the kang being the rope

ling the collar

without which a net cannot be used, and

without

which a coat
comes
tao
to

will not sit properly

on the wearer.

So kang4ing

mean

the chief points or essentials, and t'ai-hsio-chih-

may be

rendered, "

The sum

of the

Great Learning.'!

We
and
for

read elsewhere that the ruler

give

who would reform

learning.

his people

them good customs must use

is

The term

learning, hsio (j$),

essentials
of

here explained as the Vai-hsio-chih-taot the

the great learning, the teaching for princes and

for the

kings.

In another passage Gallery gives

words

]lfc

:^ ^H

^^^

the rather peculiar but not inappropriate rendering,

les effets

" Tels sont

des etudes completes."

says that an

official scholar

The author here who has gone through the whole

course of state education " can refine the people and reform their

customs, so that those

who

are near are pleased to obey, and those

1 Gallery "Le-ki," pp. 72, 73; "Li-chi," chap, vi.; " Haing-H," chap, vi.; *Yi," chap, iv.; Legge's "Yi-king," p. 436; "Hu-tzu-chih-yen" (] =^ ^p ^), chao. i.; "1-li," (13), chap, xxx.; p. 7. note; " Lie-tzii," chap, vii.; " i'aber's Lie," " (13), chap, v,; L. C. C, v., p. 72. pp. 167, 181 ; " Ku.liang

220

Ths Word Tao.

are at a distance long for his influence
;

who

this is the
is

sum

of the

great learning."

The
is

text of the last clause

amplified thus,

" This
teaches

is

what

called

the

sum

of

what the great learning

men "(^0?li :k

^W^ A^MiL)written that

Some

expositors,
^-~

however,

prefer to understand tao here in the sense of course

or method.

In another work
rehellion

it

is

filial

impiety, including
is

against

the

sovereign and disowning of sages,

JE)-

the

essence of great

anarchy (:^ fl -^
:

Then Mencius
is

says, in

Dr. Legge's version

"

The

great end of learning

nothing else
ffe

but

to

seek for
*E^

the

lost

mind"

(#1

P^g

Jt

**

^ iK
the

E.

^)ch'ieh

^^^
yao

^^ native scholars take tao here in

sense

of

{^ ^),

most important, and the

meaning of the passage

is

perhaps the important business (or

nothing else but only the search for
{"fi

main element)

of learning is

the strayed mind.

Again the phrase i-shi-chih-tao

'^

^ JE)
soil,

denotes the main constituents of clothing and food, the raw materials

out of which these are made, which are produced in the

in season, and are gathered
of

grow up
the

by the use
is

of energy.

One

of

maxims

Chinese political science

expressed in a formula

like chih'tHcn-hsia-chih'tao'tsai'yu-yung-jen ({ 5c

<^ JS

'iS

J^

A)) that
empire

is,

a necessary condition to the good government

the use of proper men.
it is

of the

lies in

Again

officials

are

told

by the Emperor

that

an essential requirement of a good

administration to lay stress on the zeal and not regard an idle

name (^ {& ^ JE J!fe iSf place we have the maxim and

^ffi

T> IS
the

And

in another

mode

of expression

altered

thus

*^

Of the important
is

the empire none

good administration of " greater than giving peace to the people

essentials of a
15)-'

(}& 5c

T 1 m ^ ii
it

We
in

proceed next to consider this word tao in the class of cases

stands for persons.
i., i.;

which
1

In some instances

its

use in this

L. C.

C,

g, chap, ^ "Hsiao-ching"
xi.;
;2l

p. 220; "Ta.hsio," chap, i.; "Li-chi" (13), chap. Ix.; :^ " Li-chi," chap, vi., pp. 72, 7i; Gallery "Le-Ki," p. 76;

^ # .illth m., 4tU day;

1st

(13), chap, vi.; L. C. C, ii., p. 200 and note; "M^ng-tzu," chap Sac. Ed., Art. 4, Paraphrase and Amplification, Compare the statement " tlu^i nau.fzu." chap, ix.; " Yung-ch^ug Edicts," at il^ :^^ i^ ff ^.

5th

y.,

4tb m., 23id day.

The Word Tao.

221

way may have been derived from the sense of ruling. Thus the Hang (||)-^ao, or *' Grain Intendant," is the " Chief Comptroller of the Provincial Revenue from the grain tax, whether collected
in

money

or in kind."

So there are yen O)-^rt0, Intendant

the

of

Salt Revenue, and certain other officials of like

designation.

character and

In

other cases

jurisdiction

seems

to

have
has

occasioned the peculiar use of the term.

*'

Thus a Tao

t'ai

administrative control over two or more Prefectures," which

constitute a tao or circuit.

officially

So he

is

spoken of and addressed

of himself.

as Tao, and he uses that Word in speaking

Further in the tu-ch'a-yuan

there are two classes of

(^

officials

^), or Court of Censors, which are commonly mentioned

are so called because

together as k'o-tao

{^

Jg).

The former
offices of

they serve in the six k^o or

supervision over the Six

Boards in Peking.
with the scrutiny of

The

latter are the

Censors

who

are charged

affairs

throughout the empire, which for

is

the purposes of this supervision

divided into sixteen tao, and

hence their

title.

Then
system
of

tao is

used

to

denote professed adherents of the Taoist

belief

and philosophy, as in the phrase seng-tao,

Buddhist and Taoist ordained clergy.

used as a short term for tao-shi

Here the word

is

evidently

a professed follower of Tao. ( jt)

to

Sometimes the word seems

an
occasion.

be in a manner personified for

says that his instructor
is

Thus Han
*^^*

Wen Kung

neither his senior nor his junior,

"My

teacher

is

the

Truth"

6SB

*&)'

^s,

the Truth as taught in Confucianism.

So we know that the

unto Christ.

Law was
of

our tutor, our school-attendant

vilifying the saints,

Then we read

pang (^)-to,

and

tsun'hsien

g), reverencing the eminent.

chHn-ling'tao-te

There

is also

the well-known
insult
it,

expression

(S

| Jg ^),

to

and harass the wise and

virtuous, or as Julien enlarges

"Insulter et traitor avec cruaute ceux qui se livrent a Tetude

de la raison et de la vertu."
the use of our

These two

last expressions illustrate

word

in
is

the sense of one

who

seeks after or
it

possesses wisdom.
to us again

This

an old use of the word, and

to consider the influence of

will occur

when we come

Buddhism.

222
It
is

The Word Tao.

often found in the scrolls which
tell

us to live and to die,

and

in the Tracts for the People, printed

and circulated by phil-

anthropists.^

It

is

perhaps _^from_thjB^.jiSa.j3f^^..in.^
its

of

''

hy." or

"from'' that
reason,
of this
is

use with meanings like source, origin, cause,

derived.

The occurrence
with ho

of the

word with

significations

kind are chiefly in

to a question

literature,

but they are not uncommon.

In answer
is

(fpl),

how was

it

that ? this

word

often introduced.

The phrase wu-t'a

is

{M

fjl^)'tao,

in reply to
is,

such a question, means, ^'jhere

the one about to be mentioned.

no other reason," that

than

One meaning
cause,"

of the phrase i-ho

(1

^ytao

also

is

"from what
told,

"for what reason?"

In the **Li-chi" we are

phrase used
is

"weeping has two sources," and the

h^u-yu^erh (5g

^ Zl)'tao,
it is

that

is,

there are two

affections of the
is

love
is

other
it

One of these when there is an internal feeling of helplessnss, and the fear when there is the feeling of being thwarted. Again
produced.
relatives, yet

mind from which

is

said that though every one loves, has regard for himself

and his near

affection,

no one can explain the origin of

is

this
jfi)-

and the expression used

similar

(^

j ?3 SI -^ -^
is

It is added th^t
of
;j3t

what makes a family esteemed

relations,

the permanence

harmonious
JK)/*
filial

and " the origin

love,

piety,

brotherly

of these lies in (^ J^ modest compliance, th

esteem of kindness and rectitude and the disregard of

gain.

name and
was
this

In the Ch'un-ch'iu the bald statement occurs

sha-lu was riven (or
fell
it

sha-lu-peng

(;^

^ ^), the

down).

Why

recorded ?

Because, says Ku-liang, "

was riven without any

There was
or a city,

reason (or cause) for being riven

(%

M M W MV
it

nothing in the nature of the place whether

or a plain (lu) at the foot of the

was a
it

hill,

Sha

hill to

cause

to burst open.

So Heaven probably caused

it

in order to teach the king that

he

had about him servants who were traitors and ready to burst in On the other hand when Confucius records the fact rebellion.
that the roof of the family temple
fell

in ruins, Ku-liang says

chap,
xii.;

'

1 Mayers' Ch. Govt., Nos. 278, 280: *'Ch*aiig.li-ch'uan.chi," Shuo-yuan," chap, xvi.; " Kan-ying-pien," chap, iv., p. 34.

The Word Tao.

223

there was a reason for the ruin (W jE *&) The temple had been shamefully neglected^ and Cunfuciu.s intended to give a severe

reproof to those

who were

in fault.

In the same Commentary

we have the expression huai-fov kuai-) miao-chih (jg

used
to

^ i,)'taOy
Again
a
burst

denote " the reasons for dismantling the temple.*'

records

when Confucius

that
that

mount Liang
"high

fell

with

(^

llj

^),Ku-liang adds

objects have a cause for

so falling (Jg

#^

they should

fall,

4^ JE '(fc); " there is a natural reason why and Confucius records the fact of the Liang
it

falling only because

caused a blocking up of the Yellow Kiver's

course. So also we read of the source or origin of a book, as when it is said that yi-tag-shen (^ JE S)> ^^^ source of the " Yi chiug^'^is deep, that is, its history goes far back; three

sages

in

three

different

ages

having been

employed

in

its

composition.^

P?lili?L*Si-^^^^^ ^^^'^ ^s tb^tin Jihe sense of type, emblem^ Qr symbol. This meaning of the word does not seem to
'^

be given in any dictionary, native or foreign, and

little

it is

apparently
in

noticed.

Yet there are not a few passages

to

various

treatises in

which no other interpretation seems

especially,

be equally
of the

suitable.

In the Yi-ching

some such rendering

character for tao seems to be often required.

Thus, for example,

is,

the figures chen (J), k'an (j^), hen (^), that

called

5z> zzj zE. are

yang-hiia

and hsiian (^),

li

(^*|),

tui

{^), that

is,

~, ~>

zzi are called yin-kua.

The former

three are said to be

emblematical of one sovereign and two subjects, and the latter

three to represent the idea of two sovereigns with one subject.

So

the yang-kua are called chdn-tzl.

of a great
tao, the

(^

^)-tao, the type (or symbol)

(i]^

and good man, while the yin-kua are hsiao-jen

lov^ creature.

A)-

symbols of a

Again we

read, taking Dr.

Legge's version, " The movements which take place in the six
places (of the
(i.e.,

hexagram) show the course

Powers

of the three

extremes

of the three

in their perfect operation)

"

{-/^

^^
x,
xiii.;

SHi
^

?E

&)

^^ consideration
chap,
i.;

of this

sentence in conii.;

ch'uan-ohi"

"Wen Chung-tzu" (^ ^ ^) (^ iJj :^ ||), chap,

" Li-chi," chap, i.; " Ku-liang," chaps,

" Hsiang-shanxi,

viii,

"Han-Bhu," chap. xxx.

":

224

The Word Tao,

nection with the context suggests a different rendering from that

just given,

and

it

appears to have a meaning something like

six lines of the

this,

"The movements of the earth, and man in their

are explained in a

kua are symbols

of heaven, of the text

ideal perfection."
as the

The san^chi

commentary
manipulation

li (i||),

of heaven, earth
is

and

man, that
them.

is,

the spiritual principle or law which

of

inherent in
divining

In

the

the

hexagram
and

for

purposes the lowest and second lines stand for ideal earth, the
third and fourth for ideal

man, and the

fifth

last for

ideal

heaven.

In

another place

we

find

the statement

Vung-jen-

-^^ yU'tsung-lin-tao-ye (|^ JE ^), which Dr. Legge expands into " (The representative of) the union of men appears

^^

in relation with his kindred, that

is,

the path

to regret."

It

would be simpler and better perhaps

''The Union with

to translate the

words thus

men

is

in the clan,

the symbol of sorrow."

Again, the phrase ching {^)-tao denotes "that which

symbolises," to wit, the necessity of change.
treatises

ching

Turning

to other

the

**

we find instances of a similar use of the word.. Thus, in_ Shuo wen," under the character san (^), it is stated that this
is

character

t^ien-ti-jen-chih-tao, that

is,

the symbol of the trinity

Keaven, earth, and man.

Further we read that in old times, on

the decease of the head of a family, a wooden or other image was

were performed the religious services due This figure was called ch'ung (J;), preparatory to interment.
it

made, and before

duplicate,

and

it

was regarded

as

chu (^)-^ao, the symbol

of the

master, just deceased.

of one family,

In another place we read that

is,

for a person

that

a chief of a family, to take charge of the

is

ancestral worship of another

mie-wang-chih-tao
is

a sign that the latter family

(JjJJ (^ J^), extinguished (utterly collapsed).

So

also

Heaven

as the originator of all things,

and Earth

as their

preserver, are respectively types or symbols of father and mother

(5c

'S

-fc

Si

slight variations
i'Yi," chap,

1; 4). This phrase is found repeated with by numerous authors orthodox and otherwise.^

"Chou Yi"
284; "Yi,"
(14

iii., p. 20; Legge's "Yi-king," pp. 388, 351; ' Yi," chap, iif.; (13), chap, vii.; " Yi," chap, i.; s. v. [^ Legge's " Yi-king," p.' chap, iv.; " Li-chi," chap, ii.; " Ku-liang," chap, xv.j "

A;

Ho-Kuau^tzii

-J")f

chap,

i.,

sec. 6

(commentary).

The Word Tao.

225

We now

pass on to consider certain uses of this word closely

related to others already described.

These uses may by comthis is a

prehended under the term "ideal/' though

inaccurate designation.
It
is

vague and

to

be understood as including such

terms as ideal Wisdom, Truth, and Goodness.

We

have seen

th at

tao denotes the truth or

is

wisdom gained by study, and the

wickedness of conduct.
perfect,

goodness which

opposed

to

It

also

denotes, a state of virtue,

absolute and

whether in the

world or only in the mind.

chih'tao
is

The commom

expression

Yao Shun-

rendered in one place by Eaber, " the ethical ideal of

'*
;

Yao and Shun

cited,

and in another passage

translates,

of

Mencius, already

where Dr. Legge

"

When

the prince has no

by which he examines his administration,'^ Faber The perfect virtue, however, is not a renders tao by " Ideal.''
principles

mere abstraction or empty name.

of well-doing,

It

may

be acquired by a

life

and it may be lost by continuance in wickedness. " They who do good," says an old author, " obtain Virtue, and

they

who do

evil lose

it

m ^^%
^
^)-

later philosopher says that the

'M attainment of

^ ^ ^ Sk M)'' A
li

(jg[)
li is

includes

that of perfect virtue (jg

in a peculiar

^^t

this

word
life

here used

way

to

denote good principles of

systematically

carried into practice, perfect conduct regulated always

by reason.

And
is

so

we

find

it

not seldoni stated that tao

is Zt,

the latter term

being used in this wide sense.

As

ideal goodness, moreover, tao

the collective designation of the five cardinal virtues

kindness,
applied to

rectitude, observance of rites faith

and ceremonies, wisdom, and good

it

though

in

another use of the word

It
;

may be
te

each of these singly.

is

often found with

is

((*),

which
it

is

usually rendered virtue

and tao

said to be Virtue, as
it

exists

at large in the world, while te is that portion of

acquired by

an individual.
perfection.

The more

of

it

one gains the nearer he comes to

We read that there

were

five principles of

conduct by

which the ancient rulers kept their

kingdoms

in

good government.
(fi|),

One

of these was,

"to esteem those who had virtue

-j^

because
Gallery

they came near to spiritual perfection" (jj

trauslattts

J^).

these three characters, "ils sout proche de la verite,"

226
that
it is
is,

The Word Tao.

as he explains in a note, the

Truth which

is

God.

Again

recorded that in old times there were tutors appointed to

teach princes what was right.

in three virtues, of

In

this

was included instruction

*'

which the

first

was,

the virtue of practical

perfection to be the root for ideal perfection

'^ (^ tS ^)' t These words, which are very often quoted accurately and inaccur-

ately, are
c'est la

rendered by Biot simply, 'Ma vertu de la perfection;

base de la bonne voie."

But by
the
''

tao
is

is

here meant that

state of absolute
spiritual

moral excellence which

man's pure original

as

nature.

Some regard

virtue of perfection "

denoting the attainment of the " perfect mean," and this was to

be the basis of the ideal standard (taoj by which

to be regulated.

all

conduct was

It is also said that tao

is

a general designation

for all active

i

and passive

virtues, but these are

summed up under

(^) and jen (t)

respectively

(i[#t|ffi;tiit
wisdom, the possession of
This perfect wisdom which
is,

t SI Then

my
tao
is

also ideal or absolute

perfect knowledge,

and ideal Truth.

should be obtained and employed for the benefit of the world

properly speaking, superhuman, or at least beyond the
of all except sages.

reach

But

often the

word used

in this

manner has

only the sense of extraordinary mental powers, the possession of

unusual sagacity, or a rare insight into

phrase Tao-jen

{^ A)

denotes originally a

men and things. The man of wisdom and

piety, perhaps credited also with the possession of extraordinary

powers.
of

But it is applied in compliment Buddha and Lao-tzii, and to those

to the professed followers

recluses

who

talk

with

their
*
;

own

souls

and own no master save Nature.

Sometimes

pp. 166, 377 ; Fab.'s Mencius, pp. 77, 272; " Shuo-yuan," chap. chap. viii. " Li-chi" (13), chap, vi.; "Li-chi," chaps, ii,, ix.; Hsing-li," chaps, ii., ix.; Gallery "Le-ki," p. 118. Ina note Gallery adds ** D'apres les philosophes chinois on entend par le mot Toe (^tej Ge que I'homme a obtenu par ses propres efforts, ou la vertu acquise et par le mot Tao Ge h quoi tous les hommes doivent tendre, Ge qui est Convenable, Ce qui est dans Or, il n'y a, selon moi, que le Vrai I'ordre, ou la vertu dans le seus abstrait. qui I'eunisse ces conditions, car, selon la philosophic chretienne, Dieu lui meme est la Verite !; Je prefere done traduire Tao par Verite, que d'adopter la traduc" Chou-li," chap, ix.; tion de Voie, dont le moindre defaut est de ne rien dire." ' Do. (13), chap, xiv.; Biot's ' Tcheou-li," i., p. 292. Hu-tzu-chih yen,"
L. C.
ii.,

xvi.

"Wen

C Chnng-tzu,"

ohap.

i.


The Word Tao.
it

227

is

said
it is

that this high

gift,

wisdom

ta-tao

cannot

be acquired,
that
it

that

a heavenly

but the

be attained.
chiseled, so
learns.

As

the jade does not

common doctrine is make an utensil

truth
originally,

can
it is

unless

man

does not
in

know
mind
study.

(pu-chih-taoj unless he

It

must be

his

but
it

its is

excellence

cannot be

known without

Sometimes

apparently

identified with the truth or

wisdom contained in the orthodox

canonical books, to which reference has been

it is

made
is

above.

But

rather the spirit of that wisdom,

its

principles

which are of

universal application.

As such Truth
itself

ftaoj

pure and perfect,

without antagonism in

and without

rivals outside, not

bound

by time nor limited by

yearns for this truth
obtained.
sage,

place.

The wise man has

mind which
death

(M

M i, *&) and he keeps

we
it

it to
is

when

Perfect truth, or wisdom,

are told,

one with the

he being wisdom embodied and

^odyiMm^mmwi&mAm
To
those

^m^^m^ mm)ftao)

being a sage without a

who

possess this great

wisdom

even miraculous powers are often ascribed.

and Thus Confucius is

unusual

represented as saying of a certain worthy that in youth he had

been quick and studious, in manhood brave and

that in old age yu-tao^neng-hsia-jen (/^ ?E 16

inflexible,

and

A)

he had the

transcendent wisdom by which to keep

who has
nature
;

this tao can, it is supposed,

tell

man in see many

lie

subjection.

He

of the secrets of

can

where springs

of sweet

water

hidden, and where

the barren soil conceals rich store of precious metals.

He

can read

and understand the mystic meaning of those signs which in any

district

or region point to the kind protection of good spirits or

It is only,

the blighting influences of wicked demons.

told, the

we

are

man who

has this wisdom (Pg

the past, can predict the future.

By

Jg) who, judging from obtaining it te-tao Nii

Kua, who mended the heaven and the

a god
(

earth, raised himself to be

(^ytao means to be profound in wisdom, that is, the "high wisdom" which slowly grows by patient study, quiet meditation; and long communing with Nature. It is often used of certain celebrated hermits who are supposed to

jpif).

The phrase

t'mi

have gained au insight uuto the

secrets of Nature,

and

to

have

228

The Word Tao.

acquired the art and power of controlling their operations.

the

But

attainment of this

high or supreme wisdom

is

always of

advantage in some way to its possessor; and so there is the saying, " obtain truth (or wisdom tao) in yourself and you obtain praise
with men."

When we
it

come

to consider the action of

Buddhism
considthis ideal
it
*|#

on Chinese

will be seen that tao, in the sense

now under
In

eration, has affinity to the

Bodhi

of the Buddhists.

wisdom, we learn, there are sympathy and faithfulness, but

has

no show

of acting
f

and no
i^

visible manifestation

(^

?E

io IK >S IR ?^)
session
;

^y

^6 transmitted but not kept in pos-

it is

self-existent

and
to

eternal,

making heaven and earth

that

what they are and giving

supernatural beings

which

makes them such

It
'^

and

it

knows no conditions

of space or time.

is

like the

Wisdom
*'

of

Proverbs which declares that by her

princes rule, and nobles, even all the judges of the earth," and

tells

us that she

was

set

up from

everlasting,

from the beginit is

ning, or ever the earth was."

master who

of all

To the Conf ucianists men possessed this ideal wisdom him

that his

only their

in perfection.

Hence
and

it is

said of

wisdom caps ancients and moderns,

his

(*

^
of

moral qualities mate Heaven and Earth (JL T^^s ideal wisdom, when turned 55 ifi)-

?
to

JE

^ ]&

account,

becomes, as

we know,

that mock-wisdom which professes to teach

life indefinitely

the art of prolonging

and wrests

to

bad uses the

words

pure doctrine.^
tao is also used to denote

Then
of the

an ideal state of society and

whole world, a

state of complete order,

to

and wisdom, and

of the

virtue.

Such, according

some
this

writers,

was that

empire

under Yao and Shun, but

correct,

opinion cannot be regarded as

Tlie idea of tao has

and

it is

refuted by several authors.

life,

never been perfectly realized in actual

so

and the condition

minds
of

designated never existed except

in the

pessimist

philosophers.

Yet

moralists were ceaselessly teaching

men

that

they should aim

at recalling the

ways

of the old times, the virtue

" Li-chi," chap, vi., p. 72; Gallery's 1 * Chu-tzu-ch'uan-shu," cliap. lix.; " Le-ki," p. 75. Callei-y here translates the words pn-chih-tao {^^ ^Q simply by " ne poasede auciin savoir." " Chia-yii," chap. iii. " Han Shu," chap. Ixxv. " Sii-wen.chung-kung-shi-chi" .'i'. -S" ^), chap. xlvi. : " Shno-yuan,"

^)

(jj^

ohap. xvi.

" Chuang-tzu," chap.

vi.

The Word Tao.

of the early world.

229
or foundation of order,
treatise,

The term tao^hi (g),

well-known

the

title

of

chapter in a

denotes

the

establishment of perfect order in nature and

among mankind.
that
(|jg),
is,

We

read also of means for "causing the world to reform and

turn to perfect virtue " (fg 5c

virtue of antiquity.

1^1

*&

M M M)^

the

The common

expression tao-shu
is

which
denote

has been seen

the arts or
recovery.
tures

to

have other meanings,

sometimes used

to

way

of primitive innocence, long since lost

beyond

Still it is possible to

read or hear of "people and crea-

living in peaceful ease as in- the natural state of ideal

perfection'-

(K

!i 5f
state

^g
of
to

An
universe,

ideal
is

^)perfection, whether in 51

man

or in the

supposed

be the spontaneous work of Nature, and

we now proceed to consider our word as used in the sense of Nature. But this term is not to be taken in any of the common meanings in which it is usually understood among Western peoples. It is not the nature which is the omney the " sum of all phenomena," "the universality
the nature which
is

of

all

that

is

and ever

will be

" nor

antagonistic to reason and culture.

It is the

inner force, the moving and regulating power, the law of order

which

is

a necessary ingredient in
It is

all

the constituents of the

universe.

the unvarying uniformity which underlies the

endless varieties of these,

and

at

the

same time the binding

authority which makes

"

them keep
rifcu

their appointed distinctions, for

Res quaeque suo

procedifc et

omnes

Poedere naturae certo discrimina servant."

It

is

nature as the universe of law in the universe of mind and

matter.

In many respects

taoy as

thus used by Confucian writers,

resembles very closely the Nature of the Stoics and of Bishop

Butler.

The phrase T'ien

Ti,

Heaven and Earth, seems

it is

often to

mean what we
of these.

call

Nature, the visible phenomena of the world

also used as the spirit or
it

together with their causes, but

law

In the " Chung Yung" we find

stated that the [ideal]

to

Ruler establishes his government according

Heaven and Earth,

3c
iife

and

it

is

not in opposition to these

(^

ffi

/J*

i^

)."


230

The Word Tao.

are explained by

Here T'ien Ti
translates this

Chu Hsi

to

be tao, and Dr. Legge

by

*'

right reason,"

a rendering which does not

it is

seem

to suit the passage.

T'ien Ti are,

said,

spoken of here

(JHytao^ from the point of view of their laws or principle of operation.

The government
is
is

instituted

by the ruler does not violate

Less open
of a
to doubt,

Nature,
ever,

not opposed to natural law.

tzii tells

how-

a passage in which Lie

of a leaf of a

craftsman

an imitation

paper-mulberry tree in

who made jade. The

imitation leaf was perfect in every respect and could not be dis-

tinguished from a natural one, but the making of

years' labour.

it

was a three

So Lie

tzii

says

if

Heaven and Earth

Nature
;

in the production of creatures were to be three years about the

making
the
3^5).

of a leaf there

would be few leaves in the world

conse-

quently the wise

man trusts to Nature's creative power and not to cleverness of human wisdom {fj^ A i^ *M HlM "^ ^ ^ Faber translates these words, "Der Heilige vertrant daher

auf die Wandlungskraft der Natur {tao)

und nicht auf Weisheit

is

und Geschicklichkeit."
*'

But the

contrast
arts

apparently between
to imitate.

great creating nature " and

human

cunning only
is,

Further we are told that heaven and earth, that

visible nature

are the makers of the world, but that they are themselves the

product of tao or invisible nature.

So

also it is said that nature's

jjJJt

activity consists in quickening. In bringing things into life (Jl^

^^S
is

ffl)

^^^ ^^ another place we are

told that nature ftaoj

the root of heaven and earth, which in their turn are the root

of all the world.

But the use of this word in some of our senses of nature is also found, as when it is said that to eat when hungry and drink when thirsty is nature {tao). So also we read that tzU-jan-chihwei'tao
It
is

;S fi 5E)> ^^^^ which is natural is called tao. also natural to put into song the joys and sorrows of the
(

heart.

So

it

was said

of

the philosopher
to

Mo who

wanted

to

abolish music that he was "as

Hs to colours, or a deaf

nature"

like a blind (jJJ Jg)

man
such

man

to musical tones.

But even
is

in

modes
to the

of speech as these the, idea of

good and fixed law

present

mind

of the Chinese.

The Word Tao.

If nature {tao) is
it is
it

231

thought of as

to its

own

essence

it is

one,

pure without any alloy and perfect without any flaw.

it is

But

does not exist apart, and

never simple and single (tao-wu-

wu-tui 5 M); it always has the alternations of opposites It fills like good and bad, bright and dark, right and wrong.
matter

^^

(^

body) and occupies

all

the interspace between heaven

and

earth.
it

It is ever active, "like the running stream

(^

]]\

^ i, 7K)
By

flows forth for others

and flows on without stopping."

gentle noiseless action, without show, and unnoticed by most,

its

nature goes on

way

in

making, and unmaking.

far,

The

river

which has many a bend and winding flows

rises

the mountain

high which has a gradual ascent, nature because debonair

in procedure can

make (or transform) (JE J[ ffi jg S5: ft ^), and individual endowments (fg) by pure acts can bring eminence. To all creatures, animate and inanimate, nature is the law of
and
action.

their being

Hence, as has been seen, the T'ai-chi

is

or

*'

Ultimate Principle"

another
is

name

for

tao.

So one

.philosopher says,
Principle, this
exists
is

When
said of

nature (tao)
it

said to be the Ultimate

as the natural perfect

law

of all that

(S

m ^ * S *B

5C

mm^
of

in the guiding

and perfecting

man

? it a). But it is that nature has its perfect

consummation.

The heavens had

it;

their origin

from nature (tao)f

it

and the earth was made by

It is only he, or rather

the world of creatures by

obtained form and figure, and by

it is

it

man

has practical morality.

only the wise and good

among men
For though
his benefit

who can

follow the piloting of natura gubernans, reading and

it

understanding and practising the lessons

the sun, and moon, and stars
rule the times
functions.
all

teaches.

shine for

man and for

to

and seasons, yet they have in respect

all

him higher
for

They, like

the other works of nature, are in the

solemn silence

of their eternal processes lessons

and patterns
it

man
said,

in all his phases

and conditions

of

life.

Hence

was well

" The physical order

of nature,

the sun and

moon hung

out, the stars sown, the sexes divided, the four seasons established,

and the
first

five

elements set in order,

culled all by one

all

were

visible lessons to the

(tao).''

sages

who

name Nature

An

old

232
metaphysician
tells

The Word Tao.

us that the laws which underlie phenomena
is

are various, and there

is

nothing

selfish in

Nature

hence Nature
act

nameless and because nameless not appearing to

and

therefore universally active

^ S: M ^ ^ ^'
We

iS

(^^^gJI^P^iiS^^^ ^ ^ )- This from a Taoist philosopher,

is

but the conception of Tao in this sense

Taoists and Confucianists.^

is

old and

is

common

to

must now draw the investigation

of this

word

to a close,
it is

mentioning only a few more classes of meanings with which

employed.

We

have already seen

it

used

to

denote the special

nature of an object or class of objects, and Nature generally.

We

have now

to observe that as in j^^rtain

Greek and Latin

writers the corresponding words for nature are peripHrastically

employed

as

when

Lucretius, for example, says animi natura

instead of animus^ so

we

find the

word tao used

in a similar
spirits,
is

manner.

Thus the phrase 8hen

{%^)'tao,

nature of
spirits

sometimes used instead of Shen to denote "

beings ;" so also

" or " spiritual

min {^)-tao

is

often merely

" the people," and

Jen {J^ytao

is

used to express simply *^man" or "mankind."

The
is
A

expression sheng

translated
<Hsia.yu"

min chih tao by Gallery "parmi le

^), chap,
i.;

(^

S:

JE) ^^ ^^ Li-chi

peuple,"

though

this

is

" Haa-shu," chaps, xxii., xxx. ; '* Hou Han(^ Bhu," chap, xxix.; L. C. C, i., p. 290 ; " Chung-yang," chap, vi ; " Lie-tzu," chap, "Hsing-li," chap. _iv., p. 56 ; " Chu-tzu-ch'uan. viii. ; Faber's Licius, p. 190; " Yang-yuanshu," chap. xlix. ; *' Hu-tzu-chih-yen " (^ ^- $P H)> chap. iii. chi," chap. xxix. ; "Chu-tzu-ch'uan-shu," chap. xlvi. ; " Sun-tzii," chap, xiv.;
;

"Meng-tzii," chap, vii., p. 15, note; "Shuo-yuau," chap, xvi.; " Hsin-shu," chap, " Han-shu," chap. Ixxv.; " Chuang-tzu," chap. viii. ; "Hsing-li," chaps, iv., v. ; The followiug passage from Hooker is pure Conf acianisin, illustrating tao as nature. " Now if nature should intermit her course, and leave altogether, though it were but for a while, the observation of her own laws ; if those principal and mother elements of the world, whereof all things in this lower world are made, should lose the qualities which now they have; if the frame of that heavenly arch erected over our heads should loosen and dissolve itself; if celestial spheres should forget their wonted motions, and by irregular volubility turn themselves any way as it might happen ; if the prince of the lights of heaven, which now as a giant doth run his unwearied course, should as it were through a languishing f aintness begin to stand and to rest himself ; if the moon should wander from her beaten way, the times and seasons of the year blend themselves by disordered and confused mixture, the winds breathe out their last gasp, the clouds yield no rain, the earth be defeated of heavenly influence, the fruits of the earth pine away as children at the withered breasts of their mother no longer able to yield them relief ; what would become of man himself whom these things now do all serve ? See we not plainly that obedience of creatures unto the law of nature is the stay of the whole world?" Keel. I'ol,
ix.

B. i.,yeo. lil.

The Word Tao.

perhaps not a quite satisfactory rendering for the passage.

233
In

these, as in other cases of a like nature already mentioned, tao

is

said to be an

^'

empty"

(or

"idle") character, adding nothing

it

to the
itself
it

meaning

of

the word to which

is

attached, and being

without any signification.

to

In some
it

cases,

however, where

seems

be an idle character
it

converts the concrete or part-

icular

term

follows into one of an abstract or general nature.

often

The phrase
of
it

tao-lij

convertible with tao,

is

used instead

in this
to

manner
off

in popular speech

and writing, serving often

merely

round

an expression or gentence.
is

Further
like that in

this

word ^ao

often used in a vague lazy

manner

which we use such words as thing,

affair, business.

It i&^vt)n expressly said in

some places

to

be an equivalent of

shih (^),

meaning "

affairs "

or business.

In a passage

of

the

"Li chi" the

actions (j^^

writer enumerates the three ceremonies in a service of

worship which are of special importance.

He

then adds,

all

three

H M ^) use what
moyens de rendre

is

external to intensify the Sage's

thoughts, or as Gallery translates, " Ces trois choses empruntent

au dehors

les

sensible les sentiments

du Sage."
tfc

We find also the expression ssii-tao^e-chin-wang (^ JE

meaning "this practice does not

"^

O*
is

now

lost.

In an appendix

to the

now exist," " Yi ching" we

or this
find
it

custom

stated that

the Sage, according to Dr. Legge's version, "penetrates to a

knowledge

of the course of

day and night (and

;^ JE

all

other connected
tao
is

phenomena)"
Sage

(51

^8S
(^)
or

^)-

Here the word

explained by shih
is

ku

(gj;) in the sense of affairs,

and the

said to see through the affairs of day

and night and know

them.
life

Under day and night

to the

are included light and darkness,

and death, ghosts and

spirits,

and the Sage

is

supposed to

have pierced

hidden means by which these opposites are

It is interesting to notice that the

related or connected.

Greek

word Aoyoc, which,

to
tao,
is

as will be seen presently, often corresponds

this

also

sometimes used in

loose

manner.

Thus
in our

in the Acts of the Apostles (Chap.

XV.,
In

v. 6),

we have

version " of this matter "

for -nepl rov Xoyov rovrov,

and in the

Chinese Jg

^ with the same

meaning.

this

use also of tao

234
it

The Word Tao.

often in

is

common
to

speech and popular writing replaced by

indefinite application.-^

tao-li

which has the same

addition

In

the uses and meanings of this word here

to it in

mentioned certain others are assigned

dictionaries
**

some

of the native

and other native treatises. Thus it is said to denote " straight " or " straightness " (]![), and " great " or ^' greatness

(Jt)-

Examples

of the

word in these uses

are,

however, rare,

if

they are actually to be found in speech or literature.

It is also
-g*

vaguely said

to

be "

all fine (or subtle)

all

things

''

(^

Jj?

:^ ^),

and

to

be a general name for

passive and active states (5S

^H
wide

fS i,

M ^)) ^^^^
of

^^'

moral

states.

These are

sufiiciently

to cover nearly everything.

There are probably, however, many

or otherwise restricted
in these pages,

varieties

meaning,

special, technical,

in use

which are included in the account given

and there are perhaps others

escaped observation.^

of ordinary occurrence

which have

The account
confined to
its

of

the word tao up to this has been mainly

use by the people generally and in the writings of

the orthodox.

But

in order to understand

it

properly
is

we should
employed

also take notice of the special

ways

in

which the term

it,

by the various
bouddhistes et

sects.

M.
un

Julien says of

'^Les lettres, les

et

les

Tao-sse font un

grand usage de ce mot,

I'emploient chacun dans

illustrate

sens different," and he proceeds to

this does not give a correct

the statement.

But

and

adequate view of the matter.

In early times there was not

much

difference as to the uses

made

of tao in the teachings of

philosophers.

Certain notions attached to the word were

after times

common

property, but in

these

received from

Taoists and

Confucianists different applications and developments.

Then new

meanings and new uses came

1

to

be introduced, though these were

"Le-ki," pp. 97, 128; "Li-chi," chap, viii., p. 58; '< Wen Chung-tzu," " Yi," chap, iii.; p. 5; ' Chou-yi-tsun-shu," iii.; Legge's "Yi-king," p. 354 j vol. v., p. 11; "Yi" (13), chap. vii. We may translate tao by event or occurrence Death as an event is single and cannot be repeated in such statements as this Sun.tzii," chap. xiii.
chap,
:

mJ^m--'^X-'^3nm^)>''
2

"Kuang.yun,"

s.v.

^;

case, however, the

t'i

and yung are

" Hu-tzu-chih-yen," chap. i. said to be respectively

In this particular

humanity

(jen)

and

right conduct towards others (i).


The Word Tao.

235

perhaps not very numerous; but the orthodox uses of tao are
alfio

found in the teachings

of

Taoists and Buddhists.

latter are

Some

of

the^special^jises

made,

of it

by tke

found in another

chapter, and here a

of this

word or two. may be

said about applications

word regarded

as peculiar to Taoists.

These derive their name frdm the

ant an element in
apostles.
all

Mo

tt^hich

forms so import-

the teachings of their founder and early

this tao is

As

to

what

there

is

not^and perhaps there

see in
it

cannot be an agreement of opinion.

the universe,

Some

the

way

of

and some a mere metaphysieal abstraction; some

regard

it

as

Reason, the God-reason which made and which rules

it

the world, and others take

Deity.

to represent the living personal of the tao of

least

Of Western expositions

Lao-tzu only one

need be here mentioned and that the

of

known.
''

The Library

the

India Office possesses a curious and interesting Latin

in

translation

MS.

of

the " Tao-t6-ching

with an elaborate
a

commontary
says, "

to a

portion.

The

translator,

Roman

Catholic

Missionary, after giving the composition of the character for tao

What,

therefore,

is

tao in

its

primary idea but the Head

and First Principle

of all things in self-motion?"

In some places

he renders the word by "

in

movement
it

of the divine principle,"

and

some places he
is,

treats

as denoting the First Principle itself,

pious and learned translator took eleven " Tao-te-ching " for special illustration, as by chapters of the
that

God.

The

these

it is

proven " that the mysteries of the Most Sacred Trinity

to

and God incarnate were once known

^

the Chinese

nation.^^

The beginning of the book (Jf Pf JE i^ JE) is thus rendered by him, " The Reason which can be comprehended by reasoning As we read this and ,the " Parais not the eternal Reason."
phrasis which follows
" Insane

we

are reminded of the lines translated

is he who hopeth that our reason Can traverse the illimitable way Which the one Substance in three Persons

follows

!"

The

tao of the '^Tao-te-ching" cannot be taught or explained in

is

labgii^gei" It

something

spiritual, eternal, overacting,

and ever

present everywhere.

We

may

render

it

by Nature, or

Law

of

"UNIVEKSITT/

OF THE

236

The Word Tao.

Nature, or Oversoul, or Reason, or God, or Providence, but none

of these gives the full import of

the term as used by

Lao-tzu.^

In the teachings
mystic meaning.
the end of the
^

of his early followers the

word has

still its

high

So

also in the writings of

men who

lived before

Han

dynasty and who were not disciples of Lao-tzil

note by Gallery on this subject is here transcribed, " Si on compare que Confucius donne au Tao aveo ceux que Lao-tze reconuatfc egalement au Tao dans les chapitres 4, 14, 32, et 51 du Tao-toe-kin, on acquiert la conviction que ces deux peres de la philosophie chinoise avaient, sur cet etre Mais, plus on medite leurs mysterieux, des idees a peu pres semblables. definitions, et plus on se demande si par le mot Tao il ne faut vraiment pas entendre la Verite, 6ternelle, la Raison divine, I'essence de Dieu lui-meme car, nous y trouvons I'eternite, I'imaiensite, la toute -puissance, I'invisibilite, I'immaterialite, I'incomprehensibilite, le principe de la vie, du mouvement et de la lumiere, en un mot, la plupart des attributs propres a I'Etre supreme, sauf ceux qui ne sont conaus que par la revelation, tels que la Bonte, la Misericorde, la Justice, &c.
les attributs
;

Pour les philosophes de la Chine qui n'avaient pas des ideas bien arretees sur la nature de Dieu, on congioit qu'il y euc irapossibilito k denommer, d'une mani^re adequate, un etre auquel leur langue n'avait pas encore donne de nom, et que, pour se tirer d'embarras, ils aient adopte le mot vague et obscur de Tao. Mais pour nous qui avoas, sur la cause premiere de toutes choses, des notions assez precises se r6sumant dans le mot Dieu, je ne vois pas pourquoi nous traduirions litteralement Tao par " Voie," expression qui, dans I'espece, ne signifie absolument rien, par la raison qu'elle signifie tout ce qu'on veut.
Je sais bien qu'on m'opposera certains passages du Tao-tce-kin (chap, liii.) Tao est decrit comme ayant les qualites d'une grande voie, d'un chemin Mais comme dans vingt autres passages les attributs oil Ton pent marcher. surnaturels du Tao excluent toute idee, meme eloignee de chemin, on doit tout simplement conclure qu'en pr6sence du Grand Principe universel qu'ils voulaient denommer, les philosophes chinois ont eu recours k des images et a des comparaisons differentes, tantot en harmonie avec le sens litteral du nom par eux adopte, tantot en desaccord, mais tendant toutes k rendre la meme idee. L'Ecriture sainte, elle meme, offre une foule d'exemples de ce genre dans les denominations diverses qu'elle applique k Dieu, et parmi lesquelles on trouve car, quoique la Divinite se resume dans une idee simple, aussi celle de Voie dans I'attribut de I'asseite, d'oii tous les autres attributs decoulent necessairO' ment, I'intelligence bornee de I'homme n'est pas moins obligee de I'envisager sous des aspects et avec des attributs differents, si elle veut se faire une idee relative des divers niodes d'action ou de manifestation de la divinite dans I'ordre de I'esprit ou dans I'ordre de la matiere.
oil le
;

Ainsi, on a vu page 118, que j'ai traduit le mot Tao par "V6rit6." Cette expression pent logiquement etre admise par tout ou elle se rapporte a I'Etre "eternel et sans nom, anterieur a toutes choses," dont parle Lao-tze: neanmois, dans la definition donnee ici par Confucius, et oil j'ai conserve I'expression de Verite celeste, on pourrait dire tout aussi bien L'Immensite eternelle, et Le Pouvoir createur qui donne a tous les etres I'existence et la forme.

En resume, je crois que le mot Tao des anciens philosophes chinois ne pent, au fond, s'appliquer qu'^ Dieu, mais qu'on pent le traduire de plusieurs manieres pref6rablement k Voie, suivant I'attribut ou le mode d'action sous lequel on envisage la divinite, sans que, pour cela, nous entendions accorder aux theologues de la Chine une connaissance du vrai Dieu plus etendue que leurs expressions
ne
le

comportent."

"Li-ki," p. 142.

The Word Tao,

237

Tao represents a p;rand th ough vague mental couceptioDL^^ Asjn the " rao-te-ching " it denotes the idea of a power or cause which
throughout
all

the universality of existence moves at

rest,

works

without action, teaches

administration.

without speech,
tzii,'^

and governs without

remarkable passage
is

In "Lie

for example, is a

beginning,

"The underived and

?i

ever-living

Nature"

(^

^
also

flu

S^ ^
is

4)

ill

Faber's rendering, "

ist

Was

Keinen

Urquell hat und bestandig producirt,

die Natur").

Here

Nature

to be understood as the law or principle of order which

pervades the universe.

With

the ear^y Taoist writers, however,

the word has also acquired a peculiar technical use, and denotes the
life

Supreme Art
indefinitely, of

or wisdom, that

is,

the art of prolonging one's

(fjlj)

becoming a hsien
in "
sir,

or Immortal.

As an
says to

instance of the use of the word in this

its

peculiarly Taoist sense

we may take a passage

another,

Chuang

tzii.''

One worthy

"

You

are old,
is

of a child.

How

and yet you have the complexion that ?" The old man replies, " I have learned

the art"

(^

prolonging

life.

JE ^), that is, as the context shows, the art of This art was at first a spiritual process consisting

of self-conquest

and

self-purification,

but

it

degenerated into the

of the body.

compounding
prolonging
professed
originally.

of elixirs

and the manipulation

The

use of tao in the sense of magic art and specially the art of
life

or acquiring immortality
:

is

not confined to the

theirs, peculiarly

Taoists

but

it

is

regarded as

and

The term shan (^)-^ao, used

in this way, denotes a

Jft

clever

means, and shan-tao-shen-yao

efficacious

(^

^)

is

a clever

means and
art of
it is

drugs for producing longevity.

Confucianists object to the tao of Taoists whether denoting the

becoming immortal or the attainment

selfish,

of

moral perfection that

self.

always

beginning and ending with

is

As denoting

a spiritual State also tao

more human and

practical with the

Confucianists than with the Taoists.

the latter tao

is

The former say that with an "empty negation," a nameless unreality,

something
real,
is

while with them

it is

human

and

intelligible.

Again, with the Confucianists

or principle

tao

always spiritual, the law

directs

which pervades and rules or

matter

but

238

The Word Tao.

with the Taoists the word came to be another

name

for the thin

vapoury matter (^) which makes the

air

we

breathe.

Moreover,

though many

of the Confucianist phrases

which contain the word

tao are also found in the writings of Taoists, yet in these latter

new meaning

is

frequently imported.

This

is

the case, for ex-

ample, with the

terms above noticed

is

tao-hsin

and

jen-hsin.

With some Taoists the tao-hsin

and water; the jerv-hsin
is

the

yang

air,

that of metal
fire.

the yin

air,

that of
is

wood and
(5|),

A
literally

well-known Taoist expression

to rule or direct

tao^in

meaning
of

and guide, but used in the sense

suppressing or controlling the breathing as a means to prolonging

life.

In " Chuang tzu" we find mention

of tao-yin-chih-shi (ig ^1

j^

^)

or Professors of Breath-suppressing.

the famous

The course which Chang Liang (Mayer's Ch. R. M., No. 26) took in
abstain from cereals,
his

order to render himself immortal was to

control his breathing ftao-yinj

and make

body

light.

The
'^),

Taoists have another

to lead sinews

common

expression tao-chin-ku (Jg

is,

and bones, that

to

knead the body gently, a

practice also conducive to long

life.

We

have already seen the term huang ("^ytao used

It
is

to desig-

nate the ecliptic.

also applied to the conjunction of the

of the

sun

and moon, and forms the ninth

this

moon's ways or place^.

From
day.

perhaps comes

its

use in

common

expressions like huang-taoto

chi'jih

( 0)
so

or huang-tao-jih-tzu,
is

denote

lucky

day

styled

fortunate by divine

arrangement and in

consequence of harmonies established between heaven and earth.

The mode
to all

of

speech

is

often said to be Taoist, but

it

is

common
it to

Chinese.
is

The

Taoists, however, use

to [themselves.

huang-tao in a way

which

perhaps peculiar

They employ

denote the state of unconscious innocence which precedes the

knowledge

of

good and
of a

evil;

and

it is

sometimes restricted

to the

moral character

babe unborn.

In some places the Chinese

is

generally apply the term also to men, and a huang -tao-jen man whose honesty and goodness are inborn and thorough.^
1 Julien's " Le Livre de la Voie," &c., Inh, p. 10 inscriptus, iu I^atinuin idioina versus," by Jos. de
;

" Liber Sinicus Tao Te Kim Gra-mmont apparently. The

The Word Tao.

There are several other forms
of expression in

239
which Tao
is

used in peculiar senses hy the Taoists, but as these are known to

few except Taoist adepts and curious students we need not refer
to

them

farther.
of the

The Mahometans make much use

times employing
it

word

tao,

some-

in its

peculiar to themselves.

common senses, but often in ways Thus we find it used by them in the
is

sense of duty, but T'ien-tao

heavenly duty, that

is,

man's

duty

to

God.

The wu-kung

(jB. Jft)

or "Five Foundations of

Practical Eeligion," viz., Repetition ^f the Creed, Prayer, Fasting,

Alms, and a Pilgrimage

to

Mecca

constitute man's Vien-tao

or Religious duties, those appointed

by Heaven.

So jen-tao, or

man's

duties,

are those which

man

has to observe towards his

fellows, duties of

human
to

appointment.
recorded

Then
by him
to

tao

is

the

Law of God as revealed to Moses and

David and written by him

in the

Law,

in the Psalms,
set forth in

Jesus and taught in the Gospel, to

Mahomet and
But wai
;

the Koran.
that
is,

So cheng QjQ'tao

is

the right or perfect doctrine,

{^\*ytao does not

the religion of Mussulmans.

always denote heretics or different religions

applied to orthodox believers

the term

is

also
it is

who

transgress the law.

Thus

used of Mussulmans

who drink

wine, or in other ways break the

commandments.
Again, tao
is

the law of

God

in the universe, the code of

of

Nature or Providence (5c

The world H'J)mena gives but an imperfect view of this law, and only among men can attain to its perfect understanding.

8^^^

pheno-

the saint

" Paraplirasis " for the fuller understanding of the translation says of the first sentence, "Ratio quaBCunque quam humane ratiocinio possumus assequi, et totaliter comprehendere, non est aeterna ilia Eatio, quam prime, et per se refert, et describit caracter Tao." The phrase Tien-tao (_^ ^) is translated by "Coelestis sapientia"; and in one place tao is rendered by "doctrina de divine Tao." The old Father was a learned man and a good Chinese scholar, but he had theories and expanded the dark sentences of the Tao-U-ching in " Lie-tzu," chap, iv.; Faber's " Licius," p. 91; accordance with his theories. " Chuang-tzu," chaps, iii., vi.; " Lun-heng," chap, ii.; '-'Hui-hsin-chi" {^ *[!> ^) IT, p. 19 ; " Shih-chi," chap, vii.; " Kan-ying-pien," chap, i.; p. I7i note. See Ho Kuan-tzii's works for various uses of the word Tao, some of which seem to be peculiar, while others are common. So also the '* Ch'ang-tao-chen-yen" a^) ill which Tao is the secret of long life, employs the word also ("i in several other senses.

^R

>

240

The Word Tao.

Then

tao is used for

state of piety or holiness.

Iman or Faith, that is, the internal As the flint must be struck by man in
Mussulman
which
is

order to bring out

its

latent heat, so the heart of the

must be struck by divine truth before the

latent in
it

faith (tao)

will shine forth in practical religion.

it

This tao can-

not be defined or described, but

may

be illustrated by figures

and parables.
Some, writing in the
spirit of Sufiism,

explain tao as the

is,

yearning to abandon the world and return to the True, that

Grod
(i|J

to

^^

fl^

;i

IpJ

^).

It

is

also described as intuitive

it is

knowledge and intuitive

ability,

and

also

sometimes used

apparently in the sense of conscience.

perfection for which the true believer
is

It

is

also

an ideal

state of

to seek,

but which can be

others nor even

attained only by saints.

They cannot teach

it to

reduce

it

to action in their

own

lives.

The
and
stand the

uses which the

it

Mahometan
it.

writers

make

of this

word

their treatment of

generally help us occasionally to under-

Confucian views about

Thus the Mahometans

ifc

evidently did not consider that tao was regarded as a deity, for
is

not enumerated along with

as objects

Li (g). Heaven, Lao-tzu, and

Again they

Buddha

wrongly regarded as divine or God.

like

yuan-tao (]g Jg) in the original Confucian application. Thus yuan-tao is the original sense, but with a new

employ expressions

rule of belief or true account of Jhinsjs from the point of view of

orthodox Mussulmans.^

tao

As a further appendix to the account here given of the word we may add a few observations on the use made of it in
of

Chinese Christian writings and specially in the JS'ew Testament.

In the sense
occurs

way

or road, literal

and

figurative, this
it

word
used,

often in

the Old Testament.

In that work

is

promiscuously apparently, to render

not quite agree in meaning but have
It

five
all

Hebrew words which do

its

the sense of path or road.

derivatives are

may
1

be noticed that the

Hebrew dahar emd

cf.
Ife

See the

T. P.

Hughes (2ad

^ ^ ^ |, chap, 101
ed.), p.
iv.;

i.;

:;^

^ 31, chap,

?g

U ia

IE

"Notes on Miihammadanism," by the Rev. ^, chap. J: The Mahomn. ^g;

^ ^

chap.

ix.

The Word Tao.

used in ways

241

many

of which, are very like those in

if

which tao
by
this

is

used, but those terms are seldom, in

ever, rendered

word

the

Chinese version of the Old Testament.

of tao in the sense of

In the

New

Testament the use

way

is

not very

common;

the colloquial term tao-lu being often substituted.

This does not

in the 6th verse

seem

to

be always done with good

effect.

Thus

of the 14th chap, of John's Gospel, Jesus says to

Thomas,

'^

am

the way, and the truth, and the

life.'^

For the

first

clause of this

the Chinese has

^Wt-^M^>

am

just a road, or I

am

road.

Here and
So
also

in

the context tao

would surely have been

Corinthians, says,
of

better.

where Paul, writing

to the

"And

still

more excellent way shew I unto you," the use

tao-lu to
as, e.g.,

render "

way "

does not seem right.

In other passages^

in the Acts of the Apostles, chap, xviii, vers. 25" and

26 the word
is

"way"

in the expression

"the way

of the

Lord"

correctly

rendered by tao. ^' This word serves also to translate the Greek logos, singular

and

plural, in its various meanings.

Thus the statement, "In

Reason, Logos)
{-j^
is

the beginning

was the word "

(or

in

the

Chinese version, " In the grand beginning was tao

with a comment adding that yen (g*)
tao.
is

^ : jg),
" Speech
is

a various reading for

This appears a
is

little

strange, for to say that

God "
John

rather

Aryan than
that which

Semitic.

Then

the First Epistle of

begins, "

That which was from the beginning, that which

we have heard,
which we

we have seen with our

^oorjg^

eyes,

that

beheld, and our hands handled, concerning the

Word

or word) of life " {Trspl rev Xoyov rrfg

perhaps, " concernhas,

ing the account of the Life

of life

").

The Chinese

"the doctrine

(^

'fi^

j^ jg) which

we

heard, which our eyes saw, our

hands handled, which was from the beginning."

according
to

Here

also,

one edition, we
is

may

substitute yen

(=*) for tao,

but the whole translation

faulty.

The word

logos

is

often

rendered by tao-li apparently as an equivalent of tao.

Epistle to the

In the

Hebrews

(chap,

vi., v. 1),

the writer says, "leaving

the word (or

discussion,

logon)

of

the beginning of Christ,"

" inchoationis Christi sermonem," for which the Chinese gives.

242

The Word Tao.

ought now
to leave the first principles of Christ's doctrine
''

"We

(tao-li).

This also does not seem to be a very good rendering

of the Apostle's words.

In the 13th verse

is

of the previous chapter

we

are told that every one taking milk

unversed in the reason

of righteousness,

"without experience
SiH'aLoavv'qQ).

of the

word

of righteous-

ness"

{d'^eipoQ

Xoyov

Here the Chinese brings out

the meaning better than the English, " All

who can only

take milk

are unable to understand the doctrine ftao-li) of righteousness."

In the 31st verse

of the 8th
tao-li,

chap, of the Gospel of

v.

John "

my

word"

(logos)

is

and in

43

of the

same chapter
and

it is

tao; and in the 23rd and 24th verses of the 14th chapter of the

same Gospel we have

Further, tao
the
singular
is

this

word used
used
to

to express logon

logons.
p^/ua,

also

translate the

Greek

in so

and

plural,

meaning word or

saying.

It

is

taken, for example, in the 10th chapter of the Epistle to

the

Romans,

in

which

is

a passage which also illustrates well some

of the other uses of this word.

" the righteousness which

Deuteronomy.

is

In the 8th verse we read that of faith " says, "The word is nigh

thee," the statement being a quotation from the 30th chapter

of

Here " the word "

is

ro

prjfj>a,

and the Chinese

has, "this doctrine" (or discourse) tao,

of the original

though in the rendering

is

term in Deuteronomy a different expression

of the

used.

The Chinese rendering

is

Hebrew term given

to

in

the

Epistle

apparently better than those of the Greek and English

versions.

The
is

writer of the

Epistle proceeds

explain that

" the word "

" the word of faith which we preach," and

now

TO p^fta becomes tao-li.

Then

in

the loth

verse

we have the
restricted to

term for "to preach" translated by chuan {^ytao, a phrase

borrowed from Confucianism, but with
its

meaning

the transmission chiefly oral of Christian doctrines.

verse, however,

In the next

chuan-tao represents the Greek word translated

writer
of

"report."
Septuagint,

Here the

the

Epistle

quotes from

the

while the missionaries translate from the

Hebrew

and give a better rendering.

is

Then the

writer adds,

" So belief

from hearing and hearing by word [dLa prffiarog) of Christ." In the Chinese we have, " Thus believing truth ftaoj comes from

The Word Tao.

hearing
it,

243
of

and hearing truth comes from the speech {yen ")

God," a rendering which can scarcely be regarded

as faithful.

Do

" some ancient authorities " read

The word

tao

is

also

used to

God here instead of Christ ? translate mang, faith, as in the

we
find
it

13th verse of the secondljEapter of Revelations, where

in the expression " didst not deny

my
1

faith " (/? fg |g f? 65 M)-

It

is

also

used in the vague sense of things or matters.

to

Thus

Paul writes
end

Timothy

(1st

Tim.,

chap., 5th, 6th verses), ''The

of the charge is love out of a

pure heart and a good conscience

and

faith unfeigned

from which things some having swerved

have turned aside unto vain talking."

" which things" (wv) has che-tao
often introduced

The Chinese
J^).

version for
is

(^
to

This word

also

by the translators

fill

up the sense or
writes to

to define

the use of some general term.

*'

Thus Paul
Paul

Timothy,

Let a woman learn

in quietness with all

tao.^'

subjection," and the

also does not allow a
tao.

Chinese version has, ''learn

woman
is

to teach,

but the Chinese has to teach

So a

woman
;

to get

her religion from her husband and keep

it to

herself

comfortable doctrine for married men.

As
Truth.

a religion or system of belief Christianity

is

of course
tao, or

now
the

called cheng (j}'tao,

and chen {^)-tao, and simply

it

The claim
with

for

to

be the only true system of faith

arrogance

is

put

forward

unscrupulous

by some missionaries.

Thus
them

in the THen-chu-shih-i (5c

the relation of this religion to

are

^^^ ^7 ^^ famous Ricci, others and its superiority over

reckless
his
of

iM

misrepresented
of

in

manner.

Not only
the
tao
of of the

was the tao

Christianity,

Confucius

and

predecessors

and the Shang Ti

them the T^ien chu

doctrines
of

Jesuits, but also

last

some

of the

characteristic

these

were taught not explicitly but implicitly in the sacred books

the

of

Confucianists. ' These, it was true, had not the term " shoulder-knots " totidem verbis, nor even totidem ftyllahis, but

it

was there totidem

Uteris, in a crude disjointed

manner.

The

missionaries generally have a tenderness for Confucianism, and

with them the "left-hand

ways"

in

China are

chiefly
to the

Taoists

and Buddhists,

They

also

have given a new use

phrase

244

The Word Tao.

tao,

THen
way."

employing

it

to

denote
is

Christianity,

the

''

Celestial,

" Christina Theology "

translated by

Shen-tao a name

also applied to
if it

Theology generally.

This would not be a bad term

were not already cumbered with many meanings.

We

also

find tao used to represent the

Second Person

of the Trinity in

the formula Fu-tao-sheng-shen

(^

jg

J^), Father,

''the

Word," and Holy

Here we
present.

Spirit.^

finish the quest of this

word tao

at least for the

Some may think

of

that in several cases the distinctions in

meaning given
the

to it are not differences,

and that consequently

number
it is

the meanings has been needlessly multiplied.

But
in

possible that in such cases a careful study of the context

will

which the doubtful expressions occur

and interpretations
this

modify

this opinion.

The

student, moreover, will be able to add from his

of the

own reading

several renderings

word which have not

been mentioned in

examination;

We must

remember that

the character tao is a very comprehensive one (JJ J^ ^^ that it is a name for all fine things, and that it is always everywhere
in
all

things.

In their use

of

this

word Chinese moral and

to it

political teachers

do not always attach

an accurately defined

They have rather in their minds a group of associations bound up with the word and memories of its earlier occurrences.
meaning.

Hence
the

in

many

cases, as

we have

seen,

the word

is

susceptible

of several interpretations, all to

some extent

correct as reflecting,

mind

of the speaker or writer.^

^ The^ Chinese version of the New Testament quoted from or referred to in the text is the ''Hsin-yao-ch'uan-shu" (^jr t^ ^)) ^^ Mandarin, printed at Peking in 1872. Among other books used are the " T''ie?i-c/iM-s/ii-i" and the These two are by ^' ShSng.ching-tse-yao-hsiang-lun" (|^ W' tra)* Koman Cathohc missionaries but several of the illustrations'in the text are from works by Protestant missionaries. See Dr. Edkins in Chi. Rec, vol. xviii., p. 352.

^ M W ^
^

2 Of modern native books the M- ^J Mj is one which may be consulted with profit for information about the meanings of Tao.

CHAPTER n.
TERMS RELATING TO DEATH AND BURIAL.
In the
having
to
last

Chapter we saw an instance

of

one word in Chinese

serve

many

uses,

and

it

could easily be shewn that

several other words also have wide ranges of meaning.

so far as a language has not separate

Now

in

names

for particular

mental

and material objects

it

may

be regarded as a defective instrument.

to indicate careless observation, lazy

The

deficiency

may be taken

thinking, and a comparatively low state of culture on the part of

those

who

use the language.

But a
its

careful examination of the

vocabulary of one people and

will

comparison with those of others

shew that among nations which have reached some degree

terms
is

of civilization the lack of

usually partial and relative.

A language
and terms
differences

may have

in

many

cases several

names

for one object,

to represent

not only the great but also the minute

or related varieties,

among resembling
store of

and
of

it

may

also

have a rich

words for certain departments

knowledge.

Yet

it

may

be sadly wanting in terms to denote certain other

to exist in other languages.

objects

and distinctions which are seen

with respect
to
its

Now
Western

store

of available materials

some

critics,

as has been stated above, have pronounced the

it

Chinese language to be poor, while others have declared

rich.

to

be

As
is

to its

formal destitution,

its

utter

want

of inflections,
is

there

no doubt or dispute.

But whether

its

stock of words

small and inadequate, and inferior to the stores of other languages

should be decided only after careful investigation and comparison.

That Chinese
vocabulary
is

is

in certain respects poor in terminology

contrasted with others better

It has not,
for

at once granted.

when its known to us may be example, so many terms for

God
for

as one, nor so

many names

there are

many
it

expressions in

for a lion or gold as others ; and Western science and philosophy

to find

which

would perhaps be impossible

ill

Chinese equiva-

lents.

But they judge

who

say that

it is

in phrases for

moral

246
and
it

Terms Relating
spiritual concepts

to

Death and Burial

is

that Chinese

specially

wanting while

is

rich only in terms relating to the business of daily life

and and

in the sensuous phrases which suit a materialistic philosophy

an unimaginative poetry.
bears at
first

The

air of

poverty which this language

sight

is

partly due to the want of inflections and the

sparing use of modifying particles.

In some degree

also

it

is

due to the small vocabulary at the

command

of

many

natives
to

who have

intercourse with the

Western

strangers,

and partly

the slight acquaintance which the latter have with the resources
of the language.

In matters which concern the material condition of

man

thorough comparison of vocabularies would perhaps shew that the

Chinese
are
is

poorer than our Earopean languages.

Thus the

latter

much

richer than the former in terms relating to the uses

of the domestic animals.

which are made

Any

one can test this

statement by comparing, say, the vocabularies compiled by

M.

Eolland in his learned work on the popular fauna

of

France with
Take, for

the supply of terms on the like subjects in Chinese.

example, the pig, as a native author says, though in a wider

sense than he meant, a beast of
in
all

the world.

It has been

known
it

China from the

earliest times of

which we have record, and

submit
to

was apparently one

a

of the first animals to

the will of

human

master.^
for the hog, the

In China the oldest and most general name

Siis scrofa,

tame and

wild,

is

shih (^).

This character, as origi-

nally written, was intended to suggest the legs, bristles, and tail
of the animal, while the

word shik

itself

had reference

to the

way
to

in

which

its

tail

is

held up and curled back.

Some, however,
it

regard the word as meaning dirty, and find in

the unclean habits of the pig as to food

an allusion

when
is

domesticated.

Another old and

seems
to

classical

name

for

swine

chih (^), which

is

have been

also a popular

term in what
its
it

now Honan.
legs, and,

It was,

according to some, a pig shaky on

hind

according to others, a sow.

*

In Mencius' time
v., p.

seems

to

have

Cf,

Faune Populaire de France, T.

213.

The Sus Scropha Domesticus.

: ;

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

247

been used in the latter sense, though he uses chihy and mu-chih,
brood-sows, as well.^

Neither shih nor chih, however,

is

at present in general use

among
is

the people, and the one

common word
it

for pig
is

everywhere pronounced

that written

^.

This, in the

Mandarin language,
stands for
is

dm, and in the various One of the explanations

and alludes
ponding Aryan word sus

dialects of this

chiij
it

tzu, tii, tUj ti.

name

that

means numerous,
as the
corresto procreate.

to the prolific character

is

of the pig,

traced to a root

meaning

From chu
tives,

as primitive are
of
is

formed mgwiy compounds and derivagiven.

(|:J),

some

which
in

will

now be

A
among
chu ku

boar

book and technical language a hsiung

or

chia (f), or ya (^), the last meaning simply " tusks.''

But

the people
(!j4),

we

find only the terms

chu-kung
stis

(^

each meaning "pig male,"

is

mas.

^), or For a sow

the correct term

old

mu

(J), or 'pa (|E.),

the latter being also an

name
is

for the wild boar.

In common speech, however, a

sow
end.

always called chu mu, pig mother, female pig.

will

She
it

is

an unclean animal, and arnica luto sus

go back to

to the

For her when " desirous

of offspring " there is

is

a special

term lou (written

U and ^), which

It is best

also used as

an adjective

meaning "
to a

lascivious."
of

famous lady

known from its application very immoral character who was a conThis lady committed incest with her
Chief of Wei.

temporary of Confucius.

brother and afterwards became wife to the

The

latter,

on her account, summoned her brother from Sung

and kept him there. When the heir of Wei was through Sung the people sang to him, " Since you have settled your wanton sow [Wi {'^^ %) W) ^^^7 ^ot
to his court

travelling

send back our old boar

(^

^ ^ 3J
is

|Pi) ?

"

M%

In books a shote or porket

Shuo-wen,"

called tun or t'un 0|g or ^),

the latter being also in some places used for pigs generally
s.v, ^^ "Hsiao-shuo" (/> |^) L.C C. \y., p. 422; Shih, chap, where we find mention of shih (^ ^ ^) with white feet. Other book names for the pig are chien (|pf ), a full grown pig, one three years' old tsung {^), a small pig, a yearling, L. C. C, iv., pp. 230, 36. Kanghsi gives
*
''
;

v.,

p. 81.

several other terms, but they are scarcely known even iu literature. urh-ya," p. 6; " Fang-yen," chap, viii. ; *' Pen-tsao," chap. 1.: L. C. C, and 337'

ii..

" Hsiao nn 7

248
but in

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

is

common language

the only term for a porket

one like

chu'tzu {^)j pig child, young pig.

barrow

is

in classical

language called /^ri (U), but the peasant knows no other name for it than yen {^)-chu, castrated boar. There are also in books
special

names

for the pig

when
and

three months, six months, a year,

also epithets descriptive of
little if

two years, three years

of its peculiarities.

old,

some

These, however, are

the people

at all in request

or

known among

who

generally use chu with the

addition of a specializing term.

But though Chinese has many names

distinct

for pigs
is

it

has no

term for pork or bacon.

is

The former

called chu-j'oUy

pig flesh, and the latter

prefixed.

the same with the word for salted

Among

the people the word^ow, in

Foochow nuk, and

in

Amoy
of pigs.

hah, stands most frequently for pork, as our coresponding

to the

word " flesh ^' in old England meant

poor people the flesh

joiO'ting

The

collops of pork sold in the

market are called

(^

$J),

literally

"flesh nails."
is

To

sell

pork, at least for the

common
among
you
cheat
sell

people,

mai-joUf

sell

meat.

Hence comes a saying

the Foochow people, " Though on terms of closest intimacy,

me

your pork dear

(^

^M

S.

me though we

are old friends.

A ham,

^)/^ ^^^^

i^

Y^^
is

when

cured,

huo-Vui or " fired leg," but otherwise it is only a chu-t^ui, or " Dans le cochon tout est bon," and pettitoes are a pig's leg.
dainty.
is

The

technical
to

name

for

them

is

hai (|^), but this word

of

not

known

the people.

They speak

chu-t%

(JjJ),

pig's

feet,

when

these are sold in the market, and they call them,

cooked, ch'ien-li-hsiang

(^

), a thousand

li

aroma.

when The

word /litan (^) means

it

originally to "feed pigs with grain."

signification

Thence

came

to

have the
killing.

animal for
feasting a

It is

of feeding or fattening any even used, as in the " Tso-chuan," of

man

with a view of bringing him to destruction, and

of the rearing of female domestic slaves.-^

^

Alphabetic Diet., Foo.

Dial., p. 821, s.v.,

^; Douglas'

Diet.,

Amoy

Dial., p.

490; Cf. Marsh's Leetures on the English Language, First Series, p. 248 (4th Ed.) For "roast pork" an old classical name is mao-pao (^ j^), a contraction for
mao'pao-chih-tun, a young pig scraped and roasted. L, C. C,
chap,
viii.j

iv., p.

625 j Shih,

p. 25.; L. C.

C,

v., p.

825

"

Tso chuan," chap,

xlviii.

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

249
well sup-

Passing on to another subject

plied this language
is

we may

notice

how

with words to denote divisions of time.

its

Thus not only has the year

but
it

four seasons and twelve months,

has also
is

its

twenty-four solar periods

not only as
first,

(H

^).

Then
it

each month

known

second, and so on, but

has moreover natural and cyclical names, and an appellation to

mark
is

its

place in a season.

Thus the month

and heng-yen

of

February in 1886
month, and
it is

in the

Chinese year the cheng {]) or

first

called san-yang

(H ^)>

(^

H), and meng-ch'un

some
of

(S S)

or

first

month

of Spring.

The
the
first

division of time called a year has several names,

which may be noted.

A very old

one

is

chi

(^), which occurs in

section of the "Shu-ching.'*

It is said to be a full solar

year of about 366 days, a complete revolution

"circuit of the heavens," and
*'a
it is

(^)
to

of the sun, or

translated by Dr. Legge,

round year."

It

is

contrasted with sui,

be presently

noticed,

which
is

is

only a period of twelve moons, except

when a

month
ch'i

intercalated.

The word

chi

is

by some

identified with

(^)

in the sense of a year, while

many

regard the two as

as to

quite distinct.

The

latter

word has several meanings, such

meet with, expect, a fixed time, in addition

In
of
this last sense it is of very

to that of a year.

common

occurrence in the language

flg)

mourning.

The term chH-fu

(^

denotes, as will be seen

is

below, a twelve months' mourning.

chi

Here chH

often pronounced

and the character

This

used apparently as the exact equivalent

of ch'i as above.

last

word has

also a peculiar technical use

in the sense of " one

hundred years

of age,"

an instance

of

which

occurs in the " Shu-ching."

very early

name

for a year is tsai

(^), which was the

(B.C.,

recognized term during the period of

to 2205).

Yao and Shun

*'

2350
is,

It is explained as

meaning
Spring

the beginning," that

the recommencement of

life in

(^

^M

ia)-

^o
to

die in

Winter and revive

of nature,

in Spring represents the whole annual course

tsai,

and hence

as year, is
is

also

explained

mean

complete (j^).

Another name

sui

{-^),

which was in fashion

during the Hsia period (B.C., 2204-1766).

There are several

250

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

is

explanations of the use of this term, one of which

that

it

indicates

the time in which Jupiter, sui-hsing, moves a stage in his twelve

years' orbit.

The
is,

character

is

said to be

pu ^,
if

a planet,

and

phonetic,

that

the planet called sui, or Jupiter.

is

Another

interpretation

is

that a year

so called as

sui (5^) to follow,

because

it is

one orderly succession

of the seasons.

During the Shang dynasty (B.C., .1765-1122) the word

^^' ^

ssu

iWt)

came

into use as the designation of a year.

This word,
at

as the character shows, points to the sacrifice

which was offered

the end

of the year.

In the time of the Chou dynasty the word which was chiefly
used as

name

for a year

was nien {^).

This character

is

said to

be properly

that

is,

ho meaning grain, and chHen (or Jen)

first

serving a phonetic purpose, and thus nien was at

merely a
for the
it

harvest

(^

^).

It became, however, the

common term
tsai

period of twelve months or a revolution of the seasons, and

has

continued such

down

to the present.

The words
to

and sui are

in

also still current,

though the

latter

has become

some extent
life.

popular usage restricted

to the sense of a

year of one's

In ''Mo

tzu" we
h-e

find

it

and nien used apparently

in their old senses.

Thus
|)5J),

speaks of shi-nien-sui-shan and hsiung

is,

{^

^^^

and

that

the seasons' harvests making a good (or a bad) year.

Faber

translates the

two expressions simply by "sind die Zeiten gut" and " sind die Zeiten schlecht." In Mencius we find the two words
treated as
lo-sui
(151

synonymous and interchangeable

as in the expressions
;

^)

and hsiung^nien, good and bad years

and he

also uses sui as a contraction for sui-hsiung,

badness of the year.

We
and
life.
it

are told that one term for year in the Hsia period in
(Jff,).

addition to sui was nien

is

This

is

also an old

word

for harvest,

used occasionally to denote a year, especially of one's

this sense it is

In

now found

chiefly in poetry

and elegant

compositions such as celebrate the praises of deceased friends.

The word
solstice,"

la (J^) originally,
tcinter, is also

" the

sacrifice after the

winter

and hence
life,

employed

in literature to

denote

a year of one's

especially tbe
is

"growing winters" which lay

us low.

Tbis use of the word

said to date from Ch'iu Shili

Huang

Termfi Relating to Death

Ti, the
it

and Burial.

251

one great successful innovator in China.

The Buddhists,
word.

will be seen presently,

life it

make

a peculiar use of this

In

common

be said of a person la-ta-hao (J^ -J^ J^), his winters are very many, but it is not usual to apply the word la to
old.
is

may

any one unless he looks

the word ch'un, Spring,
of

In speaking

of a

young person's age

Instead

used as a substitute for year.

cun we sometimes
so used
life

find ch'ing

(^) employed

in this

manner,

and

chHng points

to the fresh

verdure of Spring, the salad

days of

An

old

when one is green in affections and judgment. synonym for sui in the ^ense of a year of life

is

ling

(g^) from the word for teeth with ling as phonetic. does not seem to be very common at present, and it
little

This word
is

perhaps a

antiquated.

It

is

used, however, occasionally of children in

such expressions as shih-i'ling-ticng-tzu

of eleven years,
this

(+

f^

;ft -p),

a boy
of

and pa-ling, eight years

(i^), teeth, is also

of age.

The primitive
the

word chih

employed

in the sense of a year

is

of life.

Thus
So
also

ch'ih-shii

(^), the number of teeth,

to

number

of one's years,
life.

and shu-jen-chih-chHh,
the phrase
i

count the years of one's

is

{]^)-ch^ih

used in the sense of

"as

to age," or

"in years."
hiio

The word
ancient local

(>^),

al.

hui,

meaning
to

fire, is said to

be an

name

for a year,

and

be the origin of the present

of twelve

term in Hainanese.
called Hi,

In that dialect a period

of one's life is

months

is

and a year

Hui

(like

hui in Swatow, and

hei in

Amoy).
of

The years
to

an Emperor's reigu are sometimes referred

i (|g),

under the term

but the use of the word thus written

is

not supported by good authority.

erratic
is

This

is

supposed to be only an

way
i

of writing the

word

ssii (jjjj),

mentioned above, which

ako read

and written jl.

of a year is chi ($),

Another name
the sense of "

which

also

means the
is

space of twelve years.

it is

Thus the phrase

i-chi

|Q)

used in

now

a dozen years since."^

;

* "Urh-ya," chap, vi.; " Poh-wa-t'ung," chap. iv. Wade in Transactions, Ethnl. Soc, vol. vii. (new ser.), p. 210; '' Ta-tuan" (> if), p. 7; " Mo-tzu," chaps, i and xii.; Faber's Micius, p. 43; L. C. C, ii., p. 21; "Meug," chap. i. L. C. C, ii., p. 8; " Meng," chap. i. "Yu-hsio," &c., chap, i.; " Ch'ang.li-ahiChi-chu " (^ |g if l). chap, X.; p. 3,
;

252

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

The
has
it

ricliness of this

language in certain departments

may be
it

further illustrated by a reference to some of the terms which

to

denote ^the successive phases of

to

human

life.

Not only has

names corresponding
man.

our infant, child, boy, youth, man,

old

It has also terms to signify shades of difference in

these, for

which we have no corresponding expressions.

Let us begin with a new-born babe.

is

For

it

the

common term
one
breast.

ying or ying-er

(U
is

g,), the child of the breast, the little

borne in the mother's bosom

and nourished from her

Speaking precisely er

a male, and ying a female infant, but the

distinction is not observed, nor is the

term

strictly confined to
its
it

babes and sucklings.

When

an infant can recognise

mother

with a laugh,

it is called

hai (Jg), from the sound which

makes

in attempting to laugh.
until
it

Some think

that an infant does not smile

It then

is

about two years of age.

becomes interesting

and may be spoken

that
is is

of as a hai-t'i-chih-t'ung

a child to be carried in the arms.

(^ Ji ;2l ft)> ^ ^^^Y Others think that the

when
his
it

name

derived from the father's smile, hai (|^),

baby

is

formally presented to

him and he

is
is

pleased to give

a name.

It is applied to both sexes, but a girl

distinguished as nii-hai-tz-i,
is

while a boy

is

simply hai-tzu.

This term also

used of children
for

generally and even of grown up children.

infant
is

Another name

an

ju

(]||),

word which means

is soft

in this use "milk-fed."

joints

It indicates that the baby

and tender, with

it

and bones

not yet in proper working order, but

also is loosely applied.

is

The
which

child of seven years of age

called tao
is

('l!^),

word

also

means

to pity.

The name

derived by some from

the tender compassion and love which a parent shows to a child.

Others derive the use

of such tender years

of this special

name from
is

the fact that one

is to

when he

does what

wrong

be treated

with pity ftaoj, not punished.

called tao as

Some

also say that a child is

hide
of
is,

if t^ao (3^), because his impulse is to run away and when he has been naughty. For a boy of nine or ten years age the proper term is yu {Q}), which means "few," that

yu

is

one of few years, and so young and tender.

this age is

Another
originally

term for a boy of about

meng (^).

This

is

Terms Relating
the

to

Death and Burial.

253

name
the

of a climbing plant, the dodder,

it

which grows over and

So a boy
is

covers the shrub to which

in

attaches

itself.

a child
'ind

dark,

shrouded

in

ignorance

(^

Ifff

U),

accordingly to be put under a schoolmaster.

The use

of the

term

meng

or

meng-Vung
is

to

denote a pupil or scholar, which

is

is still

common,

very old and

is

found in the

*'

Yi-ching."

This word

Vung (^)
of fifteen
:

properly the special designation of a boy at the age

it is

but

used of both sexes and

for horns

is

applied also to lambs

flq

and bullocks.

To look

on a lamb (g^ ;^

^)

is

an

old saying sanctioned by canonical uage, and indicates action as

vain as to reap where there had been no sowing.

to a

When
is
it

applied

male youth t'ung expresses the

of age;

fact that

he

uncapped and
denotes,

under twenty years

that she
is

and when used

of a

maiden

not invested with the hair-pin of

full age.

The character,
of

as once written, according to the

"Shuo-wen," was made up

chHen (^) and chung (J;) for a phonetic purpose. The word chHen means a crime or offence, and the t^ung was a male condemned
to servitude as a judicial

punishment.

It

is still

used in the sense

of slave, concubine,

and other terms

of humiliation.
is

At
time he

the age of twenty years a youth

is

capped and from this

the general term for
life.

(A) him as a full-grown human being this particular period when he

or
special designation, jo

caled a jen

man.

This

is

for the rest of his

is

But

for

twenty years old there

is

(H).

The word means weak,

yielding,
to be

and the person

still

so called is regarded as a feeble

young man

under a teacher or master.

He

is

nien-chHng
>J>),

in years, or nien-chi-gu-hsiao
of

{^

^^
is,

(^

M),

light

with a brief record

them.

When
to

he attains the age

of thirty
is

he
fit

is

called

chuang
as

(Jii),

able-bodied.

This denotes that he

to

serve

soldier

and

have a separate establishment.

When

forty years
;

old a

man

is

called ch'iang (Jg), that

strong and resolute

but

the word

is

often used simply in the sense of a householder or

head

of a family.

For a man
the

at fifty years of age the proper

term

is

ai (3^),

mixture of white and black hairs gives the head a greyish appearance like that

name

of the

Artemisia Moxa.

At

this age the

254

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

of the leaves of the above plant,

and hence the name.

But some

think

it is

taken from ai in the sense of to maintain or nourish,

It
is,

or in the sense to bear sway, exercise rule.

however, not

confined in practice to the above technical use but serves to

denote a middle-aged or old

ous.
is,

man

generally

if

healthy and vigorlife,

In the hsia shou (Tp

age

at sixty years of
is

^) or a man

lowest degree of long

is

that
wise.

called chi (^), old

and

He

now

of

such an age that he cannot only act for himself but

also counsel

and lead others.

is

For our word old the ordinary Chinese equivalent

lao (^),

a term indicative of a failing or breaking up of the constitution.

son

may

not use this word of himself in the presence of his

it is

parents, but otherwise

of unlimited application.

In popular

language we have the terra lao^t'ou or lao-Vou-tZ'i

old head, used of any

(^

|^

-y),

man

well up in years.

An

incident which

occurred in the palace during the reign of Chien-lung led to the

use
of
this

term in familiar language when referring

It is
also

to

the

reigning
specially

Emperor.
if

applied to the head of a house

he

is

advanced in years.

A classical phrase
is

for one

in old age, but a cruda viridisque senectus

pan-pai'cho

{^
who

^
is

^).

This indicates a

man whose

hair

is

turning grey,

ts'ang-t'ou

(^

gf

)>

lioary headed, according to another epithet.

Dr. Legge translates pati-pai-cho in Mencius by ''gray-haired

men,^' but this
is

perhaps making them a

little

too old.

The word

pan

in the passage is explained

by pan (^), which means striped

the streaky silver hairs

or streaked,

and the reference

is to

among
inter-

the black ones.

pretation of the

But perhaps Dr. Legge took another

word which makes
According to
this
it

equivalent to pin, the hair

on the temples.
pai-shou

view the pan^pai'cho are the

{^

'^) or white heads of popular language.

lao, is

Some
of

say that the word old,

properly applied to a

man
is

seventy years, but the special designation for one of that age
old hair, gray and venerable.

mac (^),
denote a

This word

is

also said to

man

of eighty or ninety years,

and

it is

perhaps only a

general term for a very old man.

It is so used in a passage of the

"Shi-chiug" where

it is

applied to a

man

of ninety-five years,

who,


Terms Relating
however, also
calls to

Death and Burial.

255

himself

''little

boy"
the

()J>

^).

For a man

who has reached

" middle degree
called,

the age of eighty and

is

of long life " there

who is consequently in the name tie (^). He is so

is stiff

according to one authority, because he

Vie.

and dark

like iron

This word

is

technical, however,
''

and not much

in

known

at present.

It occurs in the
'^

Shi-ching

'*

a passage

which Dr. Legge translates,

time will pass
till

If

now we do

not take our joy the

we

are octogenarians."
t'ai-pei (|]^

The man
fish

of ninety years is called

^), globeof

back.

This

name
all

is

said to be- given

is

on account of the
on the back
this

rough winkled skin

old

discoloured which

an

man.

Like many other Chinese explanations

does not
is

seem very natural.

replace the

As

the simple Vai (), raised up,

is

used

to

word

for globe-fish, it

perhaps better

to

take the

term

t'ai-pei as

meaning gibbous.

We

speak of old

men

being

bent with age, as veterans show curvata senio rnemhra, but the

Chinese seem

to

take a convex view of an old man, and they

name him "raised back^'

manently.

because he has his back up per-

The
and he
cJiH-i
is

centenarian, as has been seen,

in the
''

is

called ch'i or chi (^),

highest degree of long life."

He

is

also called

(^ ^),

waiting for attendance, as unable to serve himself.

Some think
to that

that chH in the sense of centenarian has reference

age as the term of

is

human
to

life.

When

one has seen a

hundred years he

supposed

have lived

to the

end

of the

time which could have been allowed him by destiny.

For the old generally and

other terms and phrases.

for

old age there are various

is

very old term

hiiang-fa

(^

^),

yellow hair, or huang-fa-i-cliHli (|g ]^), yellow hair and baby

teeth, to denote

men

in

their second childhood.

The Chinese
out and are

think that the white hairs of extremely old

men

fall

replaced by others of a yellow colour, and that their teeth drop out

and are replaced by tiny

soft teeth like those of infants.

Hence

came the above names, which are

of

good

classical

authority.

The word Imang by

old

itself

is

also

used in the

sense of doting
this last does not

man, being

elliptical for

huajig-fa.

But

256

Terms Relating
the state

to

Death and Burial.

second childhood, and
it

necessarily denote

of

often

denotes simply the very old, as in the statement " the prince bows
to the

aged"

venerable.
as
it

(S "? jC S)^ ^^^^ is, he reverences the aged and Then we have kou {^)yiao, dirty and old, begrimed,
with a very long
life.

were,

The word kou

is also

used

alone in this sense, and there

is

also

hu {^ykou, with a similar

wrinkled skin

meaning, though some take hu

of

to refer to the loose

is

the old man's

throat.

But hu-kou

also

used to denote

simply the very old

life

who have
is

passed the ordinary limit of long

and on whose eyelids

the shadow of death.

Comforts and
should enjoy,

luxuries are to be provided for such, and they

we

are told, the fragrance of

;J^

aromatic herbs

(^

tK S^

Si

!^),
also

the terms here used being hu-k^au.

An

old

man

may

be spoken of as a tung-li (J^ ^) or "frost pear," because his face like that fruit is speckled with dark spots.
literary
is

Another

term for an old

sou (|), best

man and one

derived from the

in the
to the
it

ancient classics
first

page

of

Mencius.

known from its occurrence There King Hui of Liang says

li,

philosopher, '^Venerable Sir (|^), since you have not counted

far to

come

here, a distance of a thousand

may

I presume that

you are likewise provided with counsels

to profit

my kingdom

"

We

may

also

have the expression Huang-fa-sou, yellow-haired

Patriarch, old

man

of the withered hair.

In addition

to the

words and phrases here given there are

life.

several other designations for the various periods of

Some

are learned expressions and in favour with the professional scholar.

Such

erh-shun (Jp )g), ear obedient, from the statement of ^ Confucius that at sixty his " ear was an obedient organ."
is

But

in order to appreicate the copiousness of the Chinese

vocabulary

we should study
to learn,

it

in a subject of general interest.

is its

We

ought

for

example, what

supply of terms to

1 Children under seven years for girls, and eight for boys, are for legal purposes sometimes called by the old name wei-ch'Sn-cho (^ L ^), that is, See Han Shu, chap, xxiii. individuals who have not lost their milk teeth. " Shih-ming," chap, ii.; *' Li-chi," chaps, i, v. ; L. C. C, ii., pp. 1, 332; Meng, " Shih," chaps, vii., viii. ; *' Yi-ohing," chap, xiii.; L. CO., iv., pp. 516,627; L. C. C, i., p. 11. chap, i., p. 16; " Yu-hsio," chap. ii.
;

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

257

express the thoughts, feelings, and actions of the people in regard

to such matters as birth, death, marriage,
tions.

and the State Examina-

The death of a parent

is

to all

Chinese an event of the

greatest importance, often causing a complete upsetting of the

family circumstances and prospects.

In every case the change

which occurs

at death is

one of serious consequence not only to

but also to those about him who remain.

the individual

who

dies,

A review
richness,

of

some

of the

ways

of speaking

and writing about the

occurrence of this event will help to give us some notion of the

at least in

one important direction, of this language.

of the

It will also

show us some

modes

of

thought and feeling of

to notice
tell

the Chinese people.

Let us now, accordingly, proceed

first

some

of these

forms of expression, and

those which

us

what the Chinese think of death in

If

itself.

we ask

a Chinese philosopher what

is

death ? he

may
life

put

us

off

with Confucius' reply that as we do not

know

we

cannot

know
it

death.
this

Or he may

tell

us what occurs at death,

and say

is

the
Jj*

soul and the vital faculties go apart, the

former ascending into the air,

into the earth

and the

latter descending, that

is,

(^

|^).

Others will say that to every living

creature

is

given a definite amount of air or vital spirits fch'i

^), the thin etherial matter which waxes and wanes within the body as this grows and decays. When the supply is exhausted
there results death, which
of the vital spirits
is

the cutting

off,

coming

to

an end,

the vital spirits

Or it is said that when a man dies which had come to him from the common stock

(^

|g).

of air return thither, of air or vital spirits

and that death

is

consequently a dispersion

(^

^).

We

also find that it is defined as

the exhaustion of vital processes and the end of one's allotment

oflife(<l:^|i^).
There have been who held that death
is

a peaceful rest

In life all is toil and worry, and it is only death which {{^ ,gj. But only of the perfectly good man can gives peace and repose.
it

be truly said that death

life

is

resting

(,[),

an easy natural ceasing

it is

from
(jrJJ),

and work.

To

the

mean bad man

a suppression /i*
is life

an unwelcome passing into obscurity.

It

that

man

258
likes

Terms Relating
and death he

to

Death and Burial.

dislikes, said Tzii

all

Kuug

long ago.
of

The name

of the

dread event and

direct

mention

anything which
their ordinary
letters,

relates to it are generally avoided

by the Chinese in

intercourse.

Hence we

find that in their talk,

and

and

books they constantly use euphemistic expressions in order to avoid

the disagreeable terms which indicate directly death and
its

attend-

ant circumstances.

Thus the general term

for death is

ssii,

but

unwilling to use that the Chinese speak of the "great journey''

hui'Ssu'Wei'chih'ta-hsing (|^

11

^^ f})} the long journey

from which none come back.

the faith " as vague as

It is also said to be a returning or

going home, Heimgehen, fkuei |f ), but the

all

home

is

only that of

unsweet."

Death

is

also often called ta-ku

{^

fJcX

the great

affair,

important matter.

It

is

only, however, to the decease of a parent

is

or a sovereign that this term

properly applied.

Thus

in

Mencius

we have Duke
(-^

Wen
Ift

of

T'eng speaking of the death of his father

to

and saying, " Now unhappily I have come

the great affair

4^ ^

alas ? this

:^ fifc); great duty to my father devolves upon me."

which Dr. Legge renders,

"Now,
So
also

the expression "the kingdom has ta-hu

for its ruler,

"means

it is

in

mourning

but

it

may

also

be used in the sense of having

serious trouble such as a rebellion.

also called ta-shih (;^ i^), a

The decease

of a parent is

term which also means " great or

important

affair."
is

Speaking generally death

also called the

"great limif

[^
It

Pfi)>

the bourn which parts irrevocably the quick and the dead.

is

also called in
all
is

common language
it

the " white business"

is

(^ ^),

because in

that relates to

white

the prevailing colour.

or from about B.C.

This term
1400,

said to date from the

Yin period

when white was adopted instead of black as the mourning Another name is ta-ch'i {^ l^ff), the "great casting colour. off," the quitting hold of life. The Shuo-wen calls this a com-

mon

expression for death, but

it is

apparently not so at present.-^

1 L.C.C, i., p. 105 ; " Chu.tzu.yu-lei " (^ If |g), chap. i. ; " Chuang-tzu," chap. vii. ; " Pi-ya," chap, viii.; " Lie-tzu," chap. i. ; Faber's Lies., p. 13; Hsiao Urh Ya, p. 4; L. C. C, ii., p. Ill ; " Meng," chap, v., p. 8; "Chou-li," chap, vii., p. 26; " Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 6; " Shuo-wen," chap, xi., p. 21.

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

of the phrases

259

We
to those

go on

now

to notice

some

which denote

the state immediately preceding death.

These
friends

of course refer only

who breathe

their last

among

and

relatives, or at

least pass

away slowly whether by

a natural process or otherwise.

When

friends

and bystanders see that a man's days are numbered,

if

neither they nor he,

he has been a good man, retain the former

dread to speak about the approaching event.

talk of the coffin,
burial.
Still

They may even

to

and grave, and the ceremonies

of the

accompany

few

terms which we find in use to indicate

the approach of death contain the ill-t)mened word.

note of a few.

Let us take

A fatal malady,
called

a sickness which

is

seen to be unto death

is

yen

i^^)^

word which has the primitive meaning

fall.

of a

wall threatening to

We

also

find

ping (^), a
and he
IS)is

disease,

occasionally used in the

same sense

as a fatal malady.

When the
seen to be

disease has completely overcome the patient,

dying, he

is

said to be mi-liu-chih-chi

{M

^&

^^

origin

of the expression is to

be found in a passage of the " Shu-ching,"

:

which Dr. Legge thus translates

illness

" The
it

king

said.

Oh

my

has greatly increased, and

daily

will soon

be over with me.

The malady comes on

interruption."

with more violence and without

In

this

the second sentence corresponds to the

Chinese

J|g

B
it

&i

M ^ ping-jih-chin-chi-mi'liu.
fatal

The

meaning
it is

of

is

perhaps " the

malady has come

is,

to a crisis,

present everywhere and continuously," that

it

has taken

complete and permanent hold of

me and I may die

at

any moment.

Hence mi-liu has come

the last agony of dying.
is

to be a

term for in articulo mortisj in

milder expression of the same kind

:

chung-chih-Jih (;i

lin-chung (E ^), approaching death, near the end H) is nearly our "dying day."
is

and

lin-

A literary

expression with a like meaning

ming-yu-chung-shih (-^
is

^
is

flf )>

^^ ^i^

when
is

life (one's fate)

about to end.

There

also the sad expression heng^lou-i-chin

(H
is

the watch glass

already run out, there

is

JS no more duty and no

one already

^)> ^^ sand of

more

life.

This phrase

also occasionally applied to

is

departed.

Then, as tuan-hun

to cut

ojff

the soul, to give up

260

Terms Relating
(g|(

to

Death and Burial.

j^^) is to

the ghost, so yu-tuan-hun

be about to do

so,

to

be approaching dissolution.

Another expression with a similar

is

meaning

is

po-lao (94 ^), the mortal spirit

fading, the vital

of culture
for, viz.,

forces are falling away.

There

is

also

among people
is

an interesting phrase to denote that one

chiang-shu'k'uang
this

being waited

(^

Jg

f,g).

When
It

used of a dying person

it

means " ready for the

application of the floss," and

recalls a

very old practice not quite disused.

was

in ancient times the

custom

to

hold a thread or a

little floss to

the nostrils and

mouth

of a person at the point of death to observe

when breathing

ceased.

Hence

to

speak of "being about to use the floss"

indicates that the last breath is being waited for (J^ ||| i

^).

The dying
life.

of

Tseng

tzu,

one of the famous disciples of

Confucius, has given another refined expression for being on the

verge of

It

is

recorded of this disciple that as he lay on his

life

death-bed and
sleeping

when

was ebbing away, he found that

his

mat was out

set right) the

of order.

He

caused

it to

be set right and

to

forthwith passed quietly away.

(that
still
is,

Hence
It

yi-tso

(^ ^)

change
it is

mat became a

scholars's phrase,

and

in use
it is

among

the educated.

means that the person

is

of

whom
his

said has been given up,

and that he

prepared for

end which is near at hand. In the "unfenced regions of society " people talk of a man as yao-ssu, being about to die, and

one

may use the phrase Some expressions

of himself either in truth or in hyperbole.

indicate a state of distress or misery

and

an unhappy dying.
spirit is at

Such a one

is

fu-ti-hun (|g jg ^), his

is,

the bottom of the pot, that

which
is

is

empty.

This

means that the

those

man

of

whom

it

is

said

dying of starvation.

The good when dying speak words of virtue and wisdom, but who have led bad lives are seen to quake and shudder
their

when

end

is

near, and they often talk wildly as

if

demon-

possessed.

Hence the phrase /a-/iwti (|g

'^), to lose one's wits,

become confused, is used specifically to denote the mental wandering noticed in some persons when on a death-bed, and thus to signify the state of dying. The very bad sometimes before death see the
grim demon

the

Satelles Orci

who

is

waiting to hail their spirit

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

261

to fierce tortures in the court below.

that he " has already seen the

Hence to say of a man " demon who is to drag him off

(B

S ^

51 jS
is

agony.
distress,

There
but

jl) is to say that he is dying in terror and a special word, ku (J^) to denote such fear and

it is

not very

much

used.

Many
is

Chinese think that

as a man's

end draws near he has a kind of presentment or indica-

tion such as that noticed above of

what

to befal
"flj)

him

after the

change.

This
is

is

called the hsien-ch'ien (3g

or fore-showing,

spoken of the virtuous. They, specially when dying " on a sick bed, " through the chinks df the sickness, broken body

when

it

see glimpses of the glory of Paradise,

and the mild messenger

set free.

sent to take charge of their spirit

when

This opinion,

however,

is

of Buddhistic
to the

origin,

and the Confucian phrases

which refer
life

dying even of the righteous do not point to a

hereafter.
official at

We

may

take one more example of these.

When

an

the end of a long career feels that his mental and

that his end
is

bodily powers are failing and

near he pleads

old age and retires into

blessing for a

the country.

It is counted a great

man

to

be able to end his days in peace in " the

the mulberry and tzu trees planted
is

places of his youth,"

among

by

his forefathers.

" There
is

a spirit of retraction of one to his

native country " which

very strong in the Chinese.

flies

One

of their

sages declares, " the bird

back to his

village, the

hare goes
to the

back to her burrow, the fox dies with his head turned
hillock of his birth, the water-fowl soars

[home] over the water,

of life thus passed
life

every one loves his native place.'*

at

The period

home

in feeble old age

is

and hovering uncertainly between

It
is

and death
ching

called the twilight, or gloaming.

the wan-

(^ ^)
is

or

mu
(^

{^)'ching, the late or the sunset light by

which the day passes gently into night.

terms

A synonym

for these for

sang-yu

|^), mulberries

and elms, because

some

time after the home-going of the sun his light lingers

mulberry and elm trees which grow by the cottage.

is

among the The sang-yii

of

the short and uncertain but soft and peaceful wavering between
life

day and night and between and

of
life.

and death, the twilight

day

But

it

is

also a

gloaming which passes into a long

262

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

night of deep darkness to whicli there never comes a day-break

" the twilight of such day

As after sunset fadetli in the west, Which by and by black night doth take away, Death's second self, that seals up all in rest." *

For the
large

act or process of dying the Chinese language has a

of expressions,

number
and
laid

and we now proceed

to notice

some

of these

their applications.

Beginning with the sovereign we

find

it

down

that the correct term to use

when mentioning

his decease is

peng (^).

The

character

is

partly phonetic and

the word seems to have denoted originally a natural convulsion

attended with noise.

landslip,

Thus we

find

it
;

applied to the

fall of

and the cleaving

of the earth
Jfe

and the dissolution of the

world

is

called tHen-ti-peng (5c

and

earth.

The word
and
is
it is

is

also

M)> *^^ ^^^^ ^^i^ ^^ heaven used of political commotion such as

a rebellion,
last

applied to a murrain

among

sheep.

In

this

use

it
:

explained as chun-chi-ye
it is

(^

^ ^),

a disease of a ruin or

the flock

and

in other places interpreted to

mean

destruction and a fading or falling away.

The

loss or

decay of

music among a people

is

also

spoken of in this way, as when Tsai

Wo

says that

if

the superiors in a state do not for three years

practise music this

go to ruin.
of

must fall into decay {M d^ M)} oiusic must In the " Shu ching " we find Wen Wang saying
to

Show's subjects, according

Dr. Loggers rendering, ''His

if

people stand in trembling awe of him, as

falling

their horns

were

from their heads."

But the words

Thus they

jo-peng-chile-chio

(g

^
as

]^

^)

in this passage

have received other interpretations than

are by
is,

that followed by Dr. Legge.

some regarded
bowing
their
of

meaning

*'as

if

vailing their horns," that

chief.

heads in submission to the insurgent

The occurrence
is

the word in the technical sense of the dying of a sovereign

not

frequent in the canonical literature.

1

The Shu has

it

once in

p. 546; " Shu," chap. vi. ; " Shu," chap, the following used of a Buddhist monk wasted by disease and at death's door ju-san-Tceng-yU'Chin-ti-teng (^ | yft *' " Chin^i^6 ^ lamp at the third watch with the oil exhausted." 6^ ^). ku-ch'i" (<^ -^ ^), chap, x.j "I-li," chap. xl. (13); "Li-chi," chap, ii.j " Huai-nan-tzu," chap. xvii.

Hsiao

Urh

ya, p. 4; L. C.

C,

iii.,

xviii.

(13):

Like King'lou-i'Chen

is

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

in

263
only used

recording the death of

of the death of

King Cheng, and

It
is

Mencius

it is

Wen Wang.
it

not easy to determine what

was the particular idea involved

in this application of the word.

Some
is
it

tell

us that

points to the confusion and distress caused to

its

a country by the loss of

in this sense

sovereign

others say that the

;

word
high

an expression for great ruin

and others explain

is,

as denoting the falling

down

of the ruler, that

from

his

eminence above his subjects.^

Another way
he chH't*ien'hsia
empire, the world.
it is

of saying that the

Emperor
away

dies is to say that

(^

5c T)

thriTws
is

or

renounces the
is alive,

The Emperor
officially
,|X

godded while he

and
find

only

fit

he should go

to the gods

when he

dies.

So we

that

his departure is

recorded also by the expression

lung-yil-shang-pin
to
is

be a guest.

Jt ^)> the dragon-rider has gone aloft This form of speech, sometimes varied a little,

(H

often found in Imperial Edicts

and other

state documents.

reigning

Emperor
went

also referring to events after the decease of his

father speaks of
his father

them

as occurring pin-t'ien-hou

(^

55

^)

after

as guest to heaven.

Similar modes of speech

are found in other countries as for example India and ancient

Italy. of
is

Thus we learn that " among

become one

all

the ancient ruling families

Rajputana the court euphemism

that he has

for

announcing a chiefs death

known

that

it

At Rome it was even of the gods.^' was by the Appian Road " divum Augustum et
isse.''
^

Tiberium Caesarem ad deos

The dying
i(^'^9

of

an Emperor

is also

expressed by the euphemism

(S)

or sheng {^)-hsia (jg or

flg),
is

His Majesty has gone far

prescribed for use in an-

on high.
nouncing
sovereign.

This form of expression

to

a tributary or any foreign state the decease of the

It is old

date,

and Lie-tzu employs teng-hsia

to

express the death of the legendary

1 *'

Emperor Huang

Ti.

In

this

i.,

" Lie-tzii," chap. i. ; L. C. C, i., p. 173 iv., p. 309 i., p. 52 356; iii., pp. 293 and 549; ii., p. 58; "Lun," chap. xvi. "Shi," chap, v.; "Shu," chap. iv. " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap. iv. ; "Kuug-yang" (13), chap, ii. ; "Ku-liang" (13), chap. i.
Li-chi," chap,
ii.,
; ;

p.

191;

p.

*'

Han-shu," chap.

Ixviii.

" Chia-ching's " Edicts, chap.

Ixii.;

A.

C. Lyall

in Conty.

Review for

Sept., 1875.

264

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

find a possible explanation of the

author also and in " Mo-tzii"

phrase.

we

They

tell

us that to the

West

of ch'in (^), that

is,

the

modern Shensi, was a nation

Aktsii.

called I-chu

(^

^), that
to

is,

perhaps,

With

this people it

was the custom

burn their dead

parents on pyres, and from the going

up

of the

smoke the ceremony

demise

was

called teng-hsia, ascending on high.^

Another but perhaps rather antiquated term

of a sovereign is chih
(|J$).

for the

In

this use

ilf is

explained by peng,

noticed already, and

is,

to heaven.
is

by sheng (^), to ascend, that In a well-known passage of the " Shu-ching " this
correctly

more

word

used

of the

death of the Emperor Shun, and there are

differences of opinion as to its precise meaning.

The words

are

wurshi'tsai-chih-fang-nai'Ssu (jS

Legge

translates,

*'

P# JSf ?E) Fifty years after, he went on high and died,'*

>

^"^ ^^*

a sort of hysteron-proteron statement, as the Doctor saw.

The
"fifty

meaning

of

the words would perhaps be better expressed by

is,

years after he went on high, that

he died," and they are so

understood by some of the native commentators.

chapter of the same book,

In another
just died, is

King Ch'eng, who had

spoken

of as the hfiin-chihrivang (5|f p$

J), newly ascended king,

advancing or proceeding

or in Dr.

Legge's version,
is

*'His recently ascended Majesty."

This word chih

also used in the senses of

and

of ascending the throne.^

The phrase yen-chia

(^

||), to

mount

in peace,

is

also

used

to express the death of a sovereign.

But

it is

also said that profirst

perly this phrase applies only to the beginning, the

scene in

the act of dying

(U

Kg).

Another
is

classical

and

literary

term

to

denote the decease of the ruler

tsu-lao (55

^)>

compound

of

which tsu means

to pass

The expression occurs Emperor Yao, and in

the character for tsu
is is

in the "

away, and lao to fall as a faded leaf. Shu ching " with reference to the

the quotation of the passage by Mencius

written

;{|,

the primary meaning of which

to

go or travel.

We
ii.,

are told [that, in this expression, tsu

" Mo-tzii," chap.
" Shu," chap.
vi.

1 " Lie-tzii" chaps, cheng. Edicts. 2

v.

(at close of chap.);

Yungi.

L. C.

C, iii., p. 51 and note;

i. j

" T'ung-chien-wai-chi," chap.

Terms Relating
points
to the

to

Death and Burial.

265

going up of the spirit fhun), and lao to the falling

fpoj.

down

of the vital principle

Some understand by
happiness, prosperity.

tsu4ao,

the loss of good fortune caused (or evidenced) by deaths taking

tsu as the equivalent of tsu
(J|[),

Others
as the

see in the expression only the idea of dropping out of

life,

we often yun {^), which means to fall or drop down. Thus of the Emperors Fu Hsi and Shen Nung, who lived beyond the span of
dead leaf
find
falls

from the

tree in

autumn.

Instead of tsu

mortal

life

the fact that they died

is

recorded by the phrase

yun-laoj they dropt off in a ripe

old- age.
;

The term
it

tsu-lao

is

not restricted to sovereigns at present

may now

be used of

any one, but

it

is

appropriate only to the death of those

who

"come

to the grave in full age like as a

^

shock of corn cometh in

his season."

In announcing or making

official
is

mention of the death

ol a

queen or empress the word peng

find the

sometimes used, but we also

is

word hung

(|g).

This latter
is,

defined as

"the death

of

Duke

or Marquis," that

of

the chief of a subject or deis

pendent State.

The

character, according to the " Shuo-wen,"

made up
purpose.
falling
less

of

ssit,

to die,
is

and a contraction

of

meng

for a phonetic

The word

explained as indicating the sound of a

and smashing, or as an expression for a degree of ruin than that denoted by peng, or as a going into obscurity.

In early times hung was used even of the sovereign, and Confucius
speaks of chiin-hung
(;*

^), " when the sovereign died."

In

Mencius

it is

used, according to rule, of the death of

Duke

Ting,

the chief of T^eng.

as in the

We find

it

either alone or with other words,

compound hung^shih {^), employed when

an Imperial concubine.
it

reference

is

made

to the departure of

In the " Ch'iin

ch'iu" we find

used to record the decease of a chief's wife

III

(^

-p

K ^)-

this latter passage,

is

as

Fan Ning

points

out, the propriety of the expression

derived from the dignity

of the lady's husband,

who was

chief of Lu.

This word hung,

* L. C. C, iii., p. 565; and Shu, chap, vi.; L. C. C, iii., p. 40; and Shu, chap, " Hsi-yii-chi," chap. ii. ; "Feng, L. C. C, ii., p. 228; and "M6ng,"chap. ix. su-t'ung, " chap. ii.

i.;

266
which
is

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial,

is

always a term of honour,

extended

to distinguished

subjects, specially to such as

have deserved well

of the State

by

a long career of useful public service.^

But the proper term

This word
is

for the death of a

high

official is tsu.

written

2{

and

pf.,

the latter being perhaps the

correct form.

In

this use tsu is explained

^^1

by chung
finish.

{^^) or ching

{%)

or ^^^^ (^)>

meaning

to

end or

It

is

properly

death alone which quenches the

servant and brings to an end his
also that

fire of

manly vigour

in a public
tsu
is

official career.

The word
It
is

which a

filial

son uses in order to avoid the ominous word

also a

die

when

referring to the departure of a parent.

to

term

of respect generally

express the decease of an

official,

and
in

historians apply
office,

it

for the

most part only

to

men who, while

had been

loyal to the de jure government.

It is used of so

high a dignitary as Chou Kung, who had been regent and practically In the " Tso chuan " we find the decease sovereign for a time.
of a consort of

Duke Hui

recorded in the words Meng-tzu-tsu

(3 ?

$)

^^d ^^6 commentators explain that tsu and not hung

lord

was used because the lady dying before her

the privileges of his rank.^

had no claim

to

Another common term used in recording or mentioning the

decease of an
official is shi (j|f).

This word means to go away, to

ch'ang (^)-s/l^, to go

depart; and hence

to die, ahire, is shi or

the long journey, or hai (5M)-5/?i, to go

away
but

in death.

This

word hai

(or k'o) itself also

means

to die,

it is

not

much used

except with shi as above, in speaking of the death of a statesman.

We

often find

it

recorded of a zealous

official

that he tso (^)-shij

passed away

sitting, a

circumstance which showed that he had

a good
life.

full confidence in the merits of

When

a child de-

stroys his
1
;

own

life in

carrying out to their extreme the duties of

"Shuo-wen," chap, xi.; p. 22; " Feng-su-tu'ng," chap, ii.; L. C. C, i., p. and " Lun,*' chap, xiv.; " Shih-ming," chap, iv.; " Kang-yang " (13), chap. Pai-hu-t*ung," chap. iv. L. C. C, ii., p. Ill; " Li-pu-tee-li," chap. clix. j ii.} chap, i.; L. C. C., v., p. 8; "Han-shu," chap. Ix. ' Chun.ch'iu,"
165
;

"Shuo-w^n," chap.
i.;

xi. J p.

iv.;

"Kuang
and

Shih-ming,"
L. C.

ohap.

C,

v.,

14; "Kung-yang," chap, ii.; " Shih-ming," chap, chap, ii.; " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap. iv. j ' Tso. chuan," p. 1; "Han-shu," chap. Ixii,

^<C^LIF
Terms Relating
mourning

to

Death and Burial.

he
is

267

for a deceased parent

is

said to shi, die honourably.

The word
to

used of the child, whether son or daughter, in order

to his or

show respect

her memory.^

To
his post.

die in office is also expressed

by ch'u'ch'ui
go out of

({ij

^), the
vacate

formula used in reporting to the Throne the decease of any one at

The phrase means simply

It

to

office, to

a post.

may

be used of any

official

who, holding a substantive

;

appointment, dies while in active service

yin-ping-ch^u-ch'ui
office,

and such expressions as

(0

|fj

^), he died of sickness while in

*"'

are very

common.
prescribed by the

The term

Chou dynasty
:

to express the

dying of a private individual was ssu ( JE) and this has long been the word in general use to denote all that we comprise under the term " to die." The character, according to the " Shuo wen,"
is

made up
is

of

ngo or
it

gaJc

{^),

fleshless

bone or skeleton, and jen

{W a man, and
It

originally denoted perhaps a corpse or skeleton.

explained in the

ssu

^,

and we
is to

find

"Shuo wen" and many succeeding books by the character also written JJj. The meaning
is

of ssu
to

(^)
life.

be run out, to be exhausted, and to die

life,

merely

exhaust the material of

or the forces
ssil,

and changes which

make

By some

authors the word

to die, is restricted to
it is

the untimely dying of the young, and in historical works

generally, but not always, used of persons

whose names the writer

wishes to dishonour.

But
die

in

common

writing and conversation

the word has an unlimited application without hint of anything

base or unworthy.

To

is

only that the spirit vanishes

away

(^

0>
life.

spiritum lahi, or

it is

merely to end, as to be born was

to begin

There are

five

kinds of death from starvation

from

exposure to cold, in battle, from old age, and from

disease.

incurable

The

three former
latter.

may

be avoided, but none can over-

come the two

When

used for these we find ssU treated

as the equivalent of

chung (U) or tcang {^), which mean to die a natural death, whether from old age or sickness. But the word
*

This word shi is also used on special occasions of the death of a friend. funeral, for example, the deceased is addressed in set forms of expression, one of which is Vsung-tzu-shi (iJJ^ jtt ^), "here you leave us."

At a

268
is

TeYms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

not one which the Chinese like to use, and in their ordinaryit

conversation they generally substitute for

a term less unpleas-

ant in associations, for ssii is

always jen-so-U
it

(A

J5?

il)> ^^^^

from which

all

keep

aloof.

Yet

too has a good

and honourable

use as in the expressions ssu-chun, to die for one's ruler, and

ssu'chHn, to die for one's parent.^

A common
end or
finish,

and acceptable word

for to die is

chung

(^<),

to

mentioned above.

This word denotes a dying at one's

of one's life are

appointed time,

when

the

numbered years

ended

(^
^)'

Sfc i^)> or the years decreed

by Heaven are finished (55

is

When

a good and wise ruler

is
'w!')-

on the throne one result of

all their

his administration

that the old live

time, finish their

destiny

(^

^^ Bc

-^^^ ^^ ^"^^

i^

urged as a reason against

keeping

men

long in the misery of imprisonment that those

who

are

thus kept in jail pu'te-chung-ch'i-nien-ming

{^

^ ^^ ^ ^ ^),
man"

cannot reach their appointed term of years, cannot annos fatales

explere.

But

it

is

only to the death of

the "superior

that chung can be properly applied, for this word denotes the

completion of something undertaken (|

^
is

chung

is

an expression

for the

accomplishment

of

j^ ia i, ^)f what one began.

That which the superior man undertakes

the cultivation of

his moral nature, the establishment of himself in truth

ness,

and good-

and the giving example and instruction

all die,

to others.

Who

aims at doing these does not

nebulo, passes

while the mere worldling, the

like the

away from the world

prone and belly-serv-

ing beast which perishes.

Hence

it is

said of the former that he

ssi^i,

chung, ends his work and stops, and of the latter that he
runs out leaving nothing behind
fortunate

all

(^

|S #,)

The good and

man

dies well (if^

^), has a good end, an euthanasia,

on his bed surrounded by

chung, die of long
course of death."
quiet
life,

relatives.

He

is

also said to shoii,

(g)a

" live long, and in the end, meet the old

full

The

expression to denote that a

man had

happy

issue out of this life

and according
life

to rules is shou-

ehung-cheng-chin
1

{%

^ JE MX ^is long
'*

ended in the proper

ix.
;

"Shuo-wen," chap,
"Sun-tzu,'' chap,

xi., p.

21; " Feng-su-fc'ung," chap.

iv.j
'*

" Pi-ya," chap.

Tiii.j

xiii.j

Pai-hu-fang," chap,

Shuo-yuan," chap. xvi.

Terms Relating
chamber.
is

to

Death and Burial.

to

269

When

man

is

found

be near his last moments he

carried to the middle

room

or to his

own chamber and

dies thus has lived
life

placed
well,

with his head

to the east.

He who
as

and we must

call

him happy

one " who

has brought to

end in loved well-being."

chamber, which
chung-nei-chin
ber, is the best
is

woman

should die in her

own

called nei-chin, the inner bed-room,

and shou-

{% | p^ jg), to end her life in the inner chamand happiest death an old woman can enjoy.^
written in two othep- ways,

To

die

is

expressed also by moiil^), to be not, to disappear.

is

The
also
'*

character

and J^, and

as written

it is

pronounced

mu
;

and mei.
it

Of the word

the

Shuo-wen " says that

denotes a drowning or submerging in

water (shen gt) hence it came to mean ruin and to be ruined. In the " Tso chuan" there is an official letter from Tzii ch^an, in

which there occurs

into

this expression, ^'ho-mo-mo-ye (fpf

!

what ruin you are sinking

Here mo-mo

is

Jg *{fc)/' explained by

shen-mie (gt g^), to sink and be annihilated, to be drowned in perdition, and Dr. Legge translates, ''In what a fatal course are

you proceeding."

But
life.

the

common meaning
Shuo wen "
it

of

mo
is

is

to die a

natural death, and in the "

(J^)

explained by

chung, to finish
find the

In some passages
of

of the old literature

we
in

word used in the sense

ending or finishing generally.

It

is

thus, for example, applied to the ending of a long

march

the "Shi ching," and explained by chin (^), to finish or accomplish.

From

this use of the

the finishing of
literature.

life's
is

word may have come that now under notice, journey, which also is found in the early
recorded, and, as will be remembered, he

This

the term by which the decease of Confucius'

is

disciple

Tseng

tzii

died in circumstances of punctilious orthodoxy and in a

fectly satisfactory.

way

per-

In the " Tso chuan "

also

we

find

Shu-chan

saying of the king of

Chu
3E

that he will not have a natural death,

using this word

lilains

(^

S^

5^ ^){7{s

-^

commentator here exhe

life.

pu'^muhy pu-i'shou'chung

]^

% ^),
ix.

will not die

of old age, will not reach the

1

term of his natural

In one of
;

"

Shuo-yuan," chap,
p. 7, notej
*'

xvi.;

"Han-shu," chaps,
ii.;
'*

andxxiii.
iv.

"Lun.yu,"

chap,

viii.,

Li-chi," chap,

Shih-ming," chap.

270

Terms Relating
letters

to

Death and Burial.

Han Wen Kung's

relative,

he uses

mo
it

of

the death of a young

to

and in modern
to
is

literature

seems
is

be occasionally
as

employed
This idea
of disease.

denote a

death which

regarded

untimely.

perhaps implied also in the phrase ping-mu, to die

But the expression

mo-shiy to

disappear from the

world,

is

used in a good sense, and one

may

say with reference to

his ancestors chih-ch^i'mo-shi-chih-hou

(^
for

^ji

j& i, ^);

when they departed

pronounced in the

this

life.-^

Another common and

ch'ii

literary

sheng.

is sang (^), This character will appear again

word

" to die"

with a different pronunciation and another meaning.

sense of to die
it is

In the

explained by wang, to be

lost,

to disappear

and never be seen again

*'Shu ching''
this

(C

/p

pj*

^)-

In a passage

of the

word

is

applied to the setting (or, according to

is

some, the extinction) of the sun, and in this passage it

explained
to die in

by wang as above.
early
life,

The phrase

tsao

{^ysang means
according to
the

but

it
^

may

also

signify,

context,

" dead long ago."

It has

just been
is

seen

that

synonym

for

sang in the

sense of to die

the word

this character as

wang (C). From given in the "Shuo-wen"

the composition of
the original mean-

ing of the word would seem" to have been to perish or go into

oblivion.
Its other uses

and specially the one in which we are

In the sense
of die

now wang wang

after,

interested, appear to follow naturally.

is also

an equivalent of

sstt,

as in the phrase hsien'SsU'hou

(^

O, ? remote and near ancestors.

those

who

died before and those

who
is

died

faithful

widow
is,

a wei-

wang-jen

(^

AX

^^^

^^^ ^^^

not yet died, that

one who
is

is waiting for death to reunite her to her husband.

This

an

elegant expression said to have been

first

used by a famous

paragon of enduring beauty and virtue in the Lie

Kuo
di\Q \q

period.

Another
which means

classical

and

literary

term

for to

hua {^)

to melt, transform.

This word, which has several

1 " Shuo-wen," chaps, xi. and xxxiv.; L. C. C, v., p. 505 ; and " Tso-chuan," chap. XXX.; iv., p. 422; and v., p. 182; " Yang-Yuan-chi," chap. ix. 2 " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap, iv.; L. C. C, iii 175; and ii., p. 4; ' Shu-ching," , p. chap. iii. ; " Liao-chai," &o., chap, viii., p. 65.

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

little

271
it

other significations, will meet us again a

further on, and

has Buddhistic uses which have

present
it

also to be noticed.

For the

is

enough

to

mention the phrase ta (or ts\) hua

distress a (Ifi Hi)} ^0

dying person, distract one falling asleep in

death.

It

is

used chiefly of wife and children making loud lais

mentation when the head of the family

passing away.^
use,

A
is

word

for to die,

which has been before us in a different

ku

(JK).

We may

say that a
.

man

died fkiij simply, or that he

died of disease fping-huj

a compaign, whether that they

Of

soldiers

who

fall in
it

the course of

in battle or otherwise,

is

often recorded
of date.

wu-ku

{%

^), deceased, became objects out

to ssUy die.
it

Native scholars are at a loss to account for this phrase, which

they say
is

merely equivalent

It

is

said to

have

arisen in the

Han

period,

and

occur several times in the

history of that dynasty, generally in accounts of battles or

paigns, as in the statement shi-tsii-to-wu-ku ( j^
officers

camof
to

and

soldiers

many

died.

ftX The phrase perhaps means

de combat.

$^^

" become useless

varied to
or perish.

for service,'' hors

It is sometimes
is,
;

yu

{>^)-wU'kii, to be objects antiquated, that

to fall

The word ku
it is to die.^

in the sense of die is indifferent

it

gives

no hint
as to

of praise or blame,

and

it

involves no theory or opinion

what

But there

are also certain phrases which seem to give an

explanation of what occurs at death.

expressions for to die
off
is

Thus one

of the

common
to cut

tuen-ch'i (Hf

^), which means "

the breath of

life.*'

Like

it is

another phrase chiieh (Ig)-cA'i,

to intercept the
life.

with the same meaning,

to cut off the breath,

supply and action of the material constituents of

chiieh is also

The word

found by

itself in

the sense of to die, being evidently

for chiieh-chH.

Thus the

relatives are told that in the case of a

parent's death they should chi-chueh-nai-k^u (@E 18 75 55)^ on the instant life ceases weep aloud.^ Then there is the phrase

tuan'hun

(^

2^1),

used in the sense of

to

die,

and meaning

literally to cut off the spirit, to part it

1
*'
;

from the body.

68.

Chuang-tzu/* chap. iii. "Liao-ohai," chap. xvi. "Shih-ming," chap, iv.; "Han-ahu," chaps. 54, 57,
'<

Hsmg*li.ta<ch'aan/' ohap. zz.


272
Terms Relating
to

Death and Burial

to die is to go
blisS;

Again there are expressions which imply that

simply to

a journey to man's long home, or to soar to vague far-off

or

go away with no hint

depart,
is

of whither.

Thus the verb

life,

ch^ii

a))
Of

^^ go,

used in the sense of departing this

is

and

ch'u-liao,
like

he has gone,
is

common euphemism
(jft

for he has died.

is,

meaning

huo-shen

^),
is

to transfer oneself, that

pass out of this world.

Then

there

huei (|$), to return, go home,

also used in the sense of going to one's long

home.
([b]

Like

it is

another popular term for heimgehen, hiii-chia

^),

to return

home.

This phrase

is

sometimes varied by the insertion of the

(^), master, but the expression " return to the A vague and master's home " seems to divine a deeper meaning.

word chu

euphemistic expression
to go to be

is

hsien-yu

(\}^

^),
is

to

ramble an immortal,
the calm summits

among

the deathless ones

who haunt
(|X t|),

of cloud-shrouded mountains.

This

used by lovers of Taoist

to ride a stork, that

fancies, as is also the phrase yii-ho

is,

to soar to the

Utopia of immortality.
is

Another euphemism
go to
Peng-lai,

of

this kind for dying

far-off isle

t'u-peng-laij

to

the

in

the

Southern Ocean, the Earthly Paradise in

tree
of

which grows the

loose

immortal taste and where men

set

from

time's frailties live for ever.

to
soil

Whether there be another world transplanted when taken from earthly

this

which human worth

is

may

be argued.

But

far as

much at least is certain that to die is to leave this world so human senses can discern. And the knowledge of this fact is seen in many of the expressions for death in Chinese as in He who dies disappears, and the common other languages.
term k'o-Jan(\^ ^), used in the sense of originally merely to disappear suddenly.
die,

seems

to

have meant
in the

It is

employed
use
is

sense of quickly or suddenly, but

of to die.

its best

known
is

in the sense

Another term with the same

signification is

yen-hu

(^g ^^J, which also

h'o-jan.

means suddenly and

is

given as a definition of
dust in a whirlwind
this latter is rather

To

die suddenly

to

go

off like

yen-hU'jo-pHaO'ch'en (^6 iS

S S &)many

^^t

a literary expression, and there are

popular phrases.

Thus

we find

ch^ii'Shih

(^

iJ), to

go out of the world, used in the sense

Terms Relating
of to die, as chHi-shih ([ij jH)

to

Death and Burial.

273

is to

come

into the world at birth.

There are

also the literary expressions wei (^)-8hihj to turn the

it
;

back ou the world, go away from

of the world.

aud kuo {'^)-shihy

chiefly for those

to pass

out

Such expressions are

and no terror

who

find

uo

charm

in life

in death,

who have uo hope

There are
is

in this

world and no despair about another.

also phrases

which seem
otherwise,
pleases,

to

denote that the end

rather welcome than

his life

and that a man may lay down

is

when he

that death
to

the act of a willing agent.

is,

We
it,

have

hsie

{^yshih,

thank the world, that

for the
**

to leave

to decline

the festivities of

life

sublime attractions of the grave."

to

There
it

is

also

ch^i

{^)'shihf

cast off

the
is

world,

to

throw

away
the

as

something

unvalued.

This

a phrase

held in

honour, being one of those used by a son in speaking or writing

of

decease of a parent.

Another one
is,

of like

meaning

is

tz'u-yang
light

(^
life

j^), to decline light, that

to leave the

world of

and

for the darkness of death.

die,

With

these

we may
to reject

connect another expression for to

chH-yang

(^

^),

nourishment, refuse to be maintained.

has a classical allusion,
is

This expression, which

also one of those

which may be used by

a son in referring to the death of a parent, as in the statement

hsien-chun-chH-yang

(5fe

S S ^) ^y father died.
is

That the
to shut

act of dying

to

some extent voluntary

is

also

implied in such phrases ^s pi-yen

is,

(^

B^), to close the eyes, that

them

in the sleep of death,

dull or darken the eyes, to lose

aud ming-mu l^% @), what looks out through them.

to

It has been seen that the phrase yun-lao is used in the sense
of to die,

manner.

It
;

and the word yim {^) means to fall like a

and used
of

is

often employed in the

star,

same

fatal
it

or a leaf loosened

from a

tree

one dying

often implies that he falls in

the green leaf.

find

Instead of the simple word

yun we sometimes
to

yun-ming,

to lot life fall, lose one's destiny.

i

The word
and
to

(Jf )

is

an old one, which means both

it is

die
ssii,

put to death.

In the "Shuo-wen"

defined by
it is

to die,

and

in a

passage of the " Tso

Chuan

" where

used of
us that

the slaughter of an

army

it is

also so explained.

Some

tell


274
Terms Relating
to

Death and Burial.

i-fa-erh-ssU
it is
it

the word means to go

die suddenly.

off at once,

ITo

?E)j to

But

in the sense of dying

also explained as

going into the darkness of obscurity, and

seems generally to

convey the idea that the natural term

of life is not reached.

In the speech
to lose or be
lost,

of the people

we

often find the

to die or

word

used in the sense of

be dead.

tin (g), This sad

word commonly denotes the

relative, often the decease of

loss of some dear friend or beloved some " Fair creature kill'd too soon

by death's sharp
application
is

sting.''

Another phrase

of like

meaning and
everyday

mo

(or mei)-t6

(^
is

^), not to be had, to disappear,

in the speech of

or cease to exist.
life,

This also

common

and

is

often used of one snatched

away

in youth's early

promise.

There

are,

however, many terms and phrases which specifically

express the idea of dying before one's due time.

believe
in

a fate which

fixes

the bounds of
is

statement that one dies before his time

not

To those who human life the correct. But the

sense of loss and the sorrow for a friend or relative, specially for

one who
a career,

is

taken away in youth or what seemed the beginning of make man think of some agency which seems to thwart

Providence.

In China the thought

of envious or

angry beings
It is

which

lie

in wait to steal

young

lives is

perhaps universal.

not they

whom

the gods love that die young, but those

to
'^

who

are

logged by ruthless demons seeking

slit

the thin-spun life."

that their power
is

As
felt

it

is

not wise to let the evil spirits

know

and dreaded, most

of the expressions for

dying young are

euphemistic and speak by a hidden meaning.

Let us now take

life is

note of a few of these terms and phrases for dying while

unfulfilled.

The
pu-lu {'^

first

which suggests

itself is

the classical and literary

j^),

which denotes
phrase

strictly to die after attaining the

qualifications for ofiice but before getting

active

employment.

The use
of

of this
is

is

explained in several different ways, none

which

very satisfactory.

The word
andpu-lu
is

lu is here said
'^

to

mean
is,

hsiao{i^), to vanish or perish,

to depart leaving a

not to vanish," that

good reputation

to survive death.

Then

the

Terms Relating
phrase
is

to

Death and Burial.

to finish one's occupation/'

275
and

also said to

mean " not

is

" not

to enjoy the salary of office," lu of office.

meaning salary or emolunot the

ment
use,
ical

The phrase

sometimes interpreted as implying

is

some baseness
and
is

or at least unworthiness, but this It

is

common
class-

apparently not warranted.

the

official

and

term

to express the decease of a shih

or " scholar/' a ( j^)

active

state-supported

or

recognised
official.

man

of

learning not in

service as a responsible

While a shih such a man has

to

salary

flu),

and dying he pu-lu, ceases

draw

salary.

In

former times the phrase was also applied to the decease of a prince
or noble, but only

up

to the

time of burial.

It

is

still

used

occasionally of an official cut off in the beginning of his career,

dying when

it

seemed that he was about

to enter into the

reward

of his long studies

and numerous examination.^

To

die prematurely is expressed

is

by the word shang

(]g),

and

"prematurely"

defined as "before attaining

unfit to bear arms.
to

manhood (^ j^
is

A) and
if it

while

still

The word

explained as

were shang (f^),

cause distress, to

wound
is

or be wounded.

This notion of sorrow for one untimely removed

in all cases

perhaps present
is

when

the word

is

used.

The thought

developed

in a statement like this taken

to another

" the untimely death

(pj* 'l;^

from a private

letter of

one friend
is

(shang) of your niece

very

distressing"

k'o-tao).

Here we may

notice, in passing, is a

use of the word tao different from that mentioned above and also

from one

to

be noticed presently.

Of shang

as a general

term

for untimely death there are said to be three degrees.

is

The lowest
between

the shia

C^Yshang, which denotes the death

;

of a child

eight and eleven years of age

the next

is

the middle (chung)

;

shang

that of a child between twelve and fifteen years

and the

highest,

shang (J;i}-shang or ch*ang {-^yshang,

to nineteen years.

is

that of a youth

from sixteen

of the decease of

any young

man

The word is also used generally or woman, and specifically of

in

one who dies between betrothal and the date fixed for marriage.

Hence comes the strange expression chia {i^)-shang, ka-siong

^
i.,
'

Kuang-shih-ming," chap.

ii.

" Kung-yang," chap.

ii.

" Li-chi," chap,

ii.,

p.

lii. ;

" Pai-hu-t'ung," chap, iv.j " Yu-hsio,"

chap

iii.

"Shuo-wen," chap,

S.V. j|.

276

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

This

Foochow, which means ''she marries her dead betrothed/'

is

said of a

maiden who becomes the bride

dying which

of the dead,
of this

wedding

the ghost of her departed affianced.

implies
a
is

The use

word always
usually,

unhappy, undesired,

and,

causing distress to parents.

It often refers to the death of a child

as a loss or calamity specially to the father

and mother.

Thus

we read
the
left
first

of a

man

yu-erh-yii'tzu'shang (:

H ;^ -f

^), he had was

two sons who died in boyhood.

On

reading such a record one of

is

thoughts which a Chinaman has

that the parent

without any one to worship his manes.

is

The death

of a son

unmarried

sad and dreadful not only for the father but also

for the son.

As

the latter has not been allowed by fate to raise

up

a son to his fathers, his

own

spirit

may have

to

wander about

for a long time

unhonored and uncomforted.

also the ghost of a

Hence the word

dies sonless,

shang comes

to

mean

man who

and

it is

in this use explained as wu-chu-chih-huei (j^

to

an unowned ghost, one

^), which no offerings are made and no

li

i^

honour shown.
of
it

Like shang the word

(Jg)

is

used in the sense

"to die without leaving any posterity" (JE ^)- Then also comes to denote a lonely ghost, one which wanders about
In
this sense,

WM

unsolaced by the savour of offerings or libations.

however,

it

will

come before us
[to leave]

again.^

As
(Jp. -(J),

a literary expression for dying early

that
is

we have

tsao-shih

the world early, to die in the morning

(/[^
jp|^

of

life.

So we

find the statement pu-lu-tsao-shih

^ -g)
as Dr.

meaning ''unfortunately he has died prematurely;" or

Legge
translates,

"he has

unfortunately died an early death."

And we
pu-hsing

find the
{7(^

^)'tsaO'Shih.

same meaning expressed by such statements But the phrase tsao-shih may also
for

be used in the sense of having died long ago.

Another expression
literally, short, to

dying prematurely
This
is

is

tuan (@n,

be short.

said to be strictly applied to

;

the death of one under sixty years of age

or,

according to another

statement, of one not invested with the cap of full age.

^

In the

p.

797

Shiio-wen," chap, xt., p. 15; " Shili -miner," chap. " Hsiao Urh ya," p. 4.

iv.

Dicyt. of Foo. Dialt.,

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

277

"Shu Ching"

the

first

of the

lAu-chi (-^ ;g), or six greatest

miseries, is said to be hsiung-tuan-cho (Kl

^) which Dr.

Legge translates, " misfortune shortening the

words are
shortened
also explained here as
life
;

life.'*

But the

three

names

for different degrees of

hsiung being

to die before

shedding the teeth,

tuan before being capped, and cho before being married.

sense of dying prematurely tuan
short-lived,
is

In the

perhaps for tuan-ming, to be

this

have a

brief destiny.
''

We find
is

phrase tuan-ming
to

used instead of " die

when

reference

made

young persons,

as in the statement pu-hsing-piao'ti'tuan-ming

(/}>

^^^@
jijf.

^), unfortunately

my

maternal cousin died prematurely.^

is

The word cho mentioned above

explained, moreover, as

also written

It is
of the

meaning

also to die before

any

responsibilities of life are incurred, as to die

under thirty years

of age,

and simply as
use,

to

have one's
is

life

cut short.

Of much

more common

however,

the word yao, written

^ and ^,
it is

the former meaning properly "young," and the latter "to die
young,'' but the second form
dies
is

not popular.

Of a maiden who
said

between betrothal and the time fixed for marriage

wei-chia-erh-yao
married.

(^
(^

^
Jit

Iffi

^), ^hat she

also defined as

dies prematurely

un-

The word yao

is

meaning
is

to die in the

vigour of youth

W 5E

^)-

It

often found in conis

junction with other words meaning to die.

Thus yao-wang
which
is

to

die in the flower of youth, opposed to shou,

life

to

end a

naturally.

So

also yao-shih is to depart in youth, as in the

long expression jSn-i-yao-shih (jg fa M)> ^ my time under the influence of mental agony.^

^^

^j'^^g before

The word hun (^)

also

means

to die before marriage,

and

for this there is classical authority.

It is said to be u'ei-mingy

dying without having made a name.

^,

The word

is

also written

and

is

then said to denote a dying in mental distraction.

also peculiar terms to

There are

denote the dying of those

who
1

only visit this world for a short period.

L. C.

Such

is

the word

C,

iii.,
;

(18), chap. xii.

^

p. 343 ; and " Shu-ching," chap, iv., p. 30 ; and "Shu-ching" " Pi-ya," chap, viii.; " Yang-yuan-chi," chap. xv.
iv.
j

" Shih-ming," chap.

" Liao-chai," &c., chaps,

ii

and

viii.

278
tao
(|^ )

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

It is the
is

already noticed in other uses.

little

term for the

death of a

child,

and shang {\%)-tao

to

lament the un-

timely death of a young son or daughter.

is

This use of the word

acknowledged

to

be derived from the great distress which the

loss of a little child causes the parents, for to

weep

^^

ut si Filiiis

immaturus
of a child

obisset^^

would express in China a

real

and deep

sorrow specially as regards the mother.

She, indeed, often speaks

who

thus goes away from her in terms of sad but bitter

reproach.

Instead of saying that he died she says that he piendeceived people

to stay in
little
it,
:

jen (ll

A)

that he

came

into the world

and

seemed about
says that her
debts.

but soon went away.

died Vao-chai
(

Or the mother

^), called in his It was his due from a previous existence to be born in
Jj"

son

who

this world,
also

and as soon

as

he got his due he

left.

This phrase

is

used in a promiscuous way by parents to naughty troublesome

children

who
is

are as importunately annoying as dunning creditors.

To

die before birth is expressed

by

^ven or

wo

(|g),

but the

character

not

much

used, and the

classical

meaning given

in the "

Shuo
tu

wen

"

is

disputed.
is

The

term
(

for death in the

womb is

(iS pregnant womb.

)>

which

explained by fai-pai

J^ U), the spoiling of the But the ways are many in which " that fell
carries us

arrest without all bail "

away

willy nilly.

It

is

not

only exulting youth which provokes him and makes him " quick The mother proud of the to clasp his shivering prey at noon." son she has brought forth also makes

him

jealous

and

all

who

misuse fortune's favours or break the laws of Heaven also provoke death which is regarded as untimely is also considered him.

to

be a bad one and

it is

generally undesired.

The kinds

of

death

be sad, but they are not necessarily bad and The child or youth may have " a sweet removal on his terrible. mother's breast," soothed by love and tended with skill and tenderHere death comes too soon, indeed, but he does his work ness.
just mentioned

may

There are, however, gently without harshness and without terror. other kinds in which death comes with horrors and shows its
unmitigated
repulsiveness.

"We may now proceed

to

notice

some

of the trems used to express such

premature deaths.

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

279

but

a bad life with pain and anguish at home is ill enough, much worse to be left to perish in the street or by the road-side. The phrase ch^i-shih (^ fp), to be abandoned in the

To end

it is

market, or simply

sliih

in the sense
all

of to

die in the market,

It is contrasted

denotes a kind of death which

Chinese dread.

with shan-chung, a good end, the former being to die as a cast-

away, and the latter to die the death of the virtuous.

saying that
the
*'

It is

an old

the son of a thousand gold pieces does not die in

market''

(^

^ ;^

?E JK

rft)

and either the

man

himself

who thus

dies or his parents

must have sinned heinously

against Heaven.

To
means

die of starvation

is

expressed by chin (^), which has

also other uses to be

to starve to

mentioned below.
;

The word

to (J^)

also

death

and the same meaning belongs

last is

to the

word fHao (^* or ^).

Mencius, who says that
min-yu-p'iao
(fln
if

This

well-known from

its

use by
erh-

a Prince act in a certain

will

manner

JJ "^ ^), then there

be

among

the people

individuals dying of hunger.

We also

find p'iao

emphasized by

the prefixing of o hunger, hungry, as in the expression in Mencius

t'u'i/ii-o-p'iao

(^

^ ^ ^),
is

on the roads are those who die

o-ssil,

of hunger.

Here p^iao
is to

explained by

die

of hunger,

and o-pHao

be hungered to starvation.^
(;fL).

To
used
is

die of a plague or pestilence is cha

This word so

explained by

i-ssil

(^
is,

),to die of

an epidemic; or by

ta-ssuy a great death,

that

a pestilence which carries off a

large

number ;

or

by yao

{^)ssi1,,

which

is

euphemistic mean-

ing simply to die early or prematurely.

The word pi (^)

acter
is

is

often used in the sense of to die a bad

death generally whether from starvation or otherwise.

The charstruck dead

composed

of pi, bad,

and
It

ssu, to die,
is

and the word has a

somewhat vague
by
lightning,

application.
of

said of one

who
is

is

and

one

who

dies

from hunger, or oppression, or

not properly

other calamity.
to

But

tzu (^)-pi, to ruin oneself,

commit

suicide,

but to bring misery and ruin on oneself by a

course of wicked conduct.

1

h, C.

C,

ii.,

pp. 8, 9, 367;

and " Meng-tzu," chap.

i.

280

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

to

To

die
:

by drowning

is 7ii

(^), and to be burnt

death

is

shew (j^)

but these words have also lighter meanings.

is

To perish

in the cold, or be frozen to death,

chiang (Jg).

The phonetic
out hard and
to

part of the character denotes a boundary line, and the word de-

notes a
straight.

death which leaves the body stretched

To

die in

child-birth

is is

chan-nan
in

(^ ^),
use

have
the

parturition trouble.

This phrase

common

among
is

people and

is

also the recognised expression in writing.

To

die in prison while waiting for trial or

;^), to

judgment
is

k'ao-

ching'{^

end the examination.

This

used also of the

death of one undergoingpunishment in jail, but the proper expression for the latter
is

fu-fien-hsing

(flg

5^

Jpj),

to

bear Heaven's
for a

punishment.

There are cases in which

it is

right or

becoming
for

man

to

meet

his fate, to offer himself as a

martyr

duty or principle,

or even to deal

doom

to himself

with his

own hand.

In such

cir-

cumstances an untimely violent death has nothing discreditable,

and

it

may

even be attended with fame and honour.

lawful battle, and the public servant
life

The

soldier

who

falls in

who

chooses

duty rather than

are to be praised,

not blamed or pitied.

So the phrases

in use

among

the Chinese to express dying in

such ways generally contain the thought of praise or approval.

sometimes expressed hy 2nng (^), a word which simply means to be a soldier. Another term for death in
die in battle
is

To

(g), which means There are three kinds of death

battle is wei

also to fear

and

to
is

put

to death.

for

which there

no mourning,

and the first of these is wei, a death in a fight or battle. But some regard the word in this connection as meaning cowardice in the field, though others regard it as simply meaning the death of But the common phrase for being slain in a soldier (^ JE *fc).
battle is ch'en-wang
fighting.

(^

t^), to

be

lost

from the company,

to fall

This

is

the form of expression used in memorials to the

Throne and

in state

documents generally.
is

Another phrase
(JJ
is

for

dying at the handa of an enemy

voluntarily to

hsiln-nan

gi),

to

go

death on account of troubles.

is

This

a phrase of
in battle

honour, and

used not only of military

men dying

Terms Relating
against rebels or euemies,

to

Death and Burial.

also
of
all

281

but

those

who commit
In like
her into

suicide rather than fall into the

hands

of the
is,

enemy.
to follow

manner hsun-mu
the other world.

is to

die for a mother, that

filial

daughter who commits suicide in order

is

not

to

survive her mother

said to hsun-mu,

and the act

also

is

regarded as evidence of great

expression yil-chH-nan

filial

devotion.
to die

So

we

find the

(^

^ ^),

with or for one, to share

death with another, or die voluntarily in his cause.

official

When

an

chooses to suffer death rather than violate his conscience,

in so doing

he
is

is

said to chuan-chit

(^

|g), to offer

up

his body.

This phrase

used specially of the statesman

serve a successful usurper, or to take office

who refuses to under a new dynasty

is

and does

so

at the cost

of his

life.

The expression k^ang-k'ai

often found

('K ^)-chuan-chil has long been celebrated, and

in literature.
It dates

from the

rise of the

Mongol dynasty, and

means

to

surrender oneself freely to death under a noble impulse.

To do
(0

this is well
Jfe) to

but not so excellent

as ts'img-yung-i/in-chue

51
to

bring on the end by gentle imperceptible degrees.

is

The sharp
is

stroke of death in a noble cause

easy to face, but

it

hard

draw out the process

of years.^

of

dying by a continued act of the

will

through a term

The general term

^),
to

for

dying by one's own act

se extingnere.

is

tzU-chin (

g
it

put an end

to

oneself,

The use

of this
:

term, however, often implies something wrong in the suicide

may

be an implacable conscience, or a haunting ghost, or the

necessity of choosing between two evils.

There are various other

such as tzii-chu
to
(

expressions for dying by one's

to

own

act,

^),
by

commit self-slaughter;
tzu-tco

tzu'4

(g

j^),

commit

suicide

hanging;
(

(g

^l]j,

to cut one's
life,

own

throat; and (zH-ching

W^), to

put an end to one's

of birds

whether by hanging or otherwise.

is

For the dying

though
term
it is

and beasts there

a correct language,

not generally adopted.

When

a bird dies the proper

fall

to use is
;

chiang (^), a word which means to drop or

dies it is said to
is
tzii

down

and when a beast

to

(j^), sink down,

succumb
1

death.
ii.,

But
p- 11;

it

common

to

apply to the lower

iv.
;

"Li-chi," chap,
xii.

" Pai-hu-t'uug," chap.

" Yang-yuan-chi,"

chap.

282

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

So we

animals ssu and the other terms which are used of man.
find such statements as that a deer chimg-ch'ishow {^^

^),

ended

its

natural

life.

It remains to notice one or two of the comical or

humorous

expressions for dying, as the Chinese like others jest with this

sharpest of edged tools.

To

cut one's throat, or generally^ to

to

commit

suicide, is

mo

po-tzu,

wipe one's neck (or throat), a

common

expression in the north.

it is Jean

To
to

die

is

teng-Vui

(^

|jg), to

stretch the legs; or

{^),

dry up;

or pie (^), with

the same meaning.

Among
is

sea-faring people to be

drowned or

otherwise die at sea

chien-hai-lung-icang, to see the king of

is

the sea dragons, whose palace

at the

bottom of the ocean.

In addition to the words and phrases here noticed which

indicate the act or process of dying there are
believe,

many
of

others, I

which may be culled

in Chinese literature or

heard from
expression

the lips of the natives.

There are some forms

of the Taoists,

which are the property

for to die

and there are a few terms

which are

of Buddhistic origin.

The

latter will

come

under our notice presently, but the other words and phrases must
be
left

over for a future opportunity.^

to consider

Let us now pass on

some

of the terms

and phrases

which are applied

It
is

to

those

who have

ceased to live on earth.

scarcely necessary to premise that from the nature of the

language

meanings

many of may also

the words

already mentioned

with

other

be found with that now under notice.

The

word
and

ssu,

for example,

may

be used to denote not only death,

:

to die,

but also dead, and a corpse

and

it

may

be employed

by the same writer

says that while

in all these senses.

Thus Han Wen-kung

there
<[||

we saunter through life by many ways " only one beaten track by which we hasten to death (^
^), the
*'

is

calcanda semel via

leti."

In another place bespeaks

(JrE

of the people

dying of famine by the expression ssu-chi

of finding tao-pien-ssii (^g

jl)

and elsewhere he talks

on the side of the road.

In like

^), corpses manner chung, which has been

is

seen to denote death, and to die,

1
*

also used in the sense of

Li-chi," chap,

i.,

p. 52.

Terms Relating
deceased.

to

Death and Burial.

283

Thus Tseng

tzu's advice,

"Be

careful towards the

is

chtmg (dead) and follow them far" ('^

meaning, be careful
of
to

^ Jg jg),

explained as

perform

all

the ceremonies due on the death

your parents and

to offer the

proper worship at their tombs for

a long period.^

There

are,

however, distinct terms to denote the dead, and

special forms of speech to be used

when we

are speaking of them.

For a corpse the

ancients,

we

are told, used simply the

is

word ssu {i^

pi /* 5E)> which breath has departed " whose vital

in this use

explained as a

aiivis

man from whom And in some dispersed.'*

we
occasioully find ssu
for the

modern

writers

who

love the antique ways

with this meaning.

But

the

common term
or
to

body
it

of

one

who has just died is shih custom when a man was seen from his bed and place him on

^).

In old times

was the
lift

be very near death to

him

the ground.

This was done partly

last

at least with the design of giving

him the
It

chance of recovery.
left

As

soon as

it

was decided that the breath had

the body the

latter received the

name

sliih.

was replaced on the bed and

Hence, some
tell us,

there arranged in the prescribed manner.

came the name shih which properly but not always denotes a
corpse while laid out preparatory to burial.

The word

is inter-

preted by some to

mean ch'en (^),

to

arrange or set in order.

is

But another
is

explanation, not very satisfactory,

if

that a corpse

called shih as

is

not restricted
to

shu (f ), flaccid, relaxed. The use of the word to dead bodies laid out on a bed, nor is it properly
which are buried or
coffined.

extended
use
is

those

Its

common

(^ JJ : SE W)y ^^^ li^i"g people became floating corpses. Then there is also the classical word i {\%) with the same meaning as shih,
and the two are sometimes found combined in the sense
of a corpse.

seen in such expressions as sheng-min-wei^lhi-shih

But

by

itself is
is

rare and rather antiquated.'^

There

a special
is

name

for the flesh of a

dead body, tzU

well-

(^)
1

and a skeleton

called ko (gg).

Hence comes the

p. 4;

" Chang.li.shi-chi-chu" (^ r^SII), chap, i., pp. !5, 19; ii., " Lun-yii," chap. i. ; p. 31. i., p. 4; and 2 " Shih-ming," chap, iv., p. 21; " Li-chi," chap, i., p. 52; shi chi," chap, ii., p. 4 ; " I-li," chap, xxxvi. (13).

L.CC.

'

" Chang. li,

284

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial,

known

expression yen-ko-mai-tzii (J^ |

left

^), which means

to

bury the corpses

on a

field of

carnage or the bodies of those

is

who have died

also called

of a plague.
(}|), that
is

A
is,

corpse uncoffined and exposed

chuan

thrown away or abandoned.

it

soon as a dead body

is

put in a coffin
will

receives a

called chiu (^g), a

word which
'^

meet us

As new name, and again. The deceased

is

" nailed in his chest

state free

is

called chiu, because he

now
if

to

have a

from change
is,

for a great length of time, is

chiu

(^)

long, that

for ever.

The word

is

also explained

by another

chiu (^), which means ended or completed; because nothing more can be done for the defunct, or because everything is now

completed and ready for the funeral.

for a corpse in a coffin
is

Another well-known name

-f),

tou-tzu

(^
is

from a name

for a coffin

which
to

will be

found below.

This

the term used with reference

the breaking open and rifling of graves.^

A
*'

lost friend or relative is said to

be pu-tsai

{/f, :^),

not

here, not in existence, as

Rachel wept
is

for her children because

they are

not.'^

Or

the sad assertion

is

avoided and the intimation

of

a friend's death
is

conveyed by the question an {^ytsai,

'^

where
is

he

So Job

says,

Man

giveth up the ghost and where

its

he?" the question in each case holding

answer,

''gone

for ever."

We
to die.

have already noticed the word ku in the phrase ku-wu,

It is also used in the sense of dead, as in ku-Jen
(-j^f

or

-^ X), an ancient, one put out of date, one who has become a fact. Hence for "he is dead" there is the common expression tso-liao
(fit

"Xyku'jen, he ban become a

man

defunct.

also called

wu-hua

(if^

^), creatures transformed.

The dead are The saint is

tHen-hsing (5c fj)) heaven-worker, spontaneous agent during and makes him a ivu-hua, a creature life, but death stops him
a

changed or metamorphosed.

His body

is

then like the sloughed

It
is

skin of a serpent or the abandoned exuvia of a cicada.

1

" Shuo-wen,"

chap,

xi.,

p.

28, s.v.,

.;

"Shih-ming," chap,
''

iv.,

A mutilated corpse is known by a special name, tzu (fJt), and this is also applied Thus to the buried body undergoing corruption. yin-ch'ung-shihJi^u-tzu" " ^^ the darkness of the grave tlie worms eat his rotting ife M) is (^

p. 21.

^^

carcase."

Terms Relating
changed, that
is,

to

Death and Burial.

285

decays and perishes,

" Quod
(^

mutatur enim
to

dissolvittir, interit ergo."

die,

Thus, as has been seen, hita means

and the dead are called the hua-cho

^), the transformed.

In a well-known passage of Mencius, for example, we read, " Is it not, moreover, perfect pleasure to a man on behalf of his

dead [parents] (hua-cJio),

their

to

prevent the earth from touching

bodies ?

'^

Then

the

phrase

hua-cho comes

to

be used

in

the sense of mortals, as contrasted with the pu-hua-cho or

immortals,

who

live for ever

and know not time's decay nor the

*-

changes of accident.^

We
This
is

have seen that one

of the terms for to die

is

kuei (|).

also a very popular designation for the

dead and means

gone home, returned.

to

The word

is

used of a bride going (kuei)

of

her

home

in the bridegroom's house,

an

official

going back

to

end his days at his birth place, and of the sojourner abroad
It has also other uses, as
of

returning home.
below.

will

appear a

little
( j^),

In the sense

dead

it

is

said to be for kuei-Vu

returned to the ground, spoken of the body which came from the
earth.

We
;

find also such expressions as kuei-ku (^),

;

gone

to the

ancients, gathered to one's forefathers

kuei-shih

(-Jg),
;

gone from

the world

kuei-Jen, a

man

returned, gone to his rest

and kuei-

tHen, gone

home

to

Heaven, a phrase in use among the Hakkas

who

are not Buddhists.

It is the

rule in

China

to

speak of friends and relatives

recently deceased in terms differing in

many

respects from those

applied during their lifetime.

eign,

The

rule extends also to the sover-

and

it is

observed in

many

cases towards relatives long dead

and buried.

No

one speaks of the personal name of a friend

This
is

deceased as his ming (^).

living,

the term used of

hut (|$).

him while
This word
or

but after death his

to

name

is

called

means

avoid or forbear to use from a feeling of reverence

superstition,
^

and then that which

is

treated with respect by not

" Chuang-tzu," chap, vi.; " Huai-nan-tzii," chap, vii.; L. C. C, ii., p. 98; M6ng-tzu," chap, iv., p. 20. Another phrase of similar meaning with This may be hua-cho is i-wu 4^), a strange substance, a different thing. used of men and animals, and /ma-tuei ('ffj ^)-i-iyi*. "by transformation to become something difEereut," may be applied to a faded flower.

and

"

(^

286

Terms Relating
of
it.

to

Death and Burial.

dies his friends

making use

When

man

and

relatives

abstain as far as possible from using his

in writing or speaking.

name

for

sometime either

The

epithet ta-^hsing (;;^ f}),

lit.

great journey,
of

is

given to

an Emperor or Empress from the time

death until a posthumous

name

is

assigned.

Hence

the expression Ta-hsing

Huang

Ti, the

Emperor who has gone the long journey, means

deceased Majesty."

^'His recently

The words ta-hsing here

are explained as
is

signifying *'gone the long journey from which there

no return."

Of
(5fe :k,

his

dead father a son speaks and writes as hsien-ta-jen

^'his

A),

deceased Excellency," and this expression

may

be

used by friends in conversation with the son.

dies leaving his

But

if

the father

own

father alive the son of the former only styles

him hsien-tzu

(-f), deceased son.

The phrase
''

hsien-chiin (5),

" the deceased gentleman,"

departed father
is
;

may

be used by or to a son of his

but hsien-yen {^),

deceased stern severity,"

applied only by the son to his dead father.

On

tomb-stones

and obituary notices a son generally

which
in
this use in explained as

calls his late father k'ao

{^),

meaning ch'eng

(j^), perfected

or finished.

It is also said

to
life

be a synonym of yin (5|) in the

long drawn out, that
is,

sense of protracted, having

verewigt.

Before the word k'ao, we generally find hsien (Ig), illustrious. Up to the Yuan period the common phrase was huang {^yjc'ao, " the imperial defunct," but the second Emperor of that dynasty
ordered the use of huang in this way to be discontinued and that
of hsien substituted.

At

present

it

is

only the sons of a deceased

Emperor who can

and propriety.

use the phrase huang-k'ao with legal sanction

Instead of k'ao we occasionally find on tomb-stones

kao (fg) in the same sense. This is a word borrowed from the farm and denotes grain in the ear ripe and dry.

son speaks of his late

mother

as

hsien-tzu

(jg),

my
is

deceased tender-hearted one.

On

tombstones

and in obituary

writings he styles her pi or hsien-pi

(^

iJt)-

As

the father
life,

perfected (k'aoj by death, the mother, his mate in

after death his

becomes

mate

j:t)

again, equal with her

all

husband

in virtues,

and sharing equally with him

posthumous honours.

In old

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

287

times these words h'ao and pi were used alike of the living and
dead, aud fu-pi (Jf i|t), for example meant simply mother, and fu-h'ao, was ''my father-in-law/'

my

wife's

A
father.

widow

calls

her late husband hsien-chiin, ray deceased

is

lord, the

phrase whicli, as has been seen,

used also of a deceased

But
''

at

present the

common

expression for

"my

late

hushsLud

is

p'i OY hsien-p'i

(^

Jg^

),

"my
So

deceased
also the

lord,'* p'i,

like chiin

meaning master or sovereign.

is

term for a
chief

departed wife

pin

(jg), a

word which properly denoted a

tiies.

concubine of a sovereign in former

of this world are all kept

The

social distinctions

up

in the ne'xt, but death

commonly
notice the

gives promotion.

As

another example of this

we may

term ju-jen
to

(^
to

and subject

A)^ the dependent person, the woman attached a husband. This was in old times the prescribed
official,

title for

the wife of a T'ai-fa or high

and

it

is still

the

official

designation of the wife of a civil mandarin from the seventh

now extended to the wife of a tradesman or any other private subject when she is dead, and it is very common on tomb-stones. The wife of a man when buried beside
rank down.

But

it

is

him

is

called his fa-ch'i

(^^),

or simply fa,

and she

is

so

described on the tomb-stone to their

common
first

grave.

The term

fa, hair, in such cases always denotes the

or principal wife,

the wife of the marriage contract.

It

is

properly the bride of a

man's youth, the

duty were

first

wife of his

life,

taken by him

when

love and

realities to both.-^

Most

of the expressions just

quoted refer mainly to the dead

of

regarded as corpses,

as the bodies

defunct

men and women.

few seem

to contain a hint that

death

may
life

be only a passage

to a
that,

new
in

life,

a change from one kind of existence to another,

the words of one philosopher,

and death are one

also,

process of change (1 i^ 5E

"^

ffc)-

There are
life

however,
go on at
to

many

expressions in which the suspicion that

of soul

may

least for a time after the dissolution

and body appears

have become a
1

certainty.

The

living

we

see are

men and women

chap. chap,

" Fang-yen," chap, xii.; "Urh-ya," chap, iv.; " Knang-ya,"; "Fang-yen," vi. ;" Li-chi," chap, i., p. 46; L. C. C, iv., p. 44 (3fe ^); "Shih-ming,"
iv.,

p. 21.


288
of flesh

Terms Relating
and bone and

to

Death and Burial.

but the dead

spirit,

we do not

see

are

spirit only.

They

are ghosts

huei (j^)

which

linger for a time

dissolved.

about the tabernacles they have quitted

now being

They take phantom forms of

in the body.
spirit

these occasionally for special purposes,

and darkly wreak their wrath on those who wronged them while

ghost

is

called huei,
is,

say
to
it

some, because
its

it

is

which kuei (|f ) returns, that

air.

original state

of

formless

Before doing

so,

however,

has for an indefinite

period a lonely existence generally restless and unhappy.

The

ghost of one

who has
it

died a bad death

is

is

for the

most part work-

ing mischief, and

visitor.

never in any circumstances a welcome

One name

for the dead, not

mentioned above,

is
(

pu-shu

(7 ^),
;^ /p

the bad, the unlucky

jen'SsU'Wei-chih-pu-shu
(or,

A ^ pi
Some,

?!{)>

the dead are called the bad

unfortunate).

however,

tell

us that the term pu-shu applies only to those

who do
'^

not die a natural death.

In one

of the odes of the

" Shi Chiug

we

find

it

said of (or by) a

woman

with reference to her hard

lot

in being parted from her

husband by famine, yujen-chih-pU'shu-i

''

(jS

Ai

/P

Six

^)- Dr- Legge translates, " She suffers from his

is

misfortune," but the meaning

loss of

perhaps rather,
(or,

She

suffers the

her husband from famine "

I experienced the loss of

my

means

husband from famine). Then the word yang 0^), which originally a plague, disaster, or calamity, comes to denote

a ghost and particularly that of one's dead father.

Thus when
he
is

man

is

choosing

a site

for

his father's grave

warned

pi-yang

(jg y^), to

keep out

of the

way

of,

that

is,

avoid offending

his father's ghost.

Further as the departed are generally credited

is

with tbe possession of superhuman powers the term ling

plied to them.

ap-

Thus the
@).
of

living

and dead are spoken

of as the

sheng-ling

(^

The word

ling includes the ideas of spiritual

efficaciousness

the power to grant requests in

is

a miraculous

way, and

it is

applied to nearly everything that

connected with

the deceased.^
" the dead of old " 1 " Urh-ya," chap, iv,, p. 14. The hu-Tcuei (j^ ^) are " Tso-chuan," those long deceased, and hsin (^)-^itei are " the modern dead." chap. XV., p. 8; and L.C.C.,v., p. 234; Jih-chih-lu ( H ^11 il). chap, xxxii.; L.C.O., " Shi-ching," chap, ii., p. 40; " Wu-hsio-lu" (^ ^), chap. xix. iv., p. 117; and

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

289
is

A
But

very curious phrase used in speaking of the departed

huang-ch' iian

(^ ^), which

would seem
is

to

mean

" yellow spring."

in this expression

huang

usually interpreted as meaning

is

the soil or earth; and huang-ch^ilan

of the

that depth below the surface

;

ground

at

which water

is

reached

or

it is

the depth of

soil
its

within which seeds germinate and vegetable

early processes.

life

goes through

So those whose bodies have been committed

to

earth are described as being Imang-ch'iian-chih'hsia, below the

meeting of
alive

soil

and water.
seat,

Thus

he has the upper

of soil

meeting

and water."

when when dSad he is buried " below the To be dead and buried is ju (yjj.)
it is

said of a father that

huang^ch^iian, to have entered soil and water; and huang-ch^iianlu (8J), the road of earth-springs is the region of the shades.

So

also i'Sang

(J^ '^) -huang -ch^mn,

is

to

observe mourning for

those

who

are dead and buried.

is

One
of

of the

most interesting

oc-

currences of the phrase

in the first chapter of the

"Tso-chuan."

We

there read that

Duke Chuang

Ch^eng, on account of the

that
*^

unfair conduct of his mother,

vowed

except at the earth-

springs he would not see her again"

in Dr. Legge's rendering,
''

(^R^^^^g.^lfc);
till

I will not see you again,

till

I have

reached the yellow spring

[z.e,

am

dead and under the yelsorry for his vow, and

low earth]."

The Duke was afterwards

of it

an ingenious way out

of great
filial

piety.

him by a high official " If you," said the clever adviser, " scoop
was found
for

out the earth to the springs {J^ ^),

again' there,

make

a tunnel and 'see her

who

will say that this is not as

you vowed

? "

The

son acted on this advice and had a happy meeting with his mother,
thus keeping his

vow and

satisfying his conscience.

In the above

passage the words /niang-ch'uan are explained by ti-chung-ch'thch'iian

(j;^

4*

M)y the
in

springs within the

earth,

and fursee

ther as ti-hsia, under the ground.

Not only do the dead

Thus a man says
'^

and recognise each other

there the feelings of

the

huang-ch^iianj

they also retain

to

human

beings.

one who

has rendered him a great service,

I will feel your kindness

even in the next world "

Chilian.

(^

^S^

-^

f4^

i)>

i^ ^^^

huang-

We

find the phrase

sometimes varied by the substitu-

290
tion

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

oijang (^) for huang. The word jang also means soil or earth, and is used as an equivalent of huang in this sense. The
expression i-huang
()[

the dead and buried,"

father."

^)-ch'mn-ja)ig, means *^to shed glory on and sometimes " to glorify my deceased

So

also the

young widow who cut

off

her

put

it

in her husband's coffin said that

by the

act

left ear and " the demons

and

spirits

knew

she would wait to meet

him

in the other world,"

the cuan-jang}

Another interesting and common

literary expression for the

is

place of the departed, and thence for the departed themselves,

chill-yuan {j{j ]g), or chiu-ch'tian
(i{j

^). These two terms seem

to

have the same meaning, which

the use

is literally

" nine springs," but in

tombs.

now under consideration they are names for the tomb or As such specifically they will come before us again, and for the present we notice them only in the expressions which A common phrase for this is denote *' the place of the dead."
chiu^yuan
tombs.
(or ch^iian) chih-hsia

{JtW^

(^^

:^) -^

T)^ below the

Thus Liu
to

Pei, before putting to

death the traitor

Mi

Fang, said tombs

him, *^If I pardon you, when I go below the

(lit. nine springs, JL T)> ^^^ kung ?" the murdered Kuan Yii whom you

^^

shall I face

Kuanalso

deserted.

So
''

K'ung-ming says
to

to the

hoary old traitor

Wang

Lang,

You

are

go

home

(kuei |||) this day below the tombs

to face the twenty-four

(lit.

nine springs),
?" In a

and how are you

Han Emperors

private letter from a celebrated statesman to a relative

curious example of the use of the phrase chiwyuan.

we find a The writer

pleads with his relative to be fair and kind to his two nephews,

and says you

to

him, by so doing " you will close our father's eyes in

lit.

the tomb,"
is,

the nine springs

iM

will enable our progenitors to

is

^^^^ ft B 'Wi jl have peace in their graves.

K^

U\

While there

trouble in the family the departed parent does

1 L. C. C, v., p. 2; and "Tso-ohuan," chap, i., Cf. " Han-shu," chap, xxi., p. 3 " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap. iv. The uses of the phrase huang-ch'uan may be further from a beautiful old poem. Of the wedded couple it illustrated by quotations is said huang -ch'uan-kung-ivei-yu (^^%^ J^ M)i lovers to death." Then the faithful husband says ivu-tu-hsiang-huang.ch'uan, I go alone to the other wife answers, Jniang-ch'uan-hsia-hsiang-chien (^ A^ "F world;" and the true " I iiieet you in tho next world,'' " Ku-ahi-yuan," chap iv., 1st poem, ti^ ^)i
*' *'

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

291

not shut his eyes, and hence the term in the above expression

ming-mu, already noticed,

example
dead
is

is

not only to die but also to have

peace in death, to sleep in the grave undisturbed.

it

In

this last

will be seen that the

term used for the place of the

simply chiu-yuan, the tomb or tombs.

is

The phrase

chiu-

ch'uan
says to

used in the same manner, as when T'sao P*ei's mother him, " "When I go to the grave (chiu cuan), moreover,

I shall sleep in peace''

{^

"^ JL

iJf

JSlV
is

It has been seen that the phrase huang-ch^uan-chih-hsia

explained by

ti-hsia,

below the grout>d; and this term also

is

often

used

to express the place of the dead.

Thus we meet with such

statements as that of certain two wives

offers, saying,

who refused very tempting

"How
lit.

could

we

face our husband's fathers in the

other world?"

below ground

{^

MB^

"J^

"^

^ Mf)-

Further, ghosts'live behind the sun in the dark north.

Hence dead

bodies are placed and kept with the head towards the north, and

the term pei-shou (4t 'M')^ bead turned to north, means deceased.
It
is

also mostly in the darkness of night that the ghosts

come

out to cry and peep their woes and wrongs and scare dreaming

mortals
in the

whom
shade,

they owe a grudge.

is

used to denote the dead, those

So the word yu (^), darkling, who wander in

also
to

death's shade.

This word

yti,

refers

the dark sunless

region in which the ghosts wander, as does also yin ([^), a word
of similar

meaning.

To

these are

opposed such terms as ming

(03)
life.

and yang (j^), which denote clear light, the bright day of Another term for the place of the dead is t^a-hsiao-chih-chai

(:JC

*^

^)) the house

the grave, are

of the
'*

grand night.

They who

are in
t^aiis,

this, to wit,

hid in death's dateless night,"

hsiao being the equivalent of ch'aug-ye

(^

^), the long (that

unending) night.

The dead
have gone
to

are also said to be in the ming-fu

f^), court of
is

darkness, the gloomy halls.

Thus

a person deceased

said to

(5), or to have seen (^) the ming-fu.

To be dead

* " San-kuo-chih," chap. xlv. and chap, xhi.; " Yang-yuan-chi," chap, xv.; " San-kuo-chih," chap. xl. For chiu-ch^iian we sometimes find ch^ung-ch^iian (fi ^)> "the many springs," and the dead are ch'ung-ch'iian-hsia or simply ch'uan-hsia, below the springs.

292
and buried,

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

dark road, miny-t'u

also, is to travel the

(g

^), the

passage to the gloomy halls of the king of the lower world, the
tristes

sine sole domos, loca turbida.

is

This ming-fu, as a poet

nearly said,
sorts

a place

much

like Peking,
is

where

''

there are

all

of people

undone,

and there
Offices,

little

or no fun

done."

There are Courts and Public

the shady inhabitants.

Hence a well-known phrase

and Registers are kept of for " to be

on the ghost's

dead"

is

teng-kuei-lu

(^

^ $^),

to be entered

register,

to

have one's name and surnai^ie recorded among the

dwellers below.

Another expression
to

of a like nature

is

ju-kueito

men-kuan {\ | P^ ||), down among the dead.

ghost
officials,

have entered the ghosts' confines,

be

In the ming-fu there are

(2{^),

also kuei-kuaiiy
bailiffs,

and kuei-tshi

ghost turnkeys or

and

to encounter these is to be

dead and buried.

expression
for

There

is

literary
It
is

dead,
1$^

which

may

be

mentioned here.
Yii-yuan."
is

ju-yii-yuan

(A.

iS),

"to go into

The sun was'supposed to^et

at this place,
is

and death
is

the setting of man's sun, and ju-liao-yil-yuan

" he

dead."

Of a teacher
scribed

or a distinguished scholar his death

may

be de-

by the words mcng-tien

is

(^

^), " he dreams

of a libation."
it is

The phrase
to die,

derived from a passage in the "Li-chi," and

or

has been used in the senses of " know that

my

end

is

at

hand,"

and

to

be dead buried and receiving worship.^

of the shades,
let

Returning from the realms

have not yet seen our
last

which we who
little

evening can do,

us wait for a

near the body of one recently bereft of

of expressions to denote the services
of the body,

spirit.

There

is

a crowd

performed to or on account

but we can notice only a few.

is

And

the

first to

claim our attention

the well-known chao-hun (|g

^),

to
it

sumhas

mon
just

the
left.

spirit, to call

the departed spirit back to the body

In old times, when a death occurred in a family, one of

the members, taking the clothes lately worn by the deceased, went
" Yuan-chien-lei-han," chap, ccxlvi., p. 23 ; *' Li-chi," chap ii. (;jig J:) ming-tien. The eK-pression pai.jih-ju-yu-yuan (^ H t^) is said to '* in manhood," to set the or day time. youth It in seems to have mean die other meanings, however, and it is not very common. " Ku-shi-yuan " (~^
1

for

A^

^), chap.

vi.

Terms Relating
to the roof of the house.

to

Death and Burial.

293

There with face turned

to the north,

the ghosts' quarter, he chao-hmty called on the departed spirit to

return.

This ceremony

is still

gone through, but now commonly

at the door, or near the house, or at the T'u-ti-miao, temple of

the Genius of the place, and most frequently by a

woman
is

for a

son or husband.

The

classical

name

for the

ceremony

fu(f^),
come,

to return, bring back.

No

one believes that the

satisfies

spirit will

but the performance of the service

the

the sense of duty in

mind

of the

bereaved mourner.
is

Another old and curious ceremony, often noticed,

denoted by the phrase mai-sJiui

that

(^

i^), to

buy water, an expression

Soon
representative

which

is

confined apparently to this particular ceremony.

is

^fter a parent dies, the eldest son, or whoever

of the deceased, dressed in

all

the trappings of woe, with one

arm bared, and attended by the chief among his relatives, goes For this purpose, having provided himself to "buy water."
with a bowl and two copper cash^ he proceeds
spring at some distance, and outside the city
at the
if

to

a stream or

possible.

Arrived
his bowl.

water he drops his two cash into

bitterly all the time,

it

and

fills

Weeping

he now returns by a different road

from that by which he had gone.

presents the water, kneeling, and

On

his arrival at

home he
to

it is

perfumed and used

wash

the face and hands

in order to

of the deceased.

The two cash

them and
is

are necessary,

have the cleansing recognised by the powers below,

bought, as
it

the water

is

were, from

so

it

cannot be

regarded as earthly water.

the

This custom
it

very

Kuangtung province, but

is

not even

common in known in many

earliest times
-g*,

other parts of the empire.

Another custom, and one continued from the

of

Chinese history,

is

indicated by the

word han (written

The meaning of this word is to hold or put in the pg-, and J^). mouth, or to put a gem or jewel in the mouth, to wit, of a deIn old times a piece of jade, or silver, or a pearl, ceased person.
or a few cowries

and grains

of rice

were put

in the

mouth
and

of one

about

to

be buried.

The ceremony was

called ha7i,

this

term

was explained by shih-kou

(^

P),

to

fill

or stop the

mouth, or

294
to

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

do so with jade, that is, a precious stone (J 31 CDMorrison says, " This observance was considered an expression of
personal attachment, accompanying the deceased to the
grave.

The modern custom

few grains
incense,
of rice,

is,

for

some person, nearly

related, to take

a few leaves of tea, with

all into

some

particles of

and put them

is

the

mouth
*

of the corpse, to stuff the

which
''

observance

commonly

called shih-k^howj

mouth.'

mouth
rice

The phrase thus used means to place something substantial in the The jade or cowries and that it may not go away empty.
were not considered necessary for the deceased, nor were

they given to supply

in his

mouth

to

satisfy the feelings of relatives

him with nourishment, but they were placed who could not
This word han denotes at

bear to see

him empty-mouthed.

present the putting of a gold or silver pill (or both) into the
of an individual dead and about to be shrouded.

mouth

Those who are

only gild the
is

rich
pill

and

liberal use solid gold or silver,

but

many

or use imitations.

The

object of this procedure

to

enable

the departed ghost to have the power of speaking in the other

world.
see

The

old

meaning

of han,

however,

is still

retained, as

we
the

by such expressions

as kuei-han (|5 '^), to

send a present

of pearl or jade for the

mouth

of

a deceased friend.

And

importance attached to the service of " stopping the mouth " may be inferred from the current expression han-lien, " to stuff the

mouth and shroud," which means

due between death and
burial.^
strictly

to observe all

the formalities

A
making
lamps

duty which

is

attended to on the occurrence of a

is

death in a family and specially the death of a parent

of

the

the fact publicly known.

For

this

purpose paper

of a particular

kind are placed outside of the chief entrance

for general
is

of the house,

and certain other signs are displayed

observation.
also

The

local deity, the

guardian genius of the place,

informed of the occurrence in the following manner.

When

a man, say a father of a family, dies, his eldest son or other

representative goes to the " Ch'eng-huang," temple in the town
1 Morrison's Diet., vol. i., p. 367; " Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 48 ; " Ch'un-ch'iu," chap, xiv., p. 11 ; '* Tso-chuan," chap, xv., p. 13 ; L. C. C, v., p. 240.

Terms Relating
or to the T'u-ti temple.

to

Death and Burial.

295

He

there performs worship and has the

fact of his father's death proclaimed, the

surname, name, age,

and other particulars being carefully announced.

The common
tell

expressions for this ceremony are pao-chung (fg |^), to

bell;

the

or

k^ou

{\i}f)-chungj
tell

to

strike

the bell;
is,

or pao-ti-t'ou

(fg Jl gg), to

the head of the earth, that

the local genius.

The

tolling of the bell is

made

to give the years of the deceased,

is

and the ceremony, which in some places

utmost importance,
is

regarded as of the

designed to announce to the guardian deity

the departure of one of his people.

The death

of a parent or other

near relative
This
is

is

also

made known
called fu.

to friends in a special

manner.

done by a statement written usually with blue ink on

is

greyish paper, and

%\* is

This word
is

is

written in two ways,

and

jKj,

but the former, which

of comparatively late origin,

is

used exclusively in this manner, while the latter

in this use
to

antiquated or pedantic.

The

full

expression
is

is

fu-ming,

announce a death, but the word ming

character

usually omitted.

The

^, which also means

'*

to hasten, is

found in old literature

in the sense of

announcing a death

'H^ ?E H

&)

Thus when

Po-kao, an esteemed friend of Confucius, died in the

the fact that his death was reported to Confucius,
fu-yu-h^ung-tzit (jQj j^ JL "? )
is

Wei country,
expressed by

I^ making the formal announcethe period of

ment

of a death,

and

in letters to friends during

mourning, there are certain terms by which law or usage requires

that the writer should designate
himself.

Thus a
if

son,

whose

mother

is

living,

when

reporting his father's decease, describes

;

himself as hu-tzu (JE ^), or fatherless son

he

is

reporting his

mother's death while his father

tziif

is alive,
if

he

calls

himself ai (^)-

bereaved (distressed) son

and

both his parents are dead he

is

ku-ai'tzii}

Eeturning

to the corpse,

after

the lustral water has been

is

applied, the next duty to a dead

body

to dress it for burial.

This

is

done usually on the day after the death, technically called the

yiieh-jih {j^ Q), the

If the deceased
*

day which passes over [the day

official,

of the death].

was an
ii.,

he

is

dressed after the

manner

of

" Li-chi," chap,

p.

15.

y'^^Je^S^^^AH^^

Xtniversity;


Death and Burial.
if

296
an
official of

Terms Relating
the
;

to

Ming dynasty and

a private individualj in the

fashion of a gentleman of that period.

is

called hsiao-lien (>J>

or

The dressing of the corpse ^), the minor shrouding, and the

clothes are euphemistically called shou-i

{^
we

^); longevity
find

clothes,
to

and sometimes simply

i,

clothes.

In Mencius, with reference

mention
of

the funeral ceremonies for a relative,

the

huan-kuo-i-chHn (t& ^J ^)) the inner and outer coffins, the The chH7i is a large robe or sheet put on clothes and coverlet.
outside the clothes^ and
is

properly in three pieces.

We have also

the term hsi'shih

(^

dressing of the body.

^), the shrouding business, to denote the The word hsi here is explained by chou-tsa
;

(M

[g), to

wrap round

and the term hsi-shih expresses rather

the act

known by

the very old

name

chiao-chin

the corpse with long stripes of cloth.

(U ^), The whole body

to

wrap

in court

dress, as it were, after lying in state for a day, is enveloped in

folds of cotton,

which are wound tightly round every

treated for several days as though
is

part, hiding

from view the ugly change that has commenced.

the corpse
creature,
is

In some places
it

were a living
or

but this

not according to general consent

is

old

custom.

The term chiao-chin

sometimes used for the whole

process of dressing and setting out a corpse.

Another term
to

is

chuang-huo

(^ ^),

to dress

and wrap, that

is,

put his dress on

the deceased and then wrap

him

in

winding

sheets.

This
it

is

also

called the ta4ien, or great shrouding, to distinguish

from the

mere

dressing

hsiao-lien

mentioned above.

After this ceremony,

after

which should be performed on the third day

deceased

death, the

may not be seen again. On this third day the body is placed in the
of the deceased
is

coffin,

surrounded
folds

and covered with the clothes

layers of cloth. old

and many

and

The

coffining
is

also

called ta-lien,

but the
to

and correct term

pin (^), a word which has come

to

be

used in a vague loose way

to burial

denote

all

the ceremonies preparatory

also.

and sometimes the act

of interment
it is

It

means

" to treat the deceased as a guest," and

shrouded body in the
coffin

properly to put the

and place

this

on a pile of wood

covered with earth at the west wall of the chamber.

Behind

Terms Relating
this a curtain

to

Death and Burial.

297

was drawn in old times, and within

used of a

this curtain the

female members of the family performed their prescribed wailing.

From

this

comes the phrase

still

woman

crying over a

lost father or

husband, wei-pin

(^ ^),

literally, to curtain

the

shrouded corpse.
burial,

In the general sense of preparing a body for

occurrence in literature, ancient and
if

pin

is

of frequent
is

modern.
dies,

It

recorded of Confucius that he said,

is

a friend

and there
( jjS

no one, the disposition

it is

of the

body devolves
for burial."

" yii-wo-pin

^ ^),

for

me

to prepare

him
of

In popular speech at present the whole process

coffining is called
set to rights, to

shrouding and
(I[j^

by the vague euphemism sJiou-shih

put in order.

J^), to

adjust the

body properly,
is

The meaning is to dress and making it ready for burial. Great

importance

attached to these services, which are performed by

relatives or experts, hired for the purpose.

One
die

of the

worst the

things one Chinese can say

constable,

to
is,

another

is

ti-pao-shou-ni,

do you up, that

may you

pauper and

an

outcast.-^

Let us next take note

required on
departed.

of

some

of the terms for the services

the occasion of a death from the friends of the

These services have a large group of words and phrases

but we can notice here only a few of those which

to themselves,

indicate specially acts done for the deceased or his relatives before
burial.

One
is

of

the

first

of these ceremonies in

order and in

importance

expressed by tiao (i^) or tiao-sang, to condole, to

join with the survivors in lamenting the fate of the departed.

The meaning which

simply
''

the

"Shuo-wen"
of

gives to the character

is

to

ask about a death " (P5 ^)-

That work

also presents

the character as

made up

the

characters for

**man" and

" bow," the explanation being as follows.

In old times the dead

were not coffined and buried, but were merely carried out into
the country, laid on the ground, and covered with branches of
trees

and

grass.

In order
for a time

to

keep away birds and beasts of prey

relatives

watched

armed with bow and arrow.

So

also

when
1

a friend came to condole he brought his arms

his

bow

and

L. C. C, ii., p. 54; " Wu-hsio-lu," chap, xvi., p. 8; L. C. C, i., p. 99; and " Luu-yii," chap, x., p. 29 ; " Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 36; " Shih-ming," chap. i\r.

298

'tet^ms

Relating

to

Death and Burial.

sat beside the mourner, helping

beasts.

him

to drive

away the
and

birds

and
to

Hence

in process of time the

word

for this, tiao,

came

have the general meaning

sorrow for the

of assisting at a death,

of expressing

lot of the departed.

It

is

now used of
is

the condol-

ence offered as soon as possible after a friend has died.

On the other
is

hand, to soothe and comfort the mourner,

to condole

expressed by yen (pg),

with him for the loss he has sustained.

This word

used

only with reference to the living

when

applied correctly.

It

may

denote the condolence offered after a defeat or the loss of a king-

dom, but it is especially used of the sympathy mourning a deceased parent, " to console a filial
the death of a parent
It
is

for the

orphan
is,

son, that

on

called yen'^ (^^

Pf

).^

has always been the custom,

to

moreover,

to contribute

something material
friend.

the dressing and burying of a deceased

Thus

in old times horses

and carriages were sent

as a

token of respect to him, and this service was called feng (|g).

But

as the use of horses

and carriages ceased

to

this

word

lost its

technical signification,

and came
dead
;

be a general
it is

name

for all

honorary presents
(11 9E)^ ^^

to the

and

so

explained by kuei-ssu
is

send presents to the dead.

There

a special word, sid

{M)>

to

denote the clothes and wrappings

(^

gj) given to help in

shrouding a deceased friend. For

gifts of useful articles,

including
all

money, the general name

is

fu

(|J|).

This word comprehends

the contributions from friends to the mourning relatives to help

in providing a decent funeral.
is to

At

present the prevailing custom

send only money, and there are various euphemisms for the

contributions thus made.

Commonly they
Another name

are called hsiang-i

M)>

iiicense etiquette.

for

them

is

chu

(J^)'i,

because the subscriptions were formerly given in bank-notes

of paper

made

from the chu or paper-mulberry

use for
is

tree.

A general

term in

common
of a

all

kinds of complimentary services on the occasion

(gf|

death

tsu-wei

J^).

The
it is

literal

meaning

of this phrase is

"

to assist the gravity,''

and

properly used by an inferior of

the duty which he pays to a deceased superior-^

1

"Shuo-wen." chap,
ii.,

xxiv., p.
i.,

"Kung-yang," chap,
p.

p.

53; " Yu-hsio," &c. 18; " Ku-liang," chap,

(^^ i^$M^),
i.,

chap.

iii.

p.

ii;

*'

Li-chi,"

chap,

62; chap,

i.,

p. 25.

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

299
a special

Coming now
vocabulary.
to

to

the

coffin

we

find

for

it

also

The Chinese,

as all

know, attach great importance

is

the kind of receptacle in which a deceased parent

to

be

interred,

and generally the quality

all

of a coffin is a

matter of great

concern to
to

interested.
as

In some places the carpenter has

his ordinary occupation, but

make

coffins

part of

in

other places the making and selling of these form a separate

kind of employment.

The mechanic
the

or tradesman so engaged,
title

however,
carpenter.
as

is

called

by some euphemistic

like

artisan

or

This has been

custom for

very long time,

we

find

carpenter,

in Mencius the word chiang (g), a craftsman or used in the special sense of coffiin-maker; and in

the same
artisan's

work we
business,

find the general

term chiang-shi (|g y),

particular

employed

with

the

meaning

of

coffin-making.

The common and

kuan
is

universally understood

name

for a coffin is
ts'aiy

or kuan-ts'ai (| i^).

In literature
is

this

word

which

properly material of any kind,

often used in the special sense

of material for a coffin.

The

character for
:

kuan
it

is

made up

of

the classifier for wood and a phonetic

and so

was devised

after

the substitution of timber for the earlier materials.

But even

so

when jnade of other substances a coffin is stiU called a kuany and we have a tea (^)-/;wrt?i, or tile coffin, and a shi {^ykuan, one made of stone. The word is explained as if it were kuan (||),
because a
as
if

coffin

shuts up and hides from view the body inside

or

it

were
it

wan (^),
different

because

it

makes an end

of the body,

putting
are

out of sight for ever.

Then
as, for
is

the various kinds of coffins

known by

names,

example, the chu (-^ykuany

or red coffin, the use of which

fifth

restricted to officials
coffin, is

from the

rank upwards. The term ta-kuan, great

occasionally

used in writing instead of ko or kuo {\$ or

or outer case in

^f|5),

to

denote the shell

which the

coffin

was formerly enclosed.

The
is

custom

of using this outer case arose

to

during the Yin period and

Its

continued

prevail

for
if it

many
were

centuries.

name kuo

explained by some as

k'uo (]|p or |P),

meaning capacious

or a spacious inclosure.


300

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

'^

As we

use the word lead to indicate coffin

all

thy friends

are lapped in lead"

so the Chinese use the

word mu, wood.

to coffin.

Thus the phrase yz-mw

(A

7^)

is to
life

put into wood,

is

The
coffin

name shou-pan

(^

^), long

boards,

given to the

which an old man provides

for himself or friends present to him.

The proper number of these boards or pieces of wood is six, and a coffin made of so many is called a ch'uan-ch'eng (^ J^), a perfect
city-wall, that
this
is,

one not having any opening.

In some places
but
it

name

is

given

when

eight pieces are used,

literary

is

then

improperly
other
life is

applied.

Among

people

there are several

common

designations by which the coffin provided during

mentioned or described.
{ji% ;fg),
all

Such are

i-chia

{j^ |g) and pH-

kuan

derived from the old classics.

yielding

The

i,

chia and
first

p%

are

trees

valuable

timber,

and the

was

specially
coffins in

employed

as impervious to water in
of a sovereign

making one

of the

which the body

was interred.
(K), or sui-tu, these
a chest or box.

A small
cases in

coffin is called sui (;f8) or tu

viz.,

two words having the same meaning,

which the bones
death to their homes are called sui or

The
of
is

of soldiers are sent

tu,

from the place

latter

and the

word

used also for the case in which a dead animal, for example a
horse,
is

buried.
also special

There are
occupied.

names

to designate
is

a coffin which

is

Thus the term tzu-kung {J^ ')

of
''

applied to the coffin

which contains the body

buried.

an Emperor deceased and not yet

tzil/^

hard and

The term means the palace of lasting. The word chiu (;jg),

a valuable wood,
is

noticed above,

often

used in the sense of a coffin with its corpse.

originally denoted merely a coffin ready or on

The word perhaps its way to burial.

We

read of meeting a chiu on the road, of following one to the

it is

tomb, and

an old rule not to sing when looking in the direcfjj^

tion of one
efficacy, is

(H

7f\

^).

The

epithet ling,

of

supernatural

very often prefixed to chiu, as to other objects conitself ling

nected with the dead, and by

that
is

may be

used
for

to

denote

all

expressed by chin.

Other common terms

tenanted

coffin are

pm

(S)> already noticed with another meaning, and

Terms
ch'tn {^).

Relatiiig to
is

Death and Burial.

explained as meaning chHn
is
.

301

This latter word

is

that which

one's own, that which

very close to one.

But

in

old literature, and in

is

modern works
'^

set

with antique gems,

coffin,

cJi'en
its

often used in the sense of an

empty

one waiting for

occupant.

One

says expressly,
classical

an empty

coffin is called ch'en.'*

There

is

an old

phrase found also in modern literature,

the word.
to

which

illustrates this use of

to

The phrase
coffin

is

yii-ch^en

(H

^), once

draw,

now

bear a

ready

to

receive a

particular body.

In old literature we sometimes find the word

to
^'

sang {^), which has occurred

coffin

uS already, used to denote a

with a corpse.

Thus

in the

Oh'un-ch'iu " we meet with ex-

pressions like

hung -chih- sang 'chih-tzu'ChH

(^

J^

^^

^),

the Duke's coffin arrived from Ch4.

And

again

we read

in the

same book that in the spring of the ninth year of Duke Ch'eng " the Earl of Chi came to meet the coffin (H) of the Duke's
third daughter to take
it

home."

In such passages, however,

the word sang

priately

may perhaps
in

be sometimes rendered more appro*

by funeral or fnneral procession.

is
is

Further we have

to note

a term which
doctors.

common

use

among

Taoists and Feng-shui

is

This

chin-tou

(^

^), gold peck-measure, which

it

used to
buried.
(ft

denote a coffin either ready for interment or actually

But

to

say of a piece of land that

n^ean no more than

conceals a gold peck

it is

^S ^

^) ^^y
also

that

good

site

for a grave.

There are
coffin.

many names

for

the different

parts

of

But these

are not all in general use, nor are they applied

everywhere in the same manner.

Thus the lid and bottom are sometimes called by the common terms " upper and lower (lit.

Heaven and Earth) boards

designation
pie-chia

'^

{JUSLM

WO-

'-^'^ley

are also

known
is

respectively as sun and moon, and the former has the further

(^

Ep),

turtle's shell.
its

This

last
it

terra

also used to indicate

a coffin with
occurrence.

contents, but

does not

seem
and

to

be of

common

The

joining place of a coffin

sometimes called jen (|^), a word which properly denotes the meeting of two edges of a garment. Used in the
its lid is

sense

now under

notice

it is

rather a book term, and in

common

302

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

aud
coflfin

speech the meeting-place of

0I>

lid

is

called

hsiao-ijao

H),

the small essential, a phrase which dates from the time of

the

Han

dynasty.
is

Another name

for this part of a coffin is chien

{M)> which

properly to bind or fasten with cords.

In very
coffin

old times the use of nails

was not known, and the

These
in

was

secured only by leather thongs.

placed by
fast

time came

to

be re-

hemp

strings

which were called chien, which were kept

by pegs fixed

at the junction of lid

and

coffin,

and hence

perhaps that use of the word

now under
we

notice.-^

Coming next
interesting nature.

to the funeral
it

find that the acts

and cere-

monies connected with

furnish

Of these a

many expressions few may be taken as

of a curious or

specimens, and

principally such as illustrate at once the character of the language

and the customs of the people. When the body duly swathed and surrounded with
nailed

all

that

is

considered needful or desirable has been properly laid in the coffin,

the lid
is

down on

the latter.

This act

is

expressed by the
to

euphemistic phrase an-ting

(^

Jj), the nailing

rest or peace.

For the carrying out

bury.

to burial there
is

are several expressions, of

(tlj

which the most common perhaps

use is ch'U'sang (H), some places words of
burial
of this
is

ch'u-piu

^^),

to

go out to

Another phrase with the same meaning and

to
ill

also in general
to bury.

go out to mourn or go out

In

omen

are avoided, and to carry out for

hills.

expressed by ch^u-shan, to go out to the

is

But the use

euphemism

not sanctioned by the strictly orthodox, and

It
is

the phrase has other meanings.

of to

sometimes used in the sense

it

worship at a tomb, and very commonly

means
In

to

go into
last

office, to

take active service under government.

is
it
ii.,

this

use

the phrase
hillfi,
1

taken in the sense of

is

to

leave or go out from the

[Ij),
iii.,

and

opposed
;

to

tsaishan

(^

which means
iv., p.

to

be

18 ; '* Li-ohi," chap, ii., p. 6; " Shuo-wen," chap, xvii., p. 63; " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap. iv. ; " Yii-pien," s.v. |g ; " Wu-hsio-lu," chap, xvi.; "Han-shu," chap. i. ~f chap. *' Shuo-w^n," chap, xvii.; Phon. S.W., vol. iv., p. 92 ; " Li-chi," chap, i., X., p. 4 ; " " Hsiao-urh-ya," Li-chi,'' chap, ii., p. 44 ; p. 4 ; "Tso-chuan," chap, ix.; p. 25 chap, ii., p. 40; L. C. C, v., pp. 69, 132, 268, 368; and " Ch'un-ch'iu," chap, xv., 3. p. 12 ; chap, xx., p. The lid of a coffin is also called liu (;^), properly "a willow ;" but in some As to places this name is given to the sides while the lid is called kuang (^). ch'in the meaning of " coffin with body " is still retained in the phrase chungch'H CS ^)> ^^^ heavy coffin.
L.C.C.,
p. 76;
; ;

pp. 80, 96

and " Meng-tzu," chap,

Terms Relating
in

to

Death and Burial.

303

the hills,

that

is,

living privately or in seclusion.

is

Another

expression for carrying to burial

fa-yin

(g ^D

which, however,

refers properly only to the starting of the procession.

al

The
and
it

origin-

meaning

of the phrase is

*'

to let out the traces,'' of

affairs.
its

keeps

up the

memory

of

an old state

In early times a
place,

hearse was used to convey a body to

the

last resting

and
yin.

ropes

by which the hearse was drawn were

called

Hence
came

fa-yin, to let out the traces,

meant

to

begin a funeral

procession.
to

In those times

it

was required

of the friends

who

attend a funeral that they sbould take hold of the ropes

to

and help
chih-yin

draw the hearse.

J5&

The

rule

was tiao-yu-tsang-cho-pi-

(^

S^

^^

|); the mourners at a burial must

take hold of the drawing-ropes.

The hearse long ago ceased

is

to

be used, but the

name yin

continues.

It denotes the white strings

attached to the front of the bier, which

coolies.

always carried by hired

But

friends

continue to observe the form of taking

procession

these strings in their hands as the funeral

advances.
cloth, is

In popular language the term yin-pu, guiding (or leading)

applied to these bier-strings, and they are often merely strips

of white paper.

Another phrase chih-fu

chih-yin.

(^

,^ )has a history
but

like

that of

The word fu

is

often found as a
;

synonym
it

for yin in

the sense of a rope for drawing a hearse

designate the ropes by which the coffin

is

also

used

to

is

lowered into the grave.

General custom, dating from a long time back, requires friends

attending a funeral to take these ropes in their hands
act of interment
is

taking place.
;iJ

when the Thus we read tsu-tsang-cho-pi

so the friends are,

chih'fu (Id

^#

ft W)y they who help at a burial must

take hold of the coffin-ropes.

While doing

by

old rule, required to look serious and abstain from smiling.

We
of the

see another survival

i (|j|j

from antiquity in the present use

word
''

in the

with several variants). This word is explained Shuo wen " by sang-ch^e, funeral carriage. It was once a

name
called

for a hearse,

each of the four corners of which was in old

times adorned by a fish-like ornament.

i

These ornaments were

as

if i

(5

tiow erh) that

is,

ears or handles.

Such

fish-like

304
" ears " are
funerals.

Terms Relating
still

to

Death and Burial.

grand
bier,
Ijj),

to be seen adorning the large biers used at

i

The name

has long been transferred to the

is

and a popular phrase for having a funeral

originally, to
(jjl)

chia-i (j||

mount on

a hearse.

In

like

manner the word

liu

once denoted a hearse, a tsai-chiu-ch'e (ft ;JS ^), a vehicle for carrying a coffin. But it also now denotes a bier, the successor
of

the hearse or

its substitute.

It is not in

common

use

among
(or

the people though familiar to

all

the learned.

In the use of the term kung-pu

(^

;j^), literally

" merit
It

mourning) cloth," we have another

relic of antiquity.

was once

the custom for a friend, while taking part in a funeral procession,

to carry a duster

made

of a strip of white cloth attached to a stick,

to

and with
still

it

from time

time dust the

it

coffin.

The custom
all

is

observed in some places, though

is

often only an

empty
that

form.

But usually even the form

is

is

not kept up and

the friend does

to carry in front

of the bier a piece

of

white

cloth or a strip of white paper merely.

Even

this latter is called

by the old
to

name kung-pu.
The
correct
;

And

this

name has been extended

is

another object of a different character, also borne in front of

the bier.

name
and

for this
it

other object

ming-ching
of

(^

;g|),

inscribed flag

denotes a scroll
titles of

commonly

red

silk inscribed

with the names and

the deceased.

In the

front of a funeral procession there

may
a

also

be generally seen a This

is is

man

carrying a small banner of

triangular shape.

called

fan

(^

and other characters), a term which

only the names of the deceased, and

applied

also to

banners and bannerets of other kinds.

it

Often the fan at a

it

funeral has on

is

then

borne by a relative.

When

it is

inscribed with words like

Omito

Fo it

is

carried
still is)

by a Buddhist monk.

The kung-pu was (and

bier.^

perhaps

used for making signals to the bearers of the

;

1 "Shih-ming," chap, iv., p. 23; " Li-chi," chap, viii., p. 24 chap, ii., p. 44 ; " Yii-pien," chap. 1^, s.v. and ^. At chap, i., p. 25 ; " Yu-hsio," chap. iii. the present time we still find the bier designated i-hsien (written f^) and sometimes Mnsr-i (^ ^), the carriage (or hearse) of the dead. "Shuo-wen," s.v. ^. At a modern funeral the coffin is usually preceded immediately by a This is either quite empty or contains only a tablet or sheet of sedan-chair. paper inscribed with the names of the deceased. It is called in common language hun.yii the spirit's carriage. " Ch'ung-ting-wen-hsiian-chi "
;

^ ^),

(g

ITXyim),chap.vii.

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

site for his

305
grave

As
lifetime.

soon as a man's parent has died, the

if

must be determined

the parent did not choose one during his

is

To obtain

a good site

a matter of great concern, not

much on account of the dead as for the interests of the living. The poor who cannot fee the Yin-yang Professors, bury their dead on any slope or down to which they have access. And in old
so

times the rich and great perhaps did no more in selecting a

site

than choose one where the

water.

soil was deep and free from stones and In the " Hsiao-ching," Classic of Filial Piety, it is indeed
filial

written that the

of his parent

son determines by divination'the burial place

to rest.
>)^

and lays him

{ \^

The words
ia i,)-

are piL-ch'i-tse-

chao-erh'an-tshi-chih

^^

M^

Here

tsS

and

chao, which are to meet us again, are explained to

ively the grave proper

mean

respect-

and the place

of the grave.
first

Because the

choice of a site

is

a serious matter, the son

consults the gods

fpu), and on learning from them, he decides a spot to be a good

one in which to

make

a parent's grave.
lie in

That was a good spot in

which the dead body might

peace, and from which the spirit

well-pleased might send blessings on sons and grandsons.

But
a

the Feng-shui theories arose, and the question of a

site for

grave became one

of a

technical and artificial nature.

With
The

the spread of these theories

many new

phrases came into use,

and many old terms received new and

special applications.

use of the word hsiie in expressions like chie-hsiie

of

(^ ^\
it

a focus

good influences, comes before us a

site,

little

below.

This phrase
generally

means simply a good

So

but in

common
is

speech

denotes a grave in a situation declared fortunate by the Feng-shui

experts.
also the hugheetr

feng-shui

largely connected with

of the tomb.

ancestral worship
(hao) feng-shui
is

and the unseen powers

A good
So
is

a paternal tomb, which brings good luck to the

family or a place which would

make

a site for such a tomb.

chan {j^yfeng-shui,
spoil the

to seize (or

encroach on) feng-shui

to
its

good luck

of a grave, interfere

with the course of

influences,

an offence which

may

be

made

a cause of action in the

(f/f:

Magistrate's Court.

Further the words hsiu-cheng

j^)
is

mean

prosperous and auspicious, but the phrase hsiu-cheng

used to

306

Terms Relating
site for

to

Death and Burial.

denote a fortunate

a grave.

The

expression k'ao

(^)-

hsiu'cheng means to search out such a

site, to find

by inspection

and examination a lucky place

for burial-^
illustrate the

There are several expressions which

kind of

site

deemed good, one

of

which may be given here.

That man is happy

who has

secured for his parents' graves a niu-viien-ti

cow's sleeping place.

of a hill as

{^ BS M) This denotes such a spot on the slope

to enjoy

would be selected by a cow wishing

calm

rumination and peaceful slumber.

But the theory and the phrase

as follows
:

come from an
of the

old story told

somewhat

In the time
{JJ) of

Chin dynasty there lived a

It

man

T'ao-k'au

(^

small

means and good repute.

died,

came

to pass that

one of his parents

and very soon

after

he

also lost a

cow which wandered away.

As T^ao was

looking about for a good spot to serve as burial place

for his parent

he met an old patriarch.

To him T'ao
cow

told the

nature of his quest, and the old

hill,

man

advised him to go to a certain

find a

on a terrace
if

of

which he would

sleeping, adding

that

he buried his parent there he would

rise to

the highest
lost

place in the state.

T'ao went as directed, found his

cow on

the spot indicated and there buried his parent.

rose to be a great minister, and the

He

afterwards
of

tomb became a source

much

and

lasting blessing.

Riches were added, sous and grandsons

to

were multiplied and grew up

parents lived
descendants.
to

honour, and parents and grandvirtuous

enjoy the grateful homage of their

Hence the phrase niu-mien-ti became

proverbial,

and

it still

remains a stock expression.^

a site has been chosen and the exact position of a
it

When
One
(that

grave determined

remains

to clear the
is

ground and dig the grave.

expression for the former

is,

k'ai-ying-yii (f^
is

jfc^),

to

open
all

clear) the cemetery.

This

done by cutting away

thorny bushes and unlucky

obstructions.

plants,

and removing stony and other

to the earth in

But man may not do any violence

it

order to hide in
local
1

his corrupting

dead until he has appeased the

god and owned his sovereignty.

So we have the expression

"Hsiao-ching," chap. ix. (13); " Hsiug-li-ta-ch'uan," chap xx. chap. xvi. See the "Ch'^n-chien.t'ao-chi"

(M^^^),

Terms Relating
ts'u-hoU't'u
(jp"3

to

Death and Burial.

307
rite

i),

as

the

precedes the opening of the earth

name of a solemn to make a grave.

is,

which

It

means

"
at

to

worship the ruler of the place," that

locality,

the spirit which dwells

and presides over the

language.

the fu-ti-shen (or p'u-sa) of

of excavating a

common
there are

For the actual work

grave

many

expressions, generally euphemistic, of

which one

or two examples are given.

The
it is

used in this sense, though

a
to

word ch'ui {^) is sometimes found perhaps more frequently as

old

synonym

for

k'uang as denoting the hole dug.

first

The word seems

by a burby human beings,
to

have denoted

the scratching

away

of earth as
soil
it

rowing animal, and then the scooping out of

whether by the hand or otherwise; thence

excavation, but specially one

came

denote any

made

to receive a

dead body.

To

make

a grave

is

commonly expressed

in

some places by the

;

euphemism
earth,

k'ai-shan, to open (or clear) a hill

and other express-

ions for the

J^X to break and chan-ts^ao (If j), to cut grass. An old term for measuring and preparing the ground for a grave is mu (JJl).
of a like character qxq 'p^o-t'u ({JJ

same

This character

is

also read

wu and

used in the sense of a grave,

occurrence.

but

it

does not seem to be of

common

When

funeral procession arrives at the place of interment the coffin

is

reverently taken from the bier.

The proper term

to express

this act is chic

(),

to

raise,

with chiu

decent to hold the coffin suspended for a

ing
it

{^) or ling (S). It is moment before lowerfor this is

into the grave,

and the technical term

luh

(f$) a word which also denotes a rope for drawing or pulling.

The

actual lowering of the coffin

is

sometimes expressed by hsu

It is also denoted

(^), which means "slow and solemn.^'

by

pien (^), a literary term used in this sense, for example, by

Han
is

Wen Kung;

and a common phrase

is

chin-k'uang

{^

J^), to

imtroduce into the grave.

But the whole

process of burying

generally expressed by the word tsang (fj or g), which was per-

haps originally merely

or under bushes.
also

to hide or store

away

either in the

ground
whiot.

And
it

synonym

for tsang is

mai (g),

means
of a

to

put away in the earth, but when used for the putting

away

dead body

sometimes conveys a suspicion that

it

was

308

Terms Relating
It
is

to

Death and Burial.

term applied
to the burial of a

done irregularly.
dog, for

also the

example, of Confucius' dog, and of a horse.

The words

may

be used separately or together, tsang-mai being the most

''

usual expression for

to

bury."

Here

as in other instances the

importance
is

of the interment of a parent over that of

any other

seen in the use of language.

itself

For we

find the

word tsang
and the

employed by

to indicate the burial of

its

a parent,

student of Mencius will remember

the funeral ceremonies of a mother.

use in that book to denote

also the precept tso-fento peace,"

So

an-tsang

(^

J:g

^),

to

''

make tombs and bury

duty
to his parents.

refers first

and

chiefly to a son's

Further,

like the corresponding Latin word,

to dispose of a

tsang came to
in

mean simply
also the

dead body, and thus we have

Chinese also exis

pressions like

''

bury by

fire," hiio-tsang, to

though there
fire,

phrase

huo-hua

{^

{j^),

transform by
is

used

to

denote

cremation.

To bury one naked

to hide the

kuo {\^)-fsang, to

coffin

and

inter the corpse without dressing

it

or adding any covering or

ornament

ugly change.

Opposed

to this is

hou

(J[^)-

tsang, which

means

to give

one a magnificent funeral, the body

coffin

being well clothed and the

sumptuously furnished.

The

''naked burying"

is

associated chiefly with

is

the "substantial burying"

of the
to

said to date from

Yang Wang-sun, and Sung Wen Kung

is

Chou

period.

To have

a false burial

chia (^)'tsang,

pretend to be burying Lin, while really burying Chang, an

artifice of

which history gives several examples.

When

husband

and wife are buried in the same tomb they are said to be ho
tsang, joined in burial, and the phrase applies only, by

{^y

itself, to

husband and wife thus buried.

(|3
'S.)}

These during

life

were t'ung-shi

^^^

^^ is

meet that

in death they should Vung-hsiie ((^

The old and literary expression for J^), be in the same grave. burying husband and wife together is fu (Iff), that is, to reunite
them by
religious rites.

In old times a/w or united burial meant

that the two coffins fkuanj were put in one case (kuo), either
close together or wifh a partition.

But

for a long time the

terms

fu and ho-tsang mean

only that the two coffins are buried in one

grave and under one mound.

Combined with tsang we

occasion-

Terms Relating
ally find the old

to

Death and Burial.

309

word
still

of to bury.
i-yii,

It

survives in
is,

(^), wliich was once used in the sense some literary phrases, such as
the jade-stone tree buried in the
for a buried friend.
is
i

'^buried jade/' that

earth, an elegant

euphemism

Another old
is

word, not
in

much used
as
side.^

at present,

(or ssii J^),

which

explained
or inter
it

some books

meaning simply

to lay a corpse

down

by the road

When
the earth

the coffin has been laid in order in the narrow house

filled in

is

and a mound
is

raised.

For

this

word there
also

are several names, one of which

feng (^), a word

used

to denote, along with other things, the

mound

thus raised.

Notwithstanding the great importance which the Chinese

attach to an interment in due time and fitting place, they often

leave their dead for a long time uuburied.

In some parts of the

country this

may
it

almost be said to have become a custom, but

as an

usually they do
reasons.

exceptional measure for one of several

Sometimes

it is

because a

man
is

has died far from his

native place and his relatives are too poor or otherwise unable
to take the

remains home.

Often

it

because the Feng-shui

professors decide against one site after another

and

so delay the

burial; and very frequently the sons are ambitious and will not

bury their parent until they can do

it

in

an imposing manner.
is

For whatever reason

it

is

done the undue deferring of burial

condemned by moral and

political writers,

and

it is

a bad custom
is
is

unknown

to the primitive families of earliest times.

at present

and has been for a

But it long time very common, and it

Thus we

distinguished by a special nomenclature.

find express-

ions like Ving-sang and tHng-sang-pu-tsang stop the

(^

/p

^),

to

mourning and not bury, that

is,

to

defer the funeral, a

criminal offence.

Where

this is

done the

coffin is

usually carried

away from the house, and

ground
1

in

some places

it is

merely laid on the

This shed

in the

country or placed there in a small shed.

"Hsiao Urh Ya," p. 4; "Li-chi," chap. xii. Instead of saying that during life husband and wife were t^ung-shi, housed togpfcher, we have " while hving we may have to occupy different apartments (|5 HlJ ^)." L. C. C, iv., p 121. For kuo (written properly ^).tsang, see *' Shuo-yuan," chap, xx., p. 12; " Jih-chih-lu," chap. xv. " Tso-chuan," chap, xxi., p. 11; and L. C. C, v., p. 341 "Li-chi." chnp. ii., p, 81; and Commentary, chap, ii., p. 76. (:|| used with

reference bo burial uf dug).

310

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

a

has, as one of its names,

fs'o ()),

word which
to

also denotes a

house of any kind

and an-ts^o(^^ jg),

coffin

house

in rest, is often
it

used in the sense of placing a

in

temporary shelter until

can be duly buried.

There are other expressions

{^)4s^o,

for this, such as

^^

tHng

(^)'ts'o,

fu

and Ving-ling (fj 2)> ^^^^

which means
house.

to leave a coffin for a time in a shed, temple or deadis to

This

be distinguished from burial above ground which

is

takes place in some places where the soil

very damp.

One

of

expressions for this is/w (\^ytsa7igf to bury on the surface, that

is,

to leave the coffin permanently on

the field or plain.

One

of the phrases in

most common use

of

at present for the

ceremony
is

which supposes the contemplation

interment hereafter

ch'uan

{^)-ts'o, to house for expediency, to lodge the coffin in shelter

under the necessity

of

temporary circumstances.

There are

special buildings provided for this purpose

and maintained by

guilds or other societies.

These are euphemistically called chuang

is

(^

or

^),

a hamlet or village, and i-chuang

a free dead-house

of this description

(^ ^).
to the place of

Coming now
parts and adjuncts.

interment we find here also a

rich store of terms to distinguish the various kinds of tombs, their

Of these terms, however,

for the present only

a few and chiefly such as are in

common

use are taken to illustrate

is

our subject.
universal
as
if it

And

the

first

to claim

our notice

the old and

name rau ().

Some

native scholars explain this word

(^), to think of with sad longing or regret, because the tombs of his parents are to a dutiful son subjects of
were
thoughtful anxiety (^g ^).
the earth and
deposited.

mu

In old times when the practice of

interment began the grave was simply a hole scooped or dug in

filled

up

level with the surface after the coffin

was

So the word

mu
it is

denotes originally and properly a

it is

grave without any mound, and

so defined in the

'^

Fang-yen."

But in the " Shuo-wen"

and and
in
it

another

explained by ch'iu (^), a hillock, work by chung (^) with the same meaning,
to

has long been used

denote any kind of sepulchre with or

without a mound.

According

to

one old story Confucius was the

first
;

who
his

marked the

burial yf bis parents by a

heap

of earth

and

Terms Relating
action in so doing

fo

Loath and Burial.

until the

31

was soon imitated by others

custom

became general.

But

this

tradition

is

at variance

with other

statements, and the raising of a heap of earth over the grave seems
to date

from a period long before that

of the sage.

The grave thus

^

marked by a mound received the name fen

originally

(jt^)*

word which
In the

denoted
it is

merely a heap or

pile

of

earth.

"Fang-yen"
long been in
is

given as the term for a grave in the country

of

which forms the borderland

Shansi and Shensi, but

it

has
'*

common

use over the empire.

;

In the " Shuo-wen

it

explained by mu, noticed above

jtivrjUECov,

^d

we

find the double

term

feri'mUf x^f*^

in constant use

everywhere

to denote a

grave with a mound.

The heap

of earth

which Confucius raised

over the burial place of his parents was four feet high, but there
does not seem to have ever been any rule of law or custom as to
the size of the fen.
laid out

A sheng-fen (^
is

i^), living tomb,

is

a place

and prepared

for the reception of the

body

of a person

still living.

This strange phrase

used also with other meanings,

very different from the above.

Another very common name

originally a

for a

tomb

is

chung

(^

or ;^),

mound or hillock. The word is applied to any grave which is made conspicuous by a ridge or heap of earth, tumulus, and it is also used of a tomb of any kind. One or two phrases in which this word occurs may claim a passing notice. The
expression fa-chung

(g

:^), to free a grave, in official language,

means
corpse.

to

open one for unlawful purposes, such as robbing the

In common speech

it is

used also of the lawful opening

of a grave

by the relatives

of the buried, in order to

have the bones

removed
ion
i

to a better locality.

Then we have the

is,

curious expresslike graves

(^)-c/Mm^, doubt tombs, that

to

structures

made

and purporting
history two

be such for purposes of deception.

In Chinese

men
One

of unblessed

memory

are recorded to have

made
false

these i'chung in the vain hope of saving their bones from being
disturbed.
of these

was Prince P'ing

vengeance of

of T'su,

who had

Yun, whose father and brother had been murdered by the prince. But "Wu came and
tombs made
to baffle the

Wu

found the real grave, and exhumed the Prince's skeleton, which

312

Terms Relating

fo

Death and Burial.

he lashed with his whip, thereby satisfying his own mind and
appeasing the sullen shades of his father and brother.

The

other
to

was the great Ts'ao Tsao, who caused seventy-two tombs

be

made
to

inscribed

with his name.

In

this

case the artifice

seemed

be successful, but at length fate came and showed the

hated bones.

When
(H
i^

maiden

dies soon after her betrothed,

is

and

the two are buried together, their tomb

called poetically shuang-

yen-wo-chung

pair of swallows

the

:^), the sepulchre

which

is

the nest of a
also

suggrundarium.

It

muse be stated

that this word ckung has moreover the sense of " a grave-yard,"
as in phrases like i-chung

(^

:^), a public cemetery.

A
grave.

grave

is

also called in popular

pit

language khiang (j^), a

in the earth to serve as
is

word which means properly the

Thus,
ts*ung'Chiu-chi-k'ua?ig

dug

to follow a coffin to the grave,

[^

J^ J^),

made to receive it, who did so were and

all

in

old times supposed to take hold of the ropes for lowering the
coffin

(^

If).

But the word

is

also

used in the sense of a tomb,

tumulus, as in phrases like uang-lang (i^), the high sepulchres

of the country,

and k'uang-chHen-chi

(^ 15

S5)> ^^

worship before
hsfie (5^), a

the tombs [of one's ancestors].

Like hUiang the word

hole
'^

or

pit,

is

also

used in the sense of a grave, as in

the

Shu-ching," where the words lin-chH-hsile (

to the grave."

^) mean

" when he came

is

But

in

common

speech this word

applied to a good site rather than to a grave already made.

tien-hsfie or tien-hsue-chang (fj

Thus

^ j^)

is

to select a
is

lucky

situation,
site,

that

is,

for burying.

So

also chie (^^)'hsue

a good

a place in which all the invisible good influences of a district

are concentrated.

In literature and the talk

chao{^^ written

of the learned a place

also

of interment is often called

J^ and read
site as

tao).

This word denotes properly the boundary of a sepulchre marked

out after the inspection of signs and aspects, the

determined

by

priest or expert.

It

was the ridge made

services
of
is

to

mark out and

enclose the spot

devoted to

worship to the gods

or to one's ancestors.
in

This word chao

often found with yil (j^)

the sense of a grave or a cemetery.

;

By

itself yii

means a

district or country

but

it

is

also used in the sense of a place of

Terms Relating
burial, as in the

to

Death and Burial.

313

words

of

the " Shi-ching," "

The convolvulus

spreads

all

over the tombs " (J^).

Another literary but well-known

name

for a

tomb

is

fan

(J), derived from a famous passage in

tells of

Mencius.

That philosopher

man

of Ch'i,

who
with

repre-

sented himself to his family as faring sumptuously

people.

great

His wife became suspicious and determined

find out

to follow

him
and

some day and

how he
who came

got his food.

She did

so

discovered that her husband subsisted by begging what remained

after the feasts of those
of to

make

offerings at the

tombs

their

ancestors outside the east wall of the city

(^

|R JJ f^

i.^M)'

Hence "
of

to

be among the tombs ffan-hsienj has come

to be applied to

one who being in reality very poor yet keeps up

grandeur.

an appearance
still

But

the words of Mencius are also

used in speaking of the worship of ancestors in spring.

The word

ling (^), a

hill,

is

also used to denote a

tomb,

specially one with a high mound.

In books

it

is

often in this

usage preceded by such words as shou (long

life),

or yuaji (garden).

But

it is

properly applied only to the burial places of

members

of

the Imperial family.

Thus there

are the Shi-san-ling or Thirteen

Imperial

Tombs

of the

Ming

dynasty, and the

Tung
is

Ling, East

Tombs
to ling

of the reigning dynasty.

The word
It

ch'in

when used

in the above sense.

of sleeping,

(U) means to sleep, a

often joined
sleepof the
is

ing,

and the place

and then the tomb, the place

*^long night's'' sleep.

A common

name

for an imperial
is

tomb

ling-chHn, and that of the Emperor's concubine

ch'in, the

called

yuan-

garden sleeping-place.
first
its

or ffi)

was

a hill

Like ling the word ch'iu (J or hillock and then came to be applied to a
This latter use of the word
is

grave with

mound.

very old,

though

it

was perhaps never universal.

is

Another old name ior a

still

grave or a cemetery
the
''

ying (||), a term

is

in

common

use.

In

Shuo-wen " the character

it is

explained by mu, a grave, and in

other books
place.

defined by terms like mu-ti, grave-land or burial

It is

now found most commonly used with such words

y^
(J^)^ to denote a family grave-yard.

as

ti ( J5,)

^^

We

pass over several terms for graves and grave-yards given

in dictionaries

because these terms are either obsolete

now

or

314

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

the archaic, and

are used only by those

who

affect

we proceed

to take note of a few of the more distinctly euphemistic designaThe use of words like fihan, a hill, and yuan, a garden, tions.

in the sense of

a grave or cemetery, has been noticed already.

A
in

name

often found

on

tomb-stones

and

in

books

is

chia-

ch'eng

(^ ^),

the excellent walled-city.

The

coffin is

the house

which the dead one abides, and the tomb is the walled city, which keeps the house safe, and to disturb the buried bones is
"
to

Other designations of open the excellent city" (13 -g J|). the city of long life {%)-clVGng, this kind for the tomb are s/wu
;

(g Ig), the store-house of long life; and shou-yii (J^), This last is in common use, and is often the land of longevity.
shoti-tsang

taken

by literary

men

as a

name.

Strict purists

among
for

the

Confucianists do not sanction the application of the above terms to

tombs already tenanted, and confine them

sites selected

to places

graves,

and prepared.

In literature we often find the tomb

yii-tse

mentioned by such names as

yin4se
also

{S^ ^), the world's home, or

It is
is

{^

!g), the

dark home, the abode of the shades.

called ye-t'ai {i^

J)

or

night

terrace, because

it

the

haunt of night-walking ghosts.

as

But

others explain this phrase

meaning simply the mound

notion that the filmy
lingers about the spot

of darkness,

the

tomb

of night.
its

The
still

spirit,

when separated from

latter is
to

body,

where the

buried has given,

(jplf

according to some, another

name

the tomb, shen-tao

spirits'

JJ).

This phrase means, along with other things, the

the ghosts' walk, but
it is

way, or

said to be in this sense correctly applied

only to the pathway which leads to a tomb.

For

this last there

is

also the

raised path bounding a field in a

North

word ch'ien (Fp), originally a to South direction, as mo

(VS) ^^^s ^^ bounding path which ran East and West.

Then

it

came
poet

to

mean mu-tao,

the grave-way, and thence the tomb

is

itself.

Thus the phrase hsin {^)'ch'ien, new grave-path,

used by the

Tu Fu and by
The use

other writers in the sense of a

new

or fresh

tomb.

of this

word

ch'ien, in the sense of burial-place,

became popular among the

literati

from the time when Ou-yang

at a place called

Hsiu (A.D. 1007-72) buried

his

mother

Tuau-

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

316
is

Kang
{iWi>

Ch'ien.

Another name

for the

pathway

to a

grave

yen

but the phrase mu-yen denotes the grave's district or a

piece of

land set apart for burial purposes.

to designate

There

is

also

the

word yen (^), properly used

the tunnels sometimes

made

to

connect the buried coffin with the world above.

In old

times the sepulchres of kings were often furnished with these

yen or subterranean passages that the

parted might have
used, but
it is
fit

restless ghosts of the

de-

places in which to walk.

The word

is still

its

old

meaning and applicadon have passed away, and

now

often employed to denote the ordinary

pathway leading

to a grave.

Another old name

for the

tomb

hsitan-lu, the black hut, the

dark shed.

yuan-lu {jQ ]J) for This term is still in use,

is

but only

among

the educated.

Instead of ye-t^ai, given already,

we sometimes find as a designation for the grave chang-ye-Vai

t)y ^be Long Night's Terrace, "If I wait, the grave mine house I have made my bed in the darkness." ^
(fi
;

is

Distinguishing names also are given

sions of a

to

the
to

parts and divi-

modern sepulchre made according

and west
sides are called

Feug-shui

rules.

Thus

its

east

mu-shou, the tomb's arms.

blesses his

Further, as a

man

well buried

and duly worshipped

posterity the Feng-shui doctors divide the sepulchre into three

parts and assign to each the fortunes of a son or grandson.

left (properly right) side
is

called chang-fang (^g

g),

the

The House
the

of the Eldest,

because

it is

the mansion, as

it

were, of

all

good luck which comes

to the eldest

son or the representative of

the buried one through the merits or influence of the latter.

like

In

manner the middle and the

right

(properly

left)

side of the

sepulchre are called respectively erh-fang and san-fang, Second

and Third house, because they

the second and third sons.
is

are^ the homes of the fortunes of The mound which forms the tumulus

called
^

lung

(i|), a

word which denotes a ridge

of earth,
;

such

" Shuo-w^n," tang.yen," chap, xiii., last page (with commentary) *' Li-chi," chap, ii.; " Kuaug-tuug-hsin-yii," chap, xix. ; chap, xliv., p. 36 " Urh-ya," chap. iii. " Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 44; " Shuo-wen," chap. xHv., p. 29 ; L. C. C, ii., p. 217 and " Meug," chap. viii. L. 0. C, iv., p. 186 and " Shi-chiug," An old Hue lialf-iiuddhist runs kii-hun-hsiang-ku-yU (JJ i^ chap, iii., p. 31. " the place of the dead," *' the bereaved spirit i^ i^) and here Icu-yii means hovers over the grave " is the meaning of the sentence. " Ku-shi-yuan," chap,
"
;
;

v., p.

21.

SI
as is
it is

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

of burial

made by
more

a plough.

In connection with a place

correctly applied to the ridge or

bank
is

of a

horse-shoe
all

shape by which in

many

places the

mound

surrounded on
is

sides except the front.

In some

districts

the term lung

is

ex-

tended to denote the whole tomb, and this

the word.
(S

also

an old use of

The mound proper

is

known

as the ma-Ue-chih-feng

Ki

horse's

^)' ^^ horse-mane tumiclus, or shortly as ma-lie^ mane, that is, neck. This name dates at least from the
it

middle of the Chou dynasty when

denoted the hatchet-shaped

mound which was then the fashion

Confucius preferred
this

in

some parts
to

of the

kingdom.

kind of tumulus

the various other

kinds, and the all-explaining commentators say that his preference

arose from the fact that the horse-mane

mound
is
still

required more
in use,

labour than any other.

the style of horse-mane

This

name ma-lie

but as

mound has long since passed out of fashion, applied now to the common round tumulus. This, the term is which is now general over most of the empire, is also known in some places by the name fu-ting (g ^), or inverted caldron, because the appearance of the mound is like that of a pot turned The pit or grave proper is called by over to cover something.
various names, such as ch'ih
pit.
(Jj^),

a
in

pond or

lake,

and k^an

(J^), a

The use
of

of the latter

word

this sense dates

from a long
for

time back, and the old ritual in

laying

down the law

the

making
ch'uan

grave

prescribes that chH-k^an-shen-pu-chih-yu'

)5J

{%

^^

^M
It

:^);

^^^ depth of the pit

for the

is

not to

reach to the water.

the grave

Other names

hollow receptacle of

are k'uang

{^) and chin-tou

is

(^ ^),
in

which have
as

been noticed above.

the t'un (or chunyiisi
of obstruction ally
:

also

known,

chiefly

literature,

(^

^),

the enduring night,

is

the darkness
liter-

and

this

phrase

used to denote the tomb,

in front of a

and

figuratively.
of

The space

duly made tomb

and forming part

is

it is

known by

several names, one of which

mu'ch'eng

^), the bank

(or terrace) of the grave.

it

This

is

reserved for religious purposes and

altar

is

often furnished with an

and
the

sacrificial vessels (or imitations of

filial

them) made

of stone.

Here

sons,

and

in

some places the wives and daughters

Termfi Relating to Death

also, at the

and Burial.

317

spring festival spread the cold viands, burn incense,

of their deceased parents,

and worship in honour

and then have

is

a merry feast enjoying the family reunion.

tomb

generally
titles

marked by a stone inscribed with the home, names and

the buried person and with the

of

names

of the relatives
is

who

set

up

the stone &nd the date of so doing.

This stone

called

by

vari-

ous names^ such as mii-jjei

( ^),

the recording tablet of the

It
is

grave, or simply pei, the stone tablet.

{1^), a

also

known

as chie

memorial stone
;

the recording stone

rounded form, and as chih-shi{^ ^), but pei (or mn'pei) is the only term in comof a

mon

use at present.

The

burial places of great scholars and rich

poles or columns of stone.

literary

men

are often

marked by round

These are called

piao

wang-chu (H ^),

pillars of

beholding,
is

or hiia-

(^ ^), elegant indicators, a name which commemorative arches erected at the tombs
chaste

also given to the

of brave
is

men and
taken to

women.

The simple column pointed

at the top

represent a pen, and so to symbolise the honoured profession of

the deceased.
to the

By

an old custom, not yet out of use, the approach

or high official
is

tomb

of a sovereign

often adorned

by

stone figures of various

numbers each

side.

The

history and

probable explanation of this custom have been given by Mr.

Mayers,

to

whose pages the reader

is

referred for information on

the subject.

The

figures are

collectively designated shi^hsiang-

sheng
of

(^g"

men

are distinguished as
as weng-chnng)

^), stone images of living creatures. The statues shi-jen, stone men, but they are

also

known

ff{i),

name which comes from

stature
fierce

the

following old story.

In the service of the famous Ch'in Shi

of great

Huang-Ti was a warrior

and noted prowess.

the sight of

By

his deeds of

mighty strength and

daring he had become

to
fly

a terror to the Hsiung-nu,

who were wont

at

his person or the sound of his voice.

"When
to

this great hero died

the
set

Emperor caused
up outside

huge bronze statue

be

made

of

him and

his palace gate.

When
it

the Hsiung-nu

came and
this

saw the gigantic

rior in person,

figure they thought

fled panic-stricken.

was the invincible war-

and

The name
it

of

hero

was Yuan Weng-chung (f^

(iji),

and from

came the

literary

318

Terms Relating
for the statues,

to

Death and Burial.

name

often of gigantic size, which guard the

approach to a great tomb.-^

Most
burial

of the terms

mentioned above as denoting places

of

indicate only individual sepulchres.

few

like

chung

may

be used in such phrases as i-chung, a public cemetery, and

ts'ung-chung

(^ ^),

crowded tombs,

to denote a collection of

graves or a piece of land set apart for public burial purposes.

Such places are often

noticed),

called euphemistically yuaii, garden (already

and i-ytian

(^ H)

is

a grave-yard

owned and kept up

by
is

for the

burial of the poor by a guild or other corporation or

the government.
;[^),

Another name
in

for a

cemetery

chiu-yuan

{jj\j

which we have seen before

an expression

of

posthumous

existence.

Here we
It

notice

it

in its earlier sense of

tomb or rather
what

place of tombs.
is

was

originally the

name

of a hill near

now Chiang-chow (^ i\\) in Shansi. In the latter part of the Chow period when China was divided into small kingdoms that of Chin () had its capital near this. The Chiu-yuan hill was a
little to

the north of the capital, and

officials

it

was the burial place

kingdom.

of the
'*

great statesmen and high

chi "

of the

In the

Li-

we

find this hill

referred to twice, and on each occasion as

a place of burial.

In one place Chao Wen-tzu, a Chin statesman,

descended from ancestors who had also been statesmen, speaks of

his going

by a natural death
(]() is

to

his

ancestors in

Chiu ching.

Here the word ching

used instead oiyuan, because the two

characters had the same meaning, or by a mistake of a copyist, or

because they were originally alike.

In the other passage the

as

same statesman and a friend are described

kuan-hu- chiu-yuan

A* W^)) contemplating chiu-yuan. This statement is ex(US plained as meaning that they were visiting the tombs of former
statesmen on the above
^

hill,

and the explanation

ii.,

is

borne out by
;

" Li-chi," |^ 72 {^)', L. C. C, in Journal of N. C. B. of v., p. R. A. S., vol. xii., arfc. i.; " Shang-yu-lu," cliap. xv., p. 54; " Wu-hsio-lu," chap, There is some diversity of opinion among the learned as to the origin and xvii. meaning of the pillars to be found at certain tombs. Instead of stone columns wooden poles, painted, red, are occasionally erected. Also in some parts of China sepulchral columns of any kind are scarcely known, while in other districts they seem to be of frequent occurrence. The addition of stone figures of men and animals to tombs seems to be rarely made at present, and the custom is perhaps passing away.
lung'), s.v.,
p.

chap,

" Wu-hsio-lu," chap, xix.; " Feng-su-t'un^" (for chap, iii.; "Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 86; "Yu-hsio," 458 ; " Tso-ohuan," chap, xxxvii., p. 9 Mayers
;

Terms Relating
the context.

to

Death and Burial.

319

This passage

is

quoted in various treatises and someis

times with the substitution of ching for yuan, and the story
referred to a different original.

From

the

name
hill

of the

above

hill

came the use

of chiu-i/uaii, to

denote any

occupied by graves,
the origin of the
to be

and afterwards a cemetery generally.

When

name was

lost 7juan

was supposed by some apparently

used

in this phrase in the sense of spring of water,

and hence perhaps

springs.

arose the other expression chiu-ch'iian {it

^), nine

The word ching But

to

(j^), however,
it

is

also explained as denoting

a confluence of water, and

is

interpreted simply by shui, water.

in the expression chki-ching the of a

word ching

is

by some said
is

have the meaning

It

high mound, and chiu-ching

the Nine
is

Tomb-mounds.

is

probable that the word chin, in this term,

to be taken in the sense of

7nany or several rather than in

suggested that
it

its

proper one of nine.

Some have
earth

has here the

special signification of

and have regarded chiu^yuan as

merely a synonym for huang-chUian.

of the

But
of a

in

any case the use

or cemetery, is

form chiu'chhian, in the sense

as unauthorised.

tomb

condemned

"We may note

in passing that the

expressions chiu-yuan, chiu-ch'uari and their variants generally,

perhaps always suggest the idea of an

at least that the buried

after-life
life

and a

possibility

may

rise

again to

in this world.

They

who do not want

to

look beyond the tomb see in the phrases

nothing more than names for places of interment or aliases for

terms which denote the end of
reached.
life

or

tell

that the end has been

A
it

well-known poet has the striking expression with

reference to a scene revisited

*^

Guests and host are

all

chin yuan'*

(^

i,

Wjy

^^^ ^^^ tombed, dead and gone.

Su Tung-p'o

had a

careless faith
to

and he perhaps meant no more by these

words than

say in respectful classical language ^that his old

acquaintances were under the sod.

But they who dream

of or

believe in life in other states, linked on to that on earth, take the

above phrases as holding the hint of another world, the counterpart of this but

much

better regulated.-^

1 "Li-chi," chap, ii., pp. 76, 79; Gallery's Leki, p. 12; " Li-chi," chap. x. (13 ed.) ; " Ffing-su-t'ung," chap, x.; " Jih-chih-lu," chap, xxxi.; "Han-shu,"

chap, xciv.; Tu-tuan

(^ ^),

p. 6.

320

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

One hears

at a

Chinese funeral

now

only the

ee,

aw

of the
of the

bearers, the harsh noises of the musicians

and the wailing

female mourners.

But

it

was otherwise in very old times when

friends all sang as they accompanied the dead to the grave,

and

the remembrance of this ancient custom

is

kept up by the phrase

wan-ho (J^ ^). This phrase, which now means an

poem, an elegy on the death
of a friend, has
it

"m memoriam^^

an interesting history.

We

are

commonly

told that

arose from the following incident

in the reign of

Han

Kao-tsu:

That sovereign,

in the beginning

of his reign,

summoned

to court T^ien

Prince of Ch'i and a rival of the

Hung (gg ^), who had been Emperor. On receiving the

officers

summons
followers.
capital,

T'ien set off with two of his trusty

and 500

But when he reached a

to

place,

some miles from the

was ne-

he resolved not

lower himself by paying homage to

suicide.
It

his former peer,

and accordingly committed

cessary for his followers to present the body of their chief to the

Emperor, and

as they

brought

it to

the palace, not daring to weep,

they uttered their sorrow in a song.

From

the fact that this song,

which became very popular, was sung

(or

as the

men were

bearing

drawing) a

coffin it

was called wan-ho, the bearers' song, and

this

became a name
of singing or

for

any dirge or funeral chant.

But the
dirges

custom
the

chanting at a funeral existed long before

earliest
still

Han

dynasty,

and the

name
to

for such

was

perhaps o (|g), a

word which
o

survives.

As

the custom died

away the terms

funeral.

and wan-ho ceased

denote songs sung at a

short sad poems,
is frail

The

latter

which mourn a
uncertain in

name was then given to lost friend and tell how life
except that
it

and

short,

all respects,
is

must end

in death

by a law

from which there

no escape.

But

the dirge which

T4en Huug's
is

followers sang remains in Chinese literature and

not likely

ever to perish.

It tells
is

how though

the

dew which

to-night falls
still

on the shallots

quickly dried up by to-morrow's sun, yet

the

dew
so,

will next night fall

on the plants again ; but man's

life is

not

for once

it

goes

it

two words, hsie-lu

(^

comes again no more. Now of this song @), literally " shallot dew," came to be

used as a synonym for ivan-ko, and to this day these words

may

Terms Relatiag
be quoted among literary

to

Death mid Burial.

to

321

men
back

denote an elegiac poem.

The
fune-

word

lei (IJ^)

also points

to a very old time.

It signifies
to a

ratlier a

poem

or prose writing,

which answers somewhat

ral oration as it is

supposed
It has to

to recite the virtues of a

deceased friend
character being
that
it

or acquaintance.

some extent an

official

occasionally part of a state ceremony, and

first

we read

was

granted to shi (^), state professors, in the time of Chuang

(B.C. 692 to 661).^

Kung

We

next take the vocabulary connected with This

is

rites of

mourn-

ing for a deceased relative.

a very large vocabulary, and

at present.

only a very few specimens can be mentioned

Many

of the terms in it are specially interesting, not only to the student

of the

language but also to the explorer of Chinese antiquity.

The

funeral of a Chinese gentleman to-day with the rites and

it

observances by which

is

preceded and followed represent to

some degree the culture

of

3,000 years ago.

At

it

ceremonies

are observed which old custom

had made

into

law

many

cen-

turies before the beginning of our era.

In matters

of detail long

time and altered circumstances have

acts

have

lost their first

meaning.

made But the

changes, and
altered

many

modes have

generally the old names, and the ceremonies which are

now only
word

forms keep the

titles

they owned when they were

is

realities.

One
still

official

term for mourning

chih (-^J), an old

in use.

It denoted originally,

we

are told, to cut

up whether

make a garment, a tree, or a sacrificial victim. Then it came to mean to regulate^ and a law or decree, especially one made by the sovereign. Thus the statement shi-ssu-chih ( j; 5E means '' the inferior officer dies at the command of the ruler,'' ^J)
cloth to

that

is,

he will incur death

It is

in

following out the orders of his

sovereign.

from

this sense of the

word that

its

use to denote
officials

mourning comes,

for the etiquette to be

is

observed by

on

the death of a relative

fixed

by law.
is

Thus the expression /t^

to

{^)-chih^ to submit to regulation,

assume the mourning

appointed by law.
ch^eng-fii (jig
^

This
flR),

is

expressed more fully by tsun-chih-

-^J

JSj;

" to go into mourning according to law."

vii.;

" ChuDg-tiug-weu-hsiian-chi," chap,

"Li-chi," chap,

ii.,

p. 8.

322

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

tzit

The phrases yen {^)-chih and

(]g)

mean

respectively

the

appointed mourning for a father and for a mother.

generally have chih added at the top of the

Officials

name on

their visit-

ing cards during the period ot retirement on account of the death

of a parent.^

general term for

mourning
of
to

is

fii

(JK)j

^^^

^^^

word

which has a great variety

attached to
or

meanings.

Among
to,

these are to be
clothing.

dependent^
is

submit

and

The
latter,

dress of daily life

called chi {^)-fit, or good fortune clothing,

when
and

it

is

distinguished

from hsiung
dress, is

{\^)-fu.

This

which means bad unlucky

specially

used to denote mourning

parent.

that

for

deceased

Confucius,
so

we

are told, riding in his

waggon and meeting any one

attired

bowed

his

meaning
the dire
to

of

also fu has this mourning costume, and ch'cng {j^-fi^ is to assume garb on the third day after a death, and generally
to

head

the cvoss-bar.

By

itself

put on mourning

attire,

and yu {^)'fu

is

to

he in
is

mourning.

Again the expression hco-fu

(P

flg),

which

used on the

death of a sovereign, means national mourning.

are the wu-fu, the five degrees of

Then
as

there

mourning representing
territory over

many
fu
or

degrees of kinship.

In old times the

which the

sovereign of China claimed to rule was divided into five

dependencies as we

may

call

them.

Of these the

first

and centre
to

one was held under the sovereign immediately, the one next
it

was held by

chiefs

who

received their lands from the sovereign,

to a

and those beyond held by a slighter tenure as they receded

greater distance

from the place

of

the sovereign.

Something

analogous

to this is seen in the five-fold classification of to designate the degrees

mourning

which

is

used in the Courts

of kinship

among relations having the same surname.^ The first of the five, used by a son for
cJicm-ts'iii ((If

parent,

is

called
cha7i

^)

or

^)

or simply

chan or

tshci.

The word

here means unhemmed, and

ts'ui is properly the piece of coarse

it is

hemp-cloth which makes part of the costume, but

1

commonly
i.,

"

Shuo-weu," chap,
i.,

xii.,

p.

13

L.C.C.,

iv., p.

235

" Li-chi," chap,

p. 41.

L. C. C,

p.

100

and " Lun-yii," chap,

x., p. 30.

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial,

323
This

used for the whole of the outer robe worn at funerals.

term chan-ts'id

is

found in the old ceremonial writings,

it

and the

formalities which

includes

now

are

much

the same as they were

when

those works were composed.

those

By

who had

to

keep the chan-ts'ui mourning in old

times the hair was set free and then fastened up loosely in a
coarse net by a large hair-pin as part of the mourning.

This

rite

was called chua-fa

(^

^), and
to

it

is

still

performed by women.
to

The term, however, came

{^yfa,
to
to

be appropriated

women, and kua

in

bind the hair with a band* of coarse hemp-cloth came

be reserved for men.

This expression
of

is still

common

use

though since the introduction

the queue the formality has

become hard

to observe.

For the mourning cap

of

the
are

man
in

observing cJian-tsHd and

for the parts of the cap there

various names.

The cap

is

of

the kind called kuan (^), and is or 1300 years B. 0. Commonly

fashion like that

worn 1200
a

it

consists of a circlet with

band crossing over the head and a

is

string.

In some places there

of the

also

a cap

proper with

hood covering the back

is

head and the neck.

The general name

its

sang-kuan or cap of

mourning, as in the old rule sang-kuan-pu-sui

the mourning cap has no tassels to
crosses the
string.

(^

^ ^ |^),
(i^ or ^).

head

is

called technically

a bridge

liang

The band which

Before the time of the Chou dynasty this band in caps for ordinary wear was a strip of cloth in three folds lengthwise.
the
in

During

Chou period the folds were made across and were indefinite number, the mourning cap retaining " the bridge '' apparently.
earlier style is
still to

The

be seen in the mourning cap which

is

hence called the san-liang-kuan, the " three-bridge cap."

The

band over the head

pi-chi

is

also still called

by another old name san-

(H
is

^ ^)^

^^^^

three-fold plaiting.

the head

technically called by the old

The circlet round name wii (Jg), and in

common speech huan, a circle. In the tufts of cotton at the ears we may perhaps see a memory of the Hen (Jj) or ear-ornaments which adorned the cap in and before the Chou period. The
tufts of cotton are called

mien-Jui or mien-t'uan

(^^g

g org), and

324

Terms Relating

to

Death and Burial.

they are used one for each parent according to rule, but the rule

seems

to

vary in different

districts.

We
coarsest

come next

to the

mourning
called

robe,

which

is

made

of the

hemp- cloth and hence

ma-i or ma-san

(Jft

or

;^^),

the

hemp garment.
fu-^an {^^

The

skirt of this is

uuhemmed and the seams

'*

are turned outwards.

called
JS).

On

the back

is

a square piece of sack cloth

This term means literally

the record-

tablet borne on the back,"

and the cloth

is

inscribed with the

name
is

and other particulars

of the deceased.

similar piece of cloth,

coarse and ragged, extends from the throat to the heart.

This
as
if

the ts'ui properly so called,

say some, and

of the grief

it is

so

named

ts'ui

(fSi because
er's heart.
fillet

it is

symbol
tie

which oppresses the mourn-

The word

(g)

in old literature is used for the

worn by the mourner round

which he was bound.

his

head and
ts'ui-tie

for the

hempen
be used
is

girdle with
for

Hence
and

came

to

all the trappings of woe,

li-ts'ui-tie

(g

^ S)

to

manage the mourning arrangements. Then there are the mourning sandals which

are called chien-

These sandals, ts'ao-li {'^ 1$, ^), sandals of the chien grass. which are now made of rice-straw or auy coarse dry grass, are
also called ts'ao-hsie (]^

^), grass

slippers,

or fei (|p),

an old

term with a similar meaning, or pao-chil

with a like signification.

(^ jg),

another old term

The last of the outward signs of which we have to notice is the stick or
often deposited at the grave.
at

the chan-ts'ui mourning

baton.

This

is

borne by
is

the eldest son or other representative of the deceased and

now
and

In the Chou period the

staff

borne

the funeral of a father was called chii-chang

( J[ j^),

that borne at the funeral of a mother was called hsiao {'^\)-chang.

But

this distinction is not

much observed now, and

staff of

chii-c/iang is

a general name.
of weeping,

The
ai

staff is called also

k'u {%)-Ghangf the staff

sorrow.
It is also

and

{"^ychang, the

known
or

as the hsiao
filial

{^ychang,
It
is

in

Foochow ha
paper.

or {ha-ch^iytiongy

the staff of

piety.

now

usually a small piece of stick

Originally
it

bamboo pasted over with white

was a

real staff

ou which the sou exhausted by three

day;s' fasting

and

Terms Relating
mourning leaned
to

to

Death and Burial.

325

support himself at the funeral solemnities.

The

ts'ui-tie-chU'Chang controlled the expression of grief otheroff

wise violent and at the same time set

sorrow to advantage.

Now

the staff or baton

is

only a survival and a symbol which

does not symbolise anything.

The second degree

of

mourning

is

that

called It
is

tzii-ts'ui

(^
as

^),

or even, that

is,

hemmed mourning coat.

This again
is

also

known
it is

hsi {^)-ts'ui to

denote that the hemp-cloth of which

made has been

or degrees.

calendered.
is

divided into four classes

There

the chang-ch'i''{-^

^)

or

^^

staff

year"

in

which a
is

staff is

kept and the mourning

lasts for

one year.

There

the piL-cha7iy-ch'i or year's mourning without the use of the

staff.

Then

there

is

the wu-yue-tzu'ts'id or five

is

months' deep

mourning; and the fourth

deep mourning.

the san-yue'tzu-tshii or three months'

The
merit.

third of the wu-fit

This

name

is

is that called ta-kung [i^'Sf)^^ great explained as meaning coarse work, the is made being coarse and But the explanation is not

material of which the mourning robe

the

robe

made with
and
is

little

art.

satisfactory

perhaps wrong.
of
is

For the fourth degree

mourning the name

said by

is

hsiao

(>J>)-

hung
work
"silk

or little merit.
is fine

This

some

to

mean

that the

and the material good.

degree
is

The
material,

fifth

that

thread hemp."

known as ssu-ma (|jg f^), literally The robe is made of properly woven
is

and the mourning

only for three months, the length

of a season.

There
recognised

is

also a four-fold classification of

mourning which
First

is

all

over the empire by law and custom.

flg),

we

have the cheng-fu {] there is no departure.

the strictly legal mourning from which

is

There

the

{^)-fu, or mourning which

becomes due or right by circumstances.

Then
This
is

there

is

the

chia

{ijuyfu

or

"added mourning."

required in cases where peculiar ceremonies have to be

performed by an individual.
superintend the services
to his

Thus

if

the eldest grandson has to

gruud-futher he observes the three

326
years'
is

Terms Belating
mourning and not that

to

Death and Burial.

for only one year.

The
all

fourth class

that called hsiang (|^)-/it

or " diminished mourning."

This

is

a term of

common

occurrence,

and

is

used in

cases

where

circumstances have lessened attachment.

is

Thus

a married daughter

severed from her

own

family, and so on the death of her father

or mother she observes the hsiang-fu or diminished

mourning

for

one year.

An
has the

expression which shows that the mourning for a parent

first

place

in

a Chinaman's

thoughts
is

is

ch'uan-hsiao

(^ ^),

to

wear
for

filial

piety.

The phrase
it

properly used only of

to

mourning
generally.

a parent,

but

is

also

extended

mourning

A peculiar
a shoulder

phrase in

common

use

is

tan-wen

(:JJ.

^),

to bare

and bind the hair with a band

of

white

cloth.

Mourning

of this kind denotes a distant relative or only a friend.

is

The arm

not bared

days of the Chou dynasty.

now but the white band is worn as in the Then we have sang (^), a character
in
is

which has been noticed with other meanings, used commonly

the senses of to

mourn and mourning.

and
to of

Thus used the word

be

said to be in the p'ing-sheng,

for this reason

and because the

to
lost,

character
present

is

made up

u,

weep, and wang,

the

may

be regarded as the
a parent of a

first

meaning

of the word.-^

When

man

in office dies the

law and

social

feeling require that the son resign office

and go home.

He

then

remains in seclusion for twenty-seven months, nominally three

years,

and the technical term

for this is ting-yn ('J'

g).

Here

ting

is

said to be for tang (@),

to

and the phrase

is

interpreted as

meaning "

be in sorrow."
to

The

expressions ting-fu-yu and

office

ting-mu-yu are

be in retirement from

on account of the

death of a father and a mother respectively.

ting-chien
to ("J* ||g),
*'

A similar expression is
for a deceased parent.
for a father,

be in distress, that

is,

Wai

(^y)-chien,

external distress,"

is
is

mourning

and nei {^)-chien,

1

"home
clxvi.
;

distress,"

mourning

for

a mother.

'^ Hi #, chaps, i. and vi.; " Li-puii.; " Yu-hsio." chap, iii.; " Li-clii," chap, ii., p. 1 " Tso-chuan," vi., p. 35, (fee; " Hsiao-ching," chap. ix. (13) ; L.C.C., v., p. 475 and chap, xxviii.j " I-li," cliap. xxviii. (13) ; " Liao-chai," &c., chaps, ii, vi.
" Ta-chMng-lii-li-hui-chi," chap,
tse-li"

(H

flij

M)* chap,

Terms Relating
It

to

Death and Burial.

327
to

would be easy

to

produce

many more

terms used

denote

or describe the inward sorrow

and the outward mourning

of a son

or daughter for a parent or of a wife for her husband.

But

this

chapter has

ah'eady exceeded

its

proper bounds, and the rest

of the

must be

left untold.

So

also

no mention can be made here

numerous and
honoured.
terms in

interesting words

and phrases used

in designating

the rites and ceremonies of worship with which the dead are
It

would

fill

a moderate sized volume to give the

Chinese connected with dying, and death, and burial,

and posthumous treatment.

In

thi&-

chapter there are doubtless

many

omissions to be observed, and

many

explanations

may

be

regarded as bad or doubtful.

for himself

But

the reader will be able to form

from what has been given here combined with what

to

he knows

have been

left

out of sight an estimate as to the

extent of the Chinese vocabulary in this one department.

CHAPTER

VII.

FOREIGN WORDS IN CHINESE.

The
cabulary.

next subject to be considered in our studies in the

is

Chinese language

the existence of foreign elements in

its

vo-

It has been often said, and the statement

may

be

accepted, that the

number

of

words in

this

language which are

not native

is

very fimall in proportion to those which are native.

confines his reading

Indeed
to

if

the student of Chinese literature

such books as treat only of Confucianism, Taoism and other

matters which are peculiar to the country he

foreign expressions.

may

find

few or no

But on the other hand he cannot read the

great poets nor study the books of history, geography and the

natural sciences without meeting here and there with words and

phrases which are not native.

It is true,

as Schott has pointed

out, that these foreign terms are chiefly of a technical character

and that generally they are described as any means uncommon

to

foreign.^

But

is

not by a
to

find

Chinese author introduce

"barbarian" phrase in native disguise and without any hint

the reader that
it

is

other than native.

practice

The

poets especially

seem

to indulge

in this

and

to think it is within the

tells
it is

scope of their licence.

And

even when an author

us that

a word he uses

is

taken from a particular language

seldom
is

that he has been at pains to learn whether his statement

rect.

cor-

Nor

is it

usually in his power to do this,

the needful inform-

ation not being accessible.

In the ordinary orthodox literature

all

until a comparatively modern period

tion

ethnographical distribu-

was

of

a character simple and comprehensive but vague

It

and

fanciful.

was based on the old teachings

of the canonical

In the Middle scriptures which none had called in question. " " Kingdom lived the people blessed with the arts of civilisation and inheritors of high wisdom handed down without interruption
from immemorial antiquity.
*

Outside the
2.

hills

and streams which

Chinesische Spraohlehre. S.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

329
" barbarian "
to

marked
tribes.

their boundaries lived four large groups of

Those on the East were called

I,

the

men who knew

draw long bows.

nature

They painted

themselves, wore their hair as

to

made

it,

and did not always wait

have their food cooked.

tattooed the

On

the South were the

Man, who were bandy-legged,

forehead, and did not shrink from the uncooked.

To the West were

the Jung, with hair unkempt, clothed with skins, and not always

having grain for food.

On

the North were those called Ti,

who

wore hair and feathers for clothing, lived in caves, and did not

depend on grain

for their food.

This^was the distribution of man-

kind recognised in the period

still

of the

Chou

dynasty.

It

is

probably

accepted as sufficiently accurate by some Confucianists

who do

not

know

the present and rate too high the teachings of antiquity.

of time,

In the course

however, extended intercourse led to

the knowledge of other tribes and regions.

The names

of

these,

whether native or foreign, came gradually into use among the

Chinese.
of the
tries

Some

of

them were taken

into

the language as parts

names

of certain foreign

commodities to indicate the coun-

from which these originated.

Such a term

is

hu
It

(iSg),

which
at first

has long been in use as a

common Chinese

word.

was

used vaguely as the designation of any tribe to the

proper, including Turks, Tartars, Indians

West

of

China

and Persians. But from

the seventh century of our era

its

application has been restricted

nomad tribes between China and India.^ It became nearly a synonym for Mongol, while India and the countries adjacent became the hsi-yii or West Lands. But the old use of hu survives in the names of several products Thus we have onions from derived from various countries.
by learned and careful writers
to the

Kashgar
called

called

Hu

onions

hu-ts^ung, and pepper from ladia

hu'chiao.

to foreign flax

and

The term hu-may Hu hemp, is loosely applied The cucumber has as one of its to sesamun.
carrot
is

names hu-kua^ and the

Iiu-lo-po, the

Hu

turnip.
to

As new
to

countries yielding

new products became known

of
i.

the Chinese these added to their vocabulary by occasionally giving

new commodities
^

the

names
chap.

the regions from which they

P ^ H Fan-yi-ming-i,

330
were obtained.

Foreign

Words

in Chinese.

Thus benzoin was brought from the country

it

named
to

An-hsi, and so

got the

name

an^ksi-hsiang

(^

,g,

ff ),

the fragrant substance from An-hsi (Parthia), and this continues

be the designation of

all

benzoin, no matter whence derived.

its

Another country which gave

often indicate merely a
extent.

name

to several articles

of

com-

merce was that known as P^o-ssu, a term by which Chinese writers

Western land

of

vague situation and

Of examples

in later times only

two need be mentioned.

at

The kingdom
plied

of

Chiam-pi

(part of

Cambodia)

one time sup-

a portion of China with upland rice of a very excellent

quality and with " water-rice " also better than that grown in

China.

The people
tIv),

of

South Fuhkien called

rice.

this

foreign rice

chien-ahi (i5
is
still

Chiampi

And

this

term or simply chien-a

used in some districts of Fuhkien to designate rice of a

peculiarly good quality.

But the

origin

of

the

history have been lost from the memories of the people

it.

name and its who use

Dutch
to
is

The

other instance to be given

^0-

is

the use of the word ho-lan the

first

(^
the

^^^^ ^^s ^^^

to

name by which
latter

became known

the Chinese, but the

came

extend
called

name
it

to
is

Europeans generally.

Thus sodawater

wherever
also

known

in

China ho'lan-sliui or Dutch water.

is

So

one name for the potato

districts at least

ho-lan-shu, the

Dutch tuber; and

as /lO'lan-toUj

in

some

European peas are known

Dutch

peas.
of

In the history

China we seem

to

have three chief periods

which are marked by a great increase in her active relations with

foreigners.

These may be distinguished as the periods

dynasties.

of the

Han, T*ang and present

and other
their
tribes

In the

first

the empire had

almost constant dealings of

war

or peace with

the
also

Hiung-nu
extended
the

on

its

frontiers.

The Chinese

intercourse and influence to the lands about India,

restless

hordes on the North, and the rich lands beyond the Ling-

nam.

During the T^ang period the Chinese became well acquaint-

ed with India and the countries beyond, and also with the Ma-

hometans from the South and West.

And now the

present dynasty

Foreign Words in Chinese.

Las seen
all

331

the great nations of Europe coming to ask for trade

and
also

treaties

and

for the privilege of living in China.

to foreign lands

Her

subjects

have travelled

and mixed largely with the

tell of

" Ocean men/'

They have read books which

and
artificial products,

the arts and

sciences, the natural

and the languages and

religions of all countries.

Some

of

them have even compiled

such books or otherwise described the foreign lands and peoples

with which they became personally acquainted.

Reserving the consideration of Indian words in Chinese for

the next Chapter I

now give some examples

of foreign other

than

Indian terms

to

be found in the spoken or written language. do not belong in an equal degree to

The examples
what
is

to be given

properly the language of China.

Some

of them, it will be

observed, have been for a long time treated not as aliens but as
citizens,

while others are at most only tolerated as recent squat-

ters

from abroad.

Some, moreover, are recognised as current

districts, or

only in one part of the empire, or in certain

peculiar classes and societies.
It

among

must

also be

admitted that the

foreign words in Chinese, brought together here, are only examples,

only

occasional

specimens picked up by the way.

They

are

not discoveries reached by patient study and critical research

directed to that end, but merely findings in the desultory reading
of

an indolent amateur.

Honouring, as
Greece and
surprise us,

is

meet,

the classical languages of ancient

It cannot

Rome we
however,

begin our circuit with them.

to to

find

that very few

their

expressions
into

from

these

languages seem

have found

way

Chinese.

Even the names of the countries seem to have been scarcely known in the Midlde Kingdom until a comparatively modern
period.

Among

the specially educated native scholars

least the

wo

find a

few who know at

name Latin.

This word

is

transcribed

la-t'i-na (Ji fl Jfl) and Za-^''i-7io (Pjj iiff ), and it occurs now and then in the writings of scholars who profess to describe European

countries.

It
find,

is

used to designate our Western letters and writing.

We

however, certain terms, even in a comparatively

early period of the Chinese language, which

seem

to

have at

least


Foreign Words in Chinese.
origin

332
a

common

with their equivalents in Greek and Latin.

Let us take as an example the

common name

for the turnip

lo-

po
all

(^ ^).
known by

In China the
this

beet, carrot

and other vegetables are

name with
of

certain defining adjectives prefixed.

There are several ways

pronunciation
dialect
is

writing the word, but the

correct

said to be something like lo-pOj in the

It is given
in

Canton
in the
is

loh-pdk.

the

'*Shuo-wen" and

^*Urh-ya," the latter having the form lo-pu

hint that the word
to
is

{^

"^"g).

There

no

not native, but

it

has a suspicious resemblance

Eapa and
'^

the kindred terms in Latin and Greek.

The " Penof lo-pia,

ts^ao

and other books give several terms as synonyms

is

an

old one being t'u (^), which

given in the

'^

Urh-ya."

But

lo-po

was the name used

in Ch'in, the state

which became predominant.^

Then there is a well-known drug which has long been in use among the Chinese and which is said to have been derived from Its name is lu-hui, written Persia or some other foreign country.

^ 'J,
of

and these characters in

this

combination cannot be said to

identified as the product

have any meaning.

an
aloe,

The drug has been

is

and

it

perhaps possible that lu-hui

This, however,
is

may

stand for

the Greek word aloe.

merely a conjecture,

and the correct explanation may be found hereafter.

One

of the

many good

results of the

Western learning which

Latin word
still

the old Jesuit missionaries taught the Chinese was that the latter

learned to

make maps.

They

also

adopted the

mappa, which they transcribe ma-pa (JJ /\), and they occasionally to distinguish a map from a native plan or
Let us pass on
to take

use

it

chart.

note of some of the expressions which

have passed or are passing

It is

into Chinese

from European languages.

only within a comparatively late period that the Chinese

really acquainted with the nations of
political relations

have become
America.

Europe and
which have
of great im-

But the commercial and

resulted from this acquaintance have already

become

portance, and China has wisely begun to supply her deficiencies by

importing from the West.

This

is

true not only of the material,

natural and mechanical, products but also of culture and science.

1

" Urh-ya," chap,

xiv.;

" Pen-fcs'ao," chap. xxvi.

Foreign

Words

in Chinese.

333

SPANISH.

The Spanish and Portuguese were among the earliest Eurowith whom the Chinese became acquainted. But though the Portuguese have long been living among the Chinese and been much mixed up with the people of the Canton province we do not find many Portuguese words even in the diapean foreigners
lect

of that province.

There

are,

apparently, none whatever,

or at least very few

in the other dialects or in

Mandarin.

But

from or through the Spanish certain foreign terms have come or

are coming into general use
or in literature.

among

the Chinese, either in speech

It is not strange to find the

word Padre, comdistricts

mon

to

Spanish and Portuguese, adopted in some

for the

of

China

as the title of address

Dominican and other misIt

is

sionaries of the

Roman

Catholic Church.

pronounced

prt-Zj

or pa-lei,

and

is

written generally, but not always, f^ Jj.

These
as,

characters were evidently selected

by native
this

Christians,
it

al-

though the combination

is

perhaps meaningless,

suggests some-

thing good and respectful.

From

word comes the expression

pa-li-yuan {^), Padre's Hall, one of the names for a Christian

place of worship.

The
husked

cochineal of commerce
(Pj-

is

known

in

China by the name

last

ya-lan-mi

H
last

tK).

Of these characters the

(or

denotes

rice,

and ya-lan

ga-lan)
is

represent a foreign

word.
for co-

They
which

are probably for grana, which

the Spanish
is

name

chineal.
is

This

word, as
a

is

well known,

derived from coccicm,

originally

grain or

berry and then the

name

for
is

the insect from which the material for the dark

purple dye

obtained.

known

in

The carmine obtained from the cochineal insect is also China by its Spanish name carmin, which becomes

hia-erh-min

(J

3J |^).

It

is

from the Spanish language

is

also

that the word cigar (cigarro) has passed or

passing into Chinese.

The word
chia
;

is

usually pronounced ssil-ka and written j; Jp shih-

and

it is

used with or without the addition of

ijen (tobacco).

Cocoa and chocolate also have been made known

recent intercourse with

to the

Chinese by

Western

nations.

The former commodity,

and

the cacao of Mexico,

is

in Chinese pronunciation ko-ko (;j^ ;(g

334

Foreign Words in Chinese.

other transcriptions).

The

berries are called

ko-ko-tza {^^) or

was probably through the English and not from the Spaniards immediately that the Chinese got the word chocococoa seeds.
It
late,

which they pronounce chih-ku-la and write

j;^

"^ |^ and

otherwise.

From Western
its

doctors the Chinese have, moreover, in

late years learned the virtues of quinine,

of the

and with the introduction

medicine came

Spanish name quinquina. The recognised

characters for this word are

^ i| ^^ chin-chi-na^ that
first

is,

Idn-ki-

na, said by Dr. F. P. Smith to have been

used by Dr. Hobson.

For the sulphate

of

quinine, as sold

by

druggists, the

common
denotes

name

is

Idn-hi-na'shuang or sun (^).

This

last character

hoar-frost,

and has reference

the

to the

white flakes of the medicine.

Neither

Dutch nor the Germans have supplied the

Chinese with new words or expressions of any importance.

The

Germans, however, have given

to

at least one

word which deserves

be noticed.

Within the
maker.

last

few years the well-known Krupp

call

cannon have become popular with the Chinese, who

them

by the name
lii'pu,

of the

This they pronounce ko-lup or k'o-

writing the word in two or three different ways.

Of these
has
official

ffi

^'o'lu-jju is perhaps the

most common and

is

it

sanction.

It

would seem that there

some

risk of

Krupp

before

long ceasing to be for the Chinese a proper

name and becoming

synonym

for

p'ao or cannon.
the Chinese a few words but
of

The French language has given

they are of rare occurrence.

Being

technical character,

moreover, they are used only

among

natives

who have

intercourse

with Europeans. One of these words is metre, which the Chinese square have adopted to some extent calling it mi-t'u {^^ ^).

metre

is

''

fang-mi-t^u," fang being the native word for square.

Of French money a frank is known and designated by its name These characters have been which becomes fo-lang (\% %).
well selected, for they are often used in writing to express the

word France.

The Chinese name

or

for

enamel

is

fa4an

(or lang),

written fj J^, and this is apparently, as is commonly But there seems to be some doubt supposed, the word Frank.

^^

as to the identification.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

ENGLISH.

335

Of
barians "

all

the

peoples

whom

they designate "Western bar-

the Chinese have always regarded the English as the

for gain

most self-asserting and intractable, the most eager most reckless

in
its

and the

pursuit.

But

as there has been for

many
of

years a large and valuable trading intercourse

between China

and England, by

this

means and by the continued migration

Chinese to English possessions the two nations have been brought

gradually into intimate relations and a better mutual understanding.

Moreover, the English has

beco*h3e, to

some extent

at least,

the commercial language of a large portion of the East.

at the open

And

so

ports and in the surrounding districts the Chinese

to use a large

have learned

number

of

English words and phrases.

to find,

These are generally, as one would expect

names

of

com-

modities and other terms of commercial intercourse.

The Chinese
of

have

also

books compiled by native linguists for the instruction of

their fellow-nationals in the English language.

These books are

various degrees of merit, and some are merely pronouncing vocabularies,

are,

while others aim at teaching

grammar
to

also.

They

however, of a very practical character generally, and the use

be on the in-

of

them among aspiring young Chinese seems

crease.

But they

are neither full nor correct, and they are for

the most part badly arranged.

The compilers

of

these guides
to

and vocabularies, moreover, are never

at pains

distinguish
to

between English words and phrases and those which belong

other languages.

Hence and by reason

of the great intercourse

which
the
to

exists

between English-speaking peoples and the Chinese

latter

learn

from the former many terms which belong

other languages.

Such words often keep the English pro-

nunciation and are to the Chinese English rather than Spanish

or

Malay

or whatever

may

be their proper language.

of the

In taking notice

of

some

words adopted by the Chinese

from the English language we may begin with the old and famiThe earliest form in which this term was liar " Company."
transcribed
is

perhaps kan-pa-ni
of

g*
(

2*

JSt))

^^

Cantonese hum-

pa-ni.

But the way

writing the

word which was formerly


336
the best
yn.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

known and

the most used was kung-pan-wei or kung-'pan-

(S

$IBE

or

^),

In

this as in several other cases the

Chinese

adopted a foreign expression for which they had a native equivalent,

'^Company" being explained

"gl),

as another

name

for

kung-ssu
native

(2^

which

denotes a mercantile association.

*'

The

designation alone has in this case survived,

Company

" having

ceased to be used by the Chinese.

But

traces or rather frag-

ments

of it still

remain not only in books but also in the common

characters for kimg-pan-wei were used to denote

language.
as well the

The

Netherlands as the English East India Company,

the

first

and greatest Companies with which the Chinese became

intimately acquainted.

When

used without any qualifying word

these characters denoted only the English East India

Company.

Now certain commodities imported by this Company

by the Chinese
eign merchants.
to use the

were regarded

as

much

better than like articles sold by other for-

Hence

a native dealor in foreign wares

as

was wont

word Company
it

an epithet

of his

goods when he wished

to

make

known
to

that these were of the best quality.

But the
or

three characters in

which the word was transcribed were tedious

and awkward

write,

and

so it

came that only one

two

of

them

at

most were retained in common business.

Thus we

find

pan-pu

^), Company's cloth, to denote the best calico; kung-pan (or more usually kung only) with t'u or yen added (^

(^

or

^ ^ i or
is
^'

jtH)

for the best

opium, and kung-t'u in

this sense

is still in

common

use throughout the empire.

in recent

Another mercantile term which the Chinese adopted

times
insure."

With
is

the Cantonese merchants this word

becomes in-shoh and

Lately, however, a

written

/fct

and in several other ways.

pao-an

new duced and been made to

the English term
of use.
is

native phrase
translate
''

has been
in

intro-

insure,"
is

and

consequence

not widely

known and

perhaps passing out

to

Again the Chinese have a native term corresponding

our word " cheque," but the Cantonese

ers
it

who

dealt

with foreign-

found

it

expedient to use the English name.

it gl])

They pronounce
like ngan-chik
is,

cMk

(writing

and make hybrid expressions

yat-chiong-chik, that

(^

JlJ),

money cheque, and

one cheque.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

337
has been

A
seems
to

word which, though uot

specially
is

English,

derived by the

Chinese from the English

Consul.
it

This word

he passing into the language, and

will

perhaps soon
official

lose its foreign character.

In the Treaties and other

documents the Consul

is

designated by the absurd Chinese ex-

pression ling'shih'hiian.
foreign term

But the Cantonese

it

wisely learned the

and made

their own.

They say and write kong^

The latter is the favourite way of writing Jl E)the word, and the Chinese are fain to read a meaning into it, the
sun

(^

<^^'

phrase " River Minister

Consul's
office.

'^

seeming

to indicate the character of

So well known and

so

common
is

is

this

name

kong-sun among those who have intercourse with foreigners that

the
first

syllable is often dropt.

to

The Consul

thus cut down,

as usual, and reduced

a syllable sun (E).

This use of the

one character instead of the whole word sometimes causes no

little

embarrassment

to the uninitiated.
to a less extent,

English weights and measures and,

English

money, have been made known

to the

Chinese by foreign trade,

and in some cases their names have been received into the
Chinese language.
or p^ong, or
as the

Thus the word "

pound,'' pronounced p'ang

is

pcng and written

of a weight.
is

^ or ^ usually,
it

well

known
in

name

But

also acquires a

new meaning

Chinese and
of weighing,

used to denote not only a pound but also the act

and a weight simply.

chants and other native traders

Hence the Chinese tea-mercommonly express the act of

weighing by kuo-j^^ang (Jg ^), to pass the pound, to put through Sometimes we even find the single the process of weighing.

word p'ang used

to

in this sense,

as in the Cantonese p'ong-fOf

weigh

(literally, to pound)

the goods.

When the

Chinese have

to express a

pound

sterling they

weight and write them as above.

as little is

known

of

also use the words for a pound But this use of the word is rare, English money among the people of China.

We

find

it,

however, in the native newspapers and in books which

treat of English affairs.

In

like

manner we meet

occasionally

with the denominations of the smaller sums, shilling and penny.

The former

is

properly expressed by hsi-lin (:g ;^), but

it is

now

338

Foreign Words in Chinese.

{i.e.,

written by business people generally hien-ling

sin-lin

For the word penny the transcription

but this
is little

is

pen^iiei

($

^ ^).
^),

for

used.

On

the other hand the plural form pencGy

is

which becomes pien-shi

(^ i)

well

known

to

those Chinese

who have

business dealings with English merchants.

to

Going back
addition to the

the weights and measures

for

we observe

that in

name

pound

the Chinese use also that for ton.

tiln

This they pronounce and write

(B^^

or i^

or otherwise).

The

port charges,

known

as tonnage dues, were originally called

ch^uan-ch'ao or ship-money, but they are

now commonly
not, however,
it

called

tun-ch^ao {\^
sha, or on-sa

fj^) or ton-money.

The word ounce becomes anIt

is

(^

fp) in Cantonese.

much
of

used except in places like Hongkong, though

occasionally in written

may

be found

and printed documents.

J^) and the

Of names

English measures foot and inch seem to be the best known.

The

former becomes /i^-i^i^

(jig

leLtter

yin-chih

{\Si

M)

but beside these, which are the recognised transcriptions, there

are several other
people.

ways

of writing the

words

in

use

among

the

In books and documents which

find the characters

treat of English matters

mai-lu (j ^). These represent the word mile, but they were probably chosen to do so
because they seemed to contain a meaning something like
long road or journey.'*
^'

we sometimes

The Chinese seem

to like the

word dozen,

common in )f^ who have dealings with Western peoples, but it is not common in books. Among the native shop-keepers and tradesmen generally the term is now so
which they pronounce ta-sun and write
the talk and correspondence of those

g.

It is

familiar that the second part of

writing.

it is

often dropt both in talk and

like san-

Thus such people use commonly expressions

'i^^U'ta
(

ta

(2

^)}

dozen.

five JL :h)} The English word quarter has also been adopted by the

meaning respectively three and

Chinese, but in a mutilated form.

It

is

heard as ko or hok or
as
glj

huat and
latter

is written in various

ways (such

and ^).

The
used

way

of writing

seems

to prevail

at present

and

it

is

for a quarter of

an hour or a quarter of a
its

dollar.

It has also,

perhaps from a remembrance of

proper meaning, come to be

Foreign Words in Chinese.

339

somewhat
or the

incorrectly applied as a designation of a ten-cent coin

sum

of ten cents.

Thus expressions
It

like

yang-wu-kok

iW

3l

ft) ^^^^

^s, fifty cents,

are of daily occurrence in market

is

quotations and similar documents.

that, while the

somewhat remarkable
foreign name.

Chinese generally have only a native name for

its

the dollar, they always call the cent by

This

they generally use in

ife

its

plural form, saying sen-ssil and writing

i (or
is

Ht)-

There

are,

however, several other ways of writing

find only

the word, and sometimes

we

the syllable sen

or sin

used to denote a cent or cents.

alone

It is written

^,

and

this character

occasionally employed to stand for the

word

shilling.

Many
to

miscellaneous terms and phrases, chiefly such as relate

commercial intercourse, have passed or are passing from

English into Chinese.

examples.
the Chinese

Of these we may now take note of a few as

was brought
it,

When

flannel

to

China by the English

had no name

for
it,

and, though they have since

made

native phrases to denote

many

prefer to use the foreign name.

This

is

generally shortened to fo or fu-lan (1^ p^), and in this

is

shortened form the word

cuously.

used as substantive or adjective promispins,

The Chinese have no native

and when the English

brought pins the Chinese in

many

places took the

(pp),

name with
this

the

commodity.
in

They

call it'p'in or

pin

and they use

of

word

making compounds.

Thus the people

the
is

Amoy

district

call a

pin-cushion a chiam-pin, in which chiam

native and pin

foreign.

The name

rifle

has been naturalised and taken the

form lai-fu
is

(^

^ or ^ or jg).
chHang
it

A musket
(|t),

or

gun

of

any kind
Chinese

in the native speech a

and using

this the
rifle.

form the mixed compound

have
also

lai-fii-ch'iang to denote a

They

found

convenient to adopt to some extent the word ball,

it

which they pronounce po ovp'o, writing

it

jg^

or gj.

They apply

not only to

rifle

and cannon

balls,

but also to those used in

rackets and billiards and perhaps to those given at country clubs.

Among
ma-yu

the imports into China

we

find one set

down
is

as

pa-

(V^ Rg f^).

This

name

is

loosely applied to various resinous

substances, including tar and

dammar.

The pa-ma

perhaps a

contraction for pa-erh-sa-ma

(E

RS) or

balsam; and pa-

340

Foreign Words in Chinese.

is,

erh'Sa-ma-yu, that
articles of tribute

perhaps,

oil of

balsam figures as one

of the

brought by the people of the Western Ocean.

In some
a gig
is

of

the seaport districts of South China the boat called

known among certain classes of natives by its English name. The character used to express this word is 5> which in the Swatow and Amoy dialects has a sound like gig {ngig or gek).
In mandarin the
denotes a fair
i^hv&.se yil-jen

{^

\),

literally

"jade man/'

charmer, a lovely nymph, mortal or immortal and

moral or immoral.

But

in

the

Swatow
to

dialect these characters

are pronounced gek-lang and are used

pulls in a gig.

designate a coolie

who

And
reading

the Consul

who found

the characters in a
called

petition

and,

them
it

yu-jen,

had the petitioner

before
title
Jg^),

him

experienced,

is

said, some disappointment.

The
IJH

captain,

pronounced ka fchiaj -pi-tan

{^

tji

j^ ^^^

iJJ

has been for some centuries in use among those Chinese

who mix with Europeans.

word

The word

is

regarded as not only

English but also European, and some native writers explain the
as being the equivalent of Che-hsien.
It
is

applied not only

to the officer properly styled captain

and

to the
to

masters of vessels

but also to a chief or headman, and even

an ambassador.

In

Java and the

Straits Settlements

it

is

applied to the

Chinaman

who

is

responsible for the good conduct of his nationals in a

particular district.

The word merchant

in

also

has been adopted

by the Chinese and applied

a peculiar manner.
or
P,g P,J,

They say
or

ma-chin and write

it

in several
to brokers

ways

They apply the term

supposed
to

ff JJ). {^ ^, and compradores and commission

agents, whether foreign or Chinese.

As

the ma-chin

is
is

always

know

English,
if

pidgin English generally, he

someyouth

times described as

merely a linguist or interpreter.

of

who

is

serving an apprenticeship, with the view

is

becoming a
is,

compradore,

called

by the Cantonese a ma-chin-tsai, that

merchant boy, an apprentice compradore.

The use
foreigners.
its

of the

word protest has long been known

to

Chinese

ship-brokers and other Chinese

having dealings with Western

this

During the Franco-Chinese troubles

word found
"a
r1

way

into State papers as p'u-lu-Vai-ssu-Ve

(^

Foreign Words in Ghinese.

341
is

Another very recent importation into the written language

telephone.

The Chinese were quick to adopt this useful invention and with it the name which they pronounce te-lu-feng (f* The marine measure "knot" Jg,). ft S) or tie-li'feng (^

has also been introduced into Chinese as no-fa (Jg J^).^

MALAY.

We
we

next take up a vocabulary of the Malay language and

find that this also has supplied Chinese with a

number

of use-

ful terms.

This circumstance

is

not to be wondered at

when we

reflect that for

many centuries
of the

there has been constant intercourse

between the inhabitants

Kuang-tung and Fuhkien provinces

In these islands there

and the islands ofthe "Southern Ocean."

trading junks of the East^ and to

were formerly certain well known places of rendezvous for the

them came

also during the last

three centuries the ships from the far-off

Western Ocean.

The

Chinese traders brought

of their

to these

marts the

silks

and other products

country and carried back to China cargoes of foreign merThis trade intercourse gradually produced the

chandise.

common

use of certain

words and phrases which were mutually understood.

Many
or

of

these

seem

to

have been found in the Malay language

what the Chinese

is

so regarded.

But the vocabulary

of

this

language
sources,

largely

composed

of contributions
is

from various foreign

and when we say that a word

to

Malay we do not commit

it

ourselves
in

any more precise assertion than that

of

is

found
as
to

a dictionary

that language.

The word may be

to suit their

origin Sanskrit, or Arabic, or Portuguese, or English, but

if it

has
of

been adopted by the Malays and modified

speech
it

ways

is

for practical purposes a

Malay word.

Hence we

find

the Chinese having for

to various

names

of

commodities terms which belong

languages but which became

as

simply, just

known to them as Malay many non-English words have reached them

Let us
illustrate

through speakers of English.

by a few examples.

Among
before direct
sahalat.

the

Malay words which found

used

their

way
is

into Chinese

European trade with China began

is

one Saklat or
is

This word, which

to

denote woollen cloth,

Ix,,

"Hai-kuo-fu-chih" (f^

^ t^

i), chaps, xiv., xix.,

&c.

342

Foreign Words in Chinese,

of

found in the modern historical and geographical works

Chinese and in the old Treaties.

the

In these

it

occurs in at least

two ways

of writing, viz., so-hsie-fhiaj-la (|g

Q Bj) and sa-ha-la

sakarlat,
it

(^

^M)'

I^

is

actually the Persian

of
it

word suklat or

which denotes woollen cloth

sible that

a scarlet colour, and

is

pos-

among

the Chinese

had

at first a similar restricted

application.^

Tobacco seems

first to

have been

first

brought

to

China

at

some

time about the end of the 16th or the beginning of the 17th
century. That
it

was Malays who introduced it

to the

Chinese

be inferred with some probability from the form which the

received.

may name

This became tan-pa-ku

Malay name tambacao.

native term yen, meaning

S)' representing the But the Chinese soon came to use a

*'

(^

smoke," and thereby pointing

to the

final cause of tobacco, and this before long drove out the foreign

name.
a

The latter, however, is supposed to lead a maimed life in name given to cigarettes, ma for baj-hu-yen {ff jg), a term in very common use among the Cantonese and Fuhkeenese at the

Ports.

From

the Malays also the Chinese received sago,

itself.

first
is

the

prepared flour and afterwards the tree

But sago

not a

Malay word
language
the

originally,

and Crawfurd thinks that the

it

tree is

indigenous to one of the Molucca Islands, and that

of these islands the

was from the

It is

name was

originally derived.

Papuan word

for bread, sago being to the

Papuans and many

others their chief article of food.

The name, however, has long

The Chinese sometimes say and
to

been widely spread over the East, being saku in Cochin-Chinese,

sfigli

in India,

and sagu

in

Malay.

write sha-ku
**

(^ ^),
(||"

which might be said

have the meaning

form
hsi, that is,

sand grain." They also now frequently use

or sai-ku

tlie

sei

), showing that they are using a Western

pronunciation of the word.

the rice
of

We

also find sago called hsi^kuo-mi,

Western

countries,

though

hsi-kuo
rice, is

was perhaps
often found

originally only phonetic.

But the word mi,

added
^ "

to

ha-ku and sai-ku, and we have business people using

s.v.

Ming-shih," chap, cccxxv.j Hob-Job,

Suclat.

Foreign Words
the short

in Ghinese.

343

name hsi-mi which,

rice or grain.

if

translated,

would mean simply

" Western
It

"^
first

was apparently from the Malay archipelago that

Areca Catechu and afterwards the

the

fruit of the

tree itself

were

introduced into China.

The Malay name

is

pinang, which was

adopted by the Chinese and became pin-lang or nang

ij^ ij^).

(^

J^ or

There

is

no native name in China either for the tree or

for use.

for its fruit

when prepared

But

the foreign

name has

ceased to be regarded as foreign and has received an interpretation

as
if

Chinese in origin.
is

The

fruit,

^nown

to English people as

betel-nut,

among

the Chinese of certain districts as

among the
in a

natives of

some

of the

Malay Islands

a token of friendship and of

hospitality.

When

two friends meet, whether on the road or

house, they at once proceed to exchange betel-nuts.

friend comes to visit a family one of the
first

And when

and most significant So learned

if

acts of attention to the guest is to present betel-nut.

Chinese

tell

us that the fruit came to be called pin-lang as

^
the

gg, the guest

man.

The name was probably introduced by

and

Swatow
written,

or

Amoy

traders,

in their speech pin-lang, as thus

might have the above meaning.

to be

Another name
is

for the
{f;^

betel-nut

found in Chinese literature

jen-pin

^\
or

which
ever,

is
is

apparently the Javanese

name jambi.
and
it

This word, how-

old in Chinese literature,

is

not

much known

used except among the learned.^

Again, from the Malays the Chinese got the name for the

Jack

fruit

(Artocarpus integrifolia) and perhaps the tree

of this

also.
is

The book form

an attempt
to

name

is

nang-chia-chie

(^

j^),

which

reproduce Nangka.

But
of

this

shown

to

be only a corruption of the

Malay word has been Malayalam name jaka (or

tree

chtikka or tsjaka).

In the island

Hainan, where the jack

abounds,

it

has another

name

p'o4o-mi

which
Sago.

will

come under

notice in the next chapter.^

Another well known

^

fruit of

South China, the mango, has a

s.v.

Crawfurd's Deacve. Diet. Indian Islands, Crawfurd's Des. Diet.

'<

'

s.v.

Areca; Ch. Notes and Queries,

vol.

iii.,

p.

133j

" Pen-ts'ao," chap. xxxi.

3

Peu.ts'ao," chap, xxxi.; Crawfurd's Diet. s-v. Artocarpusj Hob-Job, p, 9^5,

344

Foreign Words in Chinese.

is

Malay name along with one which

is

regarded as native.
is

The

latter

in the

Amoy
is

dialect suai"^,

and the former

pronounced meng-J^ or
it

Jw.

This

written in at least four or five ways (as ;fg or

"

with

H added).

This last character kuo means "fruit," and

may

have been
tions.
is

at first significant

and not phonetic in these combinafruit,

So the Malay or rather Suuda name for the

licly

mangga,

from the Tamil mankay in which

also denotes fruit.

J),

But
this

a Cantonese transcription of
is

mangga

is

man-kao {^^

and

evidently purely phonetic, and so also are the other forms at

present in use so far as the spoken dialects are concerned.

suai^^y

The name

mentioned above,

is

perhaps not Chinese but Annamite.

is

In that dialect and in Cambodian the mango

called suai or svai,

to their native

and the
place.^

Amoy

traders

may have brought

commerce
is

the

name

The
people,

terra-japonica of

known

at least in

some

districts of

China by

its

Malay name Gambier.

it

Thus the Swatow

who

are the great cultivators of

in the Straits Settlements,

call it in their dialect

names assigned
grown

to it specially

kam-hi ("^ ^). Sometimes we find native by Western compilers of vocabularies,

but these are generally mistakes.

in China, nor is

The Uncaria Gambier

is

not

gambier known

in this country otherwise

than as a foreign importation.

The sappan-wood, from the

the

tree Goesalpinia
is

sappan, largely
to

used by the Chinese for dyeing purposes,

well

known

them by

su-pangymu (^ ^^ TfC). It is also called shortly by business people sy^mu and su-pan. The word su-fang or su-pang is intended to represent the Malay name for the wood, which is sapang. This is the name by which the sappan-wood first became known to the Chinese, and they still retain it, although the wood is now imported into the country from several remote
(or
regions.^

name su-fang

"We often
(that
is,

find

mention

of a fragrant

wood

called chia-nan

ka-lam)'hsiang

(^

pg

imported into China and

This wood
is

brought as tribute from Malacca and other places.

^

Crawfurd's Diet.
Crawfurd's Diet.

s.v.

Mango; Hob-Job,

p. 423.
2).

s.v.

Sappau-woodj "Pen-ts'ao," chap. xxxv. (part

Foreign Words in Chinese.

345

evidently not the Agila or Eagle wood, which has a distinct and

well

known

designation.

It

most likely represents Kalarapac

(Calampac), the

name both

of a region in

Siam which
itself.

yields a

tree with very fragrant

wood and

of the

wood

But the
from the

Malays give the name Kalambak

have
also for this the

to the

Eagle wood, though they

name gaharu
is

or gahru, derived

Sanskrit.^

Though Camphor

produced in China and exported from

it

to other countries yet the

Chinese have long been accustomed to

import a different kind from abroad.

well known, two quite
substance, viz., the

There are

in the East, as is

distinct kinds of trees

which yield

this

Laurus camphora, which grows in South China,

in

and the Bryohalanops campJiora, which flourishes

Borneo and
is

Sumatra
into
its

chiefly.

The camphor from

the latter tree

imported

China

direct

from the Straits Settlements, and

is

known by
There
as sold

Malay name kapur.

This, which in Chinese becomes ho-p'o-lo

(IS
is

M S)'

^^

o^^y ^ modification of the Sanskrit karpura.

for this

also in

China a common native name

it is
''

camphor
its

in druggists' shops, for

qualities

valued only or chiefly for

medicinal

and sold

as a

medicine.'*

The
to

port in

Sumatra from

which the camphor was formerly shipped was named Barus, and
this

word came

to

be added to kfipur

denote Sumatran camphor.

But the name kapur-barus or Baroos-camphor has now a much wider application. The Chinese also know this foreign camphor
as po-lil-hsiang

(^

This name, however,

is

f^ ), the fragrant not much used, and

stuff
it is

from Barus.

perhaps applied

to several other substances.^

The general name,

or Jl
)ji)

as distinguished
all

from euphemisms and

is

other misnomers, for opium

ya)'pHen (f^ with local varieties like a-^in and a-pien. These all
(or

over China

represent the

Malay word
first

apiun, and point to the channel through

which opium was

introduced into this country.

But the

Malay word
the Malays.
1

in turn is only an attempt to

letter f

pronounce the Persian

and Arabic afyun, the

being impossible of utterance to

Finlayson, Mission to Siam, p. 260; Crawford's Diet, s.v. Agila. *' Pen-ts'ao," chap, ^xxiv., Crawfurd's Diet. s.v. Camphor,

346

Foreign

Words

in Chinese.

We find

it

sometimes stated by Western writers on Chinese

is

that the term ka-pan in the expression ka-pan-tsun (or shun)

the Malay word kapal.

But

ha-pan-tsun {1^

|g)

is

square-rigged vessel, and the inhabitants of the Malay archipelago,

it

seems, never built or used such vessels.

it

The Malays have the

of the

word kapal, but

Coast,
It
is to

was adopted from the Telingas

Coromandel

who had

square-rigged vessels which they called kappal.

be noted, however, that the Chinese find a meaning for

themselves in the term chia {kaypan, which

native.

may

after

all

be

It

is

supposed

to point to the

overlapping of the planks

of

in the sides of foreign

vessels,

which gives the appearance

fchia-panj

a succession of planks sandwiched

planks.^

between other

For
in

soapj especially that imported

to

from Europe, the Chinese

in other districts

Fuhkien and Kuangtung and

some extent

often use a
find the

name

like

sa-pun or sa-hun.
like sap-hun,

In the Araoy dialect we

word pronounced

and the sounds

of these

syllables are

represented in writing by

3!^,

which are read

hsueh'wen in Mandarin.

It seems that the above

is

name

is

not
is,

from the Portuguese but

the

Malay word sabun.

in turn

This last

however, only a slight modification of the sabiin of the Arabian

and Persian languages, which

through the Latin sapo.

comes from old German

to the foreign

In addition

name

the

Chinese have a native name for soap, current perhaps throughout

the whole empire.

We may notice one

now and then
The
also

or

two other Malay words

to be

found
to

in

Chinese modern books and State papers and

be heard in the speech of Chinese who have lived among Malays.

leaves
for
of palm-trees

used as a substitute for paper and

are
called kajang in

thatching houses

Malay.
it

The

Chinese adopt this word pronouncing and writing

kao-jang

(^
for

W)'

^^^ ^^^y ^^

^^

apparently only in the sense of a leaf

well

writing purposes.

The

becomes sa-lang

(^ ^)
s.v.

in Chinese.

known sarang of the Malays The word for chief, Datoh,

and
it

becomes na (pronounced da)'tu

1

(J|} 'g),

is

explained as
p.

Crawfurd's Diet,

Ship; Caldwell's Gram. Dravn. Langs,,

501.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

347

meaniug " an eminent

J'll)

official."

The Chinese words pu-la

(^

and pa-lieh

(Jg, |),

pronounced like pa-leik, stand for the

to

Malay pedang, corrupted

adding the character t'on

hadik.

The word means

it

a sword

or dagger, and sometimes the Chinese treat

(|fg),

as a native word,
affix.^

head, as a distinctive

PERSIAN.

From

the notice of

Malay words

in Chinese
first

we
is

pass natu-

rally to that of Persian

and Arabic and

of

the former.

As

has been indicated already the word p'o-ssu, Persia,

loose

used in a
it

vague way by Chinese authors.

They have made

include

beside Persia itself Syria,

Turkey and the Roman Empire, and

sometimes they seem

to use it as a sort of general designation for

the abode of any barbarian people to the South

West

of the

Middle

Kingdom.
different

Hence we

find vegetable
all

and other products

of several

Western countries
of the loose

referred by the Chinese to Persia.

in

As an example

way

which the word

is

used

let

us

take the expression p^o-ts'ai (J| or 3S)> more inWy p^o-ling-ts^ai S)- According to Dr. F. P. Smith this name is applied (K

to the

Convolvulus reptans, which has a flavour like that of

spinach.
table,"

But the term seems

it

to

mean only

*'

the Persian vege-

and

has been applied

to a

kind of spinach and even to

beet and carrot and other vegetables not indigenous in Persia.

The explanation
and
it

of the

name, moreover,

is

not free from doubt,

may

not have anything to do with Persia.^

of the Persian

The vocabulary
tions.

language

is

very mixed, con-

taining Aryan, Semitic and Turkish elements in different proporIt has directly or indirectly yielded a considerable
of objects

number

of

names

to
is

Chinese, and in taking note of a few of

these here no attempt

made
for

to refer

them

to their origin.

A Persian
out as such,
is

word
the

in Chinese,

which has been long ago pointed

name

the monoxide of lead,

known

in

commerce
^

as Litharge.

This^is called by the Chinese mi-t^e-seng

Groeneveldt's Notes on the Malay Archipelago, pp. 40, 46 ; Hob- Job, p. " Ming-shih," chap, cccxxv. 2 " Hai-kuo-t'u-chi," chap. xxii. ; Ch. Mat. Med., p. 71 ; Notes and Queries, vol. iv., No. 69.

107

348

Foreign Words in Chinese.

(^

\^))

which has been shown

to

be an attempt to represent

murda-seng (or murdar-sang) the

modity.^

Persian

name

for

the com-

For the

saffron

now imported
that
is,

into their country

from

various regions the Chinese have several native names, such as

fan-hung-hua

{%

:j!g),

foreign

safEower.

But they
in other
za'

know
la7i

it

also

by a foreign name written and sa-fa-lang

to

differently as tsa-fu-

(pg

^)

(^

f^

g|5)

and perhaps
Persian
this

ways.

These are intended

reproduce

the

name

faran (in Arabic za' fran).

first

It

would seem that

product was

imported into China from Persia direct or at least obtained

immediately from Persian traders.

sativus) has

The

saffron

flower

{Grocits

been cultivated for many centuries in Persia and

Cashmere.
is

From

these countries, especially from the latter,

it

at present taken to Tibet,

Cashmere " (k'a-che

to

skyes).
it

where it is known Then from Tibet it

is

as the " gift of

is

sent

direct

China where, however,

it is

still

remembered

as a Persian

product, though

also called erroneously

" the saiflower from

Tibet."2

For the almond which does not grow

Badan.

in

China the native

authors and others have apparently only the Persian

IS

name which

This the Chinese transcribe pa- tan

also,

(A

^ or

[o

_g^)

and perhaps
j^).

as suggested

by Dr. Bretschneider, pa-lan

(|2.

But they have mixed up the foreign almond with their The name of the latter is hsing (), and the native apricot.
kernels of
its fruit,
is

when

dried for food,

are called hsing-jeri

of

(^

^).

This name

given also to the kernels

almonds as im-

ported into China from their resemblance in appearance and to

some extent

in taste to the seeds of apricots.

On

the other

hand

the Tibetans give the the

name

P^a-tin^ that

is,

Badan

or almond, to

" sweet dried apricots "

imported into their country from

the West, and Ghu-li or k^am-bu to the same fruit

native.

when

fresh or

Then for the sweet date of Persia the

calling
also
it

Chinese have a

mixed name,
they know
1 2

Pa~tan-hsing, that
its

is,

almond-apricot.

But
their

it

by

Persian
;

name Khurma^ which

Mat. Med.,
p.
p. 136.

Endlicher Ch.

Gi'., p.

22 (Note)

Cli.

Dr. Bretschneider in Chi. Rec, vol.

iii.,

222

Ch. Mat. Med., pl89.


Foreign Words in Chinese.
authors write in at least three different ways

349
hil-mang

(^

^),
is

k'u-lu-ma

(^

Jft)

and hu-lu-ma (ig

of

%)}
of

The importation

Oak-galls from Persia into China

old date, though the Chinese do not

origin of these natural products.

seem to know even yet the In the " Pen-ts*ao-kang-niu "

of

there

is

a description given of
said,
it

them and
is

the tree which yields

writer describes
galls
are.

them, but as has been

only from

plain that the

report and that

he did not

know what
or

These are usually denoted among the Chinese by names such as

mo-tse

ij^^)

or ma-t'u-tse
<^i'

(ft

^ ^)
(^

mo

(or miiyshi'tzil

?) tS parently all foreign.

01'

(M

'^^^

{mu)-shi'tzu

^), which are ap-

They
is

are supposed

to represent the

word

mazii or maju, which

or oak-apples.
is

the Persian and Hindostani

of

name

for galls

The kind

oak tree on which these are produced

this is

called in Persian balliit,

and

adopted by the Chinese

as

pa-lu {:^ Jg) ov pu-lu (^ ]J). Adding their native word tzU Chinese make pa-lu-tzU as a name for the (-f), seed, to this the
acorns which the oak
its
is

supposed

to

bear in alternate years with

other fruit the galls.^

Under the name wu-hua-kiio,

Ficus Carica or common
also in literature a foreign

fruits

without flowers, the

Chinese include several species of Ficus, and among them the

fig.

For

this last,

however, they have

as
is

name, which in some books appears

a-chu (or

tsii),

written

fpj |fl.

The second character here

evidently a misprint, and

we should

substitute |0 yi or 7iyi or ji/i.

told, for anjer,

This word perhaps pronounced a-jih stands, we are

the Persian
of

name

for the fig.

Another and a more correct way

is

writing this Persian

word

ang-jih (H^ 0), which also

fig.^

is

found in books as a name for the

Under the names nao-sha

@)
^

Chinese druggists

sell

and nung or nao-sha ($g various saline substances, and among

(fjj

^)
;

Dr. Bretschneider in Chi. Rec, v., p. 198 and iii., p. 265; " Pen-ts'ao," chap, xxix. ; Ch. Notes and Queries, vol. iii., p. 149. Another way of writing Badan "Ming-shih," chap, cccxxvi. The Persian word in Chinese is pa-tan (Jg J|g.). Badan is said to be a corruption of a Sanskrit word " vatfimra," from vdta, wind,

and dmra, a mango; Jaschke Tib-Eng.

"

Diet., p.
;

363

s. v.

Ba-dam.
p. 20.

" Pen-ts'ao," chap. xxxv.

(second part)

Chi. Mat, Med., p. 100.

vol.
iii.,

" Pen-ts'ao," chap, xxxi.j Notes

and Queries,

OP THE

ITNIVEB?

350

Foreign Words in Chinese.

of

them an impure variety

what

is

known
is

in

commerce

as Sal

Ammoniac
tended at

By

the word nao-sha, which

commonly found

in

the former of the two ways here given, the Chinese probably infirst to

represent either nushadir, which

or the Hindustani

is

the Persian

name
which

for Sal
is

Ammoniac

name

for the same,

Nau-shadar, a modification of the Persian word.^

for the lion over all

The common name

bably the Persian
of the lion,

China

is
is
is

shi (|5(),

and, as has been already pointed out by others, this

most prothe land

name

for the animal Shir.

to

Persia

and the Chinese do not seem

have even known him

except by pictures or imperfect descriptions.

They have

also

other names for the lion, some of which are to be noticed hereafter,

but these are to be found only in the writings of the learned.

The word Shahr, meaning

a city, has passed into the

modern
It is

language of China from Persia, but through Turkestan.

commonly written sha-erh {fp fj) and translated by ch'eng (JjJ) with the same meaning. We find it ocurring chiefly in the
names
of certain places,
city.

such as Ying-chi-sha-erh,

new

city,

and

Khara-shar, black

A
ers
flu

word which we have

which
is

to regard for the occasion

at least

as Persian is that

transcribed in Chinese by the charact-

pronounced
or
j4.

ti-ya-Ica,

if ft)- ^y others, the Chinese intended to represent the word Tiryak.

last is

Peking Mandarin ti-ye-chia (Ig these characters, as has been shown by

in

This

of course only a slightly altered form of the Greek word

Theriake, which denoted the cure for the bite of a wild beast.

But with

the Persians tiryak

came

to

mean

not only a valuable

antidote but also a pill pleasant to take as medicine.

chief ingredients of this pill

One
afyiin.

of the
to

was opium, and hence tiryak came

traders the

be used to some extent as a sort of synonym for Chinese

'*

The
of

may have
pills,''

learned from Persian

still

use

opium

and these are

^

euphemistically called cures or

to

antidotes,

though the name tiryak does not seem

be ever used

by the Chinese now.

^ ** Pen-ts'ao," chap, xi.; Ch. Mat. Med., p. 190 ; Hanbury, Science Papers, pp. 217, 276. Hirth's Romn. Ort., p. 277 ; ' Pfen-ts*ao," chap. 1. (2nd part); Ogilby's Persia, pt 53.
'^

Foreign Words in Chinese.

351

In some

of

the

native almanacs for the use of the Chinese

people the days which are our Sundays are indicated by the char-

The character mi here, peris, mi day. mih or mit, is declared by some investigators But it is probably rather the to be the Ouigour name for the sun. old Persian mihr, which was a name of the sun or sun god
acters mi-jih
to

(^

H), that

haps

be pronounced

(Mithras).

This word

is still

preserved in such terms as mihrin the solar year.^

mah, sun-month, the seventh month

One Chinese author who

yao'Shen-wu

gives

mi

as the

Ouigour name

of
is

the sun, gives also the expression which in modern mandarin

(^
is

^ ^)
We

as

its

p'O'Ssu

or

Persian

equivalent.

Now
the

in

the inscription on the celebrated Nestorian

Tablet in

China the date

given in characters which contain, apparently,

above word.
{-J^ )!8

have there the expression " ta-yao-shm

wen-jih^^
'^

^^

)?

and Mr. Wylie accepts the view that

represents
it

yao-sen-wan/' in his transliteration,

the

Persian

yekshamba (yaksamba), Sunday.

the

But while
it is
'^

is

certain that

day here indicated was a Sunday

not quite so certain

for

that the three Chinese characters read

yao-sen-wan" stand

yakshamba.

It is to be
ta, great,

noted
is

that in this interpretation the

out,

important word

left

and Mr. Wylie, with his

wanted candour, admits the

difficulty.

Must we not then with

?

the help of that sinologist's very learned and interesting com-

munication construe the expression in a different manner

is

It

perhaps possible that ta^yao, great luminary,

" seven regulators."
still

may

be used

here as a designation for the

the

" greater light," the chief

among
The
Then

In Corea the days which are Sunis,

days are
Coreans,

called yu-yil, that

yao-jih,

or Sundays.

it

may

be mentioned, prefer the expression

" seven

luminaries"

to the

common Chinese

*'

seven regulators."
sen-ican/* or
*^

the two characters, read shen-wen, or

'^

sSn^hun^^*

may
The

represent a Syrian form of the

last or

Hebrew name

for

a week.

seventh day of the week was Shabafc or Sabbath (in

Persian, Shamba), and this word was thence used to denote a week.

familiar example occurs in the 1st verse of the last chapter of

^

Notes and Queries,

vol, iv.,

No. 27

Mayer's Chi. Reader's Man.,

p. 368.


362
St.

Foreign Words in CMnese.

Matthew's Gospel, where we read

it

'^

Now

late

on the Sabfirst of

bath day (sabbaton), as

began

to

dawn toward
'^

the

the

week (sabbaton)."
garding
s/^,e?^-^y^?^

Now
as a

taking ta-yao to denote " sun " and xq-

word meaning

the date of the inscription thus

the 1st

''

week/' we may translate The 2nd year of Ohien-chung,

moon and 7th day

of

of the

moon being

the Sun-day of the

week/'i

One
shui,

the terms to denote a " co-wife " in Persian

is

ham-

and among the Cantonese the term ham-shiii

also denotes

a supplementary or vicarious wife.

They explain the words

those Cantonese

as

meaning "salt water"

addition
is

(^

7j<),

and ham-shioi with a disparaging

to

commonly applied

women who

attach themselves temporarily to barbarians from over the ocean.

That the Persians and Cantonese should have the same sounds
to denote similar objects is in this case

perhaps only a coincidence

It
is

and one from which no serious inference can be drawn.

sible,

pos-

however, that we

may have
which

the Persian word Firuzah in

is

the Chinese pi-hc

a

(g

J^).

This with shih (5) as tone added

in Persian
to
is

name

for the turquoise

Firuzah.

Lastly

Asa-fcetida, with which

we have
is

meet again, has

as one of its

names a-yu

(fnj J^),

which

apparently for the Persian

Angudan

or Angiizeh, the

gum

resin of the Asa-fcetida plant.

ARABIC.

The
to the

existence of the Arabian language has long been

(jej fej

known
that
is,

Chinese by the designation hui-hui-hua

the Mahometans.

U),

language of
apparently
is

For

this

name

hui-hui, which

not Arabian, no satisfactory explanation seems to

have been yet given.

popular expression in
is

Hui-hui-kuo, country of Mahometans,

is

China

for various
is

not confined to Arabia. This last

Mahometan countries, and known in Chinese literature

by several other names, such

that
is,

as ta-shih (;^

the Heavenly Region, and, in

is

^), t'ien-fang (5^ -ff), modern times, a-erh-pi (Pn(

^)
1

Araby. The language

also

known among

the scholars of

mo-

dern learning as the a-erh-pi-yii (fg) or speech of Arabia.

Notes and Queries,
2.

From
vol. iv.,

vol. iv.,

pp. 16, 38, 77, 103;

WylieinCh. Rec,

Nos, 1 aud

Foreign Words in Chinese.

it

353

the Chinese have derived mediately or immediately a consider-

able

number

of vocables.

Some have gone first into

other dialects,

such as the Malay and Persian, and thence passed into Chinese,

and these have generally suffered change in the passage.

terms, however, which are connected with the religion of the

Those

Mus-

sulmans have here, as in other countries into which Mahometanism

has been introduced, undergone no further modification than the
necessities of the

language required.

But such terms

are com-

paratively

little

known, even

to the native student of ordinary

Chinese literature.

For the most part they are used only

treat of

in books

and documents which and

in the oral

Mahometan

countries and peoples,

and written intercourse

of

native

Mahometans

with their friends and acquaintances.

Of these terms a few are

now mentioned by way

of illustration before proceeding to take

note of the more popular Arabian importations.^

Let us begin with the word Muslim, which becomes

in

Chinese

mu-shih

(or ssu)'lin

i ^)-

"^^is

term

is

well

parts of China as an accepted designation of those

known in some who profess

the religion of
often in native
or
J[

The word Imam, which occurs Mussulman literature, becomes i-ma-mu (|^ Rg

" resignation."

JS @).

It appears to be rarely used

by Chinese Mahome-

tans in the sense of leader or founder,

and denotes with them

rather a priest or the president of a religious establishment.

They
it

know
book

the

Koran by that name, and they

are careful to give

in full hu-erh-a-ni (-^

is

f^ /E).

Another name

for the sacred

Furqan, and
it

this also is

used by the Chinese Mahometans,

who

transcribe

fu-erh-k^o-ni

(J^W^U JSt)-

True

faith, defined

as ''the belief of the heart

and the confession

of the

mouth,"

is

Imam
call it

in Arabian.

The Chinese Mahometans, who make much

it

use of the word, generally transcribe

i-ma-na

(^ ^ j^). They
it

the "true blessing" (or gift) from God, and praise

as of

the pure moral constitution imparted by

God

to

man, the source

the understanding of virtue and vice, truth and error.

The man

who
^

possesses
3^
3i&

imam

or true saving faith

knows

to appreciate at

iv.,

arts.

Nos. 69 and 107.

^ H ^ M ^ c^^P

^'J

^^' Bretsclineider ia Notes

and

Que., vol.

354

Foreign Words in Chinese.

their proper value this world

and

its

good things, that

is,

to

regard

them
world

as vile
is

and worthless. Dunya.

it

Judged from

this point of

view the

called

This word the Chinese Mussulmans have

adopted, writing

tun-ya

(^

chen-shih

(^

jj), the world of dust.

"f ), and explaining it as meaning Lastly, the day on which

the creation of the world was commenced, according to

teaching,

Mussulman

wasSaht (Sabbath)

in Arabian.
this

Chinese writers,

Ma-

hometan and others have adopted

word, which they write

commonly se-pu4H

(-g,

\\

^).^

Proceeding now

to expressions of a secular character

less in

mention a few of those which are more or

we may common use.

And

first let

us take the word Sultan which, though

is

common

to

Mahometan
In Chinese
form
ig).
it is

countries in general,
literature
it is

perhaps originally Arabian.

of frequent occurrence,

and in

its full

expressed by so-lu-tan (|f J^ :^) or sn-Wi-tan

it is

(^

^
as

But

often found shortened to su- tan, which

is

written

in various ways, such as

^ J5

^^^

S S-

Sometimes the Chinese

author translates or interprets the word using wang, king,

its

equivalent.^

One
literature

of the earliest
is

Arabian words

to

be found in Chinese
of

Yasmin

(our Jasmine).

There are several ways

is

writing this word, but the

ye-hsi-ming (JP ^^)The flower and the name were introduced into China apparently
about 1600 years ago.

common one

Though another name,

a native one, su-

hsing-hua

(^

^jfg),

has arisen since, the jasmine, or rather

is
still

properly the Nyctanthes arbor tristis or Night jasmine,

known by

the old foreign designation.

It

is to

be distinguished

from the Mo-li-hua or Jasminum Samhac.^

languages and

The Arabic word Harak or Ariik, now common to several known as Arrack, was introduced into China about
It
is

six centuries ago.

found as ho-la-ki

(ppf Jl]

), a-lek

(PjJ \\j})

and in various other forms according to the

dialect of the transcriber.

The Chinese did not

1

obtain arrack from the Arabs directly, but from

See

e.g.

IE

|fe

'

See

^ ^ TC ^

^, chap, I; ig ^, chap,

^
i.;

~^ m.

H,

&c. as above.
193.

Ch. Rec,

vol. v., p.

Ch. Notes and Queries, vol.

ii.,

pp. 33, 47-

Foreign Words in Chinfise.

the Mongols apparently.
(Jj^ ffi);

355

They regard

it

as a sort of shao'Chiu

like their

own
to

strong distilled drink with that name.^

In modern times the word Coffee, the Arabic qahwah, has

become well known

Europeans.
in

many Chinese through

pronounced
JJH

intercourse with

It is generally

ka-fei,

but
^|i,

it is

written

many ways

slightly different as

^%

3Jl 5lt-

The
of a

Pekingese pronounce these characters

chia-fei,

and they speak

cup

of chia-fei'ch'a, that

is,

Coffee tea, which the Southern people

call ha'fei-ch'a.

Myrrh, which Chinese writers vaguely

P'O'Ssic, is

tell

us

is

a product of

known

in

{'^)'yao, different
is

China by the names mo-yao (J^ ^) and mei varieties of the same name. The syllable mo

phonetic, and yao

means medicine, but

it

also

was perhaps

originally phonetic.

By mo

or

mei the Chinese represent the

Arabian and Persian languages,
it

Arabic Murr, which they adopted as the name of the commodity.

This word 7nurr
but
it is

common

to the

was probably from the former that

of

passed into Chinese.^

In Chinese accounts
find

Arabia and the parts about we often

fii-lu
(j|g

mention

of

an animal called
to

j^ and otherwise).
is

These characters are intended

of the

express the word fara, which

one

names

in

Arabian

for the wild ass.

This animal

is

some-

times described as piebald {hua':^), and the expression hua-fu-luj as

it is

sometimes written, might seem

to

mean " flowered

is Siif,

woollens."^
this

An

Arabian word

for wool

and woollen cloth

and

was

adopted by the Chinese who had no equivalent in their own

language.

They pronounce and

write the

word

so-fic

(^^

jjg

or

ijjg)

or shu-(suj-fu

{^

ijig).

But the Chinese apply the name

not only to woollens, but also to various foreign fabrics of a very

different character.]

Myrobalans, with which we meet again, are

known
li'le

in Chinese medicine

by several names, one

of

which

is

ha-

(fpf

^).

This

is

plainly the Arabian Halileh, a

name

for
1

Myrobalans.^
"Peu-ts'ao," chap. xxv. " Pen-ts'ao," chap, xxxiv.;

Hanbury

Sc. Papers, p. 378.

'

"Ming-shih," chap, cccxxvi.

chap, cccxxv.;

* Ch. liev., vol. V. pp, 123, 1G9; "Ming-shih," Veg. Mat. Med., p. 318.

Dy mock's

356

Foreign Words in Chinese.

TURKISH.

From an
frontiers.
fierce wars,

early period in her history

tribes or nations of
of these tribes she

down

to the present

China has always had

Turkish origin on her

With some
and she has

has often had long and

in several

ways suffered from them great

friendly
It is

damage.

But she has

also

had with them peaceful and

relations, including a barter trade of considerable importance.

not to be wondered at then

dialects are

if

terms and phrases from the Turkish

is it to

found in Chinese, nor

be considered strange and

unlikely that by use and time

many

of these

words and phrases

have

lost

their foreign garb

and assumed

a native appearance.

wide and careful study

of the

vocabulary of the Chinese lang-

uage would probably lead

words more or

to the discovery in it of

many Turkish
also that

less disguised.

It

would perhaps be found

two languages, not borrowed by one from the other but both derived from an older language. " The
of these
to the

some

were common

device of a foreign origin "

scholars as a

is

not a very popular resource of native

means

of

explaining the

apparently inexplicable.
to at times,

But

it

is

an expedient which must be resorted

clue to

and

it

may

afford the

the only true solution of a dif&culty.

lose

How

words and phrases which are foreign in Chinese quite

is

that character
literature.

well

known

to all students of the

language and

Instances of this loss of foreign appearance will be

found among the examples of terms imported from the Turkish

dialects into Chinese to be

now

noticed.

In the records
of the

of the great conflicts

fierce

between the sovereigns

as the

Han
we

dynasty and the

nomadic invaders known

to be read

Hiung-nu we often meet with a word

This, are told,
It
is it is

Tangri or Tingri.

is

the

Hiung-nu

or Turkish term for

God

or

Heaven.

sometimes interpreted as

meaning tHen

(5^),

Heaven, and

perhaps, as has been already suggested by others,

etymologically of the same origin as t'ien.

of writing the Turkish word was tang-li

One

of the old
;

ways

(@ %)

and in the

early historical literature

we

find the phrase tang-li-hu-Vu (jj

of

SlI
is

^).

This means son

Heaven, the Chinese tHen-tzu,

Emperor.
Other and

and

used as the title of a Sultan or

Foreign Words in Chinese.

later

357
(i.e.,

ways

of

writing the word tangri are Vung-chi

Veng-Jco-li

kij-li

iM i: S) the sense of
From

and

(^
in

J^

nj|).

It is

still

current with
dialects.^

God

or

Heaven

Mongolian and other

the Turkish tribes also the Chinese derived the word

in

Khan, a term which has long been

people.

common
is

use

among

native

writers to denote the chief or sovereign of a Turkish tribe or

In the older literature the word

is still

usually written

/c'o-

han (pf ff ), and this form occasionallly used by writers who wish to be precise. But generally we now find only one character
used to express
it,

viz.,

han

(ff) or Ic^an (^).

This name
to

Khan
not
it

has, moreover, been

extended by the Chinese

countries

Turkish,
applied

and, like

many

other terms in their language,

is

somewhat

indiscriminately.

called the

chag*an-khan

(^

ff or
)

Thus the Czar of Russia is White Khan, chag^an being

of

the Mongolian word for white.

The Emperor

China

also

has

long been the Great

fathers the Ganis

Khan

(or hmi), in the

dog-Latin of our fore-

Magnus.
is

The
also other

consort or the concubine of a Khiin

said

by Chinese
There are

writers to be called k'o-tun

{^ ^)
this

or k'a-tun (B^ Tg).

ways

of writing the word,

which

is

evidently the Turkish

Khatun
those

or

Khatun.
it

But

word now

at least denotes

among
it

who

use

simply a wife or lady.

Chinese writers use

it is

to

designate the Czarina of Russia, and by them

perhaps always

applied only to the wife of a chief or sovereign.

The Chinese do
of

not seem

to

know

or use

khaniim or khclnim, the feminine

for a chief or lord has

khrm.

Another Turkish designation

well

become

known among the

This
is

Chinese, especially within the last few score

years.

Beg or Bek, which when first used was commonly represented by the two characters pai-k'o or '' peh-k'eh^^
the
title

(fS ])

I^

^s

now, however, usually expressed by only one of

these characters, pai or

peh

(fg),

the second being dropped.

A Beg is properly
least in

a chief like an Amir, but the Chinese have, at

some

cases,

lowered his status, and they profess to regard

the word as merely the equivalent of their

own kuan

or

official.

Mr. Mayers

tells

us that the

title

Beg

*'

universally in use

among

" Han-shu," chap. xciv.

lu the moderu maudariu

is

read ch'eng.

358

Foreign Words in Chinese.

is

the followers of Islam,

employed among the Chinese Mahomof

medans

of

Turkestan

and the region

Hami

as

a generic

designation for the local chieftains/'^

The common name among

Buddhist monk
form, ho-she
those
like
is

all
;

the people of
in an old

China
little

for a

ho-shang

(^

f^)

and now

used

(^

who

first

^). The sounds given to these characters hy used them in this manner were perhaps something
It is

hua-ja or hua-je.

acknowledged that they stand

for a

foreign word, and they are said to represent the Turkish

word

Khvaja

or Khoja.

This,

which

is

also

Persian,

is

used in
first

Turkestan as a term
introduced the word
in

of respect, like Sir, or

Monsieur. "When

Hoshang was perhaps employed by the Chinese a way somewhat like that in which we use such terms as They
it

Heverend and Reverence.

wear the garb
religions,

applied

it

not only to

all

who

of a

Buddhist monk but

still

also to the priests of other

and they

apply

occasionally to Christians and

Mahometans, but always

in the sense of priest or clergyman.^

Among

commodities imported into China and known there

first

by Turkish names we notice

that written hsun-lu

(H

or

H ^).
it is

This word has been identified by the learned

Sinologist Dr.

Hirth with the Turkish word ghyunliik.

said,

Hsun-lu denotes,
in

olihanum or franJdncense, and ghyunluk

Turkish has the

same meaning.

One may be
as the

excused, however, for doubting

whether the Chinese characters actually represent a foreign term.

We

find hsiin

name

of

an aromatic plant in very early

is

Chinese literature, and hsun-lu {ov ju)-hsiang

represented as
It
is,

being produced in several countries widely separated.

however, or has been imported from Turkish speaking countries,

and Dr. Hirth's

the name.^

identification gives a satisfactory explanation of

Another commercial term

several languages.

is

Tanga, a word which appears in

to the

According

Glossary of Anglo-Indian
weiglit of silver.
ijn),

Words
1

it is

from the Sanskrit tanka, a certain

it is

In Chinese
2
'^

t'eng-ho (J^

^)

or t'ang-ka

(^

and

it is

con-

Mayer's Ch. Gov., No. 563. Ei. Handbook Ch, B., p. 155; Shaw's Turki Vocabulary, p. 107. China and Rom. Ort., p. 266; "Pen-ts'ao," chap, xxxiv.; Kaughsi s.v. f^.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

sidered as a Turkish word.
it

359
of

Among

the

Mahometans
in

Sungaria
it

was formerly a coin worth 250 cash, and

Turkestan

was,

according to Mr. Shaw, " a

small copper cash."
coins

money
is

of account consisting of

25

This tanga

theoretically equal to fifty

called Pid, also a Turkish word.

p^ti-erh
it is

In Chinese

this

word

became

(^

^).

2^iil

represents nominally five Chinese

at least

cash, but
coin
;'^

now

in Turkestan

merely an "imaginary

and seven tanga now make a rupee.

often find mention
in

We

Chinese books of an

article

of

commerce called Vou-shih (|^ ^)." In some places these two characters make one word, and in other places shih is apparently
the Chinese word for stone.
passes sometimes as native,

The whole expression Vou-shih also and it is found in Chinese literature

Perhaps, however,
it

of a comparatively early period.

represents

the Turkish word tuj or tuchj

slates ^^oit-s/ii/i
it

which denotes bronze.

Julien tran-

by "laiton," and other Western scholars translate

in

various ways.

The

native authors are often ignorant

it

of

the origin and meaning of the term, and some describe

like gold.
tCish, as in

as a stone
is

The Turkish word

kash-tash, jade.
of travel

for

stone,

it

may

be remarked,

In books

and geography which describe or

regions to the

treat of

the Mongolian and

Mahometan
sit.

West
su,

of

China we

often find the character

(j^)
is

used in the sense of river or

water. water.

Thus employed
It occurs in

it

the Turkish
like
(ppf

word

which means
is

compounds

Aksu, which

sometimes

mentioned by the name a-k'o-su

^ |^),

that

is,

Ak-su, and

sometimes by the name pai-shui (|Q 7J1C), white water, ak in Turkish meaning white. In like manner the Turkish word yer,

which denotes a

district or tract of country, is often

employed by

Chinese writers.
part of
in this

They make
like

compounds
word
is

(^ .^), and it forms ye-erh-chiangt that is, Yarkand. But yar

it

ye-erh

also

said

to

be derived from another Turkish

word yar, which means a hank.

The word tuman

1 Wylie in Jour. Sh. Turki Vocab., p. 69.

in

Turki means a myriad,

Hob- Job "

but

it

has

other meanings also, and

Lit.

it is

found in other languages.

i.,

Certain
j

Soc,

p.

69

''
;

s.v.

Tanga

Shaw's

360

Foreign Wordd in Chinese.

it,

Chinese writers seem to have adopted

frequently in their writings.
different ways,
it is

and the word occurs

It

is

found transcribed in several

such as fu-mcn

(^

generally used in the sense of

t'u-man (^g ^), and a myriad.

fpj),
is

The word
Persian origin.

for butter in

Turkestan

Maskah, which
ydgli,
oil

is

of

It is used with the

Turki word

in the

sense of fresh butter.

This compound, maskah-ydghj has been

partly adopted in Chinese as ma'SsU-ko'yu

is,

{^

^^

^ ^), that
lan-

butter

oil,

yu being the native word

for

oil.

From
chHu

the Turkish but probably through the

Manchoo

guage the Chinese obtained the word which they write ngeSrh-

(^

j;j5).

These characters represent the Manchoo Eljin,

is

which,

however,

only

a modification

of the

Turkish
is

Ilchi,

an envoy or ambassador. by
its

To the Chinese the term

to Peking.-^

best

known

use as the designation of the tribute-bearing Abbot sent

by the Dalai and Panshen Lamas

This
is

perhaps the proper place in which to notice as in a

manner

fossil

words of Turkish origin a few specimens of old

to

Hiung-nu terms

be found in the Chinese language.

Some

of

these words are of very frequent occurrence in the historical and

biographical literature which treats of the great

Han

period,

and

they are found, though less often, also in the later literature.
of the
is

One
which
be

most common and best known

ff;

of these terms is that

written |^

and usually read shan

(or san)-yu.

We

may

certain,

however, that we have not the old pronunciation of the

characters which

may have been something

Hiung-nu and

like

Sanok or Tsathe

nak.

The term was properly the designation

of the

of

khan

or

supreme chief

his full title

is,

was Teng-ri-ku-t^u

Shan-yu (}^ 3^ 51

^H

T'),

that

Son-of-Heaven Shan-yii.
were also called Shan-yii
interpreted as
to

But

inferior chiefs or leaders of tribes

without any proud addition.

The word has been

and
it is

meaning grand

or magnificent,

also said

have been

originally a proper

name.

After the extinction of the Hiung-nu

to use

Chinese historical writers continued

the chiefs or Princes of other tribes,
1

Shan-yii as a
find
it,

title for

and we

for

example,

Ch. Gov., No. 588.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

applied to the

861

Khau

of the

Khitan

in the period of the

is

Sung

dynasty.

The

Shan-yii-t'ai or

Khan's Terrace

celebrated in

Chinese history as the place where

military review in order to

Han

Wu
is

Ti had a grand

awe the Hiung-nu.^

The Queen
tioned in

of the Shan-yii, his gattinn,

title

commonly menin the

Chinese literature by a
is

which

modern

pronunciation

ngo-shi or

ti

(||

^ or

J^).

Some commentators,

however,
in this

tell

us that the above characters are to be pronounced

;

connexion ho-ti or ga-ti

ngan)-ti
;

others say they are to be read

yen

(or

and others say they should be pronounced

yeiuchih.

We

are told that they are only a different

way

of

writing the

the word which in

(PkS JJh)-

word yen-chih (jg j^), and that they correspond to modern literature is usually written yen-chih
is

This last

the

name
is

of a cosmetic

prepared from the

a

safflower,

and

it

also apparently

was used

as

designation for

the safflower

itself,

which

said to

have grown wild on the Yentheir

chih'shan.

The Queen

of

the

Hiung-nu was

Fairest
is

Flower, the Susannah or Lily of the Laud.

This,
it

however,

perhaps only a fanciful derivation, though

that the
title

is

not improbable
safflower

was

at

first

a proper name.

The

was
are

brought into China from the

told,

West by Chang
in

Ch'ien,

we

but

it is

not

known

to be a native of

any country.

It has

been cultivated from a very remote time Egyptian name

for it is said to be Kurtin,

Egypt, and the

is

which

not unlike

the old pronunciation of the characters |5

^.^
met with
in

Another

old

Hiung-nu
is

fossil

occasionally

Chinese literature

the word written tu (or c}iu)-chi{^ or

^).

These characters tu and chu represent probably the same sound,

and the word may have been pronounced somewhat

du-ji.

like

tu-hH or
or

It

is

said to

mean

exalted, eminent (like

Duke
It

Doge)

and

to

be the equivalent of the Chinese hsien (g).

was used

in titles

among

the Hiung-nu, and the eldest sou of a

Khan was

styled tiL-hH of the Left Side.

I

"

Ch'ien

' "

Ch'ien

Han Han

Shu", chap. Shu," chap.

vi.

viii.

Ch. R. Mau., No. 588. " Hou Han Shu," chap. xciv.

*'

Shi-chi,"

chap. cz.

362

Foreign

Words

in Chinese.

The Chinese
grandees and

historians have preserved several other titles of

officials

among

the Hiung-nu, some of which

may
and

have a philological
at present.

interest.

But only one

of these can be

quoted

Certain high

officials

were called ku-li

toti-li

{^ ^),

the same apparently were also called

were interchangeable.

(^ ^), as if the words In Turkish there is the well-known word

may
be the term
is still

Tura, which means a chief or Prince, and this

here represented.
the

The word
tomb
in

in

use,

for

example among

Kalmaks

in the sense here given.

for a

One name
tu)'lo (jg

the Hiung-nu speech

was tou

(or

^), and Mr. J. Taylor compares this word with the tul, which also denotes a grave-mound.^ Etruscan

We have already noticed

and Hiung-nu name
for
for

the word Tengri as

the Turkish

Heaven.

Another old Hiung-nu term

(filf

Heaven

is

that written ch'i-lien

^), but

said to be proits

nounced

like si-lin.

This

is

known

chiefly

from

frequent

occurrence as the

name

of the

famous mountain called Si-linChinese THen-shan, near Lake

shan

or

Heaven Mountain,

in

Barkul.

It cannot perhaps be ascertained

si-lin

what was the

precise

word which these two characters

were intended
is

to express.

In modern Chinese literature the mountain

(iff

called

che-lo-han

^ ^)-sha7ij
is

and the sounds che-lo-han here probably stand

for

an old Turkish word C/iallan, which also means Heaven.

not impossible that in si-lin

It

we have an attempt
viz.,

to

render

the old corruption of the Sanskrit word Isvfira,

Esrun or

Asrun, formerly written a-hsi-lun

still

(fpf

^ j^).

This name, which

of

survives

in

Mongolian,

is

also

found as a designation

mountains.^

MANCHU.

Coming next
it

also

additions

Manchu language we find that from have been made to the Chinese vocabulary.
to

the

These material additions, however, are neither so numerous nor

so important as

we might have expected from

the fact that a

Manchu dynasty
years.
1 2

has been in possession of China for about 250

in-

But
Han

it

must be remembered that when the Manchu

;

" Shi-clii," cliap, ex.

"

Proc. Or. Congress in 1874, p. 171. Shu," chaps, vi. and viii.j " Shi-chi," chap. cix.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

vaders became lords of the empire
lliey did

3^3

not try to force their

language on their new subjects.

On

the contrary they rather

applied themselves, and with great diligence and success, to learn

Chinese.

And

they even tried to give

new and

larger life to their

own language by an
ed from the Chinese

infusion of Chinese elements.

They adoptgenius of

many words and

phrases for which they had

not native equivalents, and modified them to suit the

their
alive

own
and

language.
in use

These well-meant

efforts to

keep Manchu

have not had mucl;^ success, and that language

disuse within the last

has fallen rapidly into

200 years.

It has
officials

been declared moribund, and even

among

the

Manchu

and
not

literati it

would seem that Imperial Edicts and example cankeep

it

avail

to

a living language.
la

The reviewer

of

M.
the

Adam's

"

Grammaire de

langue Mandchow'* in the

Chinese
still

Recorder, however, reminds us that the

Manchu
its

*^

is

court language of China, and though the range of

employment

among
at

the people

is

contracting from year to year, yet

the

we must
documents

remember that

it is

medium
it
;

in

which most

official

Peking are issued; that

is

the diplomatic language of the

it

Kalkas Mongols with China

in

that

is

taught in the colleges

Peking

and that there

is

a considerable body of literature

in the language."

Practically, however, the

Manchus have given

It has fared

up

their

own language and adopted that

of China.

with them indeed very

much

as with the Tai

Ahoms

in

Assam
its

who
less

give

''

the singular spectacle of a conquering race, which, in

than two centuries and a half since the consolidation of

religion

power has adopted the language,

and nationality

of the

conquered, and outwardly become merged into them.'' But' this can scarcely be called a '^singular spectacle " and comes rather

under a general
clear cient

rule.

This

is

given by Mr.
'*

Marsh

in

his

usual
of

and succinct manner

Languages,

like the serfs

an-

times and the middle ages, seem to be glehce adscript itice,

it

and

may

be laid down as a general rule, that in cases of

territorial conquest, unless the invaders

have such a superiority

of physical

power

as to be able

to

extirpate the native race alto-

gether, or unless they possess a very

marked

superiority in point

364
of intellect

Foreign Words in Chinese.

and culture, in

short,

wherever the subjected nation

force, the

even approximates to an equality in material or mental

native dialect
is

adopted by the conquerors, and soon becomes

again the exclusive language of the country/'

But though the

had

Manchus adopted thoroughly

the language of China, yet their

own
some

speech, being that of conquerors and rulers, has of course

effect

on that

of China.

This

effect,

which

is

not very

great, is

most apparent in the new words introduced into the

the
first

latter, especially in

century and a half after the invasion.

Of these words, which

are often completely disguised,

some are

current only in a part of North China, others are found only in

State documents and recent literature, and a few are in general

use in speech or writing throughout the empire.^

In taking note

of

some

of the
it

which have passed

which
relate

into Chinese
to

Manchu words and phrases may be well to begin with those

the

immediately

the dynasty and

government.

Among
chio'lo,

such we find the word Gioro, which in Chinese becomes

the

part of the the

"Kioh-Lo" of Mr. Mayers (ft S)- This forms name Aisin Gioro, of the "legendary progenitor" of Manchu reigning family. The Chinese translate it by slii ( Jg)
and
this is its original
is

in the sense of a clan or family,

meaning.

But

chio'lo has

now

a restricted application, tmd

used only of

the family which gave the line of Emperors forming the dynasty

now on a name

the throne of China.

it

Where

it

occurs immediately above

indicates that the person having that

of the

name

is

descended
properly

from the family

founder of the dynasty.

And

only those are chio-lo whose descent can be traced back to a

senior relative of the ancestor regarded as
styled
first

Emperor and
or

Hsien Tsu Hsiian Huang

Ti.^

A
which

Manchu term
in Chinese

for

kingdom
A;w-Z?^72/

or country

is

Gurun

Kurun,

becomes

fj|).

We

find this in ex-

pressions like hu-lun-kung-chu

(@

!&

S- i),

the designation of

an Imperial Princess who

^

is

the daughter of an

Emperor by

his

Retnusat's Reoherches sur les Lang. Tar., pp. 12J, 134 ; Ch. Rec, vol. v., p. 229; Forbes' Langs, of Further India, p. 13; Marsh, Lectures ou Eug. Lang., p. 139. The Chinese also use the word chio-lo as the equivalent of shih (^) in
'^

the sense of

surname."

Foreign Words in Chinese.

Empress.

365
is

When

there are more than one the eldest

first

called ku-

lun chang-kung-chuy where chang means

or eldest.
all

The word Hosho

Peking Gazettes and
dynasty.
or
It

(or Grhosho)

is

familiar to

readers of the

of the Imperial State papers of the present

was formerly transcribed by huo-sha or hu-sha (>^

Jj(J?),

but the only trnscription

now

in use is ho-shih (ft

^,

Hoso and Hosheh). This Manchu word has many uses and meanings. Thus it denotes a corner, a district of land, an
read also
intermediate point of the compass as N.E. or S.W., the end of a
ridge, of a mountain,

and among the Mongols

says,
''

at least a division

of a Banner.

Mr. Mayers

Ho-sheh

(originally signifying a

banner), denotes one of the four divisions of the

It
is

army

or State."
to

used with the Chinese words wa7ig and ch'in-wang

denote

the highest hereditary rank which the

his relatives.
is

Emperor

confers at least on

Among
tribes

these a ho-shih-ch'in-wang (ft

^ JS 3E)
But
and

an Imperial Prince of the First Rank, and among the Mongol

and Mahometan

he

is

the highest subordinate Prince.

is

in the Imperial family a ho-shih ch*in-wang

of

properly the son

;

an Emperor by a consort inferior in rank

is

to

an Empress

a ho-shih kung-chu a ku-lun kimg-chu.

an Imperial Princess of lower degree than

Then we have the

to'lo

titles to-lo

chun-wang

(^ iH JP

3E) and

pei-Uh

(^

jU),

designating respectively the second and

third of the twelve ranks of hereditary nobility conferred by the

Manchu

sovereigns.

To-lo here

is

the
its

the Chinese translate by tao (Jg) in

Manchu word Doro, which various meanings of a way

or the way, virtue, good manners, ceremonies.

pei-leh, the

Manchu
word
is

joei-U, is properly a prince of the second degree, but the

perhaps not

Manchu
that
is,

in origin.

Next

to the pei-le

comes

the pei-tzn

(^ ^),
is

pei-se.

This

Manchu word

denotes a

Prince

who

the son of a Pei-le.

tzil

Hence the Chinese sometimes

its

take the character

here in

sense of son, and regard the

of

term pei-tzu as a compound meaning *'son

Fujin in Manchu, and

a pei-lehJ*
is

Princess by marriage, the wife of an Imperial Prince,

this

called

becomes fu-chin

(jpg -gp) in
is

Chinese.

Then

the husband of an Imperial or other Princess

called Efu,

366

Foreign Words in Chinese.

This

a term which also means simply brother-iu-law. word, transferred to Chinese, becomes
(neyh)-fii

Manchu
^), and

(^

we

find

it

often in

titles like

kit-lim ngeh-fto, husband of an

in

Imperial Princess.

Again the word Keke

Manchu
to

designates
five

the daughter of a Prince or of a noble belonging

one of the

high degrees.
in

This word also has been transferred into Chinese,

which

it

appears as ke-ke

{^ ^).

The
a

sons of an
as

Emperor
{fv^

of the

present dynasty speak of each other the

a-ko
for

^).

This word represents

Manchu

agii,

term

brother,

and the Chinese character read ko was perhaps chosen partly

because
very
it

denoted
use

''

elder brother."

The

expression a-ko
a respectful

is

in
of

common

among

the Chinese as

mode

address.

The Manchu word

ktian, is

for official, the equivalent of the

is

Chinese

Hafan.

This

often found in

modern Chinese State

literature in the

form ha-fan (B^ ), and it occurs in compounds Bg-) ha-fan. like ataha (pj This term is interpreted as meaning "hereditary official," but it is also said to denote an

"assistant officer."
to

The

title

ataha hafan

is

given by the
as

Emperor
for

Mongol and other

amhan, which

non-Chinese

officials

a reward

distinguished merit.
is

Another Manchu name

for a public official

is

more used and more widely known perhaps

the term

than hafan.

The Chinese concerned have adopted

an-pen
It
is

atnban, which they transcribe

Jen, Great

($
a

7(C)

and translate by ta^

man, your Excellency.

to

title

applied to the Imperial

of

Resident at Lhassa and

other high

officials

the Chinese
to the

Government serving
North-west and

in Tibet,

Mongolia and other countries

West of
is

China.

The Amban

is

also the magistrate

or chief civil functionary to the

Manchus
Chinese.
written

in the district in
title of office

which
is

he

resides.

There

also the
in

well-known

which

styled chang-ching
of
'*

(^ ^)

This
also

is

a reproduction

the

Manchu word janggin,

" changuin,"

the

chan-yin or cha7i-kyin'' of Mr. Mayers.

an assistant or secretary in a public
to serve
office

It is the designation

of

and

also of a

promoted

abroad as a Deputy or Inspector.

Baunermau Thus at

each of the frontier posts between the Khalkan and Russiau

Foreign Words in Chinese.

territories *'is a small military colony
title

367

under a chief having the

chang-ching}

Another Manchu

title

of
is

office,

which may be

said

to

have become quite Chinese,

original

the pl-fie-shih
is

(^

ifj

^).

The

word

in

Manchu

is

Bithese, which

the designation of

certain clerks or secretaries in public offices.

it

Mayers

translates

"

official

writer/'

and describes

it

as

'^

the

title

borne by the class

of

government clerks (with

all

official

status of the 7th, 8th or 9th

rank) attached to

the metropolitan departments."

But pro-

perly the word Bithese

or class of scholars

among
to

the"

Man ch us

denoted the caste

of ( j^) charge of the

and was the equivalent

it

of the shih

the Chinese.

Then

came

denote the

officer in

archives and correspondence of a public

office.

The Chinese now

commonly regard the

or "writer

p)-t'ie-shih as merely a copyist or at best a

book-keeper, and they

describe

him

as a hsic-tzu-ti
is,

{^

g^f)

of characters."

This word Bithese

the

with slight
lan-

modifications,

common

to
it

Manchu and

several other

guages.

In Mongolian

appears as Bitsetsi or Bijechi, which

the Chinese transcribe as pl-chHe'chi

(^

J[

^) and pi -she'chHh

We
(or

next notice the

Manchu

military distinction Baturu

Patom).

This was introduced into China by the rulers of the

it

present dynasty, and

it is

soon became popular in the army, so that

now much
the empire.

coveted,

all

and the name is known and used over The Chinese pronounce and write the word

pa-t'u-lu

^), and they regard it as having the same meaning as their word yiing (^), brave. But in Manchu the word Baturu means a hero, " one who does that which seemed
(Ej

impossible or beyond his powers."

In Mongolian we find

it

in the

forms Baghtur or Baghator, which means heroic, and Badur,

which means brave or

sense of a brave

firm.

In Turki also we have Bfitur in the

man

or hero,

and Shaw thinks the word

is

a coris,

ruption of the Persian hdhadar,

1

meaning "brave."

There

Ch. Gov., parts

i.

and

vi.;

Ynng-clieng Edicts;
;

et passim; Ch. Rev,, vol. xv., p. 246

'

E9
;

1^ 7^
ill.

^,
iv.

chap.

viii.

'&*

^'

chaps,

and
;

Amyot's Man.

Diet. s.v.

"Pithese"

Ch. Gov., No. 181

Bretschneider in

Journal N.-C. B. of R. A. Soc,

vol. x., p. 253.

ti68

Foreign Words in Chinese.

however, an Arabian word hatid wliich has the same ineaning

and

is

perhaps the source of the other forms.

When

the

title

or epithet

Baturu
is

is

conferred

it is

often preceded by

a qualify-

ing word which

usually translated from the

"all living

As

is

well

known

Manchu. Manchus and all descendants

of the

of

the Mongolian and Chinese soldiery of the Conquest" are supposed

to be enrolled

under one or other

Eight Banners.

These

known in China by their Chinese name pa-ch'l (/V "j^), but the Manchu word for Banner is also used in certain circumstances. This word is Kusa (or Kusha), and the Chinese adopt it in the form hu-shan (@ jlj). A Manchu or Mongol not enrolled under a Banner or a Bannerman *^at large, without position or pay " is said to be sula. This term, which is common to Manchu
are

and Mongolian,
(S i^)It

is

also

adopted by the Chinese and written su-la

unattached, a discharged soldier, and
it is

means

free,

also used in the sense of

an idler or a lazy vagabond.

The Chinese
is,

sometimes translate
official.

it

by san-chih
is

(^ ^),

that
title

unattached

But

this

term

also

used in the

of

an honorary

office

conferred on distinguished or highly favoured statesmen,

the full expression being san-chih ta-ch'cn

(^
it

|^

-j^

g).

The word ha-shih-ma

China
is

(R^ pff

P,g

or

^)

used in the North of

is

also

Manchu.

In that language

said

to

have

originally denoted a small water-insect

to

which was dried and sent

it

Peking

as

an

article of food.
*'

In Amyot's Dictionary

is

de-

scribed as an insect which

ressemble a une espece de cigale ou

degrillon.

II a

des

serres

comme

les

ecrevisses

il

vient dans
le

I'eau, et se tient sous les pierres qui sont

au bord.

II

gout du

cancre, et
grillon."

il

est'beaucoup plus gros q'aucune cigale ou aucun

the

But

name Hashima has long been extended

to the

game and

other articles of food which are imported into Peking

from Kuantung and Manchuria.

The word ha-pa

small Peking dogs,
is

in ha-pa-kou (B^ ,
for the

Jpj),

name

for certain

Manchu
is

ka-pa or kapahun, which

means
In

short, stunted, compressed, koio

being the Chinese for dog.

Manchu

the

name

kahari

given to similar dogs with short

or, as it is

legs

and small

bodies.

The word ka-pa,

also written,

Foreign Words in Chinese.

k'a-jpa, is said to

369
it

be of Moiigoliuu origiu, and

term.

does not seem

to

be a native

Mancbu

In Chinese the respectful word of answer corresponding

somewhat
and cheh.
and
it

to our Sir

or Yes, Sir
is

is

c/m,

also

pronounced ja

The sound

sometimes written in Chinese cha (dJ),

is

said to represent the

Manchu

je or che.

This

is

used

as a respectful affirmative or answer to a call

his superior.

by an

inferior to

There are other terms and

pki-ases in

Chinese which have

been apparently taken from the Manchu, but they need not be
given here.

Some
It

of

them

will be

found in the contributions

to

our knowledge of Chinese which have been made by learned

sinologists.^

must be remembered, however, that occasionto

ally

words and expressions in Chinese are said

be

Manchu

which are not such any more than they are Chinese.
MONGOLIAN.

From
golian.

the

Manchu language we
or

pass insensibly to the

Monof a

These two and the Turkish are related as members

family
rather
as

large

families

from one ancestor, and

consequently we find
three languages.

many forms

of expression

common
is

to the

This community of vocabulary

also to

some

extent the result of the political grouping and intermingling of

the tribes and peoples which speak these dialects.

Each

of these

seems
its

to

have been

felt to

be insufficient for the requirements of

speakers, and these accordingly felt obliged to have recourse to

the vocabularies of their neighbours.

Of the three families

richest

of

languages the Mongolian

important, and
dialects.
it

is

in

some respects the

and most

has had

much

influence on the neighbouring

The

three families or groups of dialects

may have had

a

their origin, as

some suppose they had,

in a

language which was

the

common

source for

them and Chinese.

And

thorough

philological study of the last

it

would perhaps show the existence in

of

many disguised terms and phrases common to it and Mongolian,

and traceable
to the

for example,
1

same parent

origin.

vol.

xii.,

See especially the Notes contributed by " J. M." to the " China Review," vol. xv., p. 5-1 et al. vol. xiii., p. 227 p. 437 ct al.
;
;

370

Foreign Words in Chinese.

Of the common words belonging

to

Mongolian

dialects

which

occur in Chinese and are recognised as Mongolian some date from

the 13th and 14th centuries A. D., and others have been admitted

within a comparatively recent period.

J terms together here no attempt
is

In bringing some
to distinguish

of these

made

among

the

Mongolian

dialects,

nor

is

the historical origin of the words taken

also,
is,

into consideration.

Here

as is meet,

we begin with the

form
of

words relating

to religion, that

in this instance, to that

Buddhism known
The
Dalai.
to the
first

as

Lamaism.
is

word we notice

that

known

to

Europeans
it is

as

This word means sea or ocean, and in this use

common
The

Turkish and Mongolian dialects as Dalai and Talai.

it

Chinese have adopted

and transcribed
Bj|||)

it

in various ways, of

which ta-lai

(^
and

|^ or 1^

is

the best

known and most comof writing the

monly used. Other, but rarely found ways

ta-lei

word are

(^ H)
is

ta-lai (ft J).

In Chinese speech and literature

the word

known

only as forming with the Tibetan term

Lama
Pan-

the well-known

title,

Dalai Lama, of one of the sacred Pontiffs of

the Tibetan Church.

The other

Pontiff
''

is

called shortly the

shan

Lama and more

correctly the

Panshen Erdeni Lama."

This becomes in
($SE
title

Chinese Fan- shan-O- (Ngeh) -crh-tc-ni

>^
PJJ

11

Sm fi
is

M)-

C)f

the three

La-ma words which make this

means
''treasure."

panshan
Erdeni

said to be a corruption of the Sanskrit Pandita,

and

is

Mongolian word
ecclesiastical
title

which
in

Another Lamaist
written

common

use

is

that

Khuduktu

or

'' ''

Hut'ukht'u."

Mayers

translates the

word

by " Saint," adding,

the most

This class of dignitaries, to which the Dalai

to constitute

and Panshen Lamas themselves belong, may be said

marked and

essential feature of the Tibetan

is

form

of

IJuddhism.
in

Derived from a Mongolian word which

tsai-lai-jeii
^

interpreted

Chinese as signifying

again,

an Avater

the

(H^ A),

i-e-,

one who returns

huVukht'iL supply, in their successive

reembodiments, that transmission of authority in safe or chosen

hands which the enforcement

of a strict rule of celibacy

might

otherwise render impracticable."

the Chinese

The word has been adopted by

various

who express

it

in

ways, such as hu-tu-tu

Foreign Words in Chinese.

(SI

371
Si

Ml
(iS5

^^n (or

Jcuyt'u-k'o-t'u

(P?p

or ]$
^^^'^

^^^

^^^-

thtk'-Vii
syllable.

i ^

S)^

^^^ ^'^^
is

^^^

^'^

unitiug to form one

this

The H'utuklit'u

one who has h'utuhj and

word

means not only

latter is the

holiness but also blessing and happiness, and the

prefer, rendering
the'.^

meaning which the Chinese

fg, happiness or prosperity.

word by

fii

The

title

H'utukht'u

may be conferred on laymen, and it was the Ming Tsung Emperor of the Yuan
of the

given posthumously to
dynasty.

The

Pontiffs

Lamaist Church, farther, ate continuous incarnations, the

of of

Lama Edeni Lama

Dalai

Avalokitesvara (Kuan-yin)
Manjusri.

and the Panshan

also are

The H'utukht'u

immediate

incarnations or reembodiments of other saints, the succession of

earthly existence being kept
of

up without interruption.

The avatara
(al.

a spiritual being,
is

the adoption by

him

of

a material body

actually living

designated in Mongolian H^ubilh'an

Chubilgan
This term

or Chubilghan with nearly the

same pronunciation).

corresponds to the Tibetan sprul ha and the Chinese hua-shen

{^

^), a created or metamorphosed body. But Chinese writers also use often the original word which they express in different ways,
as hU'pi-le-hcm

{^ gkM
lay

W-) ^^^ Int-pi-erh-han (ij ft

title

ff).^

The Mongolian
Sanskrit

Nomun-khan, corresponding
of the

to

the
of

Dharma Raja, means Lord

True Faith, that

title

is,

Buddhism.

Chinese writers sometimes translate the

by/a-

wang

(fj 3E) with the same meaning, but more usually they

retain the

Mongol term which they

transcribe

^). We find it often mentioned in Mongolian affairs as a title given to Princes and
deserved well of the Lamaist Church.

no-mhi-han (|g fj Chinese books on Tibetan and

chiefs

who have

In Tibet the

"nome

khan

''

or "

noume-hen," appears, according

prime minister
to

to various accounts,

to be a sort of

the Dalai

Lama
(al.

under Chinese

superintendence.^

master or teacher
This
is

is

called

Baghshi

Bafcshi or Bacsi)

in Mongolian.

used by the Chinese under the forms pa"j^ ff),

shih (7\
1

5) and pa-k'o-shih {^
xii.;

and others. It
i.j
<=

is

employed

Ch. Gov., part

cb.

"Ta-ch'ing-hui-tien,

"^ jt $L chap. Ixxx.

f^, chap,

Ta-ching-i-fung-chib,"

Campbell's Notes on Eastern Thibet in Phoenix,

p. 84.

372

Foreign Words in Chinese.

as a term of respect

when

addressing Lamas, and

(giji\

it is

sometimes

translated into Chinese

by shih

a teacher.
titles

Several of the political and

official

in

use

among

the

Mongols are known

to

the Chinese only by their original names.

Most

of these
official

have passed into the language and are often met

with in
is

and

historical writings.

One

of the best
"),

that which the

Chinese pronounce t'ai-chi (-^

known the Monis

golian Daiji (given also as Taishi

and Taischi).
it

This

the

designation of a certain class of nobles, but

also as a military title

is

largely used
of

and

as the official designation

the chief
is

magistrate of a

district.

Another well known

title

Noian

(Noyen

or Noyon), denoting chief or leader.

This has been adoptit

ed by Chinese writers and statesmen

who

express

by no- or na-

yen (p or J5
No-yon.

'>i'

f^

58)-

It

is

often found as part of a

compound

such as Sain-Noian, which in Chinese becomes sai-yin

(U )

This word sain^ which

is

is

found written also san-yin

(^
is

or excellent.

common The

to

Mongolian and Manchu, and means good

Sain-Noian
It
is

title

is

given to pious chiefs and

apparently, conferred
service.-^

sometimes hereditary.

also,

on

tribes

which have done the Church good

title
'^

The

Dzassak " or Sassak has

affairs.

also

been adopted by

Chinese writers on Mongolian

It occurs frequently,

and

has the forms cha-sa (fL

is

WO

^^^ cha-sa-k'o (fL

^%). A
the

Sassak

technically the chief of a

Banner

in a tribe, but

loosely applied to military officers of various grades.

name is The chief

this

or

head

of a

tribe

is

called in

Mongolian Darughatsi, and

it

the Chinese use in their writings, expressing

by ta-lu-ho-chi
Tliey explain
is,

iM^^M
officer

^)

0^'

tci'lu'hua-chih
tells

(^
us,

iE

#)

the word. Dr. Bretschn eider

by chang-yin, that

an

who

keeps the seal and so

is

is

entrusted with power.

its

The

Darughatsi

the

official chief of

a tribe,

responsible governor

or superintendent.^

A
and
^

military distinction
is

much

coveted by Mongolian officers

or Darhan.
(e.

soldiers
Ch.
Gov.,
4JC

the
xi.

title
;

Darkhan

This, which the

7. 1st

?^ H * Ch. Hec,
5

part BE. chap.

Yang-cheng Edicts

g.

9fcli

m. 11th clay);

viii.

vol. v., pp. 118, 126.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

Chinese interpret as meaning '^ennobled,"
is

373
those

given only to

who have gained merit on

It

the field of battle or at least, in war.

exempts from

all

future service,

and confers certain other

to

privileges
posterity.

which are sometimes extended

several degrees

of

iJlJ

In Chinese the word assumes the forms tar-Ztan (jj and ta-la-han {^ #1] ^)}
regiment or a battalion of soldiers
is

A
Tsala,

called

by the Mongols

and the term

is

Manchu
is,

also.

It has been adopted

by the

Chinese who write

it

chia-la (S^HJ), and

First regiment.

t'ou {^%)-chia'la, that

make compounds like The frontier posts, for

territories,
it

example between Russian and Mongolian

are called

Karon

(or

Karun).

The Chinese long ago found

the recognised and

useful

to

adopt this Mongolian word which they transcribed k'a-licn (-^

-fj^V

This

is

still

common way

of writing

the word.
find
it

In

official

documents such as the Yung-cheng Edicts we

occurring in expressions like fan^ wo- h' a-

km

(311

-jr

fjft"),

to violate

our frontiers.

The

military stations which

abound

in

the countries beyond the Great

Wall

are

known
of

chiefly

by their

Mongolian name janji.

to their language,

This also the Chinese have transferred

these stations as

and they speak and write

chan-chih {f^ :^).^

The stone-heaps which mark

aries
of pasture districts
is

a frontier post or the bound-

are called in Mongolian

to

Obo.

This

term

also applied to a cairn raised

mark

a place for wor-

ship or a sacred spot and to a pile of stonfts set

up

for

any

purpose.

The Northern Chinese have adopted

it

the

word, but

they use

chiefly in the sense of a cairn for a religious purpose.

it

They
o-po

express
(f|5

in various ways, such as

o-pu (f^

|>

or

fpf

/j>)

An

old

tS) and nao-pao (fg Q). Mongolian name for a house used as a halting place
is

or temporary residence by a chief or sovereign

Nabo.
it,

Pal-

ladius tells us this '^is a Kitan

name

the

Kin adopted
also long

and

it

passed from them to the Mongols."

It

was

ago adopted
H:).

by the Chinese,
*
2

in

whose language

it

became na-po (J^

" Ta-ch'ing Hui-tien," chap. Ixxix.; Ch. Rec, v., p. 245. " Ssu-tM-ho-pi," chap, iii.; Journal N.-C. B. of R. A. Soc, vol, x.,

p. 85.

" Ta-ch'iug Hui-tien," chap.

Ixxix.

374

Foreign Words in Chinese.

for a

Another Mongolian word

Ordo.

Khan's palace

or hunting lodge
is

is

This also has passed into

Chinese, and

written

in

various ways, such as wu-li-to

(%

M ^)-^
is

The Mongolian word

used hy the
is

for

water

usu,

and

this also

we

find

Chinese, especially in proper names.

Thus there

the Kara-usu, which in Chinese becomes k^o-la-u-su

is

(^

)i|i]

J^

j^), or Black-water, and

said to correspond to the Hei-shui or

Black-water of the Yii kung in the " Shu Ching."

of writing

Another way

usu

in Chinese is

u-su

(%

^), but

this is not

much
to

used at present.

The word
in

for water is not so well

known

the

Chinese as that for a Lake.

This in Mongolian

is

Nor, and the

Chinese write

it

various ways, such as nao-erh (J^ J or }$

m)
and

and no-erh (|g if). The Mongolian words

in use

for white

and black are

is

also

known

among

the Chinese.

The former

Chaghan or Cha-

gan, and in

Chinese ch'a-han

(^

^).

It is found in such ex-

pressions as cha-han-nao-erh, the

White Lake, and cha-han-hanj

the

White Khan.
It

this the

^).

The word for black in Mongolian is Kara, and Chinese make into k'o-la or k'a-la (1 P|j or B^ PJJ or -jr is known best from its occurrence in the term k'a'la-ni,
in the shops.

the designation of a black velvet and broad-cloth imported into

China and sold

A name
Ula.

in

Mongolian

for a Post

and

also for a Post-horse is

it

This has been adopted by the Chinese, who write

^^
*fe

u-la

(%
the

^V* The

ofiicial in

charge of a Post-station
or U'lu-chih

is

called
^,).

tJlatsi, in

Chinese u-la-chi
|'g

{^^^)

(%
(in

ig.

The

iC'la-t'e-ma (,^ Ji
is

,^) are Post camels and horses, and

a bad Post-horse
tna-liu 311
tSi)

mao-n-la for the Mongolian

Maghu

Chinese
it

ula.

This word ula also means a river, and

has

been seen

to

be a

Manchu word
noticed.

as well.
is to

The Mongolian word tangha

Turk tanga already
both.
or

be distinguished from the

to

The Chinese, however, seem

same characters

forget the distinction occasionally and use the

for

They express tangha

in several different ways, as b'an-ha

jgj

h'a{%^ R&) or (a-ma-ho (i^ 3g Hf) or t'ou-mie-kan^J^

^

^).

Journal N.-C.

15.,

vol. x., p.

25

Ch. Rec, vol.

v.,

p. 183.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

376

The word

is

common
It

to
it

the Turkish and Mongolian dialects and

is

other languages, and

found

in different .forms as

tamgha,

tanh'a and tanka.

seal,
it

denotes a brand for cattle, and a stamp or

and

it is

used in proper names.

its

When

the Chinese translate

they usually give as

or stamp.

equivalent yin (fp), which means

an

official seal

The Chinese have

as she-li-sun (5
6's
^flj

a word which assumes such various forms

gjg)

and shih-lu-su

(^

i^)

and sha-lu-

(^

,g).

These

all

stand for the Mongolian word Silosu

wild beast like the lynx.

or Siloksu, the
this

name

of a

The
fifth

fur of
it

animal
robes

is

highly prized by the Chinese, and the use of

in

official

is restricted

by law

to

mandarins above the

is called,

rank.

The Saxaul {Anabasis Ammodendron)

Zak.
This

in

Mongolian
call

name has been adopted by

the Chinese

who

the

curious tree ch'a-k'o

(g

^).
TIBETAN.

With
relations,

Tibet China has been for some time in very close

superintending
also

its

domestic no

less

than

its

foreign
for

policy.

She has

had a trade intercourse with the people

many centuries, indeed since the period of the great T'ang dynasty. But the Tibetan language is poor and mixed, and the Chinese have not felt the need of taking from it many words or forms of The name by which the country is known to the expression.
Chinese at present
This word
is is

Hsi (West) Tsang or simply tsang (jg).

is

the Tibetan Tsan (Gtsan), which

properly the

name

of a
is

province only of Central Tibet.

In literature the

language

often mentioned as that of Vang-ku-Vc (jg -^

-^

or

Tangut, the name of a country which embraced the present Tibet,

and Tibetan words and phrases are often called Taugutian.

The
religion,

distinguishing feature of Tibet

that form of

may
as

be said to be

its

Buddhism known

Lamaism.
is

But

the

student of

Lamaism soon

finds that its vocabulary

largely

drawn

from two sources

in it

Sanskrit and Mongolian,

(PjJ
|j(^).

Of the native terms

first to

with which the Chinese have become acquainted the

is

be noticed

Lama

This term the Cliiuese apply iudis-

376
criminately to
all

Foreign Words in Chinese.

the Tibetan, Mongolian, Mancbu^, and Hsi
it

Fan

Buddhist monks, -and they regard

ex\)ress\on fo-men-ti-tzu

as the equivalent of the

(^

f^ f^ -f) or Disciple of Buddhism.

as

But

it is

more accurately explained

it

meaning wu-shang

{^

_t),

supreme, and

denotes properly the supreme

monk

in a monastery.
of

The Chinese
Buddhism
Religion.
of

generally distinguish the

Buddhism
is

Tibet and

Mongolia as the

Lama

Chiao or

Lama

Religion,

while
or

the

China and other countries

Fo-chiao

Buddha

The abbot of a Lamasery is called in Tibetan Mk^an-po, the goompa and hempu of some English writers. This word has been
explain

adopted by the Chinese, who express it by k^an-pu (^ :flj). They also as meaning " great master," and describe the it
as a

K'anpo

" great

Lama who
of

administers the Yellow Sect " of

Lamaism.^

Another

Lama
is

rank and importance

is

that called by the

g,).

Chinese ts'ang (or ch'ttngychu-pa

quite clear

(^

or

^^

It is not

what

the particular foreign expression which these

characters represent.
for the

They

are said to express the Tibetan

name

Treasurer of a Lamasery, or for the

Monk who

regulates

the intercourse of the

Lamasery with the lay people

of the district

and who attends

to the revenues.

The common Tibetan name

is

for the Treasurer in a

Lamasery
''

Mdz6d-pa
of these

or

Phyag-mdzod
to

(pronounced Chag-dzod), and neither

Chinese.

seems
"

be like the

Nor can this last be the Shang Chodpa i|^ ) (g Mr. Mayers, the ch'ang-tso-t'e-pa (1^ 2E iS E) ^^ others. These are laymen. Councillors of the Treasury, but the Ts^angof

chu-pa

is

Lama, and

there

is

only one even in a large Lamasery.'*

The
is

lay representative or the

Majordomo
affairs use

of a Dalai

Lama
freely,

called Sde-pa, the Diba,

Dheba, Tipa, Tepa

of various

European

writers.

Chinese writers on Tibetan

it

this

word

sometimes transcribing
or

ti-pa

1^ Ej). They also apply it any Lama, the man who manages the secular
1

and sometimes tie-pa (j^ (^ loosely to the '^business man'' of

1)
affairs of the latter.

Ch. Gov., No. 588; Jaescbke's Tib. Diet., p. 53*. Ch. Gov., No 570; Jaeschke's Tib. Diet., p. 463;
ccclii.;

*'

Ta-eh'iug I-t'ung-ehih,"

chap,

ji^

|^

^>

vols. 1

aud

2.

Foreign Words in Chinese.

377

They sometimes
word
country.^

also treat

it

as

meaning

chief or head, using the

in its sense of chief lay authority in a sde or district of

Then we have
Kalon.
transcribe
lu7i

the Bka-blon,

commonly

written Kablon or
also,

Chinese writers have adopted this word

it

and they

shortly by ko-lung

(|r|

[^)

and more

fully

by ko-pu-

(Kg

^
to

f^).

There are
of

six

Kalons

in Tibet,

and they "have

the general
is

management

Government business."
official

But the word

used

denote not only a high

such as " Councillor of

State " or Prime Minister, but also any high civil authority.*

A General

or other high military officer

is

called in Tibet

a Da-pon (or Da-pun).

into their language,

The Chinese have

it

transferred this
iff),

word

and have written

(fij

tai-pen (f^

tai-peng
tai

dSJJ"^

and tai-pu-mu

f^).

Mr. Mayers
in all."

translates

ping by commandant, and adds, " six

military position,
is

This, the highest

invested with the 4th degree of Chinese rank.'

Among

articles

imported into China from Tibet or at least

bearing Tibetan names

ha-ta (B^ 38 ^^

among
This

the Chinese
is

we

notice the ha-ta or

?^)-

the K'a-tags of the Tibetans, and

visits to friends

denotes the tiny scarf used by them in paying

and Lamas,
for images.

in arranging betrothals,

and

as

ornamental offerings
is

It is chiefly in

this

last
it

manner that the Ha-ta

form
of

used by the Chinese.

fillet

They put

in the

a small red

not only on images of gods but also in some distriets round

the heads of

human

beings personating supernatural beings for

peculiar occasions.

There are certain beads used by the Chinese for making

rosaries

and called by them p^u-fi or p*u-t'i-tzu

(^
the

|g

-J).

By
word
of a

these characters, which are in very

common

use, a Tibetan
is

Bo-de,

we

are told,

is

represented

and Bo-de

"name
this

tree, the fruits of

is

which are used for rosaries."

But

word

itself

most probably merely the Sanskrit

Bodhi, and the

last.

Chinese characters given above

may

stand for this

^ Ch. Gov., No. 578; Koppen's Lamaische Hierarchic JBBSchke's Tib. Diet., p. 295'-'. * Ch. No. 567 ; Jaeschke's Tib. Diet., p. 18.' Ch. Gov., No. 579 ; Jaesohke, p. 328.

nnd Kirche,

p.

133;

378

Foreign Words in Chinese.

The
least
lu,

peculiar wool and woollen fabrics of Tibet seem to have

to the

been long known

Chinese who have apparently adopted at

for the same.

two

of the native of a

names

One

of these is

pu'

the

name

kind

of woollen stuff,

which in Chinese has

is

hecome p'u-lu

(^

^\

It
of

is

plain or flowered, and

used for

making the winter caps

Lamas and

for various other purposes.

The wool
term

is

called

by the Chinese pu-lii^mao

properly Bal, and this
it,

(^

^ ^), pu-lu
But the
is

being another way of expressing the Tibetan word.

for wool in Tibet
is

Chinese word

nearer to the Malay term for

the Chinese
is

hulu.

The

other word used by

''

the T'er in T'er-ma,

which denotes

a kind of

thin woollen cloth,

a flannel-like fabric."

In Chinese T'er be-

comes

tie- lie 2), but it is loosely The commercial product known

applied.^
as
''

impure soda "

is

called

by the Chinese p^ en or peng-sha

tsa called also " Pen-cha,^' a

(^

or

jS^B oi'

^ )-

^y

these

characters they probably intended to represent the Tibetan Ba-

kind

of

salt

''

yellowish and bad."

This substance
Tibet and
is

is

found in large quantities near certain lakes in

at

much prized by the Chinese. P'eng-sha is also Chinese name for Borax which is imported into China in an im-

pure state from Tibet.^

With

Tibetan ends this short survey of the foreign languages

to the

which have supplied new terms

Chinese language.

Among
the

the words of foreign origin here given some are scarcely to be

regarded as constituents of Chinese.

purpose of illustrating the
life

They

are

given for

and growth

of the language.

And
of the

now we proceed
exercised

to illustrate this farther

by a short notice

Sanskrit terms imported into Chinese and of the general influence

on

the language

by the introduction and spread

17
Jaeschke, p. 366
"

of

Buddhism.
1

"

Wei Tsang T'u

chih,"
xi.;

vol.

ii.,

p.

Ming

Shi,"
p. 217.

ch. cccxxxii. 2 " Pgn-ts'ao," ch.

Jaeschke, p. .363;

Hanbury's Science Papers,

CHAPTER

YIII.

THE INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON THE CHINESE

LANGUAGE.
I
of

HAVE now to show some Buddhism from India

of the effects

which the introduction

its

into

China and

spread in the latter

country had on the language of the people.

And

here also

it

must be premised that no more than a mere sketch or outline

is

pretended

to

be

given.

The student
to

will

be able to add

examples and

illustrations,

correct errors

and supply defects

It will also

according to the extent and nature of his reading.

be seen that no attempt

is

made here

to give detailed information

about the Buddhist persons and matters brought forward for

notice.

The reader

is,

of necessity,

supposed

to

have access

to

the writings of Messrs. Beal, Edkius, and Eitel in which he will

find the requisite information about

Buddhism
learning

as

it

has grown

up
the

in China.

We
first

have perhaps no means

of

when and how

It is

intercourse between China and India occurred.

recorded in Chinese literature that in

the

reign of

Ch'in Shi

Huang
arrived

Ti (B. C. 221
at

to

209) Buddhist missionaries from India

capital.

the

Chinese
little

These missionaries, however,

seem

to

have had

success and to have gone

making any

impression.

Nor

is

the

story

of

away without their coming

It is not

supported by good authority or generally accepted.

unlikely that some in China had learned a
little

about India

from natives
of
is

of that or a

neighbouring country before the arrival

the

first

Buddhist missionaries recorded in history.

There

the

old saying han-chHen-yu-fo (|

U ^

^). There was

in

Buddha
the

before

Han, that

is.

Buddhism was
in

China before

Han

dynasty.

Some

of

the ching or sacred books of the the Palace Library of the

religion are said to

have been

Chow
their

Kings.
to say that

Native scholars, however, are generally content

countrymen

first

became acquainted with the existence

of

380

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

adventures of the celebrated Chang Ch'ien
warrior and explorer,

India through the

(Khien).

But

this

who

lived in the latter

half of the second century B.C., did not reach India, nor did he

apparently meet with natives of that country.

It

was not

for

more than a hundred years

became known
countries
to

after his

time that India actually

China and that intercourse between the two

These events were brought about by the

began.

predestined dream which the

Emperor Ming
of

of the

dreamt in which he saw the vision

flying into his palace.

a golden

Han dynasty man or Genius

It is generally admitted that the first

Buddhist missionaries
in

from India arrived in A. D. 67

Province of Shensi.

at

Chang-an

what

is

now

the

These brought some

of their sacred

books

written in their native language and the books were soon translat-

ed into Chinese.
spread.
in course

The new

religion

from abroad then began to

Other missionaries followed, bringing more books, and

of

time Chinese Buddhist monks travelled to India,

literature of their religion.

and there studied the language and

That the spread

have a marked
to expect
effect

of

Buddhism among the Chinese should

is

on their language

only what

we are

led

from the history

of other religions.
life

Thus Christianity
and meaning to old
people.

brought in new words and gave new

words wherever

it

became the
great

faith

of

So also
of

Mahometanism made
countries in

changes in

the languages

the

which

it

came

to prevail as, for

example, in Persian

and Brahmanism had a

Malays.

lasting
to

effect

on the speech of the

its

Before

it

came

China Buddhism had in

native
to old

country introduced into the language

ones

new terms and given

Afterwards
it

new

applications

and meanings.
of the
it

enlarged

and enriched the vocabularies

other nations

Tibetan, Mongolian and

when they adopted

as their religion.
of

We

have already seen something

what the Buddhist

missionaries from India did for the Chinese language.

But

volume could

easily be filled with an account of the influence

this

which Buddhism has had on

of the people.

language and on the literature

it

lu the

first

place

taught the Chinese, as we

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

381

have seen, a new language, one very unlike any of the barbarian
tongues with which they had been hitherto acquainted.

The

Indian missionaries taught their brethren in China the Sanskrit

language and grammar, and the Chinese have never been attracted
to

any other foreign language as they were

its

to Sanskrit.

Its

alphabet alone was a great study, with

division into

vowels

and consonants,

its

physical classification of the letters, and rules

for the combinations of these.

of these combinations

The most simple and elementary

first

were learned by rote and repeated aloud.

perhaps

The

learner in China went through these tasks at

only to aid him in acquiring a knowledge of the language, but

afterwards also for a higher purpose.
after formalities duly observed,
of

For the utterance aloud,

/la,

sounds like

hd, hi, hi, ho,

all

hu,

hum was

very potent over spiteful dragons and

evil

spirits that

work unseen.

Then
them.

the inflections of the nouns and

to the

verbs in Sanskrit were also

new

Chinese who did not

scarcely prepared to

know

at first

how

to treat

They were

recognize the inflections as

theme and styled them,

or
''voice

modifying the meaning of the root or " accordingly, mere **

vocal auxiliaries

modulations."

In time, however, they learned

to

distinguish the uses of the inflections,

and

to

denote them or

express their meanings by Chinese characters.

the Accusative denoted by pien {j^), which

Thus we

find

means "side**

or
of,

"place."

The Instrumental

is

expressed by ku (&), because

on account of: the Dative by yu (^), to or with; the Locative by chiing (4), in, within. The Genitive is sometimes denoted by the particle chih {^), but frequently it and the Ablative are be inferred from the context without any distinguishing
In verbs the Conditional mood
is

left to

addition.

represented by jo

(g),

if;

the Future tense by tang (^), ought; and Past tenses

^ particle indicative of past time.^

by

i (g,);

When

the Chinese

^ The inflecfciona are explained and examples given in those technical treatises of which the ChH-chiu-yu-Uao (4j Jl ^) ^^ ^^ example. The inflections given in the text are taken from Chinese translations for the translations of Sanskrit books in the course of a comparison of original and (and Chinese In Japanese) books on Sanskrit Grammar OhH-chiu translation. {-\j it) uieau Nouns and Verbs, the former being so called from the number of their oases, and the latter from the number of biieir moods and teases.

382

The Influence of Buddhism on

better,
it,

the Chinese

Language.

monks knew Sanskrit

of information

and had access

to enlarged
its

about

they wrote books on

means grammar and

compiled dictionaries and vocabularies in Sanskrit and Chinese

for the use of their fellow countrymen.

We

may

here notice the

names

of

one or two of these works as specimens.

In a previous

chapter we have met with the I-ch'ie-ching-y in-i

@^

^), Sounds and Meanings

of the

M)- "^^^^ celebrated (TC ^^ compiled a Sanskrit-Chinese vocabulary

Whole Canon, by Yuan-ying monk and pilgrim I-ching (^ {^)

to

which he gave the

is,

name Fan-yu-ch'ien-tzu-wen (^
Thousand Character Text.
student though the editions
or
errors
is

=f

^
is

^I) that
of

a Sanskrit
to

This book

some value

the

now

current abound in
faults,

misprints

of

transcription

and other

and though the

work

without a good arrangement.

brethren

I-ching,

who was

also

scholar, taught his

much about

the Sanskrit alphabet

and grammar, and

by

his writings on these subjects are often quoted

later authors in

China and Japan.

Then we have

also a
(

small book on the Sanskrit language by the

fj),

monk
a

I-hsing

lu

a great astronomer and scholar of the

T'ang period.

the same period lived also Yen-ts*ung (y^

^)

monk who was

Indian

an unwearied student of Sanskrit grammar and

literature to

of all the

which he had

access.

Under

the

Sung dynasty
^^-

we

find

the

monk Fa-yun (^ ^) who

title is,

compiled about A. D.
p?

1151 the well-known Fan-i-ming-i-chi

(S

2 ^

^^

meaning
'^

of this

in

Mr. Bunyin Nanjio's translation^

of the (Sanskrit)

collection of the

meanings

names translated

(into Chinese)."

The book
is

is

rather

a classified collection of

terms,

mostly Sanskrit, transcribed and translated.

says

Bunyin

" This
in the

As Mr.

a very useful dictionary of the technical

names both

Sanskrit and
is

Chinese Buddhist literature, Moreover, the student

though much correction

required."
it

who

uses the

work

will find in

words which are apparently

neither Sanskrit nor Chinese.^

1 Catalogue of the Ch. Translation of the Buddhist Tripitaka, par. No. 1640. For the transcriptions of the Sanskrit Alphabet in Chinese cliaracters see the " Li-shih-yin-chieu," chap, v.; " Chin-ting-T'ung-wen-yuu-t'ung" (tjf '^ In)

oaufI
The Influence of Buddhism on
the Chinese

Language. 383

In the next place the Indian missionaries taught the Chinese

scholars, as

we have
it

seen, to

examine and study

their

own languto

age and appreciate

heen generally

properly.

These missionaries seem

have
in

men

of parts

who]had received a good education

of their education

their native land,

and a necessary part

was the

learning of grammar.
tainly the

India was perhaps the birth-place, but cerat a time far off in the past. Little

home of grammar even

to school,

children, as soon as they could be trusted

away from

their mothers,

were sent
subtleties.

where they had

to learn its intricacies

and

The country had produced many

great writers and

learned treatises on the subject even before the time of Panini

who

lived perhaps in the fourth century B. C.

all his

His great work,

it

however, not only put

also continued to hold
of

predecessors out of date but

to the present.

has

sway down

Now

the scholars

China, like those of Europe in times gone by, had studied

their native language only as a

of their classical literature.

means

to the correct appreciation

But

the Indian scholars had been

as

accustomed

to

study

grammar not merely

of the

subsidiary to

rhetoric and philosophy but also and chiefly as an end in itself

and as a science which treated

forms and uses of language.

And, accordingly,
to

it

was but natural that when such men came

their
disciples

China they should teach

in
to

that land

how

to

analyse the sounds of their characters,

of their language,

how

classify the

words

and generally

to

study their language written

and spoken on

its

own

account.

But not only

to

did the Indian missionaries teach

grammar

the

Chinese, they also contributed to other departments of

learning already

known

in

China, and in a special degree to

Lists

astronomy (including astrology), arithmetic and medicine.

of treatises on these subjects by Indian Buddhist writers will be

found

in

Chinese histories and encyclopoodias, but for the purposes

such treatises have for us
little interest.

of this chapter

We

are

concerned here not with Indian additions

to

Chinese learning

generally but only with the effects which the introduction of

Buddhism produced on

the Chinese language.

Before proceed-

ing to treat of some of these we must direct our attentioii to

384

The Influence of Buddhism on

which
affect

the Chinese
in

Language.

certain circumstances

them

an important manner
effects are consider-

and which
ed.

should be borne in
first

mind when the

China did not

In the

place, then, the foreign missionaries

all

who brought
all

the Buddhist religion into

come from one

natives of

Province or

Kingdom

of India, nor

were they even

that country.
of countries

On

the contrary

some

of

them

are described as natives

which in the period

of the

Han

dynasty and for some

time afterwards were occupied by Turkish, Scythian and other

peoples beyond the region of the Aryans. So
that
all

we

are prepared to find

the early missionaries did not pronounce Sanskrit words

in the

same way, and that some among them apparently did not

use Sanskrit, but an Indian dialect such as the Magadhi.

before their time Sanskrit

Long

had ceased

to be

colloquial idiom,

and had become

''

the language of religion and literature only.

From

the 6th century B. C. the

dialects called Prakrits.*'

Aryan people

of

India spoke
missionaries

popular

The Buddhist

who came from

we have already among Chinese

the

West

into
is,

China are often designated by

Tartar or Mongolian.

Chinese writers hu

(jg),

that

But, as

seen, this terra

had a vague and wide application

of the

writers

up

to the period

T'ang dynasty.

It then, chiefly by the influence of the native ecclesiastic

Yenthe

tsung mentioned above, became restricted properly to tribes and

nations East of the Tsung-ling range, while

Fan became

name
to

to

be given

to the nations

West

of that range

and specially

the people of India.

This important distinction, however,

has been often neglected by proud Confucianist writers who have

continued to give the

name

Hu

very often to natives of India

and

to others

who

are not Mongolians.

But some
districts

of the foreign

Buddhist missionaries did come from

which were not

Indian in any degree but rather Mongolian, though the monks in

these regions

knew

Sanskrit and used

of

it

as their literary

medium.
perhaps

Their

knowledge

that

language,

however,

was

neither accurate nor extensive, and they seem to have imported

into
it

sounds and words derived from their own

dialects.

We

are expressly told, moreover, by Chinese authors that the Indian

words which were introduced into China by foreign

ecclesiastics

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

385

came through the medium

corrupted.

of Tibetans

and Mongols, and that

the true pronunciation of the Sanskrit words was thus frequently

Another circumstance, or rather group

which we have
to

of

circumstances

take into consideration in the treatment of our

its dialects.

subject has regard to the Chinese language and

"We
Ti

must remember that the period from the time

to

of

Han Ming

the end

of the great
it

Sung dynasty extends over twelve centuthis period that nearly all

ries.

Now

was during

the transla-

tions

from Sanskrit writings were made, and that the travels and
Chinese pilgrims were accom-

sojourns in Buddhist lands by

plished and recorded.
all

Now

the spoken language of China was

this time apparently passing

through such changes of form

is

and matter as every living speech

constantly

undergoing.

Further the foreign missionaries settled at places in China which

were situated in different parts
of the

empire and were marked

lastly the native scho-

by considerable
lars

varieties of dialect.

And

who taught and helped

districts

the missionaries from abroad and

who were themselves

born and lived in

translators,

authors and compilers were

which

in

many

cases were wide apart,

and they were

rities of

also influenced to a certain extent

by local peculia-

language.
to

Remembering

these circumstances

we should
words and

be prepared
tions
of

find

some considerable

diversity in the transcripof

Sanskrit sounds

and the translations

phrases into Chinese.

As we
in

proceed we shall find that

many

Indian terms appear in Chinese in two or more forms differing in

some cases
sible that a

slightly

and

others very considerably.

of the

It is posit

thorough survey

Chinese language as
of the people

has

been at various periods in the history

us to

would enable

make
first,

four classes of transcriptions from Indian into Chinese.

at present to be doubtof

The
ful,

which may be deemed by some

would be a small one containing words

Indian origin

imported into Chinese before the introduction of Buddhism.

There seem

to

be a few of these, but the history of their recepis

tion into the language

not accessible or at least not supported

by satisfactory evidence.

The second

class

would embrace those

386

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinef^e

Language.
first

words introduced by the early missionaries in the

centuries of our era.

and second

In the third would be the words and ways

of transcribing introduced

by the authors and translators of the

period represented by the great Kumarajiva,

who

lived at the

beginning of the 5th century.

The fourth

class

would contain

the numerous terms and reformed transcriptions of old terms

which belong
(Hiuen-tsang).

to the

7th century, the period of Yuan-chuang

it

But

must be borne

in

mind that the authors

handed

and translators

of the third

and fourth periods retained in many

cases the forms of transcription as well as the translations

down from

the earlier period.

still

Not

a few of these old words and

phrases are

current in the popular speech and keep their

hold also on the literature.

An

attempt was made in the early

period of the present dynasty to represent the sounds of Sanskrit

as of other foreign words by Chinese characters

more accurately
is

than had been done before.

In

this

new method there

spelling.

an

approach to letter-spelling, and though cumbrous and uncertain

it is

an improvement on the old syllabic

But
So
far

it

is
it

to

be found in use only in books of a technical character, and

not become popular even
subject
is

has
our

among

the learned.

as

concerned this method of transcribing Sanskrit sounds,

a combination of Western and Chinese, will be found illustrated

in the Chien-lung reprint of Narindrayasa's translation of the

Ta-yun-lun-chHug^yu-ching}

In treating

of the influence
first

which Buddhism has had on the

Chinese language we
troduced into and

take examples of Sanskrit words in-

made

current in various degrees in Chinese.

"We are next

due
to

to take

examples of new Chinese words and phrases

;

translations

from Sanskrit

and then

of

new phrases

which though derived from Buddhist sources are not translations.

Next we
to notice

are to consider

some instances

of

new meanings and

lastly

applications given to old

words and phrases ; and

we

are

examples of Proverbs and

Common

Sayings among the

Chinese which are connected with Buddhism.

^ The It 3 SdkiQB* Ch. Buddhism.

A^

MM

>i^2-

On

this subject generally see chap. xxr. of

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

387

Wo

begin then with the Sanskrit words and phrases in

Chinese introduced by Indian missionaries and Chinese pilgrims

or due to the popularity of Buddhist scriptures

and teachings.

Of

such words and phrases the most important and interesting are
those which are intimately connected with the religion.
give these the precedence and take
first

So we

a few examples of the

names

of beings

who

receive worship or reverence.

are the greatest,

Among

these

beings the

Buddhas

and the

first

Sanskrit word

we have to notice as introduced into Chinese is Buddha. The Chinese word which has long been known and commonly used as representing the Sanskrit Buddha is Fo or Fu
i^).
This sound in the above usage
is

provided also with a

the

special character

jg which analysed

signifies
is

Man

of

the

West Country.

But the
is

latter character

not often met with,

It is also old in

whereas the former

of constant occurrence.

the language being found in comparatively early literature though

not in

its

present use.

The " Shuo-wen "

of taking
it

gives the character

-gjj

as having the

meaning

a general view, seeing without

examining, and makes

the equivalent of the word

now

written

^fo.

In the ^'Li-chi" the character occurs

it is

at least twice.

In one passage

used in the sense of forcing or twisting

round in the expression /o-c/i'i-s/iotA

their heads, that
is,

(^

"g*),

he screws round

the heads of certain wild birds.

The second
jS & ft) the disciples)
of the

passage contains the words chH-chHu-chih-ye-fo

(S

which are explained as meaning " what they

seek for
is

(i.e.,

perverse (or heretical)."

its

So the old meanings

character had nothing to do with

adoption to represent the

word Buddha.

In

this use

it is

said to be short for Fo-t'e

(^ pg).
Fu-t'ii

Another early way

of transcribing the Sanskrit

word was

(?? H)' ^^^ ^^^s ^^^^ ^^^ other meanings, and is to meet us again. find, moreover, the following given as transcriptions for the

We

name Buddha, V\z.,Fo-Vou

^),

(ft |g), Fu-t'u

Mu

{i.e.,

Bu)-'o
in

(#

Ife),

Mo

(Bo)-^'o

Q^ )f (^ K).

),

Pu-to (JJ These rethe

present differences

the pronunciation of the

less

name among

monks

of the

*'

Five Indias " no

than varieties of Chinese

into the

dialects.

The word Fo has indeed passed thoroughly

388

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

language of the people.

if

It has long been treated very

much

as

native and

it

has passed through several varieties of pronuncia-

tion.
it

When

originally adopted to represent the Sanskrit

word
or

had

perhaps in the language of the place a sound like

Buh

Vuh.
dialect

In mandarin
it is

it

has become
;

Fo

or

The word Hut or Hwut and in Buddha is interpreted as meaning Ghih-cho (^ ^), he who
viz.,

Fo or Fit; in Foochow it is Hiih.

the

Amoy

knows,

the past, the present, and the future creatures.

is

It

is

also translated by Chio (^), which

explained as denoting one

who

is

the awakened and the awakener, the enlightened and the

it

enlightener; and

is

also

rendered Ching-chio

(^
of

^), he who

has pure intelligence.^

The personal name by which the Buddha distinguished from other Buddhas is best known
is

history

as

to the
5S0

Chinese

in

its

old form Shi-chia-wen,

i.e.,

Shi-ka-mcn (j^

^) and

in the later form

Shi-chia-mou-ni

M^

JSi)-

l^hese repre-

sent

the

Sanskrit Stlkyamuni, which means the Sdkya Saint,

Sakya being a family name.

ion as given here

Instead of the
find only

full

form

of expressstill

we

often

Shi-chia, and

more
word

frequently Shi simply.

The Chinese

find a

meaning

in the

Sakya, which they translate by neng

(|g), able, or

by neng-jen

(tb fc); capable of kindness, expert in benevolence.

part of the compound, Muni,
saintly hermit,
is

The
(^)-

latter

interpreted by

some

as

meaning a

and by others

as denoting a scholar /it

The

actual

name

of the

founder of Buddhism was Gautama,

It

but this term has never been very popular with the Chinese.
has, however, been recognised by
ni,

them

as the
Gh'ii

name

of

Sakyamu-

and

in the old books

it

was transcribed

fGuJ-t^an

(^ ^)

and Chil (kuj-t'an (fE

fl.).

These words resemble the forms

for

Khodom and Kodam

writings the

or

Godam

Gautama.

In Yuan-chuang's

fuller transcription Ch'iao

it

fGioJ-ta-mo

(^

;|i)

was adopted, but

1

has been rarely used. Chinese writers usually

-^
;

" Shxio-wen "

;

s. v.

" Hsing-li-ta-ch'uan," chap. v.

" Li-chi," chap,

i.

i.,

and compare Legge's " Li-chi " in Sac. Books of tlie (This work East, vol. xxvii., p. 84; and xxviii., p. 86; " Fan-i-ming-i," chap. and the I-chHe-ching-]jin-i have been much consulted in the preparation of this them given to generally.) chapter, and reference is not
p. 21

and chap,

vi.,

p. 76;

The Influence of Buddhism on

regard

the Chinese

Language.

389

Gautama

as

a surname or
for

one of the six surnames of

tzii,

the Buddha.
that term
religion.

Some,

example Chu Foo

of

prefer to

use
the

when making mention

Thus we
find such

the

man who founded

^^^t
is,

expressions as

Oh^u-tan'she-chHit

chiao'tsui'chiu

(%

S ^ K Hc

ft

A)

was very

long ago that

Gautama

instituted his religion.

This

name has
it

heen wrongly explained by the Chinese in several ways, and has come
is,

to

be used in the sense of a follower of Gautama, that

a Buddhist monk.^

One

of the

most common and most familiar expressions in

is

the Chinese language

A-mi-t'e-fo

(fpf

5i P ft)-

These
all

sounds are
empire.

to

be heard and the characters to be seen over

A-mi-t*e
is

the

By
is

represented the Sanskrit word Amita,

which

part of Amitfibhas and Amitayus, the

names

of

the

Buddha who presides over the Western Paradise, the Pure Land, the Kingdom of Extreme Delight. The name Amitabhas
means " unmeasured brightness,"
(|R ft 5E)'
in

Chinese wii-liang-kuang
life,"

^^^ Amitayus

is

'^

unmeasured

wu-liang-shou

(^
is

ft %)' But these translations are not much used as there magic in the name A-mi-t'e and even in one or two of its

syllables.

No

bad

sprite or goblin

will

go near the spot on

are carved or painted.

which the four characters

for A-mi-t'e

Fo

And

the utterance of the

name
in the

in faith
life

and earnestness secures

Buddhist monks
visit-

peace

now and happiness

hereafter.

use this formula in greeting and conversing with their lay

ors.

Thus when a layman

I

styles

monk Ho-shang

pre latter

politely replies A-mi-t'e Fo,

and

this corresponds to the

common

fu-kan-tang, that

is,

am unworthy.
of a
is

Sakyamuni and Amitfibha are two

the third of which
is
is

trinity of

Buddhas,
to

Akshobya.

This

the

Buddha

whom
The
|^) or

assigned the Eastern Paradise, the

in

Land

of Rejoicing.
(ppj

name

Chinese transcription becomes A-ch^u-p'o

it

A-ch'u-pei (|$), but

or without
is

is

commonly shortened

to
is

A-ch^u with
it

Fo
to

added.

This character ch'u (|^)

not old, and

supposed
1

have been made by or

i.

for the Buddhists.

The

"Liao-chai," &c., vol.

(the

|$); " Shi-ghih-yao-lau"

(^

^ ^ 5^), Ch. J;.

390

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
it

word Akshobya means unmoved, imperturbable, and

or wti-nu JJ), not moving,

is

some-

times replaced in Chinese books by the renderings wa-tung

(M
if

{M
full

]5)

unmoved, without anger.

is

Another

''fictitious

Buddha"
title

the Liu-li

(^ ^)
is

Fo, as

Vaidiirya Buddha.

His

in

Sanskrit

Bhaishajyais

guru Yaidfirya-prabhasa

raja, that

is,

the Doctor
is

who

King

of

the splendour of lapis lazuli.

a P'usa,
healing.

This

Buddha

sometimes called
of

and he

is

largely

worshipped in China as a god

sometimes styled Yao-shi-wang (| gij J), the Physician King, and sometimes Liu-li-wang the Lapis-lazuli
is
,

He

King.

But
in

these two

names seem
the

to

be given also to different

objects of worship.*

Next

rank

to

Buddhas proper

are those called Prat-

yeka, in Pali Patiyekka, Buddhas.

An

old interpretation of this

name made

it

mean

Ku

Fo
is

or Ancient

Buddhas, those who had

long ago appeared in the world

and gone into Nirvana.

Yuan-chio

The

term Pratyeka Buddha

that
is,

also explained by

(^ ^),

one who attains enlightenment by the good conduct of

or,

one existence
Nidanas.

as

some

say,

he who
is

is

enlightened as to the

Another interpretation

tu-chio

(^

enlightened by himself,
alone.

who

attains salvation by

^), he who is and for himself

This last

is

perhaps the correct explanation as the word one

as

pratyeka

means

singly,

by

one,

alone.

The Chinese
of

know
in

a Pratyeka

Buddha

an inferior Buddha who appears

between the disappearance

this

world in the interval

one and the coming of the next true Buddha.

translations

In the early
used

and
(i. e.,

other

works

the

transcriptions

were

Pei'chi'chia

Pei-ti-ka

M.^
it

M^^ ^^

{W^-ti-ka, and Pi-ti

(B? 'iC)' rather than the

of the

These transcriptions,
Sanskrit.

will

be seen approach the Pali

purists

But Yuan-chuang and the

(ti) -ye-chia- (ka) (H j^ have ti by mistake apparently). books some |g JIH, Of all these ways of writing the word the only one which has This is still held its place is Pi-ti in modern Mandarin Pi~chi.

T'ang period wrote Pi-le-chi

for

^
in

common
^

use and
a. v.

is

the only one generally understood.

See Kanghsi

^.
p. 235.

Edkins' ('hineae Buddhism,

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

391

Next
esteem
is

to a

Buddha and
word

often supplanting
its

him

in

popular

the Bodhisattva in
of this

Pali form Bodhisatto.

The

old
still

transcription

in

Chinese and the only one

recognised
cut

is

P'u-Vi-sa^to

(^

Jg

^ ]^.

But

this

has long been

is

down

to its first

and third syllables and P'u-sa

common
is

well-known term throughout the empire.

perly only a candidate for Buddhahood,
at that state has reached the last

Bodhisattva

pro-

or a saint

who aiming
fictitious

stage but one of his career.

But the term came

Buddhas.
a
still

to

be applied also to a class of

beings nominally inferior but practically equal or superior to the

And in China
and good works.

the

wider application for

it is

name P^u-sahas gradually obtained given to Buddhist monks noted

extended to various native
is
it

for piety

It is also

local
to

and

inferior gods or genii, but

never, I think, applied

Shang Ti and the high

gods.
in

Of the P'u-sas who are known

China by their Indian

and
Maitreya.

names

we

notice

here

only

two,

Manjusri

The former is commonly called Weii-chu (^^ ^) P'u-sa, but in books his name is written in various other ways. Thus he is Manyu (J^ -J, this character tzil having here the sound yii), and But the full name is expressed by Wenalso Man-ju (J^ JH).
(i. e.y

MinJ'Chu-shih-li

(^

6iS

M)

i^ ^^^

works

of

Kumjirajiva

and other early

translators,

in the reformed spelling of

|g TpJ) Yuan-chuang. This Wen-chu P'usa is

and by Man-chu'shi-U

worshipped in China as the god of wisdom and his chosen seat

is

the

Wu T'ai

Shan.
(3JC

native Wen-ch'ang

He is often ^) or God
The

popularly identified with the

of Literature

and Learning,

who

is

also called a P'usa.

other Bodhisattva called by

is

his foreign

name

is

Maitreya who

known

all

over China as

Mi'leh (3g :U) P*u-sa or sometimes Mi-leh Fo. These sounds Mi-leh probably indicate another dialectical variation from the
Sanskrit,

but they cannot represent the Pali form

which

is

Metteyyo.

There are other and

fuller

ways

of writing Maitreya,

such as the Mei-ta-li-ya (i^ tB fI5) of Yuan-chuang, but except in Buddhist books. This is the P'usa they are not used

whose image with laughing face and

fat

paunch

faces the visitor

392
as

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

Mi-leh
is

he enters a Buddhist temple.

now

in the

Tushita
will

Heaven where he has been seen by mortals, and whence he

come
piety
in the fullness of time to this earth to bring

back faith and

and

all

goodness an happiness.

We
is

next select some examples of the names of the immediate

disciples of

Gautama Buddha. The first of

This disciple,
''

these

by canonical

right
as

that of Siiriputra.
calls himself,

the eldest son of

Buddha "
ftj

he

appears in Chinese as She'li-fu

''

(^

^),

inter-

preted as meaning
of Sariputra,

Son

of

Mainah." This

is

the literal rendering

disciple's

and the designation was derived from the

mother. She had received the

name

Sari,

Mainah, from the bright-

ness and beauty of her eyes, and Sariputra was the son of his

mother.

He was

one of the chief disciples of Buddha by

is,

whom

he
of

was much beloved. In Wisdom, that

in the saving

knowledge

what

to believe

and how

to

use what he learned he was

first of all

the great disciples.

of his

There are many translations or interpretations

is

name

in Chinese, but he
is

best

known simply
^^

as She-li-fu.
of the right

As
left."

Sariputra

sometimes called the " Disciple

is

hand," so Moginlin

styled occasionally the

for the latter
is

Disciple of the

The Sanskrit name

Maha Maudgalyayana
is,

which in Chinese becomes Ta-mu-chien-lieny that

(qv kin)-lin (J^

Ta-mn-gin-

5fj|

3^).
is

Here
for

ta

is

the translation of Maha,

Pali,

great,

and Mu-chien-lien
of the disciple.

Maudgalyayana, Mogellano in

the

name

The Chinese very commonly shorten

the

latter to

Mu-lien, and this

may

almost be said to be a household

to

word

in China.

Indian tradition ascribed

Maudgalyayana the
degree,

possession of supernatural powers in

a remarkable

and

the Master had on several occasions to restrain his miracle- workBut the Chinese do not know Mii-Lien simply in cr propensities.
or specially as the wonder-worker.
as the pious son

They know and

revere

him
This

who went through

all

the hells and passed within

the Iron Hills in order to obtain the release of his mother.

great exploit
is

told in story in China, is acted

on the stage,

and

is

inseparably connected with a great festival

to

the

Yil-lan

Hui
^

be noticed presently.^
(@ ii

See the "Ma-lieu-chiu.mu-ch'uan.shan.chi"

^ # t& # E).

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

393

Two more
commonly
of
is

of

the disciples
to

may

be mentioned here, as their

names are well-known

to

Chinese generally.

Their images are

be seen standing one on each side of Siikyamuni

Fo, the middle one of the three sitting images in the Hero's Hall
a Buddhist temple.
that of Ananda, in

The image Chinese A-nan

to the left of

the
is

Buddha

(pl

g).

He

the young

disciple

who

'^

heard much," the cousin of Gautama and the

faithful attendant of the latter.

right, is the

On

the other side, to Buddha's

image

of

Kasyapa, an age-worn, lean and wrinkled

in Chinese
is is

''anatomy."

His name

Ghia-(ka)-ye
often called

(formerly pronounced Ka-sa), and he

Ta

Great,

($Sg

^),

Maha

Kasyapa,

to

distinguish

him from

several others of the

same name.
Passing over the names of
missionaries which, though

many disciples, Patriarchs and known to the pious believers and to

to

the learned in Buddhism, are not familiar to the people, and so

not in the
left

common
It

speech
is

we come
of

unnoticed.

that of Bodhidharma, the

first

name which cannot be man who was last

the

of

the

Western and

the

Eastern Patriarchs of
in

Buddhist Church.
(*

His name became

i^

Chinese F^u-ti'ta-mo

ti

JPj'
to

^^^

^^^s

always in the popular language been

shortened

Ta-mo.

This Patriarch came from India to Canton,

after a short

where he arrived in or about A. D. 520, and whence,

stay,

he proceeded

to

Nanking, and ultimately

to

Loyang.

To

the

learned and the unlearned in China

Ta-mo

is

a very familiar
great Buddhist

name.

The former know it as that of Patriarch and reformer, who came teaching
Hence

the

that religion was not

his

in books,

and that man should seek and find Buddha in

own

heart.

arose two sayings about him, which have long

It is said of

been famous among the Chinese.

that lou-U'wen-tzii
(/}\

Bodhidharma
literally,
is

jt

^), he rejected Scripture,

" did not

set

up written characters."

The other saying

chih-

chih-Jen-Iisin

\M

ia

A >&);
;

" he only pointed to

man's mind,"

that

is,

as

Buddha

he taught that man's spiritual nature was

Buddha.

The

people, however, do not

know much
But
to

of

Ta-mo

as

a mystic quietist and spiritual enthusiast.

them no

less

394

The Tnffupncf of Buddhism on

fJic

Chiiipso Lanf/nagp.

than to the pious aud the learned he

is

familiar as the Lohan,

who by

the fierce energy of his magic

will,

crossed the swollen

of a

torrent of the

Yang-tzu on the unsteadfast footing

bamboo
it,

twig, or of a reed, as

some

tell,

and

as the popular saying has

Ta^mo-i-wei-tU'chiang
crossed the River.
is

(M

"^
is

MM

it)) '^'<^'^o with one reed

This feat

painted by the Chinese on paper,

carved in ivory, shown with curious art on walls and panels

of houses,

and adorns many a tea-cup and

tea-pot.

It

is

often

associated with the story of

Ta-mo meeting

the pilgrim Sung-

yun

in the Tsung-ling mountains.

in

On

that occasion

Ta-mo was

barefoot, carrying a sandal

his

hand, and he told Sung-yun

he was on his way

to the

Western Paradise.

Hence sometimes
coffin

we

see

Ta-mo
it

crossing the Yang-tzii barefoot, but carrying one

shoe,

and sometimes we see Sung-yun opening Ta-mo's

only one shoe.
it

and

finding in
likeness to

This word Ta-mo has a tempting

Thomas, and

was probably from

in

this

likeness that
saint,

the story about St.

Thomas

China
of

arose.

The

as

we

know, was
To-mo, and
ianity

identified
it

by some
to

the early

missionaries

with

pleased them

think of

him teaching
Ta-mo, who

Christin

and working miracles in China.

often

represented by a black image with short curly hair, has

many
by

temples for his worship.

He

is

always a foreigner from India,

but the foreign character of his

peculiarities of pronunciation

name
a

is

often obscured
find

and writing.
in

Thus we

Amoy
these

people writing the

as

name Ta-mo
the

temple to his worship not

ch^en-moii

above but

with

characters

(^

j9|),

characters being in their dialect pronounced Tan-mo.

Turning next

to the

gods of India we find that some of these

became known
instances

to the

Chinese through the means of the Buddhist

missionaries and travellers.

One

or two of the

more conspicuous
deities
of

may

be

cited.
is

Among

the

higher

India

Brahma

especially

familiar to the Chinese, and his

name has

long been a recognized word in the language.

^
'*

The commonest

iScripfcnre" is only the half of

'li

Tlie expressiou "He rejected Kuaiig-tuug-fc'aug-chih,'' chap, cccxxviii. Bodhidharma's saying, which is j^ tJt i^ JL^ >0- " he I'ejected Scripfcureaud trausmitted miud by miud." ' Chih-yue-hi"

(^&

H mi

chap.

iv.

TJir TnfIf"}i('H of

Buddhism on

the,

Chinese LiDiguage.
is

395

form of

this

name

is

Fan i^), and

Fan
is

it

said that this character

was made by

or for the Buddhists to represent the

also stated that

word Brahma.
syllable of the
n^'

"We

find

it

only the

first

transcription

which

is

properly Fan-lan-ino

(^

^).

There

are also two or three other ways of expressing the Sanskrit word,

much used. In Buddhist and non-Buddhist writings alike the common term is Fan simply, though we find also Ta Fan, that is, Maha-Brahma, Great Brahma, and Fan T'ien, Brahma-Deva. Some authors tell us that the character had originally a sound like pen or peng^ hut for a long time the probut they are not

nunciation attached to
it is

it

has been something like the present, and

possible that in the use of this

word we have another indica-

tion of a dialectical variety in the original.

Among the Buddhists

to

the god

Brahma

figures

as

a
is,

being subordinate to and often

attendant on Buddha.
special

He

however,

the Chinese in a
is

manner the God

of India,

and hence the word Fan

find such

used

as an equivalent for Indian.

Thus we

common

express-

ions as the

Brahma Country, Fan-kuo,

language
;

that

is,

India; Fan-yen
letters

("^), the Sanskrit

of

Fan-tza (*^) or shn (^), the

the Indian alphabet, Sanskrit writing.

But

this last is per-

haps called " Brahma writing," because the Devanagari alphabet

was supposed

to

have been communicated by Brahma.

The Buddhist writings often represent Indra as associated with Brahma in ministrations to or attendance on Buddha. Indra is best known in Chinese literature by his name Sakra, Sakka in Pali, which is transcribed Sld^ka (g jjg). The second syllable, however, is commonly omitted, and he is usually styled Ti-shi
(j^

S)' ^^^^

^^'

Indra Sakra or Sakra the Sovereign, the Lord of

In this capacity he
is

all

the Devas.

called by several other

is

names
books

or epithets, but the use of these

chiefly.

confined to Buddhist

But no Indian

deity

is

better

known

in

China than Yama, the

in India

God

of the dead, recognized

and feared in China as

by

Buddhists and non-Buddhists. His name became in Chinese Yen'^^0 (5-:^

M)

^^^ second character being chosen as giving the sound

will

required and also, as

be seen

below, giving a hint of the

396

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

meaning.

But

this transcription

has not been so popular as the

form Yen-lo
is

for

raja.

Lo-she (|| f^), that is, YamaJ^), But the original use of the character read lo has long been

Yen-mo

(^ {^

jg) usually with

wang King

added.

Here yen

and

lo for

forgotten,
for king.

and hence the necessity

for

adding the native word

Yama

is

also styled

Yen-shen or the god

Yam a,

and

he

is

at once

god, judge

and king.

Yama
wang

is

also often

found

written Yen-mo

(^

Jj) usually with

(3E) added.

Another dread being introduced by the Buddhists from India

into

China

is

Mara, the Devil, the tempter and the destroyer.

full, is

This word, when written in

shortened

Mo-lo

(Jg

J^), but

it is

usually

down

to

the

simple Mo.

To

this the

word knei,
This

in the sense of

wicked

spirit, is

often superfluously added.

said to have been invented
Ti,

particular character read

Mo

is

by the

Emperor known
of our era.

as

Liang

Wu

who

reigned in the 6th century

One

of the

synonyms

for Miira

among

the Buddhists

was Papiya, which was transplanted into Chinese as P'o-pei-j/e

(JS

^ 'S)*

'^^^^

^^'^

^^

interpreted as

meaning '^wicked" or
form for

" wicked among the wicked.'^

the old and

It is said to be the correct

common word
God

P'O'Siin

{^

^).

But

this latter is

perhaps for the Sanskrit Pasin, the noose- or net-bearer, an epithet

of

Yama,

the

of the dead.

The Buddhists may have

kills

tran-

sferred the title to

soul.^

Mo Wang,

Mararaja, who

both body and

In the
cal beings,

train of

Buddhism came
of

also a host of Indian

mythi-

good and bad, supernatural but inferior

to those just

mentioned.

Some

these

creatures soon became objects of

popular belief in China, and their names passed into the language.

When
nection

first

made known with Buddha and

to

the Chinese they

all

had some con-

his religion, but this in several cases has

long ago quite dropt out of view.

Some have had

little

their characters

and functions changed, modified a

to suit the Chinese genius.

Among

these strange '^ Twilight-rovers" are the Eakshas or Rakshasas, " demons and fiends who haunt cemeteries, disturb
1 See Ch. Rec, vol. v., p. 43, note. Ifc seems doubtful whctlier the character Mo, given in the text, is not older than Liang Wu ti.

for

The Influence of Buddhism on

sacrifices,

the Chinese

Language.

397

harass

devout

men,
afflict

animate dead bodies,

devour

human

beings,

and vex and

mankind

in all sorts of ways."

The Sanskrit name has been

this the

written in several ways in Chinese,

is

but the most popular form of transcription

Lo-ch'a

(^

^|J).

To

word
is

kiiei,

demon,

is

often added,

and we are

told that

Lo-ch*a

a general

name for

all

malignant demons.
of

The Yakshas

in Indian

mythology are beings

no definite moral principles,

they are neither very good nor very bad, but are simply attendants
of the

acter in

God of Wealth. But the Buddhists gave them a bad charmany cases, and this has clung to them in China. Here
Old transcriptions
5|^|J

the Yakshas tear open graves and devour corpses, and generally

go about doing mischief.

are Ye
(i.e.,

of the

name Yaksha

and |^ ^), for which Yuan-chuang (^ substituted Yao {yah)-ch'a (| ^). But we seldom meet with this
ya)-ch'a
last transcription, the first

one being the one in popular use up

to the present.
is

It will be seen that the first syllable of this

word

represented by the character which means night, and from this

circumstance the Chinese have come to regard the Yakshas as

peculiarly
teries.

demons

of the night,

and haunters

of

tombs and ceme-

But these demons can assume various

to

disguises,

and they

have been known

beings.
of

prowl by day and to

kill

and eat human

They

are even said to have eaten

occasion.

up a whole monastery
are often represented

monks on one

The Yakshas

as being dwarfish

human-like creatures with horns on their heads

These are sometimes called by the Chinese

and pale cruel

*'

faces.

ghost-face Yakshas"

(^

"B

^).

Those which dart through

the air and fly up to heaven on messages of warfare are called

by mortals meteors and comets.^

Then
In

there are the Gandharvas, old

offices
is

denizens of an upper

world but with new

and characters among the Buddhists.

written Kan-t^a-p^o (|^

Chinese the name

H |^), Kien
^^

(ganj'te-lo (!f^ p jg) and in several other ways.

It is explained

by Usiang-shcu
^

jjj^),

Gods

of smell,

from the supposed deriva-

The terms sheii (^) and Jcuei-sheii (^ jfi$) are used occasionally to translate "Yakshas." This is seen, e.g., in the Miao-fa-lien-hiia-ching (^ fife jI?) " or Le Lotus de la Bonne Loi." The quotations from the Sanskrit text of this work are from a Nepalese MS. in the author's possession.

398
tioii

The Influence of Buddhism on

of the

the Chinese

Language.

word from gandha, smell or odour.

There are other

explanations of the name, and the Gandharvas are

known

to the

Buddhists also in their character of Heaven's musicians.

their chief occupation seems to be attendance on

But
hear

Buddha

to

his teaching.

Along with the Gandharvas we often

whose name
is

find the Kinnaras,

commonly written

in

Chinese Chin {kin)'na-lo

transcriptions.

(^

H5 iS)^ though there are several other

also
stitution.

These

are innocent musical creatures of doubtful shape

and con-

The name means

''Is
it

*'

What

kind

of

man?"

or, as it is

explained,

gathered

human being?" In around Buddha we can distinguish

a

the congregations
the Kinnaras by

their horse-like

heads,

though they seem

is

to

be described also

as having horns.

The Garuda

a bird-like monster, with golden

all ser-

wings of vast dimensions, the ruthless foe of Nagas and

pents.

In Chinese the word

is

usually transcribed Ka-lou-lo

I in the jS)' ^^^ ^ of Sanskrit having as usual become This is the old way of writing pronunciation of a dialect, Garula.

(SB M

the word, the

new way
the

giving

t'e

instead of

lo.

The Chinese

seem

to identify

Garuda sometimes with

it

their

own Fengcorrectly as

huang, a so-called Phoenix, but they describe

a sort of large eagle, or see in
it

more

the

peng
told,

(5H|)

of their

own

Chuang Tzu.
It
is

to

the

Buddhists,

we

are

that

the

horrible
of the

monsters called
old

Kumbhandas owe
this
is

their existence.

One

ways
ftS

of

transcribing
^ ^^^6r one

name

is

Ghiii

{ku)'p'an~t'ii

(41

^)} ^^^

Chin

{lcam)''p^an Ve

(^

$ pg).
other
other

This latter form has the sanction of the poet

classical writers,

Tu Fu and

but

it

is

perhaps not so

popular as the

transcription.
visible

The Kumbhandas

are hideous repulsive ogres, never

by day, but haunting people's beds and causing nightmare.

Better

known and more

feared than these are the

Asuras.
j^),

common

transcription of this

name

is

A-hsiu-lo

(Pq( jig-

often

shortened to Hsiu-lo
all

or A-hsiu.
spirits.

gods," and they are not

footed beasts, and

wicked

The Asuras are " not Some are like four-

some are

like ghosts or goblins with fading

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

traces of humauity.

399

They

live in a

land below the bed of ocean,

or dwell by the louely sea-side,

or

haunt the twilight glens

of

wild wooded mountains.

But wherever they

to

are these spectral

monsters are always ready

vens.

go aloft and wage war in the hea-

They

light against

the gods of light, and

when they win

the battle they put the sun or the

moon

in

eclipse.
in

Hence the

word A-hsiu, Asura, has come

to

to

be used

Chinese literature

denote an eclipse.

A
it

chief

among

these airy Asurs

is

Rahu, sometimes styled

as

the King.
is

His name appears in Chinese

of the language.

Lo-hou (jg

@||),

and

common term
is

In astronomy, Indian

and Chinese, Rahu

Ketu,
in

the ascending node or Dragon's Head, as

{ki)'tu (ff

Chinese

Chi

^)

is

the descending

node

or Dragon's Tail.

But

in

popular language and literature Loseizes

is

hou

is

the

Asur King who

of light.

moon

or sun for a time

to

and

stops the
star

way

He
to

wont

also

keep back a good

and give free course and the success

in this

every bad one, thus delaying happy

It

births

of great designs.

was from Rahu's

derived.^

action

way

that,

according to popular etymology, the

disciple of

name
is

of Rfihula, sou

and

Buddha, was
to a

Chinese of

all sects

pay worship

goddess who, however,

title

possibly not of native origin.

or

She has the general

title

T^ieu

Hou
of

Queen

of

Heaven, a
is

which she shares with

others,

and as a Taoist deity she

the Dipper.

'Tou-mu

(^

Sg

also read lad),

this

Dame
is

To

the native Buddhists

goddess

the
Jjj.

Indian Marichi, transcribed in Chinese Mo-li-chih

This word
sun," a
is

(^

^ij

explained as meaning '^the burning light of the

bright shining light.

Marichi

is

identified

also

with

Siva's consort as Durgfi, the subduer of evil powers.

called

She

is

now

Chinese transcription Chun-ti (i^ ^), commonly called Chundi. The Chinese also regard this goddess as
in

Chandi,

a re-incarnation

of

the

*'

Sombre maid," Haiian-nii

Ti in the

(^
of

^),

who helped the The transcription

great
of

Huang

childhood

China.

the Sanskrit names,

MaKGhi and Chandi,

here given, would tend to show that the introduction of the words
^ Fan'yuaiuGhi.\>.lin 212. 344.

{^^H^ Us),

chap,

v.,

p.

28j Edkius' CL. Budm.,

pi).

"

400
was

The Influence of Buddhism on

of late

(he Chinese

Language.
tlie

date,

or

at

least

did not occur during

early

history of

Buddhism

in China.

This Marlchi

is

one of the Nine

perhaps Durgfi
evil

Prajufimuyi of Northern Buddhism, and she

or

is

Chandi as the Asur conqueror and the charmer against

In later Buddhism, moreover, Ghim-Vi
of
is

spirits.

the Buddhaapparently.

mother, Prajna in the sense

Magical

Wisdom

It should be stated also that the deity worshipped

under the

name
them

of Chun-t'i

by the Chinese

is

in

some places regarded by

as a

god and not as a goddess.^

We

go on next to take up the names of the Buddhist happy

this

and unhappy places beyond

few can be said
to be well

world.

Of these names only a

occurrence in their

known to language. One

jpj

the Chinese and of

of the

common
is

most familiar
a

the

term
Tao-li

Tao-li-Vien
is

("j'JJ

5c)

^^ ^^^ designation of

Heaven.

a very corrupted and mutilated form of transcription for

Trayastrinsa, which
this

means

^'

thirty-three."

Indra

is

the Lord of
established.

Heaven which he and his

Tao-li
is

thirty-two Brother

Devas
to

The word
asteries in

often found giving

name
the
*'

Buddhist mon-

China.

Pictures

also

of

Beautiful Palace

in this

Heaven

are to be seen in Chinese books, and models

and

delineations of the Heaven are to be found occasionally in the

upper rooms of temples.

Another Buddhist Heaven

of sojourn for every
to this
le

is

that called Tushita, the place

Bodhisattva immediately before he descends

It
is

world to become Buddha.

in this

Heaven

that Mi-

P'usa (Maitreya), as has been stated,

now

waits the fullness

of time for his

coming

to this earth

and

in

the meantime preaches

the

way

to

final

bliss to

the souls dwelling with

him

in

happy

expectation.

The word Tushita has been

is

transcribed in Chinese
is

in several ways, but the

most familiar form

Tou-sii-t'e

(^
is

p).
shi-to

This

an old way, and that of the T'ang period

Tu-

(^

^).

But the
of

last syllable of

each

is

usually omit-

ted in

common

speech and literature, and Tqu-su and Tu-shi are

often found as
'

names

Buddhist temples.

Eikina' Ch. Budm.,

p. 208.

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

401

In popular Chinese books of various kinds we occasionally

find

a word written A-ka-ni-ta or sha

(fpj JJg

p or

^)

or

otherwise.

These transcriptions represent the Sanskrit

Akais

nishta, which

means "

eldest,

highest, greatest."
is

This name

used

to

denote the Heaven, which

the last or highest of the

worlds of visible form, and also the Devas

Heaven.
direction

As

it

is

the region farthest from

who dwell in that man in an upward

is air,

A-ka-ni-ta, shortened to

A-ka-ni with T'ien added,

used as a synonym for a very great height in the

distance upwards.

the farthest

Buddhism has
as
it is

its hells,

both hot and cold, places of torment,

of these
is

great but not eternal.

Only one
This

need be mentioned here,

perhaps the only one which

is

found mentioned often in

Chinese literature.

the region called Avichi in Sanskrit

(fpf

and known

in Chinese

by the transcription A-pi-shi

^ p),
is

commonly shortened
is

to A-pi.

To
is

this the native

term Ti-yu, Hell,

sometimes added, but A-pi

Avichi
is

often found alone without any

gloss.

the last and worst of the eight great Hells, and

it

so called because in

there

is

" no intermission."

The wretches
howling in

who

suffer in

it

are always crying out for mercy, and a poet has

of a

compared the loud snoring

A-pi-shi.

man

to the incessant

Let us now pass on

to notice

some

of the

Indian words in

Chinese which relate immediately to the professed adherents of

Buddhism.

Beginning with the names and descriptions of these

we

find that the first division of

them

is

into

Bhikshu and Bhik-

shuni or monks and nuns, and Upasaka and Upasika or male and female lay adherents.

In Pali Bhikshu

is

Bhikku, and the old

still

Chinese transcription,
is

which
or

is

the one
(Jjj

in

common

use,
is

Pi'ch'iu, that
in Pali

is,

Pi-kHu

ku

or ^).

The nun

Bhikkuni

and

in Chinese

Pi-kHu-ni (Jt
suffix.

^),
is

the ni

being understood to be merely a feminine

In Buddhism,
properly

which took the word from the Brahmans, the Bhikshu

an ordained mendicant monk.

In Chinese, however, Pi-ch*iu

denotes simply a Buddhist monk, and Pi-ch'iu-ni a Buddhist nun.

The terms

are also frequently used in a complimentary or honorific

402

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
Pi-ch4u

manner, though a Buddhist

with perfect propriety.

monk may

style himself a

In the T'ang period Yuan-chuang and

(iJS

others adopted the characters Pi-ch'u

M)

^^

represent the native

Sanskrit

word Bhikshu.
it

The new name pleased the

to

scholar because

was supposed

be taken from the Chinese

name

of a

tender trailing plant which had a sweet smell and

its

never turned
of those

back

to the sun.

So

it

was a becoming emblem

who

left all to

lead calm lives of devotion ever looking tothe

old
transcriptions
for

wards Buddha.

But

Bhiksu and
of the

Bhikshuni have maintained their popularity, and the use

later

forms

is

chiefly confined to learned

and serious

literature.

Instead of the complete word Pi-chHu-ni we very often find only

the
last

syllable used.

Thus Seng-Ni

is

Buddhist monks and

nuns

^),
seh

in expressions like Seng-ni-fing-le-huei-sii (ff" jg 1^ " he obliged monks and nuns to return to common life."

The Upfisaka and

Upfisikfi are in

Chinese commonly

YiL-^p'o-

(^

^ g|) and Yu-p'o-i (^ ^ H) respectively.

i is

In the

latter
all

the termination

used under the wrong impression that

in
i

Sanskrit nouns of the feminine gender end

or ni.

These lay

members

of the

Buddhist church have been known in China since

the time of the

history of

Han

dynasty, and

we

find

them mentioned

in the

that dynasty under the name I-pu-seh

in other treatises as

I-pu simply.
a

f^ g), and Then I-pu came to be used for

{^

I4an-pu {^
Brothers.-^

^ ff

),

name

for the Sweet-flag

in

(g

much used by

the Upasakas

making presents

to the

ff ), a vegetable mendicant

A
8hc4i

very respectful term for a Buddhist

or in full A'shc-li
is

monk

in

China

is

m^^
is

or

^).

The Sanskrit word

here represented
,

Acharya, which means a spiritual guide or

In Buddhism also the Acharya
the Senior Brother, but there are
of

teacher, one learned in the law.

is

a spiritual preceptor, or he

five

kinds distinguished.

One
is

these

is

the Shou-chie

(^

J^)

Achfirya,
discipline.
^

who

is

superior by a rigid observance of the ritual and

also called a

Such a Brother
of

Karma

(|g

^)

A-she-

See Eitel's Handbook every student of Chinese has

referred to in this chapter).

Buddhism,

p. 156. (As it is taken for granted that Dr. Eitel's books on Buddhism they are not
xlii.

Hou-Hau-Shu," chap,

The Influence of Buddhism on

lij

the Chinese

Language.

403

and

this title is given

on tombstones and in biographies.

representing Acharya
v^rere

The

characters

here given

as

long ago

condemned
derived,
it

as wrong, the sound of the Sanskrit

was

said,

from a corrupt pronunciation

word having been of it by the some

people of Khoten.

In the Sui period a new transcription was

to

made, which was adopted by the T'ang translators

extent.

This gave A-chc-li-ye (f^ ^[g flj :jg or JR). The new transcription, however, is known only to the learned, and is seldom used, while
the old She-li
is still

popular, being used to and of Buddhist

monks

noted for piety or eminent for gooduess.

A
writing

common name
is

for all ordained

members

of a

Buddhist

fraternity in

China and one by which they

style themselves in
is for

Shi-sha-men
of
is

(^

f^).

The Shi here

Shi-tzu

(^), Son

Sakyamuni, the Sanskrit Sakyamuni-putra, and the

for

Sha-men

Sramana, an

ascetic.

It is said to be
is

by express

command
Sha-men.

of the

Master that the word Shi

thus prefixed to

S^amana may be

a Buddhist or a

Brahman, and

the Buddhist ascetics were required to distinguish themselves by

prefixing the
literature,

name

of their founder.
is

In common language and

dropt,

however, the Shi

often

and the Buddhist

of the

monks
word
is

are called simply Sha-men.

Another early form

the Sanskrit Sramana.

Sang-men

(^

f^),

and these two old ways of transcrip-

tion are nearer the Pali

Samano than

The

latter is seen at full length in the

T^ang transcription introduced

viz.,

or at least adopted

by Yuan-chuang,

Sho-lo-vio-na
of

(-^
is

jg|

^).

It will be observed that the

sang

Sang-men

repre-

sented by the character w^hich denotes the mulberry tree.

And
is

one of the terms by which a Buddhist

monk

speaks of himself

K'ung-sang-tzu

(^

-f),

interpreted to

mean

^^the orphan

son of a mulberry.'' This expression has been linked on to an old

story about a
tree

woman who found

to a king.

a fairy girl in a hollow mulberry

and presented her

The

novice,

the

Deacon,

and

all

unordained

Buddhist

ecclesiastics

are called in the Sanskrit language Sramanera, the

Pali form being Samanero.

There

is

a complete transcription of

the Sanskrit word in Chinese, but in

common

use we find only


404
The Influence of Buddhism on
the Chinese

Language.

the short form Sha-mi (3? 5S), a term of frequent occurrence, both in speech and writing. The Sha-mi is said to be one who

has cut

off

his hair with

the intention of taking the vows of a

is

Buddhist monk, but the]'term

all

loosely applied

by the people

to

who having

ecclesiastical tonsure

and dress are yet not duly

ordained.

Then we have the four degrees

which
all

of spiritual attainments to

professing Buddhists aspire and through which they hope

to pass.

The

first

and lowest

of these is that called in Sanskrit

Srotfipanna and in Pali Sotapan.

scription in Chinese
is

The

old

and common tranthat

is,

Hsii-t'e-yuan (p[ pg

-Jg),

Su-to-van,

the third character having here as in other early transcriptions

the phonetic value of

is

j{^,

that

is,

huan

or van.

the converted
is

man who

has " entered the stream."

The Srotapanna The Chinese

A.

rendering

Ju-liu (A. W), which also means entering the stream.

is

but the term

better explained by

Chu-ju-sheng-Uu

(IjJ

B S6X

0116 '^bo

has just begun the holy career, who has entered

to

on the noble and arduous course which leads

Buddhahood.
as

In the T'ang period a new transcription was introduced which,

usual, reproduced ths Sanskrit rather than the Pali form of the

expression.

Next above the Srotapanna

Ssu-t'e-han

is

the Sakridagamin,

in Pali the Sakadagami.

is still

In Chinese the old transcription which

in daily use

is

(^

p ^).
is

The man who has

called a Sakridaga-

reached the second of the " Four

Ways "

min because he has only

to

be born once and die once

i-wang-lai

he can attain perfection. The third way is that of the Anagamin, who " does not return," that is, who has
not to come back to
character.
return.
life

^) before

in this

world or in any world

of a like

This saint when he dies jpu-huan (;p jj) does not The popular transcription for the Indian term is A-na-

han (P^

JI5

of writing the

^), A-na-gan probably. This and the common ways names of the other " ways " as given here date from

the earliest period of

of these

Buddhism

in China.

The

fourth and highest

ways

is
is

that of the Arhan, in Pali

Arab an.

The Chinese
is

transcription

properly A-lo-han (pj j^ ;^), but this

always

cut

down

to Lo-han.

The term Arhan

is

properly one of the very

The Influence of Buddhism on

the

ChineM Language.
;

405

highest that can be applied to any being

it

is

a title of the

Buddhas and'
perfection.

of

all

those

who have
and

attained alsolute spiritual

is

But

in

China the designation Lo-han

literature,

used in a loose

way

in the popular language

to

and three Sanskrit

words are supposed

be mixed up in the interpretation given.

There are from old time the Five Hundred Lo-han, Indians, who
still sit

by statue

in council as

once they sat Reverend Doctors

better

framing the sacred canon.

And

known than

these are the

Eighteen Lo-han ranged nine and nine on each side of Buddha's

Hall in most of the large temples.

These are generally called Budis

dha's immediate disciples, but the expression

not quite correct.

The number was

and these were
dha.

originally
all or

as

it still is

in

some places

sixteen,

nearly
are

all disciples

of

the historical

Budbut

The two added

to

not in

all

places

the

same,

Kumarajiva, the translator; and Liang

Wu Ti, the pious Emperor,

care to enquire

seem

be popular additions.

But few
have them
is

who

the

Eighteen Lo-han were or

the Chinese are content

why
to

they are in the great Hall, and

as favourite objects of

illustration, the reference to

all.

which

supposed to be understood by
for

Another well-known designation

This

Buddhist monks
is

of

high degree of sanctity and noted for good works

in Chinese

Tou-Ve (BJ

P)-

is

the old form, the

new one used during

to

the T'ang period being Ta-to ("^ ^).

transcriptions of the Sanskrit

These are said

be

Dhuta
is,

or

Dhuta with the meaning

off,

"shaken

off,

cast

away," that

having shaken

or one

who

has cast aside.

The term

T'ou-t'e designates a Buddhist recluse

life.

who

leads a specially strict and religious

(in

He
f3|.

is
flg;)

so

called

because he has "shaken off"

of the world.

Chinese tou-su

the dust

But

the T^ou-t'e need not shave his head or go

into a monastery,

though he generally

lives apart

and

often

wears his hair long and unrestrained.

There are twelve (or So we often

according to some, thirteen) " ascetic practices" called Dhutaiigas,

find

some

or

all of

which he

is

bound

to observe.

him
^^

referred to or described as one

practising dhuta.

who

hsing4/oU't'e{fj'
is

W P6)

This use of the word

viz.,

near the

proper meaning of the original as noun,

good moral conduct.

406

The Influence of Buddhism on

life

the Chinese Langnarie.

a pure

of self-restraint,

in

Chinese hsiu-chih-ch'ing-hsing
T'ou-t'e

is used in Chinese to (^ f^ denote as well the unattached Buddhist saint as the life of self-

^7).

Thus the word

renunciation which he leads.

to

In the popular literature

its

it

seems

be often treated

as

native term,

foreign origin being

apparently forgotten.-^

Then we have the word Seng for the Buddhist clerg}^ in general. The whole body of ecclesiastics constituting the Buddhist Church, or any congregation of ordained

monks

is

called in
(J[^

Sanskrit a Sangha.

This in Chinese

is

Seng-chia or ga

^,

which which

is

usually shortened to Seng.

It occurs in the formula

recites the three great constituents of

Buddhism, the BudThis word

is

dhas (Fo), the Canon (Fa) and the Church (S^ng).

also in

common

use in such combinations as Tao-Seng, Professed

It

Taoists and Buddhists.

may

be used in the singular as 2-seng,

(J|.)-seng, the

one monk, or in the plural as Chiin

monks.

We have

already had occasion to notice the word Ho-shang,

a Buddhist monk,

among
it

the terms of foreign

is

origin.

The
'Jffi

Sanskrit equivalent for

ijH),

said to be U-p'o-che-Jca (.|5

U-p'o-ti-ye-ye,
i.e.,

or U-p'o-t'e-ye (fg

:gg).

These are

all

ya-ya (|g apparently for Upadhyiiya, the Pali forms

or

^)

M M

of

which are Upajjhayo and Upajjho, originally an assistant or

It
is

under-teacher, then a religious teacher simply.

acknow-

ledged that Ho-shang

is

not a correct rendering of the Sanskrit

term and other translations have been given.

of

This term in any

it is

the transcriptions here given

this place only

is

very

rarely used, and

mentioned in
corruption of
latter

because some regard Ho-shang as a

of the

Upadhyaya caused by the mis-pronunciation

as those of

by non-Aryan peoples, such

Khoten and the

to China,

countries about.

Partly from the Indian missionaries

who came

but

more perhaps from the Chinese pilgrims who went

scholars of China learned something about the

to India, the

Brahmans.

To

the Buddhists these were of course Wai-tao or heretics, though

they were acknowledged

1

to

be

men
&c.,

of

pure lives and

viii.

strict in

Samprajna-paramita ching

(^

^ ^),

chap

end.;

Bunyio N.'s Ca-

talogue No. 452.

The Influence of Buddhism on

their religious practices.

the Chinese

Language.

407

They were

also a peculiar caste

sprung

from the mouth

of

Brahma

(^

^ 5c

^.)

they had also a

their divine

learning and a religion of their

progenitor.

own derived from

is

Fully transcribed the word becomes P^o-lo-ho-mo-na

'^)y b^t
t^iis

(^

S iS

form

seldom or never used.

is

The

old

and universally known transcription

Like Fan, with which
the sense of Indian.
it is

P'o-lo-merh

(Jg^
it is

sometimes interchanged,

j^ P^)used in
a book

Thus P'o-lo-rnen-suan-fa (^ f^)

is

is

on Indian arithmetic, and P^o-lo-men-shu (^)

Indian writing.
to

The next group

notice
is

of

Indian words in Chinese that we have

that which contains the terms used to designate

the

temples and other religious buildings connected with Buddhism.

Of these terms the

still

first
it is

we take

is

Oh' a

(jjfij),

which though old

is

current.

But

not possible at present to give a satisfactory

vp^ord.

account of the origin and history of this

dictionary which contains
it is

The

first

native

apparently the Yii-pien, in which

is

the character

is

given with the pronunciation cha and

pillar.

explained

simply as meaning a post or

ch'a
is

But one
for
this

of the early uses of

to

denote the parasol or other ornament surmounting a

pagoda.

Now

the Sanskrit

name

parasol

is

Ch'attra

(in Pali Chatta\ and our ch^a may be

this

for the first syllable of

word which
it

also denotes
is

dominion or sovereignty.

Then we
flagstaff

find

stated that ch^a

a Sanskrit term
It
is is

which means a

or the pole for a banner.

also said to be a Sanskrit

word
tell

for
it

a tope or pagoda, but this

is

perhaps not correct.

(JiJ

Others

us

the

first

syllable of

Ch'a-mo

^), the Sanskrit Kshama

(in

Pali

Chama) which means

Chi
{%]]),

the earth.

The character
It
is,

is

also

said to be for

that

is,

perhaps hshe or che.

a word
is

accord-

ingly, represented as being for Kshetra,

which denotes

field,

land, province or jurisdiction.

This

apparently some-

thing like the meaning of ch'a in

ch'a
(-f3iJ ^Ij),

many

phrases, such as shi-fang-

which
*'

is

given as the rendering of dasa-dis, the

ten regions of space,

the ten quarters of the heavens.'*

So

Fo-ch'a
presides

is

a Buddha's province, the universe over

which he
though

and through which

his saving influence extends,

the phrase has also a spiritual meaning.

In

this use of the

word


Buddhism on

408

The

Infl^iience

of

the Chinese Lauf/uage.

to define the application,

we

often find

t'lc,

earth,

added as a gloss

as in expressions like Ghu-fo-ch'a-t'u

of action of the

(^

%\\ j^),

the spheres

Buddhas.

But
in

for a long

time the only meaning

associated with the

word

common

lang;uage has heen that of a

a plain simple

small shrine or monastery.

one, properly of

The building should be

wood with thatch of reeds and situated in a But the restriction is not observed, solitude. remote hamlet or a and the name is applied to any Buddhist temple. So we often find
mention
of

hu

Hych^a

or old

shrine,
still
is,

a term frequently

applied to a

deserted shrine

which
that
is

retains

some

virtue.

Then we have Fan-ch'a, Brahma,

for a

Indian shrine, a

Buddhist temple.
it

This last

also called

name Pao {^)-ch'a, a

respectful term for

used in addressing Buddhist monks.^

difiiculties is

Another word which presents

Chao-t'i
ally
(

the

common one
villages.

jg

^) used
is

to designate a

Buddhist monastery, especi-

one situated in a place remote from towns and

The

origin of this term

disputed and cannot perhaps be ascertained

it

with certainty.

Some think

represents the
it is

old Buddha, and Dr.

Eitel says that

title or name of an " an abbreviation and

corruption " of the Sanskrit term Jetavana.

But

it is

due

to the

learned author of the note which contains this statement to say that
the whole note ought to be carefully expunged. In the T'ung-chien-

kang-mu,

in the account of

T'ang

Wn Tsung's

reign,

we

find

it

stated on the authority of a Buddhist treatise that Chao-t^i

originally

was

Tu

(or

these characters

we

For the first of Che)-tou-t'Uhe (^5 [^ |f). find in other places chao ( fg ), which is said to

have been substituted wrongly, but the two characters were read
at the time
is

probably with a similar pronunciation. The translation

given in one place as Ssu-fang-seng-fOf and in another place

The former would Ssu'fang-seng-wu (pg jf 1W f$ or i^). mean ''Monks and Buddhas of the four regions," and the latter would mean " the effects of the monks of the four regions," or
as

" what belongs

to

them."

So we see that the four characters

given above as representing a Sanskrit word probably are for

Chatur-desa,
'

the

four

quarters
iv-,

or

regions.

And
"

they
s.

were

Ti

X^

See " Ka-lan-chi," chap, 15th year.

p.

12; "

T'ung-chieu.kang-mu

Liang

Wu

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

409

apparently part of a long compound which denoted something

like

House or Property

of the

Buddhist clergy.
practice,

Then
the

for the sake

of brevity, according to a

common

first

and third

characters were taken, and Ghao-t'i became the

name by which

to designate particular monasteries or special parts of monasteries.

These were at

first

apparently such as were set apart for the

lodging and entertainment of wayfaring brethren.

is

And

so there

the term Chao-t'i-ssu, that

is,

perhaps. Monastery for travelling

monks.
except

In course

of time the ssU or similar

word

for temple or

monastery was dropt, and chao-tH was used alone.

by

poetic licence, rather a

home

or shelter

But it is still, for monks than

a temple properly so called.

This term seems to have come into

use in the

fifth
it

century of our era during the period of the Toba

Wei
that

dynasty,

may

possibly not be of Indian origin.^

One name for a Buddhist monastery in

is,

Sanskrit is Sangharama,

the resting place or the pleasure-ground of the Buddhist

Fraternity.

This word was transcribed into Chinese at full

length in several ways, but the form which has passed into the

language

is

Seng-ga (chia)-lan
is

(ff*

^ ^).

In common speech

and writing the Seng

usually omitted, and Ghia (or

Kayian

is

used as a name for any Buddhist monastery.

the composition of the Sanskrit word and

It will be seen that

its

original

meaning

were obscured by the transcription here given.

So we do not
often incorrect

wonder
manner.

to find

Ka-lan used
see
it

in

a vague and

Thus we

applied not only to the monastery, but

to the buildings

also to the

Brethren in the establishment and

It
is

and

grounds attached.

used also apparently in the sense of

Buddhist or
*^
(fllD

at least it is

redundant in such phrases as Ghia-laU"

T^^'

where ssu means a Buddhist monastery.

(Pali Aranilako) denotes
'*

The Sanskrit word Aranyaka

in or belonging to a forest"

being

and "one who lives in a wood or

is

forest."

By

the Buddhists this word

is

used in a similar way, but with

them the Aranyaka

;

chiefly a pious

monk who

lives as

a hermit

* Ch. Rev., vol. ii., p. 61 ; " Tung-chien," etc., "T'ang Wu Tsung" ^, 5th " Ka-lan-chi," chap. iii. In Japan we find a Buddhist temple called year T'ang Chao.t'i.s8u (If JS ^). In the "Ka-lan-chi" we find mention of official Chao.Vi (*b* IS JS), chap. iv.

410

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

in a forest.

which the

To live in Dhuta has to

C

this

way

for a time is one of the precepts

observe.

The Indian Buddhists gave the

it is

term to the Chinese, and in their language

or A-lan-na
pif

written A-lan-yo

H^

or JJJ or

g)

or in other ways.

Of these
first

A-lan-yo

is

the most popular transcription, but, as usual, the

off,

syllable is cut

and we have Lan-yo as a common name

It
is

for

a a

Buddhist monastery.

properly for Aranyaka-vihara,

Buddhist monastery in a
loose manner.

forest,

but the Chinese use

it

in a very

Moreover, the translators or their pupils mixed up

the words arana and aranya, the former meaning " without noise This is seen in the varyor fighting,'* and the latter " a forest."

ing interpretations given to the term.

But the Conf ucianists and

with that meaning.

the popular writers use Lan-yo in the sense of a Buddhist monastery

simply, and often explain
it

by

ssil

The

proper use of the word, however, as denoting a hermitage or a

monastery in a lonely isolated situation

is

not very

uncommon.

Then the term Lan-yo is pious monk who has left the world and
aspiring.

also found in the sense of the hermit or

settled for life in a far-off

seclusion to lead a calm life of pious contemplation and silent

It
is

also

used as a synonym for Hoshang or Buddhist

it

monk

generally, but apparently

is

not often so employed at

least in literature.^

One

of the

was that which the rich Sudatta,

gave to Gautama Buddha and his

most famous Buddhist monasteries in India known as Anatha-pindada,

disciples.

This was built in

the Park of Prince Jeta, which was situated near the town of
Sravasti.

was known as the Jetavana-vihara or Monastery When the sacred books were translated into of the Jeta Park. Chinese the word vihara in this compound was usually replaced
It

by a Chinese rendering.
lated.
Jffi

But Jetavana was commonly

it

retained

either wholly or in part, though

also

was in a few
is

cases trans-

A full transcription
An
in

815)^

Shi-to-p'o-na (jg these all are rarely similar, but others ^^^ *^^^ ^^
in

Chinese

employed.
shu
1

older

way

of expressing the

word was by Chiand shu,

etc.,

(iB;

),

which chi

is for

Chi-t'e (fg) Jeta,

xi.,

trees,
i.

(M

II) et

"San-pan-p'o-lo-ini-ching," chap, al.; Tu Fa's Poems, chap. xvii.

p.

17; "Liao-cliai,"

chap.

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language, 411

is

a rendering of vana, a park.

But the symbolic representation

is

for Jetavana

which has taken a place in the language

Ghi-huan

hif^an (IK ?1) for Chi't'e-huan-na Qg or vam). Models of the Jetavana-vihara seem to have been carried
is

yuun

to

be read here as

into

China where miniatures and imitations of

Buddhist monastery generally and
to a

it

seem

to

have

been largely made.

to a

So the term Chi-huan came

model
of

to be applied

one for funefifth

real or religious services.

Even
of

so far

back as the

century
lost,

also
for

we we have a Buddhist
find that the

meaning

the word was apparently

writer of that period using the expression

Chi'huan-lin

(^

-j^g

:^),

where
is

liny

a wood,

is

redundant.
is

The Chinese Pagoda

well known,
it is

a sacred building which

of the country.

now

reis

garded as a peculiar characteristic

But, as

only a modification or development of the old

Indian Pagoda.
Pali, and Top "

This
is

is

called

Stupa in Sanskrit, Thupo in

in local use in the

of this
relic

N.

W.

Punjaub, where
is

ancient

monuments

kind

occur.*'

The

Stiipa

a monu-

ment

built over a

or erected to or

commemorate some event

saint, or to

connected with a

Buddha

Buddhist
or a

mark the

place where the ashes of a

monk

Brahman

are interred.

In Chinese we

find T'ou-p^o (J^

^)

as the transcription for the It occurs in this

name

of the

monument

erected over a grave.

of the

sense, for

example in the translation

of

Ekottaragama Sutra,
a native of

which bears the name

Cashmere.

Gautama-Saiighadeva,

But

this

for every kind of

T'a-^p'o {i

known, and the common name pagoda in China is T^d. This is short for
is little

form

^), and we are

told that the character here

used

for

Va was invented
it

to give the

Indian sound of the syllable

which

represents.

In Yuan-chuang's translations we have

8u'tu-p^o

the Sanskrit word given by

scription
is little

(^

i^
for

Jg),

but this tranlost

used.

The word T'a has

it is

most Chinese
as

all trace of its

foreign origin, and

often explained

if

of

native formation.
or )g)
also
is

We have

seen that the

word Fu-Vu

(J:J

used to transcribe the Sanskrit term Buddha.

to

It is

employed

denote a pagoda, and this use of the word began

early in the history of

Buddhism

in China.

In

literature of

412

The Influence
it

of

Buddhism on

the Chinese
to

Language.

every kind we find

so used

down

the present time.

Han

Wen
of

Kung,

of the

T'ang dynasty, who uses Fu-t'u in the senses

sense of a huilding for the receipt of a

Buddha, Buddhism, and a Buddhist monk has it also in the relic. The pagoda in
it

China,

will be

remembered, has long ceased

to

be merely a

commemorative

structure.

For many ages

it

has been built for

the purpose of acquiring religious merit or to maintain the bal-

ance of power among the secret but active forces of nature.

And

the

orthodox teacher recommends the practice of

the

private and social virtues as being better than to build, for ex-

ample, a nine storeyed pagoda

word Fu-t'u
numerative or

is

(M i& it Wi used in this sense it has so

as in the phrase

^ M)'
(JS/f),

When

the
its

a place, as

classifier,

San-tseng-fu-t^u-i'so

"" It may be ^)i one pagoda of three storeys. t? added here that this word Fu-t'u is also used in the sense of an

(H

image of Buddha, as in phrases like Yii (3) Fu-t% a jade Buddha.i We now turn again to the Buddhist monk and note some of
the terms expressing his external and material apparatus which

have passed into the Chinese language.

visible

And

of the

outward and

equipments of an ordained

ecclesiastic the

most general and

most conspicuous are his alms-bowl and

former
is

his clerical robes.

in Pali.

The
often

called Patra in Sanskrit

is

and Patto

In Chinese

the full transcription

Po-to-lo (1^

^
is

j^),

but

this is not

found.

The

first

syllable alone,

Po

universally used to denote

the begging bowl of the monk, and

it is

applied also to the alms-

bowl

of other beggars.

The

character

represent the pa of patra, was perhaps

there was an old

po |^, when adopted to new to the language, though

It
is

word

of similar

sound and meaning.

strict rule of his order that the

monk must

beg his daily-food,

and the technical term

is

for carrying the alms-bowl for this purpose

chih'pOf to take the

bowl
to

in the hand.

The worldly monk

is

who, having enough and

spare shirks the irksome duty

expressively said Mien-chih-po-chih-k'u

(%
s.

^ 1^
Tope
;

;2l

^)>

to

<iis-

pense with the hardship of bearing the alms-bowl.^

*

logue, No. 543 and :^ * ^ " Hsi-ch'ao-hsiu-yu"

;

"I-chMe-ching," &c., chaps, v., '^ ^^

xi.

Hob-job
ii.,

v.

Banyio N.*B Cata*

(.Tap.

Reprint).
p. 20.

(^ft

|| |^ |g), chap

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese
is

Language,

413

The yellow robe

of the

Buddhist monk

called

Kashaya in

Sanskrit (Kasayam in Pali) from Kashaya. This last word denotes

a reddish yellow dye, a muddy red or

*'

dirty vermilion colour."

"When
Ka-sha

first

adopted in Chinese the word Kashaya was written

(H

^).

the same sounds by

These characters were changed for Ko Hung in the "Tzii-yuan " (i^ ^).

^ ^ with
As
in

the case of T'a, a pagoda, the use of a significative element, here

i (2K)

clothing, pleased the Chinese

and made the word popular.

The

latter

tinued in use
treated as

way of writing Ka-sha or Ka-sa (Chia-sha) has condown to the present, and the word is no longer a foreigner. AH Buddhist monks are supposed to
dyed robe, and hence
Buddhist

wear

this

"a man

of the

Ka-sa "

is

synonym

for a

ecclesiastic.

Thus the Mongolians are

Lamas,

described by an

Emperor
is

as being obedient only to their

(-(g

and the phrase used

Tan'-fu-chia-sha-chih-jen

M ^ ^ ;S
(ga)'li or ti

J^), they are subject only to the

men

of the Ka-sa.^
is

Another well known

the coat or tunic.
(fl'

article of a

monk's dress

the Samghati,

This became in Chinese Seng-chia

^^
of

or 3g)

and was shortened into

ghati
to

:^ j^ in

some

old books, the

"Seng" having been taken

mean monk.

The

name
head
is to

of this coat is often used to denote the ofiice of abbot or

a school or monastery, and to transmit the Samghati

deliver over the right to succeed as abbot or president.

this coat the

Over

monk when
full in

in full costume has the Uttara-

Samghati, the outermost robe.

The Sanskrit term

it

is

sometimes

found written out in

Chinese, but

is

often shortened

down to TJ-to-lo'shig (pg ft)The food which the Buddhist monk obtained by begging in
morning rounds was
that
is,

^^

his

called pinda-pata, the alms

thrown

(or fallen),

into the pata.

This term, when transcribed in Chinese,

became Pin-t^u-p^O'to (^J 5), but as thus transcribed it almost unknown. The old form, which is that still in use,
Fen^oei

^^

is

is

(^

^), fen

in

an old pronunciation being for the pin of

pinda, and wei for the pd-oi pata.

But fen-wei

is also is

used to

render pindaya, for alms,

I

and hsing, (f}yfen-wei

y., 1st

a literal

" Yung.cbeng Shang-yu," 2nd

m,

9th day.

414

7%e Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

rendering of piandya charati "to go about for alms."

pression
It
is

The exfor food.

is

properly translated by Chi-shih

(g ^),

to

beg

possible that the Sanskrit term pinda-pata reached the Chinese

with a dialectical pronunciation, and the sounds given to the

Chinese characters now read fen-wei have changed since the time when they were taken to represent this expression. Hence native
authors are fain to treat them as Chinese and to find a meaning
in each, the phrase being taken to denote the food begged for
division (fen)

among the brethren

to preserve (wei)

them that they

may

be able to cultivate piety.

Mr. Beal translates fen-wei by

"divide the streets," which is impossible, and Mr. Bunyio Nanjio says truly the term " may literally be rendered " by " to divide

an outpost or
inadmissible.
(ITos. 610,

frontier

town and garrison/' but

two
is

this

is

clearly

In the

Sutras under Mr. Bunyio's notice

evidently required as the original for
16.^

611) pindaya
it is

fen-wei, as

also in his
is

No
is

The layman who

lord of charity.
it

patron of a

monk

or a monastery or

who

gives alms liberally to these

called a Dana-pati, alms-master or

Whea

this

word was introduced

into Chinese

was represented by the characters now read Tan-yue

like

{^ ^).

These may have been pronounced

time and place of the
the syllables da and
apparently
first first

dan
;

vet respectively at the

transcription

or they

may

represent

pa

in dana-pati.

But

this Sanskrit

word
the

arrived in China in a corrupted form.

Now

history of this term also has been lost to the Chinese

who com-

monly regard
as a Sanskrit

it

as half foreign

and half

native, tan being taken

word meaning "

of the

to give

alms " and yue as a Chinese

word meaning "to surpass"

or "to cross the sea of poverty."

lost,

But the meaning

term has never been

and

it

is

explained by Shih-chu (J ;^), master of alms or lord of charity. This word Tan-yue is still used both in speech and writing, and is
often found in the light literature.
It
is

sometimes regarded as

merely another name for the Upasaka or lay member of a

Buddhist community.
^ In addition to the " Fan-i-ming-i " and " I-ch^e-ching," &c., see Bunyio N.'a Cat., No. 611 and No. 16; M, V- 1 Childer's Pa. Diet. s.v. Pindapatoand Pindoi " SUi-shih-yao-iau " chap. J;.

BM^^

C^^g^),

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese Language,

415

The alms
or a monastery

or donation which a dana-pati gives to a

is

monk
This
the

called in Sanskrit dakshina (in Pali Dakkhina),

because
"word
is

it

is

received

in
in

the

right

hand (dakshina).
use

found

written

Chinese in several ways, but

in

only one well

P^).

known and

common

is

Ta-ch'en (g| |g or

Then, as usual, the

first

syllable is often dropt,

and we

find the second doing duty for the

whole in various ways.

The

word dakshina

is

translated

by

ts'ai-shih

(^ JjJ),

that

is,

property

given in alms or for religious purposes, and this native word shih
is

sometimes added as a gloss to- the syllable ch'en.

Thus we
jg), that

find such expressions as a fan-be- ch'^w-shih

is,

(^

^ |g

all

the alms which [the

is

monk] had

received [on his rounds].

of ch'^n in

This word shih

also given as the

meaning

some

of

the native dictionaries, ch'en being regarded as Chinese.

accepting a gift or offering a
religious merit,

By

monk
bound

helps the donor to acquire

to give

and he

is

also

him

spiritual advice

or instruction.

Hence we
accepts.
jifc

find dakshina used to denote the gift

in return for the food

of religious teaching

which the monk gives

or clothing he

This accounts for expressions like shuo-

tzu-ta-ch'en

(^

^ P^), utter this dakshina, preach this gospel.

is

To

the Chinese this idea

often present that the ta-ch'en

is

an
a

act of a

Buddhist

monk done

to obtain spiritual benefit for

layman who gives alms and makes

the
characters

religious offerings.

Instead of

given above for ch*en

we

often

find

another

character also read ch^en (^^).

Thus the expression

ch^eri'shih'

kung-chu
all

(||g

M^

^)

ieans to supply Buddhist

their requisites, to give

find Ch'en-ch'ien (p^

^),

to

monks with them all they need: and we even give money in charity.^
as the characters are read now. This

Another interesting but puzzling term introduced by the

Buddhists
phrase
of a
is is

She-wei

(g ^),
So

used to denote the burning of a dead body, especially that

far

Buddhist monk.

back as the seventh century the

Indian Buddhists could not recognize the Sanskrit character which

these characters represented, and the origin and history of the

term
*

she-ivei are probably

" Ka-lan-chi," chap,
iii.j

now only matter of

conjecture.
J|;,

Yuan-

" Shi-sluh-yao-lan," chap.

tTKlVERSITY;

416

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language,

({|

chuang uses Nie-tie-fan-na

^ ^ J5) ^^^ cremation.

to

These

characters were regarded hy Julieu as expressing a Sanskrit

word

"Nish-tapana," a word for which he seems

quoted.

be the only authority

Yuan-chuang's term, however, has never been adopted

still

among the Chinese who

characters, in an old

use the term she-wei.

The two
repre-

and

local pronunciation,

may have

sented the Pali word

Jhapetva,

"having had the cremation

performed."

Instead of she-wei, and even in the same passage

find Ch'a-pi

with

it,

we sometimes

(^

^), which may have had

stood for the Pali Jhapeti

a similar pronunciation, and

may have

(Kshapayati in Sanskrit),

to

burn or cremate.

The poet Su

Tung-p^o, when an efflorescence from his lamp burnt the character

for sSng, a

monk,

in the

book which he was reading, made a

verse in which he describes himself as Ch'tt^p^i-i-ko'sSng

@ ff

(^

gfc

),

having cremated a Buddhist monk.

is

But when

this

expression

quoted we sometimes, for example in Kanghsi's

Dictionary, find t^u

(^)

instead of ch'a.
tSft

In some books for

(J[|)

sM-wei we have
and wei-hsie

she-jpi

(g

or ^), and also hsie-wei

^)

(hsie

may

be for ya).

There are also several other

expressions for the cremation of a monk, as hsie (or ya)'hsun

(HP

|[j)

and ching-hsiin

(g

^\

the latter being apparently half

is

Chinese and half foreign.

ShS'pi'to

(H

:Sl

But the full expression ^), the Pali Jhapeta or Jhapetva.^

if

given as

After cremation the Buddhist saint,

are severed, goes to Nirvana.
is

all

the bonds of

life

This Sanskrit word, which in Pali

into Chinese with the first

Nibbanam, was introduced

Buddhism.

coming

of

It appears as

Ni-yuan (wan
5)> ^^^
still

or van) (3 \W) or

or Nie-pan or p'an ({ original meaning of Nirvana

as

in

common

use.

The

is

extinction, a blowing out as of a

light.

But

in

Buddhism

it

has several peculiar uses, and these

are found in the writings of Chinese.

tion, salvation

Thus

it is

death, annihilaof its

from the power

of sin

by extinction

means

of working, the spiritual perfection

1

which may be attained even

Julien Voyages, Ac, T. ii., p. 342; and iii., p. 518.; " Shi-shih-yao-lan,'* ~|C. The character hsie (J)^) in the text should be pronounced ya or in some similar manner ; and the character was read tsa or cha in the T'ang This character and that for ch^a are very often interchanged. See period. " T"ang-yun-cheng," chap. iv. s.v. ^.

chap.

77if

Influence of

Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
of the

417

in this

life,

and the

bliss of
is

Paradise.

The use

term in

the sense of " death "

declared to be wrong, for Nirvana puta

life

an end

to all

coming into

and dying.

Buddha " closed

of

the

prison of

life

and death and opened the door

Nie-p'an."
is

Hence

the Chinese,
it

who sometimes
made

forget that the

word

not

native, explain

as being

of nie, not to be born

(^ ^),
may

d-n^pan, not to die

(^ ^).
relics.
is

When
f}
)

the dead body has been reduced to ashes these

be taken and revered as

in Chinese,

Such
weil

relics are called She-li

(^

and the word

known

to readers of

Chinese
the old

literature

and

to those

who

visit

Buddhist temples.

It

is

transcription of

the Sanskrit word Saria,

and though better

ways

of

expressing the Sanskrit sound have been introduced,

this old
is it

way

is

still

the only one generally

followed.

A Saria
A-

^
''

properly a body, specially a corpse, but in Buddhist phraseology

denotes rather a

relic,

such as a bone, or a hair, or a tooth, or

This
is

a nail-pairing, or the ashes after cremation.

the use of
the word ^ in
**),

of course

Chinese, and so

we

find expressions like

this
less

ShS-li'ku (-^ ^J

a relic bone.
it

So well known did

word

become that we find

dhcUu

used as a translation for the

known
is

in the sense of a relic for veneration or worship.^

The

cairn of stones or heap of earth raised over a grave

called Chita in Sanskrit,

and hence comes Chilya, which means

to achita."

" connected with or belonging

Then Chaitya,
chita

in Pali
relic-

Chetiyam, came to mean any sacred pile or pagoda, not a

pagoda.

The Chinese
^^^^

transcriptions

mix up

and chaitya,
or

and appear as Chi-ti

(B|f

^ or

-JiJ

/) or Chi-to

(^ ^)
or

Chi-fi
This

(i
to

^)j ^^^

^^^^ having long been in common use.

term

chi-b'i is

applied to the miniature tower

pagoda often
It is given

be seen in the grounds of a Buddhist monastery.

also to the

mound

or the small pagoda-like structure raised over

the spot at which the ashes of a

monk

or

nun are
and

interred.

There are several technical and characteristic terms and

phrases connected with the religious
1

life

belief of

Buddhism

p. 6.

See the "Ch'eng-tao-chi" (^ jf gg) near the end; "Ka-lan-chi," chap, iv., " Ch'ang-tao-chen-yen " (ngag ^), chap, ii.; "Miao-fa Lien-hua-ching," ohap. i> et al. The SauBkrit text has dhatu, and the Chinese trantilatea bj She-li,
;

418

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

which have passed from India into China.

have been adopted into the language
of

In some cases these

the latter country and

naturalized, and in other cases they have been allowed to remain

as aliens

and strangers.

We

have now

to notice

a few of these

religious terms

and phrases as forming part

of the

of the
is

Chinese vothat which

cabulary.
is

One

most famous among them

written Pan-f/o Po-lo-mi-to {f^

'iffi

R^

Paramita which has a very large place

in all

$), the PrajnaNorthern Buddhism.

except for a few

The

transcription here given

is old,

but

it is also,
it

occasional slight variations, the only one, and

has become in a
the last

manner

consecrated.

In popular literature, however,

syllable is
it

usually omitted, partly from an opinion that without

is

the term

complete.

Of the compound Pan-yo, Prajna,

is,

is

explained as wisdom, that

salvation.
is

the

spiritual

wisdom which brings

Buddha-mother, and

It

is

called in

Chinese Fo-fnu,

said to be for all P^u-sas the

mother who bears and nourishes

them. The P'o-lo-mi-to, Paramita, is explained as meaning " conveying to the other bank'* or '^ arriving at the other bank.''

But the whole expression denotes the transcendental

wisdom or moral and
vana.
intellectual perfection
is

spiritual
to

which leads

Nir-

Then the term P'o-lo-mi

used in this sense, and there

six Paramitas, to

are ten, or according to

more popular accounts

These are
virtues,

be noticed presently.

the

attainment and

practice of which lead straight to Nirvana, and they cultivated

must

all

be

by the pious

aspirant.

So we find a sovereign exhort-

ing Buddhist

monks

to

practice with all their hearts the observ-

ance of the

some parts
have

of

! six P'o-lo-mi (JK 5^ Jffi i& :ft ??) China, moreover, both Pan-yo and Pan-yo P'o-lo-mi
use and acquired a popular one in the

S^^

lost their technical

sense of a high moral and religious character, a combination of

rare

wisdom and beneficence.

Another well known term
is

Bodhi,

which denotes the

of

supreme wisdom or enlightenment, the possession

necessary to
the attainment of Buddhahood.

which

is

In Chinese the
no other transcrip-

word has always been written P^u-ti

(^

J|),

tion having ever been introduced apparently.

To

the Chinese

TJiP Tnfliience of

Bnddfdsm on

the Chinese

Language.
of the

419
canon

Buddhists iiud

to

their foreign teachers the

Bodhi

was the Tao

of the

moral philosophy

of

Taoism and Confucianism.

There

Hence

this

word Tao was taken,

as will be seen presently, to render

left

Bodhi, but the latter was also often

untranslated.

is

a special virtue attached to the Sanskrit word rightly pronounced

and properly written, and

outside of Buddhism. The next term of

it

has always had a popularity even

this class to

be noticed

is

that which in
transcrip-

Sanskrit
tion
is

is

Dhyfma, and

in

Pali Jhfina.

The Chinese

Shan-na (jg 815) always shortened in practice to shan, and sometimes mentioned as Shan P^o-lo-ui, the Dhyiina-Paramita.

This

term Dhyfina

is

in

Buddhism the name

for

the

absorbed meditation which

its

is

a favourite spiritual exercise with

the Contemplatist or Quietist

pious enthusiasts.

At one time
{j^
gjf),

Buddhists,

the Shan-shi

were distinguished from the

common Buddhist monks who

of the canon

attached importance to the study

of sacred formulae or to the strict

and the repetition

observance of rules and ceremonies.

inferior in religious merit

These monks were considered

to

and

spiritual standing

the Shan-shi

brethren

who made

little

of the law,

and teachers, and outward

discipline but set great store on tranced absorption

and

spiritual

self-development.

This distinction, however,

is

now

practically to

a great extent ignored, and a Shan-shi

may

be simply a Buddhist

monk
is

as

Shan-men

(f^)

is

the sect or system of Buddhism.^

There
This
is

another kind of prolonged meditation

is,

known

as

Yoga.
is

Yii-chia, that

Yu-ga

(Ji;

^)

in

China, where the term

chiefly

applied to a course of

spiritual exercise

accompanied by

definite

movements
control.

of the hands,

mind and body being thoroughly under

other religious fanatic

The monk

or

who

practises this

harmonious cooperation
in

of

mind and body

China
as

is

called a Yogficharya,

Chinese
is

Yu-ga-shih

(gj), a

master in Yoga.
is

But the

terra

Yoga

not so

common

in

the

name
This

of another kind of
latter

meditation or contemplation,

Samudhi.

denotes

concentration of the mind in various degrees of intensity culminating

^

when

successfully
iiutl., p.

carried

out

in

sort
vii.

of

unconscious

Edkius, Ch.

129; 'Fau-i-ming.i," chap,

420

The Influence of Buddhism on

It
is

the Chinese

Language.

rapture.

also the

designation of a peculiar capacity or

of causing self-combustion.

virtue, such as the

power

In Chinese

the correct transcription,

but there are several

(S)-

we are told, is San-mo-ti (^ 0. Jj^), other ways of writing it, such as San-mo-t'i

^116 of the most

common and

best

known
it

is

San-mei"ii

(H

Jfe)j

usually shortened to San-mei.

Various degrees of
are noted by

San-mei are described, and different kinds of

characteristic epithets.

But

for all Buddhists

all

and non-Buddhists
prolonged devotion

San-raei

is

the general term which includes

to spiritual

thought in silence and seclusion.

Pan-che-yue-shih
()|S

The

expression

p8

6S)j

which we
It
is

find in Chinese books occasionally, is for Paricha-varsha.

one

of the transcriptions to represent the Sanskrit Paricha-vilrshika

Maha-Parishat, in

Chinese Wn-nien-ta-hui

(^

i\ ^), the

Quinquennial Grreat Assembly.

This denotes the conference of the

to

Buddhist clergy which King Asoka instituted

five years.

be held once every

At

this conference matters affecting religion could be

discussed and settled,

and

especially
it

it

could deal with offences

absolution
to

and

discipline.

Because
it

could give

an erring

but repentant Brother

was

Maha-Parishad.
the transcription
first

This word

Moksha (absolution) Moksha was adopted in Chinese in

also called the
(

used for

now read Wii-che Jg ^), but at the time it was Moksha perhaps read Mu-cha. The conference is
JFw (Muj-che-ta-hui, that
is,

thus

known

as the

the Great
is

Assem-

bly for granting absolution.

In

this

phrase

Moksha

used in a

sense somewhat peculiar,

its

general meaning being emancipation

or Nirvana for Buddhists.

For the confession

of sins as

an act

of discipline the technical term is

Karma,

in

Chinese Chie (ka)-

mo

(|

0).

We have

to notice the translation of this

word

in

another sense presently.

When
"JJ

the original term

is

retained

it is

usually with the meaning of ''confession.''

Fo'ch'ien-tsO'C/iie^no (f^
of sin before

Thus the expression

Buddha.

We

f^ | M), is to make confession also find, however, that the Sanskrit

word

in this sense is
literally,
it

sometimes replaced by the translation tso-fa

(f^ a)' This phrase

to

make

religion,

perform a religious function.

of

luius the general

meaning

Karma

as denoting a

The Influence of Buddhisun on the Chinese Language.

religious

421

service

or function

performed by a congregation of

Buddhist

ecclesiastics.^

We

next take a Chinese-Indian term which requires a

little
is

explanation.
so popular

Of
more

all

the Buddhist services and festivals no one

feast

and general in China as the day

known

as the

YdThis

lan-hui, or
is

correctly Yd-lan-p^hi-hui
its

{^

M ^ '&)
hung up

held in the 7th moon, and

chief

is

the 15th of the moon.

On
and

that day offerings of food are laid out for the

" hungry
at doors
lit

ghosts," paper clothes are burnt for them, lights are

at the corners of streets for theei,

and small lamps are

and

sent floating

down

by the

historical

rivers. The feast is said to have been instituted Buddha and on this wise. His great disciple

Maudgalyayana (Mu-lien) one day bethought himself

hell

of his

dead

parents, and by his supernatural vision he beheld his mother in a

among

the " hungry ghosts.'^

into hell

Filling his bowl with rice he

of tor-

went down

and passed through the various places

ment

until he

found his mother.

He

gave her the bowl, but when

she tried to eat the rice this changed into ashes, and Mu-lien

went back

to

Buddha and
to

told his helpless story.

Buddha

there-

upon explained

him and the other

disciples not

only

how

Maudgalyayana's mother could be released from her painful condition,

but also

how

the ghosts of the dead for seven generations

back could be delivered from places of torture for sins done in the flesh. The 15th day of the 7th moon was appointed for the
yearly celebration of the feast, and
its

name was

called, in the

Chinese transcription, Yu-laU'pS'n or U-lan-p^o-na(j^

^^^)'
Jg), to
to be a

The name has

received various interpretations.

Thus u-lan has

(jjij

been described as a Sanskrit word meaning Tao-hsuan

be in suspense, to suffer torture, and p'hi has been said

Chinese word meaning a dish or basin such as

food.

is

used to hold

Another and better interpretation

^*in miserable

is

that the term u-lau-

p'o-na means
or the

suspense

'*

or rather "deliverance"
state.

means

of deliverance
all

from such a

Messrs. Edkins,

Eitel and Beal have

in

taken the Chinese characters tao-hsiian

literal sense, viz.,

what
^

is

regarded as their
ii.,

hanging with the

Julien Voyages, &., T.

p. 38; "Fo-kuo-chi," chap. v.

422

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
which
this

head downwards.
remain
in

The term

is

certainly so used, as of bats

caves so hanging for a hundred years.

lot,

Bats do

with the aim of improving their

the position for a century he

and when a bat has retained

to

may hope

be promoted to be a

man

or one of

the Immortals. Mr. Eitel hints at

Ulamba
seem
to

as

possibly the original Sanskrit word, but there does not

be

such a word.

Mr. Beal proposes avalambana, which does not

taken from Mencius and means

give either the meaning or the sounds of the Chinese characters.

The phrase

tao-hsiiayi is

'^

to

be
a

in a state of painful distress or suspense."

The U-hm-p'o-na
all

is

releasing from such a state and, generally, a raising from a lower

to a

higher condition.
the feast
is

It

is

not supposed that

the
'^

the dead for

whom

held are

among

hungry ghosts."
and the

Some

may be merely

in states of inferior comfort,

feast will

get them promotion.

The Chinese

characters suggest the Sanskrit

word Ullambhana as

their original,

and

this

word means rescue,

extrication, or deliverance.

This identification not only agrees

with the interpretation given to U-lan-p'o-na, but also with the

contents of the Siitras on the subject.
translation
is

The important

part of the

the Chiu (^), to deliver, or Ghiu-chH

(^

g),

instrument of deliverance.^

Another
written

very
(f^

common
|tt)

religious

term

is

that

usually

Nan-wu

but often pronounced like na-ino.

Tbis

word

is

in constant use
all

by the Buddhist monks, and

China.
It is the Sanskrit

heard and seen over

may be word Namas

it

(Namo in
of the

Pali),

which means

praise, salutation, adoration.

Instead

two characters given above we find others such as Na-7no

(J5 J||) and except in literature.

Nan-mo (^ or J^), but As known to and

(1)

they

are

little

used

used by the Chinese

;

na-mo has two meanings,

and
(2)

worship or reverential salutation

putting faith or taking refuge in.

Thus
to

it is

sometimes

described as the Chinese Li-pai (Jf

as

^),

worship or adore, or
as

Kung-ching
1

(^ ^),
',

to reverence,

and sometimes

Knei-ming

Bunyio

N.'s Cat., No. 303

Oriental, Nov. 6, 1875 1^ yao-lau," chap. 1^, wliere the meaning is expressly given as to be Cliinese but wrongly. slated or acknowledged is
l

B^M ^ M

and the works referred

^ BM

B^ ^M^ j^ and
fij

to tliere; Mr. Beal iu The " Shi-shih.

p'^n

The InfluPMce of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

423

iW "v^X
and we

to trust or

put faith

in.

Often the
(J^

first

syllable is omitted,
to

find

such phrases as Mo-pai

^),

worship, or to

salute with words of reverence.

The formula Na-mo Fo, Na-mo

fi,

Fa, Na-mo-seng
in

(^

|tt

f^,

^M

Buddha, the sacred canon, and the Church

it

JR ft), I put my trust is very common.

to

Buddhist monks use

spirits,

on behalf of others

drive

away

evil

and
so

hum
doing

it

over in private to keep up their

own

piety.

While

they are

said

KohC'ch'aiig-nan'WU (na-mo)

(P

Pg

Ja|), to

be chanting the formula of faith.

of religious formulae recalls the Sanskrit

The mention
for spells
ni,

name

and

religious
is

charms among Buddhists.

This

is

Dhara-

and there

only one recognised transcription of the word,

viz.,

T'o'lo-ni (P or fg jg jg).

This

is

said to be the equivalent

it is

of the native term

also said to

chou

(JE), a charm or magic spell, but

mean
is,

in the original Sanskrit nSng-chih (fg

^), able

to hold, that

holding from straying into mischief and trouble,

keeping one in the right way whether as regards body or soul.

There are

also other translations given in books, but they are little

less used.

known and

The

T'o-lo-ni

are sometimes phrases or

sentences of Sanskrit words with meaning and connection.

But

very often they are merely strings of syllables or sounds without

sense and without connection.
to be susceptible of translation

The word
and
it is

itself

is

not supposed
of

of the essence

a T'o-

lo-ni that

it

be in a foreign language, usually Sanskrit.

is

the most potent of these formulae

that

Padme Hum,

that
;

is,

Aum,

the sacred
;

Mani, the jewel

taken for Amen.
or han (pg

Padme,

in the lotus
it

One of Mani syllable of the Brahmans and hum which may be

known
as the

Om

In Chinese
P/A

becomes An-Dia-ni-pa-'me-hung
is

^ gg

PS

Pt)>

^^^ there

little

variation in the

characters used for the transcription.

Each

of the six characters

with

its

sound has been invested with a special meaning and

is in

importance, and the spell written and spoken

common

use.

We now

take a few specimens of the Indian words found in

the Chinese language which relate to the Buddhist sacred books.

The San Tsang

or

Three Stores, the Tripitaka, are distinguished

as Sutras, Hsiu'to-lo

(^

jg)j

Viuaya or Pi-nai-ye

(Ijlfc

HP)

424

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Languar/e.

(0J(;

and Abhidarma or A-pi-tan (fg fjj; ^). But these technical terms are little known beyond the circle of
or shortly Pi-ni
jg);

those

who

are read in Buddhism.

is

An

old and very

is,

common

term, however,

that read

Ghieh, that

Kieh or

KH (^g).
which

This represents the Sanskrit word Geya which, originally simply

a song,
in
is

in

Buddhism

the

name

for the passages in verse

many
more

Sutras repeat or paraphrase what has been said in prose.

correct

transcription

of

the Sanskrit

word

is

KH-ye

(jBE ffi)>

b^^ ^bis has never supplanted the old form given above.

The
is

latter has long

to

been used as

if it

were a native word, and

it

even used

translate the

Sanskrit word Giitha, which also

means a song
Sanskrit texts
to the

or a verse composition.
is

This word, which

is

in the

sometimes used instead of Geya,

also

known

Chinese and written Ga-t'o

(^

|J).

The

syllable k'i for

geya has been regarded by some

as being for K'i-t^o (jg |5),

is

another way of writing Gatha, but this

perhaps only a surmise.

Buddhist writers employ kH

or a sentence of prose.
to

also in the sense of a verse of poetry

it is

So

used in some of the translations

render the Sanskrit word pada, a sentence, and a prose book

may be described as containing i-ch'ien-k'i, a thousand sentences. It may be noticed in passing that the Chinese word chie, that is,
kai or kiai
{jg})

has in certain old literature the meaning of a

verse or sentence.

Then

k*i

has also the signification of a terse

(fjj^

wise and deep saying in Buddhism, and t'an Fo-kH

is to

f^ jg)

chat about the enigmas of Buddhism.^

The
to

sacred

books of Buddhism were, as

is

well
first

known,
brought

written on leaves of the Tala

Palm

in India.

When
is

China they were a great novelty and excited

curiosity.

leaf of a tree prepared for receiving writing

called in Sanskrit

Pattra, and the Palm-leaf

is

Tala-pattra or Tal-patra (in Pali

Tala-pattam).

This Sanskrit word pattra became Pei'to-lo

(^

^
we

S)
find

ill

Chinese, and hence the Buddhist books were called

Pei-to-lo Ching.
it

But

the full transcription

is

not

much
its
*'

used, and

shortened to To-lo, and Pei-to, and even to Pei.

lost,
i.,

Then

the history of the term was

*

and Pei-to-lo and

et
al.
j

abbreviaFo-kuo-chi,"

" Miao-fa Lien-hua-ching," chap,

Kang-hsis.v. g?j

ohap. zzzvi.

The Influence of Buddhism on

tions

the Chinese

Language,

425

came

to

be regarded as the

name

of the tree

whose leaves
uch ex-

were used
pressions
SLS

for writing purposes.

We

find, accordingly,

pei-y^

(^ ^),

that

is,

^a^^ra leaves, used to designate

the sacred books of the Buddhists.

To read aloud the prayers, charms or other sacred texts of Buddhism is often expressed by pai (pg), which is the Sanskrit path, to read aloud or recite. Then pei is also used as a noun,
patha, and

Ko Fan-pai

(gft

^ Pgj

is

to

chant Buddhist hymns.

And

this

term Fau-pei came to mean heavenly strains, music

in the air,

made by unseen beings, sweet and long drawn out.^ these we pass to ootioe a few words which though still connected with sacred learning are rather terms of the common

From

language and literature.

They belong

to

Sanskrit writing and

the Chinese by their
as has been

grammar, and they were made known

Buddhist instructors.
already stated,

to

The
the

missionaries from India,

own language and taught its principles to their Chinese converts. Hence we find some of the technical terms of Sanskrit grammar in the Chinese
of their

knw

grammar

language up to the present.

transr.ribed at

Thus Vy;fekarana, which though length by Yuan-chuang is usually written Pi-k'a

(BJt

(or GttrMH)-lo

iJ
it

or

]||), is

a Sanskrit word for

Gram-

mar.

In this sense

denotes a taking to pieces, the analysis of

the Chinese the only part of

a word or sentence.

To
word

grammar
and henoe
it

which seemed

to

be of importance was that which taught the

into its phonetic oonstituetits

way

to resolve a

they describe Vyakaran a as a "spelling book.'*

But

is

also

known more
chi'lun
(S^

correctly by Yuan-chuang's translation

Shhig-ming^

2
for

or 05

|i|),

Treatise

on Etymology.

The

Buddhists, however, also use the word Vyakarana to designate

the sacred books which give prophecies of future Biaddhahood

and

loosely

narratives connected
in this sense the

with
is

Gautama's

career.

When
1

emph)yed
is,

word

often transcribed

Ro^

chia-na, that
See
''

Va-ka {or^(^a)-na

(fti

05),

an old transcription.

Liao-ohai," &o., chap, iii., p. 10 aud glossary (^ ^) ; Ma T, L., oh. The Fan. pai is also called Fan yin (^ -^j, aud it is used ia cxxvii. (% Pi). the seuse of sougs or hymns of praise. Sae the quocabious g.veii iu Kanglisi s.v.
" '>hi-shih.yao-lau," eh. PM _t. where the Sauskrit word (bS S)> ^^^ different interpretation is given.
;

is

giveu aa poi-A*

426

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

Then we have the word Lanza or Ranja, which is the designation of a peculiar way of writing Sanskrit practised in
Nepaul and
Tibet.

From

the latter country apparently the use of

into China, wliere
it is

the Lanza writing passed

(i^), short for Lan-tzii.

known

as

Lan

When
of a

a Sanskrit word or sound, such as

is

Aum
Hanja
chang

or

any

syllable
it is

magic formula,

written in the

Indian manner

often said to be written in the Lan-tziiy or

characters.
is

Another term well known to native students

Hsi-tan-

(^

:^),

the

name

of

a treatise or

treatises

on the

Sanskrit alphabet.

These three characters

perhaps originally
accepted
or

represented the Sanskrit Siddhanta, a text-book,

established teaching.

But we

are told that Hsi

''

or Si-tan is for a

Sanskrit word which means

perfected "

that which

is

produced by the

^), and that chang is Chinese and denotes (^ ,^ a chapter. The Si-tan Chang for Chinese are primers which teach
the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, their phonetic values, and
their simplest combinations.^

The word Sloka

in Sanskrit denotes a metre

made up
it

of

thirty-two syllables arranged in two or four lines.

missionaries gave the word to the Chinese

The Buddhist
Shi-

who

transcribed

It is explained by them also as lu'ka (^ S& flip) and otherwise. a metre of the Buddhist sacred books, which is made up of 32

characters,
also

tztt

(?}:).

But

in Chinese as in Sanskrit the

word

is

used in a

less restricted

manner.

Passing on to other departments we find that the Indian

Buddhists gave the Chinese new information about the world

beyond

the

Flowery

Land,

and

novel theories

about

the
of

composition and arrangement of the universe.

other worlds and
parts of worlds real

Thus names
their

and imaginary, and names

of foreign towns, rivers

and mountains found

way

into

Chinese.
ticated
1

There some have long since become thoroughly domeslost

and

much
i.,

of their foreign character.

;

Others while

165 ii., p. 127 ; Kang-hsi Dicty. Teng-yun, p. 20. properly and originally the translation of SabdaThis is only a part of the vidya, the understanding (explanation) of sounds. See treatise or course of instruction called Vy-akarana. chap. iy.
Jnlien Voyages, T.
p.

But Shing-ming

(^

|]3)

is

the^'^^^ ^^^,

The Inflmyice of Buddhism on

the Ghinese
to

Language,

427

known
convey

to the
to

educated

are

strangers

the

unlearned and
first

them only vague meanings.

of

Let us take as our

written Sha-p^o

example
This
is

such terms that which

is

a very

common term
sha-p'Oj

in literature,
all

(^ ^). and one which may be

regarded as understood by
everybody.

educated Chinese though not by

is,

By

that

sa-va, the early translators

reproduced a dialectical variation, like the Mongolian sava, of the

Sanskrit word Saha.

So'ho

(i^

|pf)

of

There are other transcriptions, such as the Yuan-chuang, which represent the correct
is

pronunciation.

In Indian Buddhist literature the Saha

the

inhabited part of a universe and so the world of suffering, " the

land of endurance."

guage
all

of the

With this meaning it passed into the lanChinese who had no native term whereby to express
later

that

was denoted by Saha. The

little

and better transcriptions

is

are comparatively

used, but the old term sha-^'o

all

very
use

common.

It

may

be found in

kinds of literature, and

its

dates from an early period of Buddhist history in China.

Of the great regions

one which can be said
to

into

which our Saha

is

divided the only

is

be well

known

to

Chinese

that called

in Sanskrit Jambu-dvipa.

In the ocean which surrounds the Of these the Southern one, which
is

great mountain

Meru

are seven, or according to Buddhists four

is

large Islands or Continents.

supposed

to

be the best and largest,

called Jambu-dvipa, the

Island of Jarabus or Rose-apples (Eugenia Jarabos), which with the Buddhists became almost a

name

for India.

The term
it
it is

occurs

very often in their sacred writings, and from these

Chinese.
(18 pB)
^^^'

passed into

In the

latter a

common way
{\\)

of writing

Chan-pu

Jambu, and Ghou

added as a translation of dvlpa,

is

in the sense of a continent.

The name
is

also transcribed in other

(||f|

ways, of which a popular one

fou
is

Yen-foit-t'i

fj |), where Yen-

for

Jambu, and
is

t'i is

short for T'i-p'i fpingj-p'o

*'

(^ |^
tree,

J|J).

The name
Chinese.
as a

said to be derived from the

Jambu"

"the

largest of the forest,"

and this is the derivation accepted by the These use the term Chan-pu-chou apparently almost
for their

synonym

own

T'len-hsia in the sense of the world.

That groat mountain Sumeru or Meru, fabled by the Hindus,

428
is also

The

Infiuevnce of

Buddhism on
ehiefly

the Chinese
its

Language,
In the

known

in

China

by

Sanskrit name.

early translations

Sumeru was

transcribed Hsil (Su)-mi-lou

(^

5B
for

ffi)

often shortened to Sii-mi and Mi-lou, this last being also

Meru.

In the T^ang period the new transcription Su-mi-lw

o-ld o-ne

(j^

M) ^^ taught, but the

remained popular.
of the

Some
have

Chinese authors have identified tbe

their

Sumeru

Hindus with
to

own Kun-lun,
names on

the same range

its

being supposed
sides.

different
writers,

East and West

Then Buddhist

sometimes

who have many Merus for their many systems of worlds, treat Meru and Sumeru as names of different mountains. And so in Chinese books we occasionally find Sumeru
called

Ta

mi-lou, Great Meru, not as a rendering of the Sanskrit

distinguish
it

Maha-Meru, but to
of the Buddhists,
is

from Meru.

Another term in Chinese, derived from the mythical geography

A-nou-ta
(piij

|g ^).

The Sanskrit name

is

is

given as Anavatapta, the Pali having the forms Anotatto and

Anavatatto.

It;

is

apparently a Pali form, which

represented

by the above transcription, as it is the Sanskrit form which is given in Yuan-chuang's transcription A-na-p'o-ta (or tap)-to
^'^^s (^^* SX)?'^^^ - ^)SB while A-nou-ta is still in common use.

(M

latter is

seldom met with

is

Anavatapta

the

name of
rise.

an imaginary Lake on the top of a high mountain to the North

of the

Himalaya, and from

it

four great rivers take their

The Chinese
it

use A-nou-ta in the same way, but they also regard

sometimes as the name of the mountain which has the lake.

is

This mountain then

lun range.

identified

by them with their own Kun-

The country India

literature

is

known

in the Chinese language

of

and

by several names, some

which apparently were in

China
old

before

Buddhism reached

the country.

Thus we have the

name Shewtu (^ ^)

dating at least from the 1st century

B. C, and variations are Hsien-tu (,^ Jg) and Hsien-tou (gS), both probably pronounced like Hin-du. But these were all
declared to be wrong, and Yin-tuif^W jg) was given as the proper
transcription.

This, however, has never been so popular as the

way

of writing

now read T'len^chu (^

;g),

which may be said

to

be

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

the Chinese
is

429

name

for India.

The second

character of this term

tii or du here, and But no satisfactory

generally said to have the phonetic value

Dr. Edkins accordingly reads "T'in-do."

explanation of the

name seems

to

be known, and there

may be
It is

something in the old theory that the characters read T'ien-chu

stood for Tain-kuth or Tan-gut, old
certain that the Chinese

names

for the Tibetans.

have very often applied the name T'ienit is

chu loosely and vaguely, though

for the country

properly their

name only
to

known

as India.^

The name

of the

Ganges was early made known

is,

the
^jp).

Chinese in the form Heng-chie, that

perhaps Gen-ga (fg

Yuan-chuang uses the transcription K'eng (or Geng)-ga {j% ^), and there are other ways of writing the name. But in general use

we never find any except the above Heng-chia, often shortened to Heng. The native word for a river, Ho, is added to this, and the term Heng Ho, or Ganges River is common alike in old and modern literature. With the Chinese as with the Indians " the sands of the Ganges" are used as a symbol for numbers beyond counting.
Off the coast of Chekiang
called P'ut'o or Puto.
is

the Buddhist Sacred Island

This name represents a

is

Sanskrit word

Putalttka, which transcribed at length

P'ti-Vo-la-chia

(KaJ
'^

(^ P */S (^ PM. f^
of

flill)-

Bt^tter

ways

of writing the

name

are Pn-ta-lo-rhia

5S5).

of

Yuan-chuang and Pa-ta-lo-chia

(^

|g

^)

some

other writers.

Putalaka was the name of a mountain in

the Malakuta country of South India. This mountain was a haunt

of

Kuan-yin, who from time

believers.

to

time appeared on

it

to venture-

some
is

It

is

to

Kuan-yin
is

also that the Hill Isle of

to

Puto

sacred,

and that P'usa

supposed

have chosen the

Isle as a

favourite abode and centre of diffusion.

of the Sanskrit

Instead of the former half

find the latter half, Lo-chia

word we sometimes

or Lo-ka, used as a
of

name
is

for places connected with the worship

Kuan-yin, as for example in and about Puto.

Another way
in

of writing this

name

Lo-ha (|g ^), a transcription

which

the fragmentary character of the

1

name

is

completely obscured.*

Edkins' Ch. Bud., p. 88 ; Georgi Alphm. Tib., p. 10. See the Pu-t'o-ahan-cbih " (^ f-g iJj j^,y, Edkius' Ch. Bud.,

p. 139.

430

The Influence of BLtddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

We

next take a few specimens of those Indian words in

Chinese which denote such things as numbers and measures of

time and space.

The Buddhist

sacred books abound in

names

for hirge often inconceivable numbers,

left

and these are

generally-

untranslated in the Chinese versions.

There they remain for

few, however, have
to

the most part

unknown

to

any save the studious monk whose

knowledge.
A.

faith seeks for the addition of

to a certain extent

been adopted by Chinese writers and are

literature.

be

found in the native

(fS

Thus we

find

Lo-cha or Lo-sha

^)> ^sed to transcribe the Sanskrit word Laksha, which means a lakh or 100,000. This word, however, is not so well
0^*

known

as Koti, the Crore, a

name

for 10,000,000.
is,

The Chinese
Kn-ti ({E 55)
of Ku-ti,

transcriptions for the latter are Chu-chi, that

and Kon-chi or Kn-ti (^^

There
is

|5;),

the

latter

being rarely used.

a difference of statement as
that
it

to the

meaning

some

telling us

denotes ten, and others a hundred lakhs.

is

still

greater

number

expressed by a word which

in Pali

is

given as

Nayuta in Sanskrit and Nahufcam

100,000,000,000.
JVa-yU't'a
(

and which

is

said to denote

The
fifc)>

old Chinese transcription for the

is

name

is

Jg li

and that used by Yuan-chuang

Na-hu-to

(85 ft ^but some think that the second character here should The name Nayuta is said by native scholars to be be yil (J^).
the equivalent of their
billions,"

own

hoii ('^),
*'

an old book-term for

a myriad lakhs."

''

ten
all

but

it is

also defined as

Above

these

is

the Asan'khya or Asan'khyeya, the innumerable,

the

highest
is

number

that

is

named.

Written out in Chinese the word

in the fuller

A'seng-chih
f& ik M)'
This

(ppf ff- jfig),

'^^^^ latter

and

form A-seng-chih-ye

(M

form

of transcription is little
is

known,

and the former,

chih.
is

which

is

very common,

often shortened to seng-

used in the sense of a number numberless, a

sum

limited but too great to be expressed in

human

figures.

Among
dhists

the numerous divisions of time

made by

the

Bud-

we

China.

which have been made popular in There in the Kshana, which in Sanskrit denotes the

notice one or two

twinkling of an eye, '^a

moment regarded

as a

measure

of time."
is

In Chinese

this

word became Gha-7ia

(^|J gjj),

which

used to

Theiflnfluence of

Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
It has

431
been

designate the shortest possible interval of

time.

adopted in astronomical treatises in which the expression I-chana-chih-'pien

(

^|J J|5

^ g|) denotes
a

" a momentary variation."

is

At

the opposite extreme from the

Kshana

the

Kalpa (Kappo
of

in Pali).

AYith the

Brahmans

Kalpa was a day

Brahma

or

432,000,000 years of mortals.

The Buddhists, however, empL)y

system of worlds.
It

the term, speaking generally, to designate that division of time

which measures the existence

is
is

of a world or

transcribed in Chinese

by Chie fKieh)-po Hj]

or

^),
/^or

that

hap^o perhaps
treated as
if it

in
is

an older form of Chinese.

But

in practice

the second syllable

is

nearly always omitted, and Kieh

Kap)
it

were a native word.

In the orthodox literature

it is

is freely

used, and the Confucianists say

the Buddhist

name
find

for

what they

call shi (-jg;), age, world, or generation.

We

accordingly in the orthodox literature expressions like Kieh-kiehf

from age

to

age,

through Kalpa after Kalpa, and

is,

Wan
is

Kieh,

a myriad ages, that

for ever.

Of the names

for

measures of space the Yojana

This denoted at
first

the only

one which need be mentioned.

perhaps the

distance gone by a team of oxen in a day without changing.

As

a measure of distance
standard, for
miles,
it

it

does not seem to have ever had any

has varied from two-and-a-half to nine English

is

and

its

length

given in Chinese

li

with like variations.

The word was

or by Yu'hsiin

transcribed in the early books

by Yu-rjen (^
or

58)

(^ ^)

or

Yu

fy it) -hsfin

{^ ^)

more

fully

by

Yii {yu)-she'na (|^

of

J|S).

In the T'ang period these were out

date

apparently and

were pronounced faulty, and YuanJ5)

"^^^^

chuang's Yd-shan-na
the old

(JlJ .^j

introduced.

But, as usual,
writers

ways

of

writing

have prevailed, and native

or Yu-hsiin.

generally express

Yojana by Yu-yen

From

India and the Buddhist missionaries the Chinese

precious
stones.

derived their knowledge of certain gems and

These when introduced

generally retained their original

names
the

though sometimes the foreign terms were translated.

From

same
jewels

sources, moreover, the Chinese took

new names

for other

and precious substances with which they were already

432

The Influence

of

Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language,

acquainted and for which they had their

cases

the foreign

own names. But in such name was adopted because it was believed to
(J^), a pearl, but

connote something wliich was not in the native term.

was the

old

word chu

Thus there when the Sanskrit term

Mani was

introduced this was often used instead of Chu,

is

As

has

been seen, the Sanskrit word

usually transcribed Mo-ni (J^ or

^ JB)'

This

is

used not only as a general

name

for pearls but

also 9S the specific

name

for that pearl magical/ mystical

which

is

borne in the head of a Dragon King.

Sometimes

it is

distinguish-

ed from other pearls by the epithet

S/iin, spiritual or divine.

it is

But
and

the
of

Mani

is

also in

Heaven
to

as

on earth only brighter

alexi-

more virtue there than

here.

It has wonderful
it is

pharmic and other powers, and

symbol of their
religion.

the Buddhists

a sacred

One
Buddhist
riyam.

of the

Seven Precious Substances so often referred

is

to in

literature
is

the Vaidurya (or Vaidurya), in

Pali Velu-

This

usually rendered by lapis lazuli^ though

it

some
beryl.

prefer to regard

as denoting the Cat's eye

and others the

One way
which
tion

of transcription in Chinese gives Fei-liu-liu of

{^
to

3^ Jg),
favour

in the pronunciation

the period and place of transcrip:

was probably

like Bi-lu-luh

and

this

would seem

the connection of beryl etymologically with vaidurya.

several other transcriptions for this

There are

word

in

Chinese, but they

can be arranged in two

of each.
TflJ

classes,

and we need take only an example

One

class gives us

such forms as F^i-Vou-li-ye

(^

|^

4), and the other has forms like F'i-liu-li (ft former seems to point to a Sanskrit, and the latter
original.

^).

The

to a Prakrit

This latter way of writing the word

it

older one in China, but

is apparently the " has long been used without the " head

and often without the

significative yii (J).

Thus

written

it

is

of a comparatively early date in Chinese literature,

and

is

perhaps

pre-Buddhistic.

It has Ibng been practically a Chinese word,

though

its

origin

and history have not been forgotten

at least

by the
lazuli

learned.

It is used, however, not only to designate lapis

and

its

imitations but also various kinds of coloured glass.

One

of the earliest

known

occurrences of the word

is

io

a pathetic

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

433
its

popular poem of the beginning of the third century.

original

But

or

precise
it

meaning cannot
and place
*^

be

ascertained from this

passage.

In

the broken-hearted faithful bride uses these words,

it

"^Take
(Jf^

my
^M

liu-li seat outside

under the front window

Wiy ^^')

2^'

word probably denotes some

kind

of porcelain coloured

and polished.

The

old descriptions of

liu4% however, seem often to point

to glass.^

For

glass,

however, there
written).

is

the special
is

name

Po-li

{^

and otherwise

This also

of

Sanskrit origin
at length this is
is

and

stands for Sphatika, Crystal.

p^o-ti-ka

Written out

Sa-

(^

$'(

The

sibilant is
|5[ JJg).

Bg always dropt, and so we find the form P'o-ti-ka

t

Jjg \

but this transcription

scarcely

known.

(^

Then the

as usual
;(5f).

becomes

or

r,

and we have

P'o-li or P'o-li-k'o (gf

This last was shortened to po-li,

which has come

to denote glass rather

than crystal.
written Ch^e-ch^u (J^ ;^)
is

The term now pronounced and

It translates
is

used to translate or transcribe at least three Sanskrit words.

Sankha, a

shell

it

translates Musaragalva,
it

which

sometimes rendered coral;

and

translates

or transcribes

Karketana, the name of a white mineral or precious stone, perhaps a kind of chalcedony.
ch^ii as

a native term, the

Some Chinese writers regard Ch^ename properly of a large cowry like

It has long

the felly of a waggon- wheel

(]ij |g).

been used by

the Chinese to denote an opaque white substance, such as that

of

which the buttons

of

the 6th

Rank Mandarins

are made.

These buttons are generally made from a large mother-of-pearl

shell

imported into China from the Malay archipelago.

is

But the
characters
is

substance called Ch^e-ch'ti

expressly said to

come from India,

and

it

is

properly a mineral or precious stone.

like Ku-ket,

The
it

given above had formerly sounds

and

possible

that they represent a dialectical pronunciation of Karketana.

Then

there

is

the precious stone called Marakati (or Marakti)

for this is given as

in Sanskrit.
^

The Chinese equivalent

Ma-nao

See Prof. M. Miiller iu Journal R. A. S., vol. xii., p. 178. In the Chinese poem quoted in the text the word translated "seat" iu the text should perhaps be " work-box," a rendering which the context seems to require. " Ku-shi-yuan," ch. iv., Ist poem. The word liu-li is said to occur iu literature of the 4th Century
B. G. or thereabouts.

434

The Influence of Buddhism on

^^^'

the Chinese
to

Language.
tlie

(M ^
as a

5i)is

^^^ Marakati

is

supposed

denote

emerald,
is

and ma-nao

the agate or cornelian.

the Sanskrit

Further ma-nao
(or

given

rendering for
is

Asmagarbha

Asmagalva)

which

variously said to be the emerald, amber, coral, and the

diamond.

In some

of the old books the characters for

ma-nao
in
this

are written without the significatives

yd and

shih,

and

form they mean ''horse-brain."

To account
said
to

for this

term a new

Sanskrit word was made, Asva-garbha,

similar meaning,

which should have a

have been given
to

and the name was

it

the stone because in appearance

was

like a horse's brain.

This
it

etymology, however, can

scarcely be
is of

regarded as serious, and

It
is

seems certain that ma-nao

it

foreign origin.

possible that
dialectical

as

pronounced by the early translators represented a

variety of

Marakata with the meaning

best kind of iron
is

of agate.

The
This

called Pin-Vie (J formerly

% ^).

term does not occur in any native dictionary before the

Kuang-yun apparently, and Kanghsi only repeats the very short account given in the Kuang-yun. The pin-f/ie was produced, we
are
told,

in

Cabul and other places, and thence exported

In this
for

to

China apparently.
Pindayas, a
swords,'^
to

name
as

name we have evidently the Sanskrit The Pin-t'ie " makes very sharp steel.
ball

and

pinda means a

or

lump, so

this iron is said

^^o-ho

be a compound of other iron (]^ |f |f ft ^), used as a rendering for pinda in the Buddhist books.

being

Of the vegetable products

of

India a large number became

known
aries.

to the

Chinese through the Buddhist pilgrims and missionitself

In some cases the plant

it

or

the dye or

the drug
articles

which

yielded was brought into the country.

Such

generally retained in China the

introduced.

names under which they were In not a few cases, however, the foreign name
it

seems to have come without the commodity which

denoted.

The

plant and

its

products in such cases remained obscure to

the Chinese being

known

to

them only from books or

report.

Then

in course of time the Indian

names

for

Indian objects were often

to

applied to
'

Chinese objects supposed

s. v.

be identical with or to

"Kuaug-yuu"

g[

" Fati-yii-tsa-ming"

{%

^),

List of Errata

at end.

The Tnfl\iPMCP of Tluddhifim on tho OhinPM Lmiguapr.

reseinblo
tlio

435

otliers,

or to be as

it

were their representatives.

Many

instances might

be

quoted to illustrate this transfer of

name, and a few

will be given as

we proceed.
(or Stila),

Let us begin with the word Sala

the

which

in India is
utility.

name

of the S/mreo. Robnsta, a tree of great

is

beauty and
it

The Sala

sacred to the Buddhists because under

a

the founder

of their religion passed into Nirvana,

pair joining to shade his

head and another pair uniting

last

to screen his feet as

he lay

in his

moments.

And

ever since
left

when the
eartli

fated day comes round

on which the
to lose
its

Buddha
is

this

the tree not

its

wont before
In

leaves

punctually sheds
well known,
is
is

leafy tears.

China

the name, which

Sha
in

or Sa-lo

(^

=^).

But

as

the S/iorea Rohnsta

is

not

known

the country the

name Sa-lo

transferred to the Beech and otlior trees in

in

various localities.

The Chinese
This latter

their books also

sometimes confound the Sala

with the Seemul

is

or

Silk-cotton tree
in

(Bomhax Heptaphyllum).
and
this

called

Sanskrit Salmali,

became

in

Chinese Sa-h-vin

(^

iil /fv).

As

the characters for Sal here are

a confusion

those used to express Sala

we can understand how

or

arose between the two trees in Chinese writings.^

Then wo have the Peepul

which
also
is

Holy Fig-tree (Ficus

its

religiosa),

in

Sanskrit has as one of

in

names Pippala.

This tree
it

held

great

reverence

by Buddhists since under

perfection
is

Gautama
called the

attained that moral and intellectual

to

called

Bodhi which leads

Bodhi

Buddhahood.
and
this

Hence the Peepul

often

tree,

name,

as will be seen presently,

is

has passed into use in China.

in several

The word Pippala

is

transcribed

ways, but the best

is

known

Pi-po-lo

(fl|

^ ^)

This

name, however,

extended to trees like the poplar and aspen

in

which resemble the Peepul somewhat

foliage.

the behaviour of their

is

Another

tree in mystical

sympathy with the Buddha

This tree yields
its

the TJdumbara (Ficus glomerata)).

flowers only
religion

golden
his

when
In

the

Buddha appears

in the world, or

when

prospers

greatly

under the rare administration of a

the
iii.,

Chakravartin.
1

ordinary times
in Cli.

TJdumbara bears
;

fruit

See Dr. Bretscbneider

vii.;

chap,

The

Salnuili tree is

162 also transaribed /Sam-p'o

vol.
p.

Rec,

" Poh-wn-chih," Suppt.,

(^ ^).

436

The

Tnfliiencf of

Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
is

without any previous flower, and the rarity of the latter

often

used for comparison in Buddhist literature.

In

Chinese the

name when

first

introduced became Yu-tan-po-lo

of the substitution of
it

(^
to

^ |^

j^). in

and with the exception

been used.

wu

{$j) for

yu

the T'ang period no other way of writing

seems

have ever

But the

transcription

is

very often curtailed by one,

t/u

two, or even three characters, the syllable

ally for the four.

doing duty occasion-

And

the

name

is

given not only to the Flcns

to the

glomerata but also to the banyans and

common

fig-tree.

The Mango

tree also figures

and has in Sanskrit the name Amra.

the Chinese have other

much in Buddhist literature, As we have seen already

Ze/t

names

for this tree, but they also use the

Sanskrit term.

This becomes An-mo-lo or

(^

jj

^ or
to

:^j),

often shortened to An-lo.

several other words beside

But Chinese books seem

amra under these

mix up Thus

characters.

they stand far amrata, the Hog-plum (Spondias mangifera) and

for

Amala, a name
An-mo'lo'ha

for a

myrobalan tree (the Emhlica

In the
last case

officinalis

or Phyllanthus Emhlica).
for
(

they are perhaps short

for the Sanskrit word Jp JSO^, Amalaka, another name for the Emhlica officinalis or the fruit Emhlic myrohalans. In South China the name am-lo (an-lo) is
is

which

given also to a kind of plum, and in books which treat of Buddhist matters

amra

is

sometimes translated by nai (^), a plum or

of

buUace.

Another kind

myrobalan

is
is

that yielded

by the

Terminalia chehula^ which in Sanskrit

this perhaps the

called Haritaki.
it

From
we

Arabs

got their

name

for

Halileh which, as
(=pf

have seen,

is

correctly transcribed in Chinese by Ho-li-leh

is

^
the

^). and

The common Chinese term Bo-tzu

probably half Indian

half Chinese, ho being for Haritaki, and tzn

(f) being
Jack

Chinese for seed.

We

have already noticed one name

for

the

fruit

fArtocarptis IntegrifoliaJ , and

we have now

to consider another.

In South China the common name for this fruit is Po-lo-mi (*ijj {fe or ^), these three sounds and characters being those used
express the paramita of Prajila-paramita.
not

^
to

This

name

is

apparently

known

in

India,

and

its

origin

is

not clearly explained.

The Influence of BiMMryyi on

According
its

the Chinese

Language.

437

to

one account

it

was given

to the fruit

on account of

sweetness.

May we

not then have here another instance of a

for

mixed term? Po-lo may be Sanskrit

be the Chinese word for honey.

phala

fruit,

and mi
is

may

In India "

what

called the

honey-jack
punningly,
Sit

is
^'

by far the sweetest and best," and the Chinese say

taste of the

honey detached gives you the

Moreover,
in

Jack (^'

gi]

JH -i 6^)-

the

Amoy

dialect the

name becomes
in

po-lo'hit, mi, honey, being hit in that dialect.

It is related that

the seeds of the Jack were

first

brought from India to China

hi

the sixth

century
in

and planted

the garden of

a Buddhist

monastery

the Island of Hainan.

So

it is

possible that the

name po-lo-mi may be in some way connected with pfiramita. But the common Sanskrit name for the fruit is Panasa (Phanas in Bombay), and this is known in Chinese literature, where it appears
as P'o-na-sa
(

8i5

^)- This

tree is one of several

to

which have been

wrongly declared by certain Chinese authors

of the

be the

Udumbara

Buddhist sacred books.

Then the Pine-apple

also is called

Po-lo-mi in some parts of South China, but in this

only an improper transfer of the
fibre obtained
(fjj),

we have perhaps
The
fibre.

name from

the Jack fruit.

is

from the leaves of the pine-apple

called Po-lo-ma

and
also

this

name

is

extended to the cloth made from the

Here

we may have
v^ord

a mixed word po-lo for the Sanskrit phala as

before,

and

ma the Chinese term for hemp

we
take
is

and hempen products.^

Maii^t'o (or Vu)-lo

The next

is

the well

known

(g
as a

pg or :^

j^).

This

the Sanskrit word Mandara,

is

which

denotes properly the Coral tree (Erythrina IndicaJ , but

used also

name

for the

Mudar
it

(Galotropis GiganteaJ and also for the

Thorn-apple (Datura alhaj.

word, and from them
tree

The Buddhists make

great use of the

has passed into Chinese.

As

the Coral

was not known

to the

Chinese they identified the mandiira

as a tree with a native species of Crataegus

Shan-ch'a

((1|

^)
this

with white flowers and red

berries.

But

in

common language

name man-t'o-lo
of
1 N. (Hainan)

is

given to the

Datura

alba, the leaves and flowers

which are largely used by native doctors.

&
Q., vol.
iii.,

p.

(*

m W>

Chih, chap, v.; chap. Ixxxiv.

85; " Pen-ts'ao," chap. xxxi. Drnry's Useful Plants of India,

Chiung-chow-fon
p.
r>5
;

Shi-lei-fa

4'^S

The Inflnrncp of Buddliif^m. on ihc

O/iinp.^p JjuntjiKKjp.

The Sanskrit word Ohandana (Olinndan

dialects) is
its

in

some

of

the

used to designate the Sandal tree (Santalum album),

oily preparation
it

wood and the strong-scented

made

therefrom.
;j(),

The Chinese adopted

they used
other
it

this word, writing

Ghan-Van
It

{^

but

to

denote not only the Sandal

tree but also several

trees

having

good

or

scented

timber.

has

fared

with this

word chandana
example,

in a like

manner

in other countries into

which
prized

it

has been introduced, being given to local trees highly

in

as, for

Tibet to the funereal cypress.

In early

Chinese literature, the " Shi ching" for instance,

t^an occurring as the

we

find the

word

name

of a tree like the

Sandal.

Another well known

Marmelos),
originally

tree of India is the

Bel or Bhel fAegle

This

the Sanskrit

name

being

Vilva.

word was
<>i'

transcribed in Chinese

by P'in-po (^
iS

|$

ft).

and

it

soon became common.

In the l^^ang period there appeared

(fBft

a better transcription Fi-lo-p'o

to

Mi

^^^'

^'^^^^

cannot be said

have ever been

in

use.

On
It

the other hand P^in-po has con-

tinued popular and has been extended to various fruits, such as

the

plum and the

fig
^J^he

apple.

would seem that

it is

also given to

the Ok-gue

{Ficus stvpulata?) though the characters used are

p^in-jio in

not the same.

China has long been recognized

as

a suitable and acceptable present, and

in gold dishes

we read

of

it

being given

{'tnm^ *)'
also the lovely

There

is

Champaka
said,

^'MicJielia

Chmnpaca)
(or
in

tree introduced into India,

it is

from the Chiampi

is

Chiampa)
China
in
5fi9)

country.

Hence came
transcriptions.

its

name, which
find

popular

various

Thus we

C/ian-po-la

( jSf

t8

and

Ohan-pa-ka (]^ Chan-pi-ha (Jj ^ll).

jjg)

and

Chaji-po-ha

Of these the
but
it

J^ JJg) and last has long been in

(^

common
of its
its

use, especially in poetry,

is

very often curtailed

for

final syllable.

Buddhist books praise the Champaka

the rich

beautiful golden floweri and

air.

sweet perfume with

that

which these scent the

The Chinese own

it

they got the

tree from India, but they like to identify

with their
of

own Garfragrant

denia.
'

Hence they sometimes make mention

&
Q., vol.
iii..

the

N.

p. 21

and

vol.

ii.,

p.

173;

" Lei-shih-fn." chap, xxciv.

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

while flowers of the Chan-pi.
its

489
praise

But more frequently they

"yellow flowers," the ''odorous gold" which scents the wood, or its " gold-coloured flowers " which make it the '' Buddha of
the forest."!

The Palmyra Palm (Borassm flabelliformisj

in Sanskrit.

is

called Tfila

This word early passed into Chinese as

to-lo

(^

jg),

which soon became a well known term.

least
is

But

it

is

given to at

one other species of Palm, and the Palmyra or Fan Palm This
is

not very familiar to the Chinese.

the

tree

the leaves

of which, as

we have

seen, are

usM

as writing material in India.

is

The word
specially,
it is
7fC),

to-lo, as

written above,

also

sometimes used

to

transcribe the Sanskrit

word

tida,

which means Cotton.

of

It is

however,

of

the silky
tree
is

down

the Cotton-tree that

so used,

and that

sometimes called To-lo-mti

{%
way
still

^
of

mil

being a Chinese word for tree.

is

But

the old
is

expressing tfila in this sense

used.
{jfi)

tou-lo

(^

Jg), which

so
tAi

The reformers
for tou, but

of

the T'ang period tried to substitute

the change was not adopted.

When European
introduced
into
find

velvet,

plush,

and

woollen

goods

were

first

China they received the general name

Tou-lo-ni (now
To-lo-ni)

tou-lo.

Thus we
woollens

and

Tou-lo-juiig,
is

for

and

velvets respectively.
to

The name
admiration
for

supposed to have been given

some

of

these in

of their softness

and whiteness.

So the lily-white hands,

ToU'lo-mien-shou

example, of Buddha are described as

tree.

(^
of

|S $), hands like cotton from the

uses from

It seems to be generally admitted that the

Chinese obtained
India.

their

knowledge

the Cotton-plant and

its

But
first

it is

not easy to ascertain with certainty

when and how they

It

became acquainted with

this useful plant.

was probably,
by
San-

however, during the time of the

later

Han

dynasty and
in

means
skrit is

of

Buddhist missionaries.

One name

for cotton

Karpasa, the Pali form being KappHsa.

The Chinese have

find this given as

a native
is

name

Mieyv'hua, but they have also an older name, which

of foreign origin.

In the early literature

is,

we

Chi-pei ("g ^), that

"Lei-shih-fu,"
uli.

in the pronunciation of the

;

time and place

Ixxix.

" Su-weu-chuug-kutig-shih-ohi," chs. xxxvi, xl.

440

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

Kap-pa or something similar. Another old way of writing this name is Ku {^)-pei, supposed by some to be a misprint originally
for the above.

We

find also other forms such as

Chieh

(i.e.

Ka

^)-pei, and Ka-po-yil

correct
is

(^

Jg '^).

According

to

one author the

way

of writing the

apparently a mistake.

name is Ka-po-lo (jjg Jg^ ^), but this The other forms all seem to point to
Karpasa
(''

an original
variety of
cotton
is

like the Sanskrit

it

Kurpas

") or a dialectical

such as kapas.

By

the term ka-pei only the raw

denoted properly, and cotton-cloth

find Ka-pei also with this
it is

But we very often

it is

Ka-pei-pw (^). latter meaning, and

is

always in this sense that

used in the accounts of tribute

sent in the 5th and 6th centuries from-Java and other places to

the South and South-west of China.

It

is

worthy

of

note that

the

Malay name

for cotton, kapas, is taken directly

from India,
is

while the Cochin-Chinese name, Kiet-biil, or Ku-bui,

from

India through China.^

professional
is

The Sanskrit word Hingu has long supplied a name for Asafcetida among the Chinese.

literary

and

This word

written Hsi7ig (HingJ-chu

(^ ^)

and Hing-yu

friguj (J^ J^)

and Hun-chu
first

(^

Hing-chu.

^), the most common form perhaps being the This is used to denote the plants [Ferula

Alliacea and F. narthex) and the substance which they yield.

We find
(|{pj

this

word sometimes treated

as a native term,

and A-wei

1^) wrongly given as the Brahman or Sanskrit name.*

The Chinese apply

of

to

several plants bearing fruit like those

fennel and coriander the name

Shih-lo

(^

^).

This

is

evidently the Sanskrit word Jira which denotes Cumin-seed, but

it

apparently passed into Chinese through the Hindustani

and

Persian corruption Zila or Zira.

One

of the

common names

for

Black Pepper

in

Sanskrit

is

Marichi which, in Hindustani is Mirch.

troduced into China from India, and
^

This Pepper was in-

its

" Magadha " name came

" Fau-i-miug-i," ch. xiii., N. & Q., vol. ii., pp. clis. ccxxxiii, ; ccxxxiv.; "Pen-ts'ao," ch. which is the Cotton of the xxxvi. A distiuction is made between Ku-pei (-j^ Bombax tree, and Ku-tung ("^ |i) which is the cotton of ths plant Gossypiam.

"I-ch'ie-cliiug-yin-i," ch.

i.

54,

72,

94;

" Yuaa-chien-lei-han,"

K)

*'

Pfen-ta'ao," chs. xxvi.

and xxxiv.

The Influence of Buddhism on

with
but
it.

the Chinese

Language.
(pjc

441
!i)>

The
is

latter is

usually given as Mei-li^chih

little

it

comparatively
(j^g
if|jj),

known, the common name being

an importation from
Pippali.

Hu-chiao

that

is,

Western Barbarians (Tartar) Pepper.

also is

On

the other hand

is

Long Pepper, which

its

India,

always called by

original

name

This in

Chinese becomes Pi-poh-li

ened
is

to

Pi-poh.

or or ^), usually short(H In China, as in India, the root of this plant

it

^ ^ ^
is

much used
Here

medicinally, and
is

known
word

as Pi-poh-mu
miila,

(^

^).

mu

for the

Sanskrit

which means a

root, the Sanskrit

name

being Pippali -miila.

of

We
origin.

have already taken note

one foreign name for the

to notice a

Jasmine in Chinese, and we have now

This, in

name

of

Indian

Chinese,

is

Mo-li (written

^ ^ and

in several

other ways), the Sanskrit Malli or perhaps short for Mallika, the

Jasminum Samhac.
as the Indian

But

this

word Mo-li

is

given also and used

or bullace.
to

name

for the nai

(^J, a native plum

first
is

Some
But

tell

us also that the Jasmine was

its

brought

China

from Persia, and that

this is a

Indian name

Man (^ and

otherwise).

Chinese word and means a wreath or garland of used

(Jfgc

flowers.

It
is

is

to

translate the Sanskrit Mala,

which in

Chinese

Mo-lo

^).

The

Indians, high and low,

man and

woman, young and

old all wear,

we

are told, garlands of flowers.

And
But

in the formation of these the jasmine is a special favourite.

this is rather the

Jasmine Grandiflorum, which

is

is

Malati in

Sanskrit, and in Chinese

also Mo-li.
is

This

is

also

known

as

Sumana, the charming, which

n"

transcribed

in

Chinese Sti-mo-

mm
An
This

3)is

important article of import into China

the fragrant
incense.

substance
literary
fg).

known
is

as

Patch uk, used

for

making

The
(^g |g

and professional name for

this is

Chu

(Ku)-se-t''o

the Sanskrit word Kushtha, the

Koot or Koost of

Anglo-Indians, and the Costus of the ancient Romans.

Among
one which
is

the drugs to be found in a Chinese druggist's shop

is

of frequent occurrence in the prescriptions of native

practitioners.

This

is

a dark coloured aromatic seed generally

labelled Pu-ku-chih

^H

*^ Jg).

Other ways of writing the name

442

The Influence

of

Buddhism on
| and

the Chinese

Language.
i.e.,

are P'o-hu-chih ({g

Va-'ku-tsi

(^

^ @

Ig*)

and Hu-chiu'tzu,

J').

Though

native scholars try to explain

all

some

of these terms as

though they were Chinese they are

its

attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit Vakiichi or

corruption Bukchi.

Hindustani

The Vakiichi

is

the Psoralea Corylifolia, a

leguminous plant

of

India which yields the

is

Bawchan

seeds

of

commerce.

Though the plant

and West

said to occur abundantly in

many

parts of the South

of

China

its

seeds are

still

largely

imported.

They
them

are

much used and

highly prized as a medicine

for qualities like those for

which the Indian and other foreign

doctors hold

in esteem.^

We

have

also the

Tu-nou (JH

||), a

name

in

which Dr. F.

Porter Smith thinks '^Frankincense, crude turpentine, and per-

haps Sandarac " are included.

This word perhaps

is

the Sanskrit

dhiina, properly the resin of the Shorea Bobusta, but extended

to other resinous substances.'-^

Another word which we may

than those just mentioned
is

note,

and one better known

This represents the

Mo-lo (j^ H).

is

Sanskrit word mala, which

properly translated in Chinese by

man

(^), a head-ornament, a wreath or garland.

India seem to have been
all

The Buddhist
struck with the

pilgrims in

much
of the

universal use of garlands by

classes

people of that

country.

The word

mala, is often

found transcribed in a different

the

manner and confounded by the Chinese with

jasmine.^

name

for the

Turning next

to

names

of animals

we

find that the Chinese

originals.

have derived very few

it

of these

from Indian

be said that the few which they have adopted are in

Nor can common

use or familiar to any except the educated.

Thus
is

in addition to

the native word for elephant, Hsiang, there

the book term

Chi-chHen (|p ^).

^
*'

This stands for Gaja or Garja, one of the

;

Pen-ts'ao," chap, xiv,

Ch.
p.

Vegetable Mat. Med. of W. India, Veg. Mat. Med., p. 216.

2

Mat. Med. s. v. Aucklandiaj 449 ; Ch. Mat. Med. s.v. Psoralia

Dymock's Dymock's

Ch. Mat. Med.

s.v.

Turpentine, &c., p, 206; "Pen-ts'ao," chap, xxxiv.;

" Yuan-chien-lei-han," chap, ccxxxiv.

^ See " Shi-lei-f u," chap, Ixxix. chap, xxvii.
;

Mo-lo

is

used also for the

lily.

" Pen-ts'ao,"

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

Sanskrit names for the elephant, but
used.
it

443
or
is,

is

very
is

little

known

Another way
(flu g|5),

of writing the

same word
the only

Ghia-ye, that

Gor-ya
is

the form quoted in the "

Pen Ts'ao."

But

this also

of rare occurrence,

and Hsiang

is

name
One

current.

We

have already seen that the common Chinese name for

is is

the lion, Shih,

for the animal

probably of Persian origin.

Sanskrit
this is

Simha, in Hindustani Singh, and

name known
is

in Chinese literature as Seng-ko or

8eng-ga

(ff"

or

^), somealso

times with pi

{^) added

apparently by mistake.

There

an old Chinese name

for the lion,

which

is

written Sun-ye (^^ ^^).

As

this

word was formerly pronounced

like

Sin-gya

it

probably

represented Singh or some other variety of the Sanskrit Simha.

The word was

in the language before the introduction of

Bud-

known to the Chinese by this name at an early period.^ The rhinoceros, moreover, has a Chinese name Hsi or Hsiniu (^ ^). But it is also known at least to some extent in literature by the Sanskrit name K*adga. In Chinese this becomes Ghieh (Katyga (\^ or i% ^) or K'o {K'atyga {% &) The
dhism, and the lion was apparently
unicornity,
notice
if

one

may

use the word, of this animal attracted Chinese,

among Indians and

lives in

and he forms a favourite

Notably the Pratyeka

illustration for loneliness or isolation.

Buddha, who
epithet

the world alone and for himself, has an

rhinoceros.

drawn from the

Then

as to Birds, in the

Buddhist literature we find very

is

frequent mention of a bird, which in Chinese characters

Ka-

ling-pin-ga

(jjg

^ ^

11)'

^^^^
is

is,

Kalavingka in Sanskrit.

Another way
former
is

of writing this

word

Ko-lo

{^

^)-pii^~gci, but the

is a

that generally used.

Now

the Kalavingka

sparrow

according to the dictionaries, but the Ka-ling-pwv-ga

is

something

very different.

It is a bird of song with a note sweeter

and more
are

tuneful than anything else except Buddha's voice.

There

who
bird

fondly fable that even in the shell while only growing to be a

it

makes a low

soft music,

but who can hear

all

it ?

When

grown

to maturity the bird lives in

I

lonely places hidden in bosky

" P6u.ts*ao," obap.

li.

'*
;

Hsi.ch'ao-hsin-yii," chap. v.

444

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

dark forests. It is perhaps, as has been conjectured, wandering voice " the Ko-il of India also called in books

dells or

the

*'

Kokila.

glory of

But it is not a mere earthly bird, for as it sings to the Buddha here so it is a dweller in the Paradise of Amida.* The Mynah (or Mainah) is known by various names in difand
it

ferent parts of China,

has some which are used only in

is

books.

One

of its

common names
by
its

Pa-ko, the Eight-Brothers,

It
is

reminding us of the Seven Sisters

in literature at least

of India.

also

known
In

Sanskrit

name Sarika

or Sari.

Chinese this becomes usually 8he-li

find She-lo (-^ j^).

{^

fij),

but sometimes we

The

latter is

perhaps also for Saras, a name

given to several birds, including a kind of heron.

li is

The name She-

also given
is

by the Chinese

to a long-legged bird like a heron,

and

said to be another

name

for the

ChHu-lu

{% ^)

of their

books.

It is possible that the son of Sariputra's as a

mother would not

take

it

compliment

to his

mother

to

be told that her eyes

were

like those of a pady-bird.

The Dragons, Nagas, met

old friends, speakin| figuratively,

when

they were brought by the Buddhists into China.

Like the

native word

Lung

the Sanskrit

Naga

includes

all

serpents so far

as they are objects of worship or are credited with supernatural

powers.
retained

Among the
its

strange creatures called lung

is

one which has

or

Indian name.

This

is

the

Kumbhira

Kumbhila,
In

"the

crocodile of

the Ganges;

the long-nosed alligator."

Chinese the word became Kimg-pH-lo

(g

fflJt

^)ov

Chin^ that is,

Kum

(^) pH'lo.

The creature is

described as a monster, part fish

It
is

and part serpent, and

identified

as living in lakes or the ocean.

also

by some native scholars with their Mu-lung, the Ghiao

(^)
*
2

or scaly hornless dragon.

So the creature is,

at least to

some

extent, one about whose existence we may reasonably have doubts.^

'

Shih.lei-fu," chap. Ixxxvi.;

Burnouf

"

Le Lotus,"

&c., p. 565.

" Yuan-chieu-lei-han," chap, cdxxxvii.

CHAPTER

IX.

THE INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM ON THE

CHINESE LANGUAGE.
(Continued).

We

have next

to

consider

some
to

of the

new Chinese terms

of these

and phrases which were added

result of the introduction of

the

Chinese language as a

Buddhism.

And

we

first

take examples of the translations from Sanskrit which were

originally

made and used

Buddhism

in the Buddhist teachings It

and

trans-

ferred thence to the popular language. early apostles of

in

would seem that the

China

tried to translate all the

all

Indian books which they brought, and to render

the peculiar

phrases of their religion into Chinese idioms with like or analogous

meanings.

They did not succeed, however, and partly from

also

inability but partly

from design they

left

many

expressions

untranslated.

These, as has been seen, have to a large extent

continued to be used in their original forms given to them by

these
all
first translators,

the conservative spirit of religion repressing

tendency to change traditional phraseology.

In dealing
into Chinese,

v^^ith

the sacred texts from India the translators

told,

we

are

observed four courses of procedure.

They

(1) transcribed without translating as in all cases of magi(2)

cal formulae; or

they gave the meaning in Chinese while

;

retaining the Indian symbol as in the case of the Svastika

or (3)

they both transcribed and translated

or (4) they did neither

leaving the Indian symbols in their original forms without explanation.

of

In practice only the

first

and third

of these

modes

treatment were of importance, instances of the second and

fourth being rare.

Then

if

we enquire how

it

is

that all the

Sanskrit words and phrases have not been rendered into Chinese
equivalents

we

receive the following explanatory answer.

The

early translators having treated the texts in the manner here

set

forth

left

their

works a sacred legacy

to

their

successors.

446

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
of tran-

These corrected errors

of interpretation

and sometimes

scription, but they did not like to

make

needless changes.

There

are five kinds of expressions, Sanskrit and Chinese,

later translators,

which the
left in

say those

of the

T^ang period,
fathers.

their

old forms

handed down from the early

all

Thus
a

(1) the

dharani

and

Sanskrit words and phrases of

mystical

incommunicable virtue inherent in the Sanskrit sounds were

left

as they

were found.
like

Such terms

(2)

as
left

were

of too great

and serious import,

before.

Bhagavan, were

untranslated as

Objects (3) which were

unknown

in China
tree,

and had
their

no representative there, like the

original names.

Jambu

retained

Certain phrases (4) which were

left

untranslated

by the early
were
left.

translators were out of respect for these kept as they

Lastly (5)

all

those

terms remained untranslated

as

which had peculiar

samyak-sambodhi.

signification

and importance, such

Anuttara-

But

it

must be added that renderings have

been given for some of the Chinese-Sanskrit expressions here indicated,

and that in some cases the Chinese equivalents are better

the Sanskrit originals.

known than
least

We must remember, however,

at
to

that the renderings of Sanskrit terms are often erroneous or

inapplicable and that they frequently add something new

the meaning of the original.

With

these preliminary observations

we may now proceed

are called

to

review a few of the

of

new terms

given to

Chinese by translations

Sanskrit expressions.

These terms

new to Chinese because they are such for practical of them may perhaps be found in old literature Some purposes. before Buddhism, but these became known through the influence of that religion and so passed into the common language.^
Beginning with the Buddhas we find that the
Chinese regard
it,

title

or as the

name
into

of the

historical

Buddha Sakyamuni,
usually given
*'

was early translated

is

Chinese.

The rendering

Neng-jen-tsi-mo (|g

t 1^)' which means

name
"
xi.

one capable of

benevolence living as a recluse, or the compassionate hermit.

But the
^

latter half of the

is

very

commonly

omitted, and

The " Sung-kao-seng-chuan

i.

(^
and

ig

MM)

quoted iu " A-mi-t'e-ching,"

chap.

iu " Pan-i-miug-i ;" chap.

iu other books.

The Influence of Buddhism on theCfnnese Language.

Neng-jen
one," that
is

447

used by

itself as

meaning simply " the compassionate

found in
is

is,

Buddha.

It is

this sense as a

name

of

Buddhist monasteries, and the term

as shows that
its

often used in such a

way

origin has been forgotten.

Instead of Neng-jen

Neng-ju (fg %), the able scholar, the clever Here we have an instance of what occurs often The name Sakyamuni in the Chinese treatment of foreign words.
find occasionally
of learning.

we

man

is

sometimes transcribed, as has been seen, Shi-chia-wSn

(^

JJg

3^).

Of

this Shi-chia

was taken by some

to

be a Sanskrit word
said to be a Chinese
of learning.

meaning able or capable, and wSn {mun) was

word used

in the sense oiju, a student or

man

One

of the usual epithets of reverence for every

(jfr

Buddha

is

in
is

Chinese Shi-tsun

jj).

This means " worid-honoured,"and

sometimes said to be a translation of the

Sanskrit which has the same meaning.
It

Loka-jyeshtha of
is,

however, also
;

given as the rendering for Loka-natha, Lord of the world

and

we
is

find,

moreover, that

it is

used to represent Bhagavat,

titles

Tathii-

gata, Purushottama,
also a

and other

or epithets of

Buddha.

It

when addressing a Buddha or speaking of one or his image. Thus in the Mountain Monastery poem Tu Fu describing a ruined temple says The old Hall alone

common form

of speech

remains

even Buddha's image

Han
or esteems."

is

crumbled

to dust (-jg

5p

^).
for

The

expression Shi-tsun occurs in early Chinese literature,

example in

Fei tzu's writings, in the sense of " the

world honours,

But

the

term as used by the

Buddhists

is

practically

Among

the

new to the language. mythical Buddhas who are said

is

to

have preceded

the historical one Dipankara

famous for an interview which he

had with Gautama.

one
of his

The

latter

was then a youth going through

and
it

many

stages of existence,
for himself that

was part
to

of the

good

destiny he had

made

he was

encounter Di-

pankara.

when the youth had presented his offering and given worship to the Buddha the latter predicted to Gautama that after many great cycles of years
the occasion of the meeting

On

had passed he would become Buddha with the name Sakyamuni. The old Buddha Dipankara (or Dipaka) is transcribed in Chinese

448

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

is.

in various ways, as T'i-ho-chie, that

De-va-ka perliaps (Jg

^)

sometimes with

lo

added
are

or as Di-van-ka (|g -JH fg).

The
this

transcriptions,

however,
in

very rarely

met

witli,

and

Buddha
name.

is

known
is

Chinese literature by a translation of his

(g jg) Fo, that
is
is,

He

the Jan-teng

the

Buddha

bright as a burning

lamp

or he

the Ting-kuang

(^

for

56)

Fo, the Lamp-bright Buddha.

The Sanskrit name Dipaukara

and
it

means light-maker

or illuminator,

was given on account

of the great radiance which emanated from the body of the future

Buddha when he was only a baby. One of the most popular and
China
is

familiar objects of worship in

the god or goddess called Kuan-shi-i/in (|| j^ W) or This last is a fair Kuan-yin, or Kuan-tzu-tsai (|g g ;g).

rendering of the Sanskrit

^'

the Lord who

looks

name which is Avalokitesvara, meaning down or regards.'' But the two other
an improper analysis of

forms

of translation are either the result of

the above Sanskrit word or renderings of some other form of the

name.

Kuan-yin

is

a P'u-sa

who

takes a very great interest in

the affairs of mankind, but more especially protects

children.
is

women and
of

As
is

a god he

is of

Indian origin, but as a goddess she

perhaps at least partly a native deity.

The common name

but there are
Eitel.
is,

the P'u-sa

Kuan-yin
some
of

(or Kuan-shi-yin),

many
is

other

titles,

which are given by

f^) or door for
all,

Thus he

known as P'u-men
or beholding
all

(^

that

facing

all sides

things, a

translation of the Sanskrit

all

epithet

Samanta-mukha, facing in
and love
for

directions.

Tender compassion

mankind

are the characteristics of this " Goddess of

find her called Chiu-k'u

Mercy,*' and hence

we

(^ ^)

Kuan-

shi-yin, the epithet Chiu-h'u having the sense of " releasing from

misery" or

''

saving from woe."

is

As her

eyes are always turned

downwards she
be a rendering
is,

called the Ti-mei

(^

^)-P'u-sa, that

is,

the

P'u-sa of the down-bent eyebrow.

of the Sanskrit

This was perhaps meant to

avalokita, looking down, that

word

with pity and compassion.

In
poraries

all

lands where
the

of

Buddhism prevails few among the contemBuddha are better known that the rich lay

The Influence of Buddhism on

disciple

the Chinese

Language.
on
it

449

who bought Prince

Jeta's

Park and

built

the great

vihara for the Master and his disciples.

But

this disciple is best

known

not by his

which his " the feeder

name which was Sudatta, but by the epithet charitable actions had won for him, Anfitha-pindada,
of

the lielpless."

It

was

this latter

which was

translated into Chinese as his name, the

^'*

rendering being Kei-hu-

ii^ St )> ^^^^

is,

giver to orphans
to

and the

friendless.

This

is

sometimes shortened

Kei-ku, giving to orphans, but otherwise

the rendering has

remained unaltered.

The

first

translators

perhaps had in mind the old Chinese expression

to be

Hsd (^)

ku'tu,
to

kind

to the

orphans and friendless, a duty, according

It
is

the

" Li-chi," of the Ssu-tUc.

tu
is

interesting to observe that here

Kuare

explained by Wu-kao-cho (|^

^ ^\ that
So
:

is,

those

who

without one to

whom

to

appeal (A-niltha).

also the old

woman

whom

Ch'en Tzii-wei met when he was in search of his mother

I,

described herself in Buddhist language saying

friendless,

an orphan and
JS

want to be supported by

my own

son

(^

-g^

flfe

One

title

of

a supreme ruler or universal sovereign in Santhat

is
is,

skrit is Chakra-vartin,

perhaps. Wheel-revolving.

The

interpretation in Chinese

that

is,

Chuan-'lmi-shSng'Wang ((f |g 2), the Holy King of the Revolving Wheel. There are

various explanations of the Sanskrit

name which
But
and

is

perhaps of

Solar origin, and there are several theories as to the origin and

meaning

of

its

Chinese rendering.
in the

the latter

long

ago

became a popular phrase

It has also received

Chinese language and literature.

it

new

applications,

has been extended

for
^'

even

to

a ruler in the

world below.

The term

Holy "

is

often left out, and the

is

title

Chuan-lun-wang, Rolling Wheel King

by other words
to

used alone, or
is

it

is

qualified

indicate that

the king

such by force or otherwise.^

is

Then Buddhism
became Fa-lmi [f^
^

sometimes called the Dharma-chakra, the

Circle of the Faith or the

Wheel
the

of the

Law.

In Chinese
It

this

^)
iii.

with
;

same meaning.
iii.

was

at

See the
'

*'

Li-chi," chap.

" Pen^-flii-i'iinw," rhap.

" Fa-yuan-chn-lin," chap,

xliii.


450
The Influence of Buddhism on
the Chinese

Language.

Benares that the gospel

fact is expressed

of Buddhism was first preached, and the by saying that there Buddha " set the Wheel of

the Faith in

motion.'*

This in

Chinese

is

Ch'U'chuan-fa4un

(U

first time,

1^ f^ H). Here the word ch'u, meaning at first, for the was probably at one time superfluous, and the phrase

Chuan-fa-lun

may have meant " to

establish

the

Kingdom
Law."

of

True Religion " or " set on foot the dominion of the

it

But

mean simply to teach or propagate the Buddhist religion. This is its common use now, and so familiar is the form of Thus expression that the word /a may be left out as understood.
soon came to

we

are told of P'u-sas that the final cause of their existence

is

that they

may

help

Buddha

to

propagate his religion

I-tsu

Fu-

chuan-lun (1 | Sf )' In China senior brethren, heads

of houses

and other superior

monks
and which

are styled Ta-te

{^

f^) by their juniors and inferiors

also
is

by

others.

This term represents the word Bhadanta,

''

a Sanskrit Buddhist word, meaning

Reverend."
or Listener,
is

The term Sheng-wen (^ ^), Voice-hearer

a

a rendering for the Sanskrit term Sravaka, Hearer.

This was

name given

at first to the

immediate

disciples of the

Buddha,

and afterwards extended

to those professed followers

who were

content with or were in a low state of spiritual attainments.

Those who were Elders among the

called

first

Buddhist Brethren were

Sthaviras, old men.

This

was rendered in Chinese by

still

Ta-ti-tzu

common
terms

1^ -f ), Great Brethren, and the term is use as one of respect for old or eminent monks.

(^

in

Passing on to examples of geographical and topographical

we notice the common These mean " world,'' the

they translate also dhiitu

expressions Chie and Shi-chie

confines
of

mortality,

(-(g; ^). and usually

represent the Sanskrit word loha with the same meaning.

But

when used
The

in

the sense of

''

a world,"
is

loka'dhdtu, a world or a great region, and Kshetra, which

properly a land or territory.

well

known phrase San-chie

of Desire,

(H
^

-S?-)

denotes in

Buddhism the " three worlds "

It
is

Form

and the Formless.

a translation of the Sanskrit trailokya and

See Childers* Pa. Diet,

s.r.

Dhammachakkam.

The Influence of Buddhism on

traidhatuka with the same meaning.
also in several other ways, as

tlie

Chinese Language.
is

451

The word loka

the people.

rendered

by shi

(ifr),

a generation, by yu (^),

existence,

and hy pni-hsing ("g

Rfijagriha, in India,

^j),
is

Near
history of

a mountain which in the early

celebrity

Buddhism
Its
is,

attained a

among

the followers
(in

of that religion.

Indian name was Gridhra-kuta

Pali

Gijjakut) that
sacred books

Vulture Peak.

In the old translations of the by ChH-

we usually

find this transcribed in Chinese

is,

sho-chueh

(^

also several other

S)^ ways

that
in in
is

perhaps Gi-dha-kut.
is

There are
but

which -the name

transcribed,

the mountain

is

known

China by translations
Ling-chiu-fhig or shan

of the Sanskrit.
jlj ),

The common rendering

the

(g ?^ ll^ or

Peak

or Hill of the Intelligent Yiiltures, the

word ling being

an addition of the translator.

This

name

is

explained as denoting

that the mountain was so called from the wise prophetic vultures

by which

it

was haunted.

But we

find also as another rendering

is,

of the Sanskrit

name
its

Chiti-t^ou-feng, that

Vulture-Head Peak,

as

though the mountain had been so called from a supposed

resemblance of

summit

to the

head

of a vulture.

The name

Ling-chiu-shan has been given to several mountains in China and

notably to one in the Province of Chekiang.

When Buddha's
he "
will free

disciple Sariputra hereafter

to
it

becomes Buddha

have a Paradise
from dust
''

be called Virajas.
is

This word means

and
soil,

translated into Chinese by Li-kou

(@8 ^)> free from

clean

and pure. But

there are also other

Sanskrit terms with a like signification which have been rendered

by Li-kou.
to gardens

This has come to be a

name

often given

by Chinese

and pleasure grounds, and the Li-kou-yuan, about ten

miles from Kiukiaug, was once a place of fame.

Then we have Lu-yuan

is

(^ ^)

or

Deer Garden.

This
of

a translation of Mriga-dfiva, or Deer-Forest, the

li

name

place about ten

from Benares.

There

is

another and a better

rendering, Lu-ye {^)-yuan,

ed by wild deer.

It

meaning Deer Park, a wood inhabitwas here that Buddha " first set in motion
it is

the wheel of religion," and so

of

regarded as the starting place

Buddhism.

Hence comes the Confucian expression Lu-yaayi"

452

The

Injiiience of

Buddhism on

the Chinese,

Language.

tzU'Uu (,^ \^ Jjt), literally, the Dark Stream from the Deer Park. But the expression means the order of Buddhist monks,
the sombre vested profession derived from Buddha.

Going on next
associated with the

to

names

of objects

which are connected or

monks we
is

take one or two examples.

The

Buddhist monastery

called in Sanskrit a Vihfira, a

word which

meant

originally expansion, recreation,

is

roaming about for pleasure.

The Chinese rendering

tions.

Ching-she or Ghing-lu (j^

^
in

or

^),

the abode or cottage of the refined, according to some explana-

Here we have another instance

by their Chinese

of the elevation often given

to Sanskrit terms

translations.

But

some

of

the

old

books we find simply she, a dwelling place,

It

as the
of

rendering of Vihfira.

was probably from an impulse

to

humility that words like she and lu were adopted

the abodes of the monks.

designate

In Chinese literature those words

were used

to

denote the dwelling houses of the people,

and

specially of the poor.

Another term used

is

to

render Vihfira but

only in certain

cases

Ta-ssu

{^ ^)

or large temple, but

originally, the premises of a large public building.

The abbots
Staff.''

or heads of

Buddhist monasteries in China have

a Hsi-chang
it is

as one of their badges of

ofiice

(^

j^) or " Pewter

of

The

staff is

of

wood, but

surmounted by a head

pewter having a regulated number

of rings
is

also of that metal.

This term Hsi-chang represents but

literal

not supposed to

be

rendering

of the

Sanskrit

name Khakkhara,
as
''

the Khikshari

of

Hodgson, explained by him Something

it

a short staff surmounted by

of

a chaitya."
the
staff,

like

this

was probably the early form

and

was at

first

carried by every

monk when
of

going his
it

rounds begging.

Confucianists

sometimes speak

as the

Buddhist or Buddha's Pewter

to the belief that to a

Staff,
it

and we

find

them alluding
says a Con-

knock from

the gates of hell open and let

If,
it is

out the sinner

whom Buddha

wishes to release.

fucianist philosopher, your parents are in hell

because they

have heaped up wickedness

in this

life,

and

if

such be the case

?

how
it

can Buddha's Pewter Staff save and release them

tt 0f t&

flff

iii

^ # ^>

(g J^ Somctimos the Chinese

The

hifliience of

Buddhis7n on

the Chinese

Language.

453

drop the word Chang using only Hsi, as in names of wells and
other objects.

Thus there

is

a Hsi-ch'iian

(^ ^) or
monk

Pewter

Staff

Spring in the White Cloud Hills near Canton.

so called because tradition said that a pious

This Spring was

once struck
Further,

the spot with his staff and caused the Spring to appear.

the true mendicant Brother

who has no
Monk's

settled place of

abode

is

called a Fei {^)-hsi, a Flying

staff.

On

the other
is

hand

the

monk who

lives quietly at ease in his

monastery

said to

have hung up his staff, and hence he is called JTua {j^)-h8i, a Hung-up Pewter Staff. Intermediate between these is the monk who while attached to a monastery makes visits or pilgrimages to
noted seats of religion.

When

such a Brother

visits a

monastery

he lays down
a few days.
Staff,

his staff as a sign that

he wishes

to

be a guest for

He
is

is

then said to Che {^yhsi, set up his Pewter

and he
staff',

called a Ghe-hsi or sometimes

staff

Kua-hsi

(^
it
is

^),
said

hung-up
and
to
safe.

because he hangs his

on a peg to keep

clean

It should be

added that the name Hsi-chang

Buddhist mendicants
'

have been given

to the
it

staff in imita-

tion of the 8i-si

which

made when shaken.

Staff,

It is also

known
once

as the Hii-hsi (J|^

^), Tiger Pewter

it.

because a
is to

monk

drove away tigers with

The Hsi-chang
j^),

be distinguished

from the Ghu-chang

old or feeble

(^
of a

which

is

a staff for the use of any

member

Buddhist fraternity.^
Buddhists are known collectively as
This
title

The sacred books

Chinese by San-tsang
well

of the

the Tripitaka or Three Baskets.

was translated

into

(^

||j),

the Three Stores.

This became a
It
is

known phrase and

collections
of

received
as,

new
for

applications.

given to
in

other

books,

example,
it

to

those

the

Emperor's Palace.
Confucianist,

In cases like

this

denotes a Library of
it

Buddhist and Taoist books, but

may

also be

applied to other three-fold collections of books.

The pious and

''

learned
the

monk Yuan-chuang (Hiouen Thsang) was honoured with title T'ang San-tsang, which we may translate Canon of
of the

Buddhism

T'ang period."

In later times

this epithet

has

* Hodgson's Essays on the Lang. Lit. and Rel. of Nepal and Tibet, pp. 141, 143; "Hsiao-hsio-chi-chie*' (/)> &c.,) chap, v., p. 20; " Shi-shih-yao-lan," and chap. ~fi 1^ Vf| chap. IS, &c., chap. iv.

154

The InfiueJice of Baddhiwi on the Chinese Language.

it is

been conferred on other monks of note, but

rarely given now.

The word Vajra

we may
this

in Sanskrit has several meanings, of

which
It

notice the diamond, steel

and the thunderbolt.

was
So

translated in Chinese by

Chin-kang

(^

pji|)

in these senses.
its

term

is

used

to

denote the thunderbolt and

symbol, the
It
is

miniature club employed by Buddhist and Taoist monks.

also

used figuratively

to

denote that which cuts or breaks other

things but cannot be injured by anything.

and non-Buddhists, moreover, give

objects

The Chinese Buddhists thisname Chin-hang to many

in

which have not the corresponding word Vajra

their

Indian names.

A
great,

well

known

technical

term of Buddhism

is

in Sanskrit
viz.,

Triyana, the three-fold Vehicle, the three Conveyances,

the

the

medium and

the small one.

This word Triyana was

translated by San-sheng
as each
of

(^ ^)

with the same meaning.

peculiar literature yana

Then
came

these Vehicles had

its

to be interpreted as denoting tse (fjj), a writing or pamphlet.

There

is,

however, another Triyana, also translated San-sheng^

of old date in

Buddhism.

The

three Vehicles of this are the

Sravaka's, the Pratyeka Buddha's, and the Bodhisatva's or

dha's,

Bud-

and these symbolize

different

ways

of attaining Nirvana.^

Then we have the popular term Fii-te-shS (fg (^ ^), which was perhaps made by or for the Buddhists. It is used as a translation of the Sanskrit Puny-sala, a name given to the houses of The Chinese made such shelter set up by the roadside in India.
houses or sheds and gave them this name, using the buildings
also as places of worship.

They

are

still

common
is

in

many
is.

parts

of

China and are often

called simply

Fu-te, that

Religious

Merit.

word

for shrine or temple, however,

usually added

to the inscription over the

door of such building.

is

The use

of the

word she in the above expression

native application of the term.

probably derived from an old

In ancient times there were

thirly
li

government stations
These
she,
^

at intervals of

on the highways.

stations,

which were merely sheds or

pavilions,

were called

and they were

for the convenience of officials

iii.

and travellers

" Miao-fa-lien-hua-ching," chap.

l.%e Influence of

Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

465

generally.

The phrase Fu-te

itself is

perhaps of Buddhist origin.

It is used to render the Sanskrit terms puuya, religious merit,

and
in

punya-skandha,

accumulation of such merit.

virtue, originally

In

this,

as

many

other cases, the word U,

perhaps served

only to convert the word preceding from an adjective into a noun

or to indicate that the

word

is

used as a noun.

The word/i* may

or

mean happy

or happiness, but /?i-ie is always happiness,

the

merit from good works which brings happiness.

of the Sanskrit extraction
of the phrase

A remembrance
to

seems

have produced

such

common

expression as Chi-fu-te

(^
is

fg f*), to accumulate
(fj), a

religious

merit,

heap up happiness, and Chi-fu-t^-hsing

accumulated.

course of conduct by which such merit

Nearly every translation

of

a Buddhist sutra into Chinese

begins with the words Jzt-shi'Wo^wfn (in

for the Sanskrit

Evam maya
it

?c M)- These are srutam, and mean, This is what I

beard, or I have heard as follows.

The

expression ju-shi-wo-wSn
as the title of a book.

became proverbial, and

was adopted

The formula
of

called Tri-sarana, the Three-fold Refuge, has

It consists in the repetition

been called the Creed of Buddhism.

words which mean

" I take refuge in

Buddha, I take refuge

in

the Scriptures, I take refuge in the Church."

This word Tri), the Triple

sarana was rendered in Chinese by San-kuei

course.

(^

And

in a learned

and popular

treatise of the

Re2nd Century

A. D. we
meaning.

find this

term San-kuei, but apparently with a different

is

The word kuei

used also to render the Sanskrit This

is
its

namas, meaning praise or

the

salutation.

explanation in

common

expressions Kuei-ming (| '^) and Kuei-i (^), I go

is,

to for life or support, that

I put

my

trust in.

These expressions

are said to

mean simply

I give praise or salutation, but they are

of the

evidently the equivalents

Sanskrit saranam gachchami, I

go for refuge to [Buddha, the Scriptures and the Church].

phrase kuei-ming
sense
is
is

The
the
It

employed
in

also in
to

common
tender

literature in

of

" to

give

adherence,

submission.''

used in this way of a rebel chief laying down

arms and
is

submitting to Government.
still

An

old

word which, however,

for kuei in its

in use

and

is

said to be a

synonym

Buddhist

45 1)
use
is

The Influence of Buddhism, on

the Chinese

Langnagp.

Kiwi

(^

or |g).

The

spelling of

this character, liovvever,

fa7i,

would seem

to give a

sound like pan or

and

it

was perhaps

originally for a Sanskrit

word

like

vanda, which means praise

or salutation.

We next take

a phrase which

is
it

to

some extent peculiar

of

to

Buddhism though borrowed from

by the adherents

other

systems and with a different meaning.

The phrase
is

is

Lou-chin
leaking

(S ^),
skrit

the literal meaning of which

" having

all

exhausted or ended."

This phrase
of

is

a translation of the San-

term Asrava-kshaya,
then
affliction,

which Asrava means a flowing as

in

of

water,

and

Buddhism

a yielding to sin,

and Kshaya denotes destruction or termination.

is

The
'^

Pali form
or

Asavakkhayo, and Childers explains

of

it

by

Extinction
thus

cessation

human

passion,

Arahatta."
to all

And

lou-chin
it is

means " having put an end

applied to a

tendencies to sin," and

man who
all

is

ripe for Nirvana.

Such a person
is
is,

is

also

said to be Kshinasrava, which in

ill

Chinese

Chu-lou-i-chin
free

(^

^)} having

leaking ended, that

is

from

all spiri-

tual imperfection.

Or he
and

said to be

Wu-lou

(H

Jg), free

from

leaking, staunch

perfect.

Sometimes the other meaning of

loU'chin already noticed seems to be present in the

mind
to

of

one

using

it

as

Buddhist, and occasionally

is

it

is

hard

tell in

which sense the term

employed.^
Sanskrit word

We

have already seen that the

Paramita
been

has been admitted into the Chinese language.

translated,

It has also

and

it is

well

known by

the

common

rendering Tao-pi-

iM

ffi

^)? " having reached that bank," or " arrived at the

other shore."

But then the

^'

other shore," Pi-an,

is

Nirvana
so the

according to some, and Paradise according to others.

And
life

term Pi-an often denotes simply the world beyond, the

after.

here-

Hence Confucianists have

in the

stated one of

their objections

to

Buddhism
pM.

charge that the Buddhists ICting -t'an-pi-an

without ground of the other bank, meaning

(?S

^)>

^^^^

that they talk idly of the world to come, neglecting tliat

1

which
"

is.

See Childers' Pa.

p. 822.

Diet.

s.

v.

Asavakkhayo and Asavo

Bnrnonf

Le

Lotus,"

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

457

Then
for

the word tu J^ (or more correctly

viz.,

^),
is

to ferry

over or

carry across,

the ocean of existence,

another rendering

Paramita.

The Six

Pararaitas are the Liu-Tu, the six fold

means

of deliverance or the six requisites for obtaining salvation.

-ptirity,

These are alms-giving, moral

progress, ecstatic meditation

patient endurance, en-ergetic

and Prajna or Spiritual Wisdom.

was
first

It is probable thit the term Chie-t'o {fj^ J^)

made by

or for the Buddhists.

These use

it

to translate

Mukti, Moksha,
to free or

Vimokska and other release. So Ch/te-V

all

derivatives of much,
ra-eans

meaning

emancipation, rdieased, viz., from

that binds to

existence,
it

and

also free,

unbound

generally.

Like Moksha, moreover,

has sometimes the technical restricted

is

sense of absolution such as

ference.
scripture,

given at the quinquennial con-

Then with

or without the addition oi fa (^), canonical

Chie-Vo stands for Pratimoksha, the ceremonial code

of the professed Buddhists.*^

Another n-ew phrase added

latiom from the Sanskrit
is

to

the Chinese langiaage by trans-

Mle-tu

[^

J5), to save

by

extinction.

This stands for the word Nirvana (which we have seen was imported into Chinese as
i\r/{?-pw,)

and some
is

of its derivatives.

The

phrase mie^tu,

it

will

be observed,

like several others a transla-

tion with a gloss.

it

It also follows the fortunes of the original, for

also to die, to save,

meams not only Nirvana but

there
is

and salvation.
(jjj

Thus
5fe

the

common

expression Mie-tu-chung-sheng
all

Jg

^\

which means to save

creatures, to cause

them

to attain

Nirvana.

When

used in the sense of to die the idea of the

is
is

last

death, of passing into Nirvana,

perhaps present in the mind of

probably so applied only to a

the person so using

it,

and

it

Buddhist monk.

The
is

last

phrase
(jjilj

we

notice in this

-departiaieiiit

of our subject

Sken-Vung

JJ), literally. Spiritual penetration.

There are

certain supernatural powers which are attained by every one

who

becomes Arhan or Buddha. In Sanskrit these are called Abhijiia (or Abhijnana), and this is translated in Chinese by shen-t'img as
above.

There are properly

five of these

powers

Panohabhijfia,

^Childers^ Pa. Diet. s. v. PatiBadkkham.

458

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese
six.

Language,
In China tbe
temples, and
it

Wu-shen-t'uug, but sometimes we read of

phrase Wu-shen-t'ung has given name to has long ago in popular use
expression
lost its

many

proper signification.

For

this

we sometimes

find in the older translations

and other
is

books the phrase Fan-cho-hsiin

(^ JE

'Ij),

in

which pan-cho

the

Sanskrit word for five (pancha), and hsdn (jan perhaps)

is for is

abhijnana.

Another way

of giving

the Sanskrit expression

Wu'hsiin (.
added
to the

"IjX the five hsiin,

"We next go on

to consider

some

of the

new

expressions

Chinese language through the influence of Buddhism,

but which are not translations from Sanskrit.

heading, as

Under the previous

may have been

now
to

observed, several phrases are given,

which belong properly

the expressions

to the class before us at present.

And

of

be considered some are regarded by the

Chinese
lations

as,

equally with those given in the last section, transIt will

from Sanskrit.

be seen, however, from a few

examples that they are not such but only new terms introduced

by Buddhist teachers and their followers. We must also bear iu mind that here, as in the last division, some of the terms treated as additions by Buddhists may not be such but may have been
in the language from an early date.

Occasionally even learned

Chinese make mistakes on this subject, putting down a Buddhist

term as a native one stolen from an old Taoist writer or with lazy
indifference
calling

another
all

term a translation because

it

is

strange to them.

As we

know, however,

it

is

not easy in

every case to ascertain with certainty when a particular word or

phrase was

first

used or when and by

whom

it

was invented.

For

the present in illustrating the additions to Chinese of the kind

now under
authorities.

consideration

we have

generally to trust to native

And we now
with

proceed to notice some examples

beginning

terms which relate to the clergy and their

functions and services.

The

first

which occurs

is

the very

common phrase Ch^u-chia

This

(tU ^)> to become a monk, literally, to leave the family.

phrase was taken or

Sanskrit

made by

the early translators to render such.

terms as parivraj, to wander about as a religious

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

459

mendicant, or abhinishhram grtha-vasasyaj to renounce home,

that
is,

in order to

become a
to

religious ascetic.^

But Ckhi-chia

may

be applied now

any one entering Reb'gion Buddhist,

used chiefly of Buddhist monks
a ch^u-chia-chih-jen
is

Taoist or other, though

it is still

and nuns.
usually

Hence

in

common language

a professed Buddhist merely.

The Confucianists
it

also

have the phrase ch'u^chia, but with them family, to break the " invidious bar."

means

to excel the

Another expression
dhist
is

for taking the

vows

of a professed

Bud-

Ch*U'shi (JU -g), to quit the world.

Some
'

see in this

use of the term an implied reference to Mencius

words about
is

belonging to the age (shij in which we are born, but this

necessary.

not

As we have

seen, there is another sense in

which

ch'u'shi is employed, viz., to be born, to come into the world. The Buddhists, who perhaps originated the phrase, also use it in this way to denote the incarnation of a Buddha. When a P'u-sa leaves the Tushita Heaven and is born in this world for the last

time he
phrase

is
is

said to ch^u-shi, to emerge in the world.

And

this

used in the same way of the appearance of a great and

good sovereign.*

The phrase
is afflictedwith

T*i'tii

(^

Jg), ordained

by shaving,

is

a Buddhist

invention, and points to a curious well

a dangerous illness his parents often

known custom. When a boy vow to conseis

crate

him

to the service of
is

Buddha

if

his life

spared.

When the
life,

boy recovers he

attached nominally or really to a monastery

as a novice or disciple.

He

serves as such sometimes for

but

often for only two or three years or even a shorter period.

The
often

novice in such cases

is

called a T'i-tu because

he

is

in the

church
is

by the mere

act of having his

head shaved.

But

this

name

given rather to the poor boy

who

is

hired by the parents of the

sick child to represent their son vicariously in the performance of

the vow.

This substitute has also among the monks another

title

derived from the irregularity of his admission and the facility

with which he

may

give

up the

life

of a professed Buddhist.

The
^

title

is

also
is

extended

to the novice

who

fulfills his

parents*

'

The phrase L. C. C, ii.,

bo used in the " Miao.fa-lien.bua.ohiiig."

p. 376.

460
TOW.

Tlie Injtuenee

of BiiddJi ism on the Chinese Language.

Jlg)

The,

title is

T'iao^ch' icing (J^

or TVuU-leaper,

and the
in

above described novices are so called because they came not

the doo-F of regular ordination and they go out

by

how and when

of

they please.

Another term invented

for boys apprenticed, as it

is

were, or sent as disciples to an abbot

Fo-tzii,

Sons

Buddha.

This term
to pious

is

also often applied to properly ordained deacons

and

monks and
life

devotees, and to Buddhist

monks
This
all

generally.

It

is

the duty of the Buddhist Abbot or Patriarch

to

when

near the end of

appoint his successor.

is

done by

the act of handing over to the brother selected

of office.

the insignia

These are

still

in

remembrance

of early days of simple

poverty called by the old term robe and bowl, and Chuan-i-po

(M

"^ ft)> ^^ transmit dress and bowl,

is to

appoint the recipient

successor as abbot or head of a monastic establishment.

This ex-

pression C/hian-i'po

is

applied also to the last will of a dying

monk

who
but

leaves his

all

the
At

robe and bowl

first

to

one of the brethren

or to the monastery.
it

the phrase was confined to Buddhists,

life,

soon came to be adopted in ordinary

and

it is

used in

the sense of handing over to son or other successor one's trade

or profession.

Another phrase
Buddhists
is

of

this

kind also perhaps

first

used by the
lantern.
to

Chuau-tSng

{j|f jtg), to transmit the

lamp or

Buddhism
long
darkness.

is

likened to a lamp because

life

it

brings light

the

night of

elsewhere and illuminates man's spiritual

The old abbot and all who have the lamp of faith and wisdom must give it over betimes well trimmed and in full Or as others put it, he flame to those who are coming after. it a new lamp for him with light must lamp burning who has a

who

follows.

Instead of the lamp

we

often find the simpler

article,

the torch, used as a symbol of the Buddhist faith.

jtg),

The

Fa-chii (J^

Torch

of

Buddhism, was

first

lit

by Sakyamuni

and held out by him over the dark ocean of existence. He gave it over to his successor, and this and every great teacher since
has tried Jan-fa-chii

(^

^ ')g\
it

to

have the torch

of the

Faith

burning as brightly as when

of the
religion.

was

first

held aloft by the Founder

the
Patriarchs,

It is

expecially the duty of

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese Language.

461

founders of schools, abbots of great mouasteries, and pious bre-

thren with learning and leisure to pass the light

without interruption.
treatise,

Hence comes the

.f|5),

title

of a well

uudimmed and known

Transmission

Ghuan-teng-lu (f^ jg

Record

of the

of the

Lamp, which
a

gives short accounts of eminent Buddhists.^

When
it is

Buddha
is

or a Buddhist saint

is

described as sitting
{fjH

usually said of

him that he

Ghia-fii-tso
(Jjjjj),

^ ^).
we
"VVe are

The
are

first

character

commonly written chia

but

this, as

told, is

a mistake.

The above form

of expression, however, is

varied in several ways in the Sacred literature.

that the phrase chia-fn-tso was

told

invented by the Buddhists, and

of the

from them
people.
it is

seems It means "

it

to

have passed into the language

to sit with the legs crossed

'*

under one " and

used, for example, in the

Miao-f a-lien-hua-ching" (Le Lotus

de la Bonne Loi), to translate the Sanskrit Paryaiika-bandha, with

the same meaning.
tso

A fuller form of
to cross the legs

expression

is

Chie-chia-fii'
in the

(^

Hid

M ^)j

and

sit

down, used

" Miao-fa-ching"

to render the Sanskrit

Paryaukam abhujati with

the same meaning.^

The

great Patriarch

have met already, gave occasion to the making

Mien-pi (|g ||), took up his abode
to face a wall.

Ta-mo (Bodhidharma), with whom we of a new phrase

After reaching Lo-yang Ta-mo

in a small monastery, and occupied himself there

for nine years in looking at a wall or rather sitting with his face

towards a wall {mien-pi).

ing at his

He was

all

the time, however, look-

own

heart,

and hence arose the expression Mien-pi-i*&)> to

hian-hsin

(B

JW

ffi

^^^P the face

to

a wall in order

to contemplate the heart.

Another term due

Fish.

to the

Buddhists

is

Mu-yii

(/fc fSIJ,

Wood
of

This denotes the fish-shaped drum made of wood which

the brethren to mess and to prayers.
is

summons this drum

The shape
fish is

said to

have been given

It sleeps

to

it

because the

a
it

type of the good monk.

*

not day or night and

x.,

"Tu-Bhi-cbi.shuo" (tt |J

^ ^), chap,
p.

p. 52.
i., p, 6 (profi) and Shi-ahih-yao-lan," chap. tp.

'
Bt. 61.

Knang-ynn b. v. Burnouf *' Le Lot. de

" Miao-fa-lien-hna-ching," chap,

la

Bonne Loi,"

334

'

462

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
is

has the possibility of becoming a dragon.

So the good monk

always watchful and diligent at devotions, and he

attain to high spiritual

may

ultimately

and supernatural powers.

One name,

rather a literary one, for a Buddhist temple or

is

monastery in China

Hstao-ssit
it

(^ ^)

or Hsiao.

This

name

teaches us history, for

was during the Ch'i and Liang periods

Hsiao was the family name of

(A.D. 479

to 557) that it arose.

the rulers of these dynasties, and the

members

of the family

were

generally devoted patrons of Buddhism.

So many temples did

they build or endow that Buddhist temples came to be generally

called HsiaO'Ssif.

Hence we

find in

Chinese literature expressis

ions like

Tu'shu HsiaO'SsU (|S

^ || ^), that
from that

simply, to study
is

in a Buddhist temple.

Then Hsiao-chai (^
it is

^)

" monastery
It is

fasting" or lenten fare, but

also used in other senses.

of

literary

name

for a study derived

Hsiao Tzti-yun, a

descendant of the founder of the Ch'i dynasty.

The
with
the

visible sign of reverence

made by holding up
Ho-chang

the hands

palms together was perhaps introduced into

It
is

China

by the Buddhists.
palms together.

called

(ft

^),

putting the

But

this

term

is

used to translate the Sanskrit

word

hritdnjali,

which means doing reverence by raising the open

hands palms upward.

worship
is
it
still

The Ho-chang
to

as an act

of respect

and

considered

be characteristic of Buddhists
to them.

though

is

no longer confined

With
is

the Buddhists

to fold the

hands in adoration before Buddha

an outward sign
to

of the faith

which the converted

his

man

professes

have in Budscholars

dha,

his

Church and
meaning

Canon.

The

native

are

familiar with a quotation which alludes to a

illustrates the

very old story and-

of our phrase.

The quotation runs

Buddhahood, and

By

making a sand-heap one may

the hands
is

attain to

to fold

to

have already entered the holy career (Ig

^B'M^ WiS.KmW'
popular.
as
it is

^ |g
more
out

The character used here

for ho is
is

perhaps more correct than that given above, but the latter

In course of time the word chang came

to be oft left

always in the phrase Ho-nan (ft ^).

(ft

This

is

short for

Hoehang-nan-wu

^ ^^ ^^), I fold my hands and give saluta-

Jlie Influence of
tion.

Buddhism on

the Chinese
this

Language.

463

Buddhist monks make much use of

form of expression,

both in speech and writing, specially

to their lay friends.

The

ed bauds, may often be seen on cards sent by monks

phrase Ho'ma7i'pai {^ f^ ^), Reverence and salutation with foldin acknowledgin reply to

ment of a donation or But Ho-nan is also

an invitation from a lay patron.

said to be in early Buddhist literature a

to salute with reverence

translation for the Sanskrit vanda,

and

vandana, the act of doing obeisance or reverence.

This rendering

was afterwards changed

ceremony."

for

li (|j|)

in the sense of

" treating with

The Buddhist monks and nuns in China do not as a rule beg their food from door to door. But they go abroad much in
search of subscriptions for the maintenance of their establishments

and

for useful
this

works

to

which they annex a

it

religious character.

As

kind of begging was new to China

of expression.

gave

rise to several

new forms

One

of these phrases used to denote the

collecting of subscriptions for a temple or for

religious purpose is

some other Buddhist

Ch^ao-hua

(|3? flj),

explained as meaning to

seek out

fch'aoj
is

Another phrase
is,

to call to

those who have earned conversion (hua). Mu-yuan (^ ^), to summon the destined, that good works those who in a former existence wrought

for themselves a

good destiny.

This phrase

is

used also of any

appeal to the community to subscribe for some public object not

necessarily of a religious character.
yua7iy to convert the predestined,

Like expressions are Huato

and Mu-hua^

summon

to con-

version.

The Buddhist

also teaches the

"more

blessed " doctrine

and

tells

the believing giver that his alms and donations have both

a retrospective and a prospective connection.

to

They

are the proof

him

that in a former state he

made

for himself religious merit

which he now enjoys, and they are the

grow and bloom and bear
and under the form
is called

roots

of further merit to

fruit in lives to

come.

Because the

reli-

gious mendicant asks for contributions as doing good to the giver

of calling

on people to be converted (hiia) he

ifc

popularly and disrespectfully a Chiao-hua'tztl (p^

-p),
is

the caller to conversion.

Hua-tzUf

it

will be

remembered,

common name

for a beggar.

464

The Influence of Buddhism on

It
is

the Chinese

Language.
is

in connection

with death and what

supposed to

follow that

we expect

specially to find characteristic

new

express-

ions due to Buddhist influence.

The
life

possibility that birth here

may

be actually a re-birth, that

to

and death are only a coming

and a going had occurred

Lie-tzii a sage reported

Chinese philosophers before Bud-

dhism came into the country.

as

saying,

Thus we find in the book of and birth are a *' Death

departing and a return, and so to die here

may

be to be bora in

another place."

And Chuang-tzu
life

taught that Life and Death

its

are merely relative terms, begins

life.

follows death which in

turn

But

statements like these were only dark present-

iments, and the thought of other lives than this did not take

bold of the Chinese people until

it

came embodied

in story

by

Buddhism.
dreams

In this system the

life

we

live

now

is

only a short

sad dream in the long night of existence which

all

is full of

such

connected by unseen bonds which we are ever binding.

It tells us that

what we are here

is

the fruit of what

we

did in

past forms of being and the seed of what

we

are to be in future

modes

of existence.
lit.

of existence,

expression Lun-hui (JJ jgl), Rotation wheel revolving, was perhaps invented by the

The

Buddhists.

It has at least

become

their property as a

term

to

denote the doctrine of metempsychosis and the world of transmigrations.

To end

these returns to wretched mortal

life is

the

desire of all good people,

and one

of the dreadful

punishments in

King Yama's regions is to add three The wretch so punished is existence.

hui (i

to one's allotted stages of

said to Ghiasan-shi^lun-

H iS J^

M)>

t^ g^ three transmigrations

from another.

When

referring to a return hereafter to this world the Buddhist

speaks of his Chuan-shen

(^

^), body

of revolution.

phrase has passed into popular use in the sense of " in birth " or " when I come again into this world."

And this my next

But

after death here the spirit,

Shen or Ching-shen
to

(^

jpf ),

continues to live lodged in another body here or elsewhere.

If

it

was bad and did

In the

evil it

may

Prisons or Hells, a term said to

dhists.

^), Earth have been invented by the Budgo

the Ti-yii

(^

Ti-yii

it

may become an O-huei (^

),

or

Hungry

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

465

Ghost, another term said to be due to the Buddhists.

This term

was used
meanings

to translate the Sanskrit

word Pretas, but

as one of the

of this

word was

spirits of ancestors, the rendering

(ffl

was not
ancestors,

satisfactory.

So Tsu-fa-huei

was taken

to render Pretas in this sense,

^), ghosts of and 0-hiiei

of the

was retained to designate those creatures which form one

three bad classes
divided.

among

the six into which sentient creatures are

hell

These are the creatures which are tortured in

thirst,

by
in

perpetual hunger and

and they are

specially

remembered
all

China on the occasion

kindness
is

of

the Xii-lan-hui,
It
is

when

manner

of

extended to them.
relatives

because one's deceased parents

and other near

or

may

possibly be in an " Earth Prison,"

may be doomed to re-birth in a low and painful condition that many of the rites and services performed by Buddhist monks
These have given the language

have been called into existence.

such expressions as Chiii-chien (j^ ^), to " follow the dead with worship," to obtain for them advancement in the other world.

In popular use this phrase simply means to perform services for

the release from the realms of misery for one

who

is

supposed to
is

have gone there on account

of his misdeeds.

Like chui-chien

Chao-tu
evoke

(f2 ^),

also coined

by the Buddhists and meaning

to

and

save.

This also denotes the performance of a religious

service for the dead,

and the name

is

applied to the incantations

and other strange ceremonies practised by Taoists and others on

behalf of deceased persons or their relatives.

Another very com-

mon
dead.

phrase of this kind

is

Tu-wang (j^

or

[^), to save the

A general name for all

is

religious services in connection with

death

Fo-shi

{^

'^),

Buddha

business.

This

name
we

is

used

whether the services are performed by Buddhists, or by Taoists,

or

by laymen.

Instead of "Buddha-Business"

find native
of

authors using the one word

Buddha
it is

in this sense.

Thus

Cheng

I-chuan

of the

Sung dynasty

recorded that in conducting the

death-rites

for his parents he did not use

Buddhist

services, the

words being Pu-yung-fou-tu (;p

(j^

^ J^

)g).

The term Shao-i

to the language.

^), Burning clothes, deuotea a new usage which

that

is,

paper clothes for the dead,

gives a

new expression

tJNI'^ERSITT

466

The InjUieriCG of Buddkisrti on the Chinese Language.

We
to the

pass on to take a few specimens of other terms added

Chinese language by the Buddhists or derived from their

religious teachings.
life

For mortal existence which goes on from

and death renewed in many forms
for

and death

to life

many
"a
sea

ages
of

Buddhism has numerous metaphors.

KHi-hai

One

of these is

troubles,"
to

(g

'^),

Sea

of

Bitterness or Misery.

Then
hang
Fo.

carry us across this sea to

)^),
''

Nirvana we have the TzaThis

is

(^
But

The Grace''

or Ship of Mercy.

a very

popular phrase often associated with Kuanyin P'u-sa and Omit'o

it is

especially

Prajna which

is

the Tz'u-hang, the word

being in

common

use liberally interpreted.

is

To

circulate

good

books among the people

praised as " showing far and wide the

j|^).

Ship of Mercy"
be

('Jg jf;

g
the
of

Buddha's teachings, which may

raft,

summed up

in

the word Prajna, are also called a

Fao'fa

(^

^^), Precious Raft.

to

This bears us across the sea of

changing existence

" other shore "

life

where we

let it go.

Again the long

through which
or whither

series

and death ceaselessly renewed

man

passes darkly not

is

knowing whence he

conies

he goes

called

the Hiin-chUi (-gi \^), the

It is only spiritual

murky
wisdom
and

labyrinth, the dusky thoroughfare.

which can light and guide us through the long

hence the term Chih-chii
for Prajnu.

Ilun-cfh'd,

@), Torch

of

Wisdom,

synonym

We

next notice one or two of the terms for

to die

introduced

by the Buddhists.

Some

of the old

and common terms are much

used by them^but there are also several forms of expression which

they are said to have invented.

Most

of these

have long been

fais

miliar to the laity but especially to the educated.

One

of

them

HitH'shcng llsi-t'ten

(^
is,

J\ || 55), the

spirit

has gone aloft

to the

Western Heaven, that

whatever objects
friend
or

the Soul has gone to Paradise.

No

one
a

to the use of this expression

with reference

to

relative
is

newly deceased.

IjCss

complimentary and

reassuring

the expression

Chien-f/eU'ivang

(^

Ig

J),

to see

King Yama, have an interview with the King

phrase, which
is

of the

Dead.

This

a safe one as

it

does not commit the speaker to

is

au expression

of opinion as to the result of the interview,

very

The Influence of Buddhism on

popular with
all

the Chinese

Language.

467
find

classes
lias

of

the people.

For Yen we often

Ming (S), which

wang,
It
to

come hefore us

already, and
is

Ghien-ming-

have seen the King of Hades

Buddhists perhaps who
(jji^ -Jtf;).

to be

dead simply.

was

also the

first

phrase Shun-shl

This seems

to

made and used the mean no more than to

a Buddhist term for

follow the age or go with the world, but

to
die,
to

it is

''go the

way

of all the earth."

But the correct ex-

pression to use of the death of a Buddhist

chi

monk

or

nun

is

Yuanis

(U

^), which means

''

to

have perfect
de?ld,
is

peace.*'

He, that

Buddhist monk, was already

expressed by i-ynan-chi

(E HI S)' ^^^ ^^^^ already entered into his rest. The phrase yuan-cM is in common use, and it may be seen on sepulchral
monuments
of professed

Buddhists and in their biographies.

us notice two cheerful expressions

Coming back
which the Chinese

to life let

owe

to

Buddhism.

One

of

these

is

Sui-hsi

(^

X which seems to
It
is

mean folknvlng
is,

delight.

It is explained,

however, as meaning
to enjoy.

to praise, that

perhaps
it is

to find pleasure in,

in this

last sense

that

generally employed

in

commoTi

literature.

Thus one may be

said to sui-hsi,

have

enjoyment

at the sights of a fair of a temple.

Generally speaking

the term denotes natural thorough satisfaction and delight, or a

sauntering at will
other expression
forth

among
is

pleasing

and

interesting objects.

The

a hair light.

fang-hao-kK an g (jj 56)> literally, to send It is derived from the Buddhist scriptures in
as sending

which the Buddhas and P'u-sas are often represented

forth a great bright light from a
their eye-brows.
tuft or

knob

of hair
is

between

The recognized

expression for this

in

fang-hao-

kuang, and Chinese writers use the words

that sense.

But

they have also extended their application and made them denote
a countenance beaming with delight.
ingly,
of
is

To fa ng-han-huaiig,

accord-

to

have the face

lost

lit

up with happiness as
is

at the sight

one beloved who was

and

recovered.

We
names

next take examples of

in

miscellaneous
of

terms,

chiefly

of objects

which the names

Buddhist objects of

worship, the clergy and their temples form important elements.

The use

of these

terms in several instances varies from place to

468
place,

The Influence of Buddhism on

and some of them seem
to

the Chinese

Language.

be,

now

at least, limited to cer-

tain localities.

We begin with the word Buddha, Fo,

of objects

which forms

part of

many names
god or

and

enters into not a few descripis

tive epithets.

Among
spirit,

the people
as in
is,

Fo

often used as a

synonym
(|ft)-/'o,

for shen,

the popular phrase

chHng

invite

Buddha, that

invoke the aid of the gods.

Ti,

By

an

Imperial Decree also

the
title

Kuan

the

Grod of

War, has

received

Hu-kuo Fo (U g 'j^), the Ikiddha who protects the In Chinese books, country, the God who defends the Empire. whether by Confucian or other authors, Buddha is mentioned by
several titles in addition to those already mentioned.

Pie
(-j^

is

the

Great Hero (Ta Hsiiutg

the

^), the Ancient Master

{Tao-sJii

King

of [the Buddhist] Religion or the Spiritual

5t ^)> King {Fa-

wang f^ J), the Guiding Teacher Immortal {Chin-hi^ifoi j[Jj).

gUJ),

the Golden

But taking his name Fo, we

in all kinds of ways. of a -personal
{yt)f

find this in popular

language used

It is often given
for

among

the people as part

name, especially
is

young boys.

Thus Fo-kuang
in childhood
is

Buddha's Brightness,

name given

and

sometimes retained through

life.
is,

Another personal name

perhaps Pagoda.
It is

Shi

{y^yFo, Stone Buddha, that

as a

But Chin-Fo,

name,

is

not the Gold Buddha.

"Chin the Buddha,"

the epithet

from an

official

account of the

named Chiu, who obtained remarkable manner in which

Then the Cat
is

Fo on

his prayers for rain

were answered.

called

by Buddhists and others

Fo-nu

(jjjj),

Buddha's

slave, because she purrs

is

him

praise.

The

China-Rose fHibiscus R.S.J

B.'s mulberry, though
it

commonly known as Fo-sang (^), has other names also in common use.
;

The
in

fragrant citron

is

B.'s

Hand, Fo-shou (^)

the lemon
;

is

called

some

places Fo-shou-Jcan (|^), the citron orange

and another

fruit of this

kind

is

called Fo-t'ao
is

(f^^),

B.'s peach.
(jjfi

Then we
B.'s

find the

Thorn-Apple

known

as Fo-ch'te-er
is

1^), as well as

by other names; the Stone-crop

Fruit plant; and the House-leek
Bulb-plant.

Fo-kao-ts'ao

{^
(^

]^),

is

Fo'chia-ts'ao
is

]^), B.'s

The colour known

as ultra-marine

called

Fo-cWlng

{^)i from the colour given

to B.'s hair in pictures

and images.

The Influence of Buddhism on

tlie

Chinese Language.
the

469
(BM)

The rounded
to

tops of

many

liills

give

name

Fo-t'oii

the

hills.

This term B/s Head, Hwut-t'ao iu the Swatow

dialect, is

given to those dollars which have the impress of a head,

such dollars being called Fo-Vou-yin (|g) or simply Fd-t^ou.

In some
dollars
districts

this

name

lias

been extended

to

all

kinds of

and

to

other foreign coins.

B.'s

The
also

expression Fo-kuo

(^)
is,

means not only

Paradise.

kingdoms but

Buddha's Land, that

In a well known verse the poet Su has declared that

in the
''

he would never believe

Hills of the

Immortals and the

in

Laud

of

Buddha."

We

have seen the term Fo-tzu (-J) used

the sense of

a novice or

young

disciple.

About

Amoy

strong

gales and typhoons are called Pid-d-po

fiercenees.

{^

^
*'

^), p6 meaning

Here Fo-tzu

is

not *'B.'s sou," but simply Buddha,

and the storms are called

Fo-tzii-'pao, because they

seem
is

to

occur

regularly about the 8th day of the 4th month,

which

Buddha's

birthday.

The Emperor
term and

of

China

is

styled

Lao Fo^ye (^ j^ ^),

(Jg) Fo, or Living B.

" Old Buddha Sire," and he

This
last
its

is also

Huo

equivalent Sheng (^)

Fo

are also given as

for high

honourable epithets

to

good

officials

and men eminent

it

moral
to

qualities.

Since Ssu-ma Kuaug's time

has been customary

bearing
the

present to just

and generous

officials

tablets

inscription
of a

Wan-chia- sheng -fo

families.

(^

^ ^ ^),
it is

the Living

Buddha
is

myriad

Fo-hsing

(-ft), B.'s nature,

man's

natural good moral constitution,

Jen-Jen- chih-hsing

(A

-^ '^), every man's original nature.

Then

the phrase Fo-hsing

came
*'

to

mean
there

a good kind disposition, a generous forgiving spirit.

is

Lastly

the

term Fo-ku

{'^),

which means not only

It
is

a bone of B." but also the pith or essence of Buddhism.

used also to denote a perfect faith in that religion and a thorough

devotion to
its interests.

We
of

next take a few specimens of terms in which the

name

Kuan-yin appears.

This goddess

is to

the Chinese the ideal

perfection not only of a tender-hearted powerful being but also of

perfect beauty.

Her nose

is

specially

admired, and Chinese

mothers like

to see a child
is

developing such a nose.

At Foochow,

where Kuan-yin

also called Kuan-sin, a

baby

is

often soothed to

470
sleep

The Inftuencp of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

by a lullaby, which hegins-Ha-iJei hn-pei- sing Noh-noh
This means something like
'^

ch'iong Kaan-sin.

am

twiddling

your nose's bridge

is

to

make it

like Kuaii-yin's."

A brunette beauty

spoken

of as a T'ie
is,

(tHeJ) that

(^), Kiian-yin (from the colour of iron a dark-complexioned goddess of beauty. It is said

that this term

may

also be used to a pretty

nut-brown maid with

compliment.
to

dewy-violet eyes and that she

will not resent the

man

in

China may sometimes wed one wife and cleave

his

her

making her alone

his affairs.

mate and asking her help and advice

is

in all

Such a man

gently bantered by his friends for this

seeming feminine manner in the expression Tso Kitan-yin-f/ang

(^

IS

W ^)>
is

^^^

^i^
is

^^ Kuan-yin's Hall.

This alludes

to the

fact that

Kuan-yin

specially a

woman's divinity whose Hall or

Temple
this

consequently resorted to chiefly by women.

Then

as

goddess loves wild romantic places we find such names as

(J^),

Kuan-yin Yai
given
to

Yai meaning a
cliff

j^'f^f^ipio^-

any

high steep

or

any
of

tall

name is precipice among

This
in

mountains.

The grace and beauty

designations

Kuan-yin are implied

natural

several of the

applied to certain

objects.

Thus

a pretty

Bamboo
tiek,

with fine small leaves bending over like

the Kuan-yin-c/i?t
({j"), in

the Gycas
dialect

i2ei;oZit^a, is called

the

Amoy

Kuan-yin

Kuan-yin's bamboo.

The name Kuantree,

yin-liu

(^)

is

given in some places to the

yew

and

in others

to the tamarisk, liu

being a name for the willow

tree.
is

There

is

an araceous plant

(of

the genus Lysichiton) which

known

as

Kuan-yin-lien (^) or Kuan-yin- chiao (^), the latter being conLien is a name for the lotus, and sidered the more correct term.
chiao
is

the plantain.

Then we have

also

Kuan-yin-ton and

Kuan-yin-ts'ai as names for certain beans and peas {ton

g)

and

cabbage

(ts^ai

^).

Such names as these

recall the

Marian- rose,

Marigold, and similar terms derived from the respect paid to the

Virgin Mary.

The Lohans

also

have contributed

to the

formation of several
sit

new
still

phrases and modes of expression.

Those Eighteen who

for ever in Buddha's Hall are types of perfect order and

grave quiet demeanour.

Hence when

a host

is

arranging his

Tkv Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

471

guests duly according to age and rank he says hej>W(^)Ivo/m?i',

puts his saints in order.

set apart for guests
is

So

also the dais or

kang

in a

room
(J5^),

dignified
in fun

by the name Ijohw^'chiiang

in anger the

the saint's couch.

Half

and half

hard-working

people call the idle literati their Lohan, because they often lead
idle useless lives, receiving

homage and maintenance on

in

the mere

reputation for learning.

Then

some

districts a
is

Podocarpus

and

in others a different
(|g),

Taxaceous tree

popularly

known

as
for

the Lohan-sung
various conifers.

the word snng being a loose

also for the

name

One name
is

Mangosteen, a

fruit little

known

to

the Chinese,

Tiohan-huo {^), another

or
is

name being
fruit.

Shi'chia (Sakyamuni)-A;ito, the Saints'

Buddha's

common term for a Buddhist monk, Ho-shang. This is given as a name to little boys in order to cheat boy-hunting demons, and the name
made
of the
is

In the popular language much use

often retained through

for the bald,

life.
it is

It

is

also

current generally as a

nickname
olfensive.

and

not always meant or regarded as

is to

The

long-tailed

Jay (Urocissa)

the country people

sailors

the Shan-Ho-shaug,

Mountain Monk.

To

Castor and

Pollux are the Hai-Ho-shang and Hai-ni-ku

(^

jj),

Sea

Monks and Nuns.

of the sea

They

are ill-omened elves which

come out

and run up the masts, bringing

in their train all kinds of

(|^),

bad weather.

Mushrooms have been designated Eoshang-Jou

it

the monk's meat, because

substitute for

is

a luxury which serves

him

as a

pork and mutton.

From
fts'aij of

the term
[JJH

Chia fKaJ-lnu, a monastery, arose the name

Ka-lan-ts'ai

^), a popular term

for

the white cabbage

North China.
have seen that Mfira, the Tempter or Devil, came into

We
is

China with the Buddhists.

often accused of
all
is

From

his

bad character

this

being

kinds of mischief.
said to

Tims when a man

devil,

goes

and
to

tlie

mad the maduess man is spoken

have been caused by the

(Jg

of as

Feng-mo-Uao

^
a

Y),

bedevilled

madness.

But when the

devil enters into

man he may

torment his victim in

many

ways.

The expression feng-mo'liao,

It of teu indicates

accordingly has come to have several meanings.

472
til

The

InfliieJire

of

Buddhism on
is

the Chinese

Language.
head, espe-

at the person so

spoken of

simply a

tool or block

cially

one who cannot express himself clearly.

It

also

denotes

the state of one

who has
to

lost his

head,

who

is

bewildered for a

moment.
It remains

mention one or two new terms which are

relating
of
to

of a

secular and political character though

the monks.

For the government

are
in

of these certain

members

the fraternity
officials.

invested with the rank and power of civil

is

Thus

Peking there

the Seng-lu-ssu

(ff'

J^ "3), Register
the
title

office for

Buddhist monks.

In

it

are two

monks with
to

Shan-ahi

(^

iS)>

who

are of the sixth rank, and under these are several

others.

But the term Seng-hi seems

Pope
This
office

be often used simply in

the sense of Buddhist ing

at the capital.

or chief authority of the

monks
it

resid-

was

first

instituted
to

by T'ang

Wen

Tsung (A.D. 827

to 841),

and the

first

hold

was the

celebrated abbot Tuan-fu

(jjj "^).

There were afterwards two

Seng-lu and a
Divinity

Fu

(gl])

Seng-lu.

The

last

was a Doctor

in

who

determined questions of faith and doctrine, and

the former administered the affairs of the clergy.^

NEW MEANINGS GIVEN

TO OLD EXPRESSIONS.
of the effects
in

We have

now

to consider

some examples
These

which

Buddhism has had on the Chinese language

and meanings of native expressions.

altering the uses

effects

resemble in

some measure,

as

has been stated, those which other religions

have produced when derived from abroad.

Thus

as to Christianity

we know
Greece.
these

that such

words as those translated j^mce, faith, grace,

righteousness had recognized and well-known meanings in ancient

words received

But when they were taken up by the early Christians new meanings and higher applications.
of pre-Christian
its

So
the

also

the diakonos, episkopos and aposfolos for example, of

New

Testament are very different from those

gave new

writings.

In like manner, as has been stated, Buddhism in

uses

native land
expressions.

and meanings
is

to several

Sanskrit

conspicuous example
Playfair)
;

afforded

by the word
Ir.;

*'

^ Mayers' Ch. Gov., p. 77 (ed. Shi-shih-yao-lan," chap. Jt>

" Ta-ch'ing-hui-ticn," chap

The

Tnfiitence

of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

in

473

dharma, which

is

employed by the Buddhists

wliile

some

of its

many

common meanings
tions.

they also give

it

new and

special applica-

So also when their system was brought into China and proit

pagated there
receive

caused

new

significations.

many old Chinese words and phrases to One of the many reproaches which
has perverted the uses

Conf ucianists heap on

of words.

this religion is that it

The

instances most frequently quoted are those of hsin

(i&X heart or mind, and ks'ing (f^), moral nature. Here the Buddhists are charged with making confusion by changing one word
for the other.

This criticism

is

j1lst

to

a great extent.

Those

Buddhists, and they are numerous, who follow Bodhidharma's

teachings say that the

Buddha

is

man's hsin and by

this

word they
existence

mean man's moral

moral character.
the six

nature.

Farther, the six kinds of

into which mortals are born are the results of actions influenced

by

In pictures

this is

illustrated

by representing

modes

of existence as so
it

many

rays diverging from the hsin.

is

We
(tt)

also find of

stated that the hsin of Confucianism

of

the hsing
is

Buddhism, and that the hsin, heart

the former.^
(f^),

the latter,

the

* (iS) roind or will of

Let us take the word Fa

as characteristic of

which

is

one of those regarded

used to translate se-

Buddhism.
it is

This word
the

is

veral Sanskrit terms, but

common

rendering for dharma,

significations

and

like

it

Fa

has

many

original

and non-Buddhistic

such as law, method, a means, a model.

of

But among the meanings

in the

dharma

are nature, condition,

law, spirit, matter, institutions,

religion

and specially Buddhism.

Now
So
it is

Chinese Buddhist

writings

fa

is

found in

all

these senses,

and consequently the

word

is

often hard to translate.

not without reason that a

great disciple in one of the sacred books complains of the

many
used.

ways

in

which the phrase i-chie-fa

f^),

all

Fa,
to

is

In Confucian literature the phrase /en^ (^):A' means

observe

the regulations and specially to carry out the eight-fold law about

the removal of
^

officials.

But like dharma

the word

/a acquired the
;

da M
*

" Ohih-yne-lii" See "San-yu-fang-wen-chi " (H S! ;i ^)> chap. ii. where the B. patriarch says to the king '^ f^ j^ ^l<)' chap, iv., Ohniig-ynng,' ch. i. (commentary); "Slii-shihMeng-tzii," chap, xi., p. fi;

''

yao-lan," chiip, f^

a.

v.

/|^>,

474

The Influence of BnddJmm on

of

the

Chinese Langnage.
to be used in the sense

meaning

Buddhism and feng-fa came

of being or

becoming a Buddhist.

So Fa-chiao

(^ ^)

is

the

reli-

gion of Buddhism, though

we

find occasionally such

redundant

expressions as S/d-tsun Fa-chiao, the Buddhist religion of Buddha.

Then /a

is

also the canon, the authoritative scriptures, as

in

the

formula " I take refuge in Buddha, the Chiirch, and the

ffa).

Law

The meaning

of

latv

often seems to be present in the

in its

mind

of the person using

fa

Buddhist senses.
is

Thus, for
so

example, the

monk who
(JK

drinks and gambles

warned that by

doing he incurs guilt with respect to the laws of the land as well
as those of

Buddha

ift

13 fi f:R

^#

W)-

Further, in

old Chinese classical literature

Fa-men {f^),

the Gate of the

Law,

was

the designation of the South gate of the sovereign's palace.

this

In Buddhism

term acquired the new meaning

of

religious

teaching or a set of doctrines, as in expressions like San-sheng'fa-

men
is

(H

used

to

SI JS f^)i ^^^ systems of the Three Vehicles. Fa-men translate such Sanskrit terms as dharma-paryaya, a

course of instruction in religion or an orderly exposition of a

religious doctrine,

and dharma-mukha " introductions a

la loi,"

and abhi-nirhara, exposition.

a

Then fa^men came

the siltra
of the

to

be used as
It

synonym

for

Ching

(1^),

Buddhists.

denotes also the church, the adherents of Buddhism, though the

more usual term

K'ung-men.
of

for the latter is

is

Fo-meUj

as Confucianists are

There

also the old term F'a-tso

of

(^), the Seat

this

Right, the Throne

Justice.

With
throne,

t)ie

Buddhists
the
seat
of

acquired the meaning of Abbot's

ecclesiastical superior in a

or

the

monastery or in the church.^

is

The next word we take

classical literature this

Chiao or Kiao (^).

to

In old

word means

awake or become

conscious,

then

to

have wisdom,

to perceive the rules or principles

which

underlie facts and events, to instruct, to rouse others to thought.

The Buddhists

took this word to render the Sanskrit

Buddha
But

which denotes " him

who

is

enlightened and enlightener."

is

with them the enlightenment

religious,

and the awaking and

1 " Yunpf-cheng," Eds. 2nd y. 1.4; " Ta-pau-nie-p'an-cliingf." ohaj), xxxiv. *'Ku-liang," chap.ix. ; ' Miao-fa-lieu-hiia-cliing," chap. i.

77/e Injluence

of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

of

475
is

{irousing are

from the sleep

is

moral delusion.

The Buddha
of

so

called because he

enlightened as to the vanity of

all things,

the

misery of

all

life,

and the supreme excellence

is

Nirvana.

He

has Bodhi or spiritual wisdom, and Ghiao

for

one of the renderings

that word.

The chiao
of

of

Confucianism can be taught by

sages, such as I-yin, for example,

and

it is

intellectual

wisdom.
to

But the chiao

reasoning.

Buddha

is

spiritual

and transcendental, not

be taught by sage or prophet nor acquired by mere study and

The Buddha
of

is

pure wisdom, the undefiled enlightened one.

sometimes called Ching (^) chiaOy He is also Chiao-

wang, the King

heart.^

spiritual

wisdom whose

seat

is

in

man's

The mention

of chiao

Some
new

of the uses

made
In

of this

and Bodhi suggests the word Tao (^). word have been indicated in a
to see

previous chapter, and

it

we have now

how

the Buddhists gave

applications.

many

cases they retained the old phrases

it

and forms of expression of which

formed a

part,

sometimes

with the original meaning and sometimes changing this for one of
their

own
to

importation.

New

combinations of the word were also

of the foreign learning

made

meet the requirements

to

and

religion.
to

As Tao was found

have many

significations it

was employed

translate several Sanskrit words.

Thus

it

was naturally taken

to

render such words as

path.
It
is

Padam and Marga

in the sense of a

way

or

also for

Marga and Prati-pada

This

in the sense of " the

path which leads to the cessation of suffering,'' the last of the

Four Sublime Truths.

Path

is

the

Pa-sheng-tao-fen

(A

?tt

^)

0^ simply Pa-shSng-tao, the Eight-fold

Holy Path,

in Sanskrit

Arya Ashtangika Marga.

life

The expression Pa-shhigto the true faith.

tao denotes the perfect

of thought, speech,

with true knowledge, absolute rectitude

and conduct, and devotion

Then

tao

is

used to render the Sanskrit word charya in the

sense of course, conduct, or career.

Thus P'u-sa-tao
more commonly
**

is
it

in

some

places the " course of wisdom," though

denotes

the conduct which

is

required of a P'u-sa,

les devoirs
vi.,

d*un Bodhiii.,

^ " Chuang-tzu," chap, i., pp. 13, 26; and chap, " Meug-tzu," chap, ix, p. 32.
;

p.

2; L.C.C.,

p. 239;

476

The Influence of and

it

B uddkLsm,

o)i

the Chinese

Language.
In the

sattva/'

also denotes the

way

to

become a P^u-sa.

sense of " course of

wisdom "

it is

the Sanskrit Bodhi-charya.

Tao

is also

the translation of Grati, a journey or career, but

specially a course of existence, the condition of being subject to

transmigration.

There are six (properly only

five)

classes
six

of of

mortal sentient beings.

These constitute the Liu Tao,

ways

existence, six careers of life through

some or

all of

which mortals
in hell,

have

to

pass.

These are Devas, Men, Asuras, Beings

In the five-fold

Hungry
the

Ghosts, and Beasts.

left out.

classification

the

Asuras are

Of the above, the Devas and Men, are

called

are the

Shan (^) (^)

States.

tao or tao or

Good

states of existence,

and the

last three

Bad
hell.

States,
is

or the

San (3)

O-tao, Three

Bad

This

last

term

also often used to translate one of

the Sanskrit names for

We have

already seen Shan-tao and

O'tao as used in the non-Buddhistic senses.

There

is

also another

Liu Tao, not Buddhist but apparently an

imitation.

In this
life.

the six classes of creatures refer only to this world and to one

They

are the prosperous, the unfortunate, the womb-born,

the

egg-produced, the moisture engendered, and the metamorphosisdeveloped.

The term Tien

the Buddhists
is

{J^)-tao,

which we have seen before, with

State of existence.
It trans-

not only the

Deva
is to

lates also the Sanskrit Deva-soprana, Deva-ladder, the

name

of

the world in which Deva-datta

in

appear as Buddha.

Further

Buddhist books tao

is

often used to translate or represent the

Sanskrit word jnana in the sense of knowledge or wisdom.

Thus
by

Fo'tao sometimes stands for Buddha- jnana, the knowledge which

a

Buddha

possesses.

Then

the

word dharma
So

is

also rendered
is

tao in the sense of state or condition.

also

yoga

as the

magic power obtained by prolonged meditation.

it is

The word Bodhi, as has been seen, is translated by chiao, but much more frequently represented by tao. Thus te (^) tao
attain Bodhi,

is to

and Ch'eng

]^)'tao
in

is to

perfect

it,

that

is,

to

attain

Buddhahood.

The Buddhists

China remembering that

this

their founder

endured great privations that he might reach

high estate like to associate their ch^eng-tao with that of the old

Tlid influence of

Buddhism
The
latter

o)i the

Chinese Language.
to

-177

native philosophers.
practical

means

become perfect

in the

wisdom which guides a man

in

the path of right and

duty.

It is attained only after

much

tribulation, long study

and

unceasing application.
quote the saying which
to

Thus both Buddhists and Confucianists

tells

us that as the jade must be chiseled

pass through the mill of study and

make

it

of use so

man must

hardship in order to become perfect

(5/p8C/PJ6KA/pj8
Tree of

The Peepul

is

to

Buddhists the Bodhi-druma,

Wisdom, because under a Peepul Gautama attained Bodhi. The Chinese translate Bodhi-druma by Tao-shu {^\ Tree of Wisdom, and they extend the name to several other trees. The spot on which Gautama attained Bodhi was called the Bodhi-mandala
(or-manda), Circle of Wisdom.

This was rendered in Chinese by

Tao-ch'amj

(ig), the

Arena

of

Wisdom.

The phrase became

popular and was employed to denote " the seat " of a superior
being, the centre from

Puto, the

Wu

Thus the Island of T^ai mountain, and the 0-mei mountain are the

which he operates.

Tao-ch'ang respectively of Kuan-yin, Manjusri, and Samantab-

hadra P'u-sas.
of supernatural

And any mountain which is regarded as the scene influences may be spoken of as a Tao-chUings}um,
is

The phrase Tao-ch'ang

The Ta {^)4ao
highway
before.

old in the language

and

is

applied to

sacred spots by Confucianists, Taoists, and the people generally.

of Confucianists
is,

as

has been seen, the

of life, the course followed

by the good who have gone

its

With

the Buddhists this term in one of

life,

uses denotes

the strict ascetic

and hsing {^yta-tao

is

to lead

such

life.

To

Confucianists their
the right
their

own

creed and principles are the

cMng

(JE)-

taoy

way

or orthodoxy.
is

To Buddhists
the

as a matter of

course

own system

the cheng-baOy

Saddharma

or

"

Good Law," and

for other religions they

is

have the usual expresswai-tao or ''outside"

ions.

Thus Brahmanism
It

one of the

systems of doctrine.
i

and others are

also

grouped together as
for heresy

i^ytao, strange
reminds us of

religions.
its

Another term
is

which

also

Confucian use

hsie {^)-tao,

depraved

478
system.

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
those

But

this

phrase

may

also be applied

to

who

are

Buddhists but hold erroneous views on certain subjects.

Such
It

persons are said to hsing-hsie-tao, be going a wrong course.

may

be remarked in passing that these uncomplimentary expressif

ions are seldom,

ever, applied to Confucianism.

With
course,
ciples.

the Confucianists the phrase ^li (\.rtao, to enter the

to

means

have the beginning

of

wisdom,

to

apprehend prin-

With the Buddhists it means to enter religion, to take the vows of a monk or nun. Then tao came to mean a sect or Hence arose the system, and we read of ninety-six tao or sects.
phrase Ho-tao-ch'tt'chia
are you professed?

{^ ^
also

{fj

Tao
full

^), meaning In what religion came to be a short name for a

being
Tao-shi.

Buddhist monk,

the

expression

Thus a

laonk speaks of himself as a Tao, or a Pin ('^ytao, Poor Religious.

From

this use of the

is,

word comes the form

a

of expression

Taosu
by

if^y that
Buddhists.^

clergy and laity,

distinction

made

chiefly

In the common Chinese language the word hsin (-g) has

such meanings as
Buddhists gave
that
is, it

to

believe^ to trust

m, faithful,

truthful.

The
in

the additional meanings of Faith, to have Faith,

in

Buddhism.
is

With

the Confucians, for

example

Mencius, a hsiii-jen
ciple.

a " faithful " man, one of genuine prin-

Among
Believing

the Buddhists the Hsin-nan (|g) and Hsin-nd {^)

are

^'

men and women,"

lay adherents of the religion.

is

He who
i

does not believe in

Buddhism

a sceptic and doubts,

(), or

he
so

is

an unbeliever Pu-hsin
tell

{^

fg ).

As he

that doubts
creatures

is

doomed

Buddhists

us that

Buddha can save

all

but not unbelievers

t^

M-

^Ji

^ ^ T^ ^^ !& - ^ T>
for

iS

One
Many

of the

most common terms

''good works "

affairs

is

hao-shi

(if y)) ^ term which simply means good

'

or services.

Tao are taken from the " Miao-fa-lien-hua-ching" comFor the Liu Tao see the " Fa-yuan-chu-hn," chap, ^), chap. _t, p. 40. See also " Shi-shih-yao- Ian," chap. The use of Tao-ck'ang in the sense of a Buddhist monastery Jl s. V. jg A, &c. is said to have originated with Yang Ti, the Sui Emperor of infamous memory. It is now applied to Taoist and other temples, but it is Buddhist in origin.
of these uses of

pared with the Sanskrit " v.; " Mu-lien-pao ( @

text.

'

iuatead of hsin-nan

we

iiod

commouly shan-nan

(^

^), good men.

r* A

xj

in.

&i

Tlip Influence

of Bnddhisw

oit

the Chinefie Lant/nage.

479

To shew
friends,

filial

piety and brotherly kindness,

to

be true to one's

and

to observe

the prescribed social and municipal instiof

tutions are the "

all classes of

good services "

Confucianism.
is
^'

But among

the people

now

hao-shi

in its acquired

Buddhist sense.
with
public the

To

used almost exclusively do good services " ^fsois

hao-shi

(^

f^ 1^)

Buddhists

to

build

bridges,

repair roads, found

schools and hospitals, support

monks

and temples,

and

help

liberally

the

poor

and

unfortunate.
for

We

also

find

hao-shi often used as a

synonym

Fo-shi as

denoting the religious services performed after death on behalf

of the deceased.

The term Kumj-te (^

similar.

(*) has fared in a

manner somewhat
have merit and

In old Chinese this phrase meant " the virtue of merit,"

says-

and Confucius
not

To
(^

toil

and not

boast, to
is
it

make

it

a virtue

JJ

M^

fJ

the extreme of generous

feeling.

More commonly, however,

it is still

meant simply desert

or merit, and

employed

in that sense.

But the Buddhists

is

imported a religious idea, and tso-kung-tf^ to make merit,

now mostly used

for the

to

denote

the
all

reciting

of

magical formulae,

the chanting of prayers and

the religious services performed

living.

good of the dead or the

It

was

in this sense of

''religious

merit" that Liang

their

Wu

Ti

and Bodhidharma used

famous conversation. " Since I came to the Throne," says the Emperor, " I have built temples, copied sacred

Kung-te

in

Books, and ordained monks more than can be

there to

told.

What

merit

is

me (#

jpf

" f^) ?
is

There

is

no merit, replied Bodhidto translate

harma.
the

But Kung-te

also used

by the Buddhists

Sanscrit

guna

in

the sense of excellences, good

in his

qualities.

Bodhidharma probably had both meanings

answered the Emperor, as
it is

mind when he

not unusual even for sage and

pious Buddhists to play with words.^

Another interesting expression transmuted by the Buddhists

is

the old

and very common one pti-shi

(^
;

J^).

This term

formerly meant simply to treat generously, provide for liberally,

'

"Chih-yue-lu," chap,

iv.;

Edkins'

Cli.

Bud.,

p.

101

" Yi-cliing,"

chap.iii,

p. 8.

480

The Influence of Biiddhdsm on

the

Chinese Language.
of his time

give freely.
in

Thus Huai Nan-t7.u says that the people

life
ffi

the observance of the duties of

gave liberally but made a

virtue of their liberality

Cg

^#
living

J|

()

And
if

in

the

works of an older philosopher we find the question

asked How

can you put tbe pearl in tbe moutb of the dead one
not generous
to

you were
'g'

him when

(^

/f

fpj

IS) ?

and giving

The expression is explained as distributing {'pu) one's property The Buddhists use it in the it away {shi) to otbers. sense of giving alms to the poor, but specially to the monks and
nuns.
It is the rendering for diina,
(Lia-tit).

Charity, the

first of

the Six

Saving Virtues

Then
pii'shi

the alms given or

as in

offerings

presented are also

called

phrases

like

che-hsle

" these contributions of food." (g ^)-pU'S/u,

this

In modern Chinese

term pu'shi

is is

seldom

if

ever used in any other than the

Buddhist way.

It

applied not only to the giving of alms to the

of

poor and destitute

and
It is

donations to mendicant
to

monks and
acts
of

needy monasteries.
religious or spiritual

extended also

charitable

character such as reading prayers and inacts of worship on behalf of others.^

of

cantations,

and performing
to the

Passing on
with mortal
life

modes

expression which are connected

as

we

find these,

was

to

be expected,

much

influenced by Buddhist teachings.

few examples

will serve to

illustrate the effects of this influence in

changing the meanings of

is

words and phrases.

simple and obvious instance

living, to

that of the
or

word sheng (^) which once meant merely

alive,

make

keep

and included only the present

life

life.

But

the Buddhists add-

ed the notion of this

being only a link in a chain of continuous

though varied existence.

So chin {^ysheng ceased

to

to

mean " durone's senior

ing life" simply, and came

mean "during
it to

the present stage of

my

existence."

Again Ch'ien ('^)-sheng was formerly

born before but the Buddhists made

stage of existence."
hirth only, but the Buddhists gave
it

mean
is

" in a previous
literally hefore

The phrase sheng^chHen

8liitng-ch'ien'iou-tsLU
;

the sense of " in the pre-

natal states."
^ '*

')^\i\x^

{^'^

^), an ex:

" Chaang-tzii," chap, ix., p. 3 Huai-nan-tzii's " Works, chap. xi. ku-ehi-kiiau" (-^ "^ HI), chap, x,: ' F[on-hati-s)iu," nhap. xxix,

"

Chin -

Ths Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language.

birth only, but the

481

Bnddhists gave

it

the sense of

" in the pre^), an excome into

life.*'

natal

states."

Thus sheng-chHen-tvu-tsui

(^

"f}

|ffl|

pression which occurs in popular literature,

this world

means "

to

unbound by The highly endowed can

and hence
unexpectedly

the results of sin in a previous

recall the events of

former incarnations,

such

expressions as
lives.

chi-sari'sheng
affair

remember three past

well,

Again an

^), to (fj which turns out

a fortunate meeting, and other matters of

as san-sheng-hsing (^),

happy chance are popularly described

the good fortune of three existences.

In
ed in

manner Ch'ien-shi and Hsien-shi (^ -g;) once denotpast time or in a former age. But since Buddhism prelike

vailed they

mean nearly always in a former state of existence, in a previous life. The mating of husband and wife, for example, is said to be the lot which results from the destiny made for
themselves by the couple in a former existence, and
it is

not de-

pendent on others ii^

^ m M ^ ^ M ^ -^ ^ M^ &
It

6i

We
earlf/

next take the word su (^), which formerly meant the

morning, the morning twilight.

may

still

be used in this
life.

sense or in the derived ones of long ago, in the morning of

But

it

is

most frequently found with the meaning which the

it

Buddhists gave

in their teachings

and

translations, viz., in a pre-

vious state of existence.

made by one
hatred due to

Thus su-guan (J^) is a vow or prayer and su-chou (^) is a present ; an unpleasantness in a past existence. To have
in a former life
life

incurred in a former

the resentment of a fellow-creature and

life is

to experience the consequences in the present

expressed by

Su-yuan

or Su-xju-yiian

previous existence.

On

^), to have resentment from a the other hand a happy marriage is said

(^

to be the result of a contract

made

in previous lives, according

to the popular expression liang-yuan-yu-sii'ti

i^^ g K
of a

$S>)

fair

fate in marriage

comes from the betrothal

former

state of existence.
1 See "Fa-yen" (^ B). chap, vi.; " Tzii-erh.chi" chap, Ixxxv.j "Liac-chai," &o., chap. xiii.
j

The Hundred chapters,

482

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese
is

Language.

The

plirase

Wa-ch'ang
is of

purely Buddhistic,
to the city

which the

now regarded as it giving name semi-mythical Emperor Huang Ti made his

^), which
great antiquity.

(M

We find

second capital.

In the old language the term meant impermanent

or of short duration.

Hence

it

was taken by the Buddhists

to

render their word Anitya with a similar meaning.

But anitya
of

Las
all
it

also the special technical signification " the

impermanency

creation/*
to

and wic-ch'ang

also took that signification.

die,

Then

came

denote death and to

It also

and

it

has long been so used

in popular language.

became the

messengers, the

tall

and short

Yen Wang's two demons known respectively as

title of

ChH-yeh and Pa-yeh (^ and /\ ^.)^

We next
original

take the
of

common
is

phrase Ch'ang-yeh

(g
But

^), the
in

meaning

which

simply long night.

is

the

Buddhist literature dirgharatram, a long night,

sense of a long time.
late

used in the
to trans-

So the translators took Ch'ang-yeh

This
is still

dirgharatram with this meaning.

common

use of the term, but the "long time'* has come to be in a man-

ner defined.

It

is

the interval between two earthly lives of a

human
of a

creature, or that

which elapses between the disappearance

successor, or
it is

Buddha and

the arrival of his

simply the

time after death

the long night

of the grave.
in

The philosopher
phrase appears

Hsiin-tzu has preserved an old

to be used in

poem

which

this

something like the Buddhist sense.

on,

The poem
being here

begins
error

The long night wears slowly ^ S M ^) (;! S

ffi

Thought prolonged brings

"log
^^^S^^t"

7l^

^^'^

apparently that of Time simply.

To

the Buddhists, as

we know,
is

man's
ence,

life

here
in

is

only a short dream in the long night of exist-

and

the language of Schopenhauer

How

long

the

night of an endless time

life
if
!

when compared with

the short dream of

With

the Buddhists, moreover, the unconverted

man

is

as

living in a long night (JD

^ fiS)
s.

and Buddha, the Awaken" Shi-shih-yao-lan,"

er,

brings light and awakes him.^

^Introduction to
^*

T'ung-chien-wai-chi"

Huang

Ti

cliap.

"]t.

* *'UB\in.izn," chap, xvi.j Lotus," &c., pp. 25 and 350.

"Miao-fa,"

&c., cbap.

ii.

et

al.

Burnouf " Le

The Influence of Buddhism on ike Chinese Language.

483

why

In common Chinese the term Yin-yuan (Q ^) means " the and wherefore " of a thing, the reason or cause or explanaIt has also the technical use

tion of its existence or occurrence.

of denoting the remote causes of present experiences, that which,

done by oneself produces good or bad

children.

results

to

oneself or

one's

cause ichich produces

The Buddhists gave the term the new meaning of the Us effects in another stage of existence.
and the
'^

Strictly speaking the ]jUi is the beginning, the first cause,

yua^i

is

the immediate or

occasional " cause.

Hence

this

word

yin

is

sometimes used in the sense* of beginning with, proceeding

from.

The expression
is

lai'shhig^wei-Uao-rjin

(2i^

^ :^ T H)
and cheng

denotes " the unaccomplished karma for future

life,''

{JE)-yin
is

a real karma, a good destiny.

The term yin-yuan

word Nidana,

also

technically the equivalent of the Sanskrit

;

a cause

and the shi-erh-yin-yuan are the Twelve Nidanas or

^

"Causes of Existence.'*

Chinese moralists have always taught that a

man

reaps as

he sows.

The

fruit of his

conduct

may

be gathered by himself,

for " they that plow iniquity

and sow wickedness reap the same,"

life

or the fruit

may

not ripen during the planter's

but remain

over for his children.

results of his

When

man

enjoys or suffers from the

fruit or collect results.

own conduct he is said to Chie-kuo (j^ |^), gather To be cangued, chained and kept in

prison

is

the chie-kuo of the worthless lout

who from
is

idleness

and

dissipation goes on to crime.

The term

used in a trans-

lation of the

New

Testament

to render the advice of

John the
worthy
of

Baptist to the Generations of Vipers to "

repentance.
is

make

fruit "

But the

translation

is

not a happy one, as chie^kuo

not to "

make

fruit."

The Buddhists gave the phrase a new

life

meaning,

viz., to

experience in one
chie-kuo with

the results of conduct

in another.

Thus
in

generally

is

the gathering in this

them and with the Chinese life of fruit which was grown
also hsiu-kuo

by

oneself

a former

life-

So

(^ ^)

is

to

make
^
*^

fruit, to act
d:c.,

now

in

such a way that the conduct will proBurnouf

"

Miao-fa," ch'uu-yii," chap,

cliap. ix,j

Le Lotus,"

&c,, p.

132; "Yuu-fu-

iv., p. 2.

484

The Influence of Buddhism on

later years.

the Chinese

Language.

duce good results in

in

But with the Buddhists and

to cultivate fruit

common language
is

hsiu-huo

is

which

will

ripen in future stages of existence.

fruit/'

Then Yin (^ykuo, " cause

life

the result of conduct in this

with Confucianists

and with Buddhists the consequences

states of existence.^

of actions

done in past

In the common language and literature of China the word

Ye (H) means that on which one

is

occupied, an art, a trade, or

of proceeding.

a profession, and also an action or course have come

It is

also used in the sense of origin or beginning,

its

and from

this

may

adoption by the Buddhists. They employ it to Karma, that mysterious something which the individual makes in one state of existence and which makes the The mouth, same individual in another state of existence.
translate their

body and mind are

called the San-ye, the three instruments or

means by which karma

been a bad one, and so
its

operates.

The

life

before

may have

acts are tsui (p)-2/e, guilt conduct^ a

sins but also their present

term which includes not only past

retribution.

Confucianists also use this phrase, but in the sense

of the punishment in this life which

bad actions bring

to their

doer.

It

may

have,

moreover, the possibility of a double

it is

interpretation as

when

said of professed Buddhists break-

ing their vows, ChH'shoU'p'O'chieh-chih'tsui-ye'pi-yi

J&

&W^^
vows

{J (^ ^) ^^^^ ^^y ^^^^ suffer for the sin of breaking

their

is certain.^

The religious services on behalf of the Hungry Ghosts have come before us already. These ghosts are often called Yu-hun (Wf ^^f Souls at large, "Wandering Spirits. But this is an old
Chinese term, and in Confucian literature denotes the
spirit of

one deceased gradually dissolving, becoming dispersed in the air from which it came. In the Appendix to the " Yi-ching " we
find
**

it

stated that " the wandering soul becomes transformed (or

makes change " 2$

^

^ ^).
31
2
;

These words are interpreted to

mean

that the departure of the spirit from the

4, p.

body causes
iii.,

Sacred Edict, Art.

" Yih-ching," chap,

St.

Matthew's Gospel, Ch.

ii.,

verse

viii.

(Ch. Mandariu versiou).

I
iii.,

p.

L.C.C.,

p. 3G8.

The Influence of Buddhism on change in the

that the spirit
latter;

the Chinese

Language.

485

and by some they are taken to mean on being set free becomes transformed. The

common
shelter

use of the term yu-hun, however, has long been that

in the sense of a poor homeless ghost going about in search of

and nourishment.

It is also applied to social parasites,

to those

who

live
arts.
is,

by their wits or gain a precarious subsistence

" The wandering spirit

by degrading
corpse," that

bumps

against a
(jjjt

falls in

with one Yu-hun-chuang-shih

2^ JJ
It is
idle

^)

is

common

expression used about such persons.

of

also applied as a

nickname or opprobrious description

Chiao

an

(J^) once meant to worship The Buddhists took it to denote their religious services, and now ta (^J)-chiao is " to hold a service of worship.'* But it has special reference to the feast of the Seventh Month, at which offerings and libations are made to the spirits of ancestors, and also to all ghosts supposed to be in an unhappy condition. Hence the term P'u-tu (^ ^), which means simply "to rescue all," has become a name for this

vagabond.
simply,

The word

and

to

pour out wine.

Mid- Autumn Feast.

This

is

a very

common

phrase, both in the

sense of the Feast and also as denoting universal salvation.^

Let us now notice a few of the names transferred to Buddhist sacred places from other objects.
for a Buddhist monastery is ssu

{^\ and

The most common name this word is seldom

used in any other sense.

it

denoted a public

office,

But up to the time of Han Ming Ti and this old use still survives. The

first

missionaries from India, however, were quartered in the

Hung-lu-ssii
signification.

and

since that event the

As

the missionaries

word ssu got a new had the sacred books borne

by a white horse the name of the yamen was changed to JPai-ma-ssu (|^ ,^ ^), White Horse Temple. In like manner the word An (j^) was once simply a name for any house or cottage. But from the use made of this word by the Buddhists
it

has

long been the popular designation for a Buddhist

for

nunnery and in some places

*
'*

a Buddhist temple or monas^), chap,

i.,

Sacred Ed., Art.

Yih-ching," cliap. 7, Tar.

iii.,

p.

4;

" CUu-tzu-yii-lei" (!

p,

17;

486
tery.

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
*'

Then there is the word K'an

explains as a ''son
to receive or

wea " merely

meant simply

(^ or ^), which the of a dragon" (H g,).

Shuoin the

It once

hold and a receptacle.

But

time of the T'ang dynasty K'an

was used to denote the niche or

shrine at the base of a pagoda in which an image was placed.^

Again Shan-men (Jj f^), Hill-door, has come to have the meaning of a temple or monastery, specially one in the country. The single word shan is also often employed in this sense, and

ming

(^)-shan,

is

not only

"celebrated hills"

but

also

" famous temples."

And

P5), to knock at the hill gate, is to

the expression Chua-shan-men (g |1] knock at a Buddhist temple's

Then the phrase Shang-fang (J; -jj) is originally a But it also has the special superior place, or the upper region.
gate.

meaning of a Buddhist monastery, the place of the superior man, that is, of the Buddhist monk.
In the native designations for the clergy

we

find similar

The Fang-chang (-fi poetry and romance was one of the three
changes of meaning.
mortals.
It

^)

of Chinese

Isles of the

Im-

was

far

away
In
it

in the middle of the Eastern

Ocean

and beyond Corea.

secret of endless
fierce dragons.
life,

dwelt happy genii, who had the

their Isle

and they and

were guarded by

But the Buddhists gave Fang-chang new uses

as the designation of the abbot of a monastery and of the part

of the building in which he resides.

From
who

the Buddhists this

use of the term passed to the Taoists,

also call the

head of

one of their establishments ^fang-chang.

word Tsu

(jjB.),

which

in

Then there is the the common language and literature

sect.

denotes a grandfather or an ancestor, but in Buddhism a Patri-

arch or the founder of a school or

is

The Shang-jen

( J^

A)

properly only a superior man, or a superior, but

it is

also a

respectful term for a Buddhist

self or his brethren

monk.

When

speaking of him-

monk often uses the phrase Shan^jen (ill A)j which in common speech means only a man of the Further a Buddhist monk speaks and hills, a mountaineer. ^ Kaiiglisi Diet. v. H; " Su-wGa-chuDg-kung-Blii-chi," chap. p. 5;
a
s.
1.,

*'

Shuo-weu"

s.v.

K'an aa above.

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language,

writes of himself as Na-tzu (|^

487

^), the Ragged one, or Pln-na Poor rags. The name is derived from the na or rag(^ 1^), ged jmtchwork coat which the poor monks once wore. This
sort of

garment may

still

be seen occasionally on a zealous

Brother going about begging.^

We

have already seen that

is

la (Jg),

the sacrifice to ances-

tors after the winter solstice,

used in the sense of a year or

is

winter of one's

life.

In Buddhism this use

modified, and the

word
fifty

is

employed

in the sense of

a year of profession in religion.

for

Thus the words Seng-la-wu-shr mean " he was a monk

years," the age of the
life.

monk

being given as so

many

sui or

years of

Passing on to other subjects we notice a few more instances of

new meanings
is

for old terms.

In the sense of the

sky or heaven TUen

a very old word in the Chinese language.

it

When

the Buddhists came they took

to translate the Sanskrit

words Deva, a god, and Marut, a storm-god.

t'ien are the first of
it is in

As Devas the

the Liu-tao or Six Orders of beings, and

this sense that the

Buddhists use the word commonly.

title

Among

the gods Indra was chief, and hence his

in Sanskrit

THen-chii

(3c i) Lord of Devas,

sovereign devas,

Devendra.

There are four

who

are the guardians of the Buddhist religion

and

its

adherents.

These are known in China as the Ssu-ta-

t'ien-imng

Four great Deva Kings, or as the Ssu'ta-chin-hang-wangy Four great Vajra Kings. They stand

{^ :)^Ji

iX

in front of Buddhist

temples to protect them from hostile

demons, but they have long since come to extend their protection to individuals

and temples of other

religions.

The

term

T'ien

is

applied even to that dreadful creature Mara, the

find

Tempter,

whom we

spoken of as IHen-nio (5^ ^), the

p. 31

Deva Mara.
^

"Tu-ahi-ohi-shuo," chap,
X., p. 3.

ii.,

chap,

i.,

p. 4; "Ch'ang-ll.shi.chi-chn,"

The name Faug-chang for the abbot's apartments in a monaaterj is said to date from the second half of the seventh century, tlie reign of T'ang Kao Tsnng. It is not derived from old Chinese romance, but from the measured ruins of the room of a celebrated Indian Buddhist. This room was found to have been ten feet every way, and hence tlie namo/anj-c/ian^, ten feet square.
chap
" Shi-Bhib-yao-lan," chap. _t.

488

The Influence of Buddhism on the Chinese Language,

Dr. Eclkins long ago pointed out the peculiar use which

the

Buddhists

make

of the

word

ch^ lo

(^).

In

common

Chinese this word means to butt as with horns, to offend, to

attack with vigour, and to be roused or excited.
translators adopted
it

The Buddhist word

as the rendering of the Sanskrit

'*

Sprishtha (Pali Phoftahha), which means

of feeling having
dhist literature
its

touch," the sense

seat in the body.

In the earliest Bud-

we sometimes

find ch'u used with its original

meaning, but the other seems to have largely supplanted this

use.

The orthodox writers

also

have adopted

this

mode of
is,

expression in phrases like ch'u-mu, to strike the eye, that

to

be seen, and mii-ch'u, visible objects.

contact with what
aether

To see

is

to

come

into

is seen, as when we speak of the waves of from a luminous body impinging on the optic nerve. Even mere spirit without body is spoken of as having " touch

perception"

(^

jf#

^ # M S )'
detailed.

The word hsiang (ft) plays a great part in Chinese BudThe common meanings of the dhistic language and literature.

Some of these new ways, while they also gave the word peculiar applications drawn from their own system. It means, for example, with them a banner and a sign or mark as a translation of the Sanskrit word dhvaja
word are well known and need not be
the Buddhists adopted, and some they applied in
in such expressions as Sii-mi-hsiang, Sumeru-sign.

We

find

it

also for nimitta^ an

is

omen, and Hsi-yu-chih-hsiang

It also

(^

:^ jj ft)

"prodigies" or "miracles."

renders the Sanskrit

word Sanjnd in the Sense of thought or consciousness, and also Some explain the word in such cases as meaning name, symhol.
as denoting rather

" to have regard to," to " have in one's

it

thoughts."

Very

often

translates the Sanskrit

word lakshana

mark or sign. Thus the thirty-two great are the hsiang by which he is known. This Buddha marks of a use of the word passed over into the common language and
in the sense of a

gave origin to such expressions as Ku-hsiang-pu-chii ( ft

1

See Edkins' Ch. Buddhism,

xii,

p. 8

M ^)) chap,

" Ssu-shi-irh-chaDg-chiDg" (E3

+^

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

489

^ ^), which means " bodily imperfections."

(or 82)

There are eighty

minor signs or marks which are present along with the

These small marks
Collectively the thirty-

thirty-two great marks in every Buddha.

are called hao ( jf ), the word for good.

two and eighty marks are called hsiang-hao^ a term which la

common

Chinese means a friend or lover.

It is strange also to

find that the phrase shi

C^yhsiang, the appearance or resemitself,

blance of the real, means in Buddhism, the reality

original.^

the

One of the
Fang-pien
is
{-ff

curious expressfons of the Chinese language

is

g),

literally, " convenience of method."

This

said to have been first

made by

the Buddhists and, though

this

may

not be correct, the term does not seem to be of very

old date.

In the translations of the Sacred Books,

it is

e.g,

in the

Lotus of the Good Law,

used to translate Updya in the sense

of way, means, device, and Updya-Kausalya, in the sense of

cleverness (or happiness) of device, that
is,

skill (or success) in

the

use of means.

Then fang-pien

is

also

frequently the

representative of the Sanskrit word Sandhd, which Burnouf

renders
ever,

" ^nigmatique."

The translators

into Chinese,
fits
it

how-

understood sandha to

mean

that which

in or ia

suitable for the occasion.

They sometimes render

or suitable.

also
is

by
the

Sui-i (gg

^), which means convenient

This

common

every-day meaning of fang-pien now, though

it

has

also a religious use.

As the expedients

or devices to

which

the Buddhas resort are all employed to obtain salvation for

mortals fang-pien came to

mean

''good works."

To subscribe
and succour

liberally to religious purposes, to help the needy,

those in distress are fang-pien.

is

A benevolent charitable man

"likes to practise good
ffl
f1l

sometimes described as one who

works generously helping the poor" (if ff jj

^

^S

W-

be found illustrated in the '* Chin, kang-ohing" and "Miao-fa-lien-hua-ohing," when compared with the Sanskrit verses. Cf. also Burnouf s Le Lotus, pp. 5, 17, 30 et al. Thus in the 79th stanza of ch. i- of the "Miao-fa" we find ;f^ ;fB, the S. being dharma vabhava yadrisnh and Bumoof' a rendering * ia aatur (i la loi a 6tQ 6aonc6o

The uses

of hsiang here mentioned

may

telle qu'elle eat."


490 The Influence of Buddhism on
the Chinese

Language.

The formation of the compound Ju-i (Jn ^), "as you

wish,"
is

also ascribed to the Buddhists.

These use

it

to render

the Sanskrit Riddhi and Riddhi-pada (Iddhipado in Pali), mean-

ing magic power or devices.

prosperity,

But riddhi

is

properly only success,

wishes,

the

consummation of
it

one's

though the

Buddhist books generally use

in the sense of magical power.

Both uses may be traced

term ju'i.

in the

ways the Chinese employ

fly,

their

The monk who

hs^sju-i can

can

make himself as

large and as small as he likes, and perform other strange feats.

may

But the ju-i sceptre is only a token of good wishes that all things prosper for the person to whom it is given. For Riddhipada or supernatural magical power the common rendering
Shen-tsu {%^ J), spiritual foot. garded as pre-Buddhistic since
is

The term ju-i must be

it

re-

was the name of one of Han

old in Chinese literature in

Kao Tsu's

sons.

The phrase An-chii

dhists

($

JB)

is

the sense of to live in peace, dwell in comfort.

it

With the Bud-

acquired the

new meaning

" to keep Lent" or " spend a

Retreat."

During the rainy season the mendicant monks came

find the
is

together into monasteries and remained there for three months.

Sometimes we

but the word yd

la (3[ ]^),

term yd "^-an-chu^ the Rain Retreat, more frequently omitted. This is the HsiaRetreat, but Hsia-la
is

Summer

also a

monk's age

his

summers and winters, his years before and since ordination. The phrase Kung-hei once meant to serve and to give offer-

ings or worship, as in Kung-kei-kiLei-shen (|

offer service to ghosts

^^
it

jp^),

'^to

and gods."

It also

meant

to wait or atto denote the

tend on one as a servant.

The Buddhists used

life,

supplying monks with the necessaries of

giving to a travelThis
is

ling Brother the appointed or requisite provisions.

now

the

common

use of the term, though

it is

also found in the sense

of serving or attending simply.

Like Kung-hei the phrase

Kung-yang (-^^ ) was once to serve with food and drink and afterwards it came to mean *' to render service generally."

Among

the Buddhists

it is

used in the sense of showing courtIt also denotes with

esy and kindness to the begging monks.

TTie Influence of Buddhism on the

Chinese Language.

491

thein to worship, offer service and

make

offerings to Pagodas,

Buddhas and other sacred

current.*

objects.

These uses of the phrase

have also passed into the common language and are generally
In old Chinese the word Cho (jg) is an epithet of water It is then used fluids and means muddy, impure.

and other

figuratively of an age in

which

all

government

is

bad, as in the

expression Ghi-cho-shi-chih-cheng

government of a gross age.

literature

(^ tS "IS iSc)' ^^ ^^^ ^^ In Buddhism and now in common

It
is

Cho denotes moral ancTintellectual degeneracy.

its

used to translate the Sanskrit word kashaya in

purity or defilement.

sense of im-

Cho-shi

is

an age of utter degeneracy

when
life
is

vice,

ignorance and false teachings prevail,

is

when man's

shortened, and the world

is

hastening to destruction.

The term

now

of very

common

occurrence, not only in books

literature.*

by professed Buddhists but also in general moral

THE EFFECTS OF BUDDHISM ON THE CHINESE LANGUAGE A3

ILLUSTRATED BY PROVERBS AND COMMON SAYINGS.

The

last part of

my

task for the present

is

to illustrate

the effects of
illustrations

Buddhism

on the language of the

Chinese by
Sayings.

taken from their Proverbs and

Common

These can now be readily examined, as collections of them

have been made and published by Messrs. Premare, Scarborough,

Perny, Smith and others.
let

Here we have

to do only

with some of those which

of

us see the popular conceptions

as affecting the

Buddhism and the Buddhists

common

speech.

must be premised, however, that some of the examples given by the above-mentioned scholars as Proverbs and Common Sayings would be better designated by some such title as Familiar
It

Quotations.

Further,

it

is

to be

remembered that

as

these

sayings are in popular use throughout the Empire they have

different applications

and are

in

many

cases susceptible

of

more than one

interpretation.

Moreover, some are to be

1 " Li.clii," chap, i., p iv.; " Le-ki," Gallery, p. 3 ; Snore<l Edict. Art. 2. p. Tfi ; " Fenrr-su-t'unj^," chap, iii.; " Fo-kuo-chi," chap. ii.. &c. " Haii Fei-tzu," chaps, xi. and xix.; " Miao-fa," etc., chap, i.; B.'s " Lo Lotus," p. 33 sts. 88, 89 ot m1. ' See " Fa-yuau-chu-liu," chap, xcviii.; " Feng-su-t'uug," ohap. vii., p. 4.
;


492
The Influence of Buddhism on
tlie

the

Chinese Language,

heard in

daily language of the people, while others are to

be found only in books or are used only by the learned.

A few

examples
is,

will suffice,

and we begin as before with Buddha, that

with sayings which refer to his

name

or titles or attributes.

Of a

man who

reproves or counsels his neighbour without

having any superiority which might give him a right to do so, This the Chinese say Ni-fo'ch'uan-thL-fo (M ft)-

%%

means " the Glay Buddha advises the Mud Buddha," that is, reproof is given with a bad grace and is not heeded. Buddha
warns against
others.
all

sins

being

himself sinless, but the

man

rebukes those he " has no

Again, there are

mind

" to" while " compounding for

slight the gods in the time of

who

weal and cringe to

such
is

them

in the time of woe.

The conduct of

thus described by the Chinese

They who while at ease

Buddha as a pretext
(lit.

do not burn incense in the time of distress clasp Buddha's feet W)- Those who use religion as a i: 3^ iS (Ba Bl SI

cloak for evil practices are said to " use

rely on

him)

for stealing food

and shoes "

(^

ft f^

^ S)-

The

word Fu'f'u denotes, as we know, not only Buddha but also an image of Buddha. From the latter use comes the proverbial expression Pi Fu-thc-chH (g ?? ffl jS), " a Buddha upset This is said in irony of an affair spoiled by will rise again"
!

mismanagement when the mischief cannot be repaired. Then there is the saying To'iii-chiang-pu-pai-fo (j^
ft)j /P the image-maker does not worship the image.

^ [
know

" ^^

artificer

in clay

does not reverence Buddha,'*

We

all

how

the Chinese in their offerings cheat the objects of their

worship and treat these as very simple and easily befooled.

Theory and practice in such matters are

illustrated

by the saying

Huang-ni-man't^on-hao-hmg Fo

(^

yellow clay are good for offering to Buddha.

illustrates a

i^ SS SM if 1 i^\ Buns of Another saying

Confucian Buddhist's use of technical terms and his

It runs

appreciation of Buddha's teaching.

Fo-i'tzu'wei-pen^

fang-pien-icei-mSn

1^ fVr Buddha makes If He teaches us to compassion the root and charity the door.

{^

^ M 1^ ^

cultivate as a

first

essential a

pitying merciful heart and then to

the

The Influence of Buddhism on

let forth

Chinese Language.

493

our kind feelings in acts of love and charity.

the above saying
is

pien
"

of

also taken

The fang^ by some in the sense of

skill in

use of means

*'

or supernatural powers, and Men, door,

as the door to Nirvana.

He who
pent*s heart.

from an

evil heart sends forth

fair

words

is

said to

have Fo'k'oii'she-hsin (-^

This
is

P JB >&)' Buddha^s mouth and a serthe wicked and deceitful man who preys on
One
of
this latter

the kind-hearted
cription
is

who

are unsuspecting.

des-

said

to

have Buddha's eye and an old woman's heart

^^^^ expression Fo-yen-p^o-hsin is used also in (ft BK IS *&) B^^ the sense of " looking like a genius but being only an old woman."

The Foochow people

say of a

man who

pretends to be religious

and conscientious while he cheats and defrauds his neighbour

that he Ka'che'sing-t^ao'tu-huk (fg
to

'M ^^} pretending be extremely benevolent (" very honest ") he yet runs off with iz

a Buddha, commits sacrilege.

The Confucian
tells

moralist chides

the people for going after strange gods and

rents are their

them

their pa-

Buddha.

in the family are the

tS)fS ft Scarborough

One way of stating this is The parents Living Buddha in the world (^ 'SE

Then

there

is

the form of reproof quoted by

The

Living Buddha you do

(fg ft

not reverence, you

reverence a

dead Buddha

S^ 9E ft); parents being

meant by Living Buddha. Man's heart or mind (hsin) has been declared to be the Buddha, and many sages have taught this
doctrine.

The

original intention

has been departed from in the

(^JJ^

ft), the mind mind is Buddha. Let us now take one or two illustrations, all drawn from Mr. Scarborough's Collection of the use of Kuan-yin's name in popu-

popular saying

Hsin-chien-chi'shi-fo

M iP ^

determined

is

Buddha, or the man who

is

firm in

lar sayings.

Of a woman who has

lost all
(fj;

her charms

it is

rudely

said

ShaO'shi-kuan'yin'lao-shi'hou
is

18

W ^ S IS),

la

youth she was Kuan-yin, old she

a monkey.
is

Another saying

which alludes

to the

beauty of Kuan-yin

this advice to a wife

You do

not need the face of Kuan-yin, you only need your hus{J^

band's star to shine

following Kuan-yin
is

^ U ^ M P>^' ^ & W-

I" the

referred to iu her character of a compassion-

494

TJie Influence of

Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
he does
BK
i?H

ate being

He knows only the

of

Lo-lian of the

?-no;ry eyes,

not

know Kuan-yin

the bending eyebrow

(^

IS

-{^ iu^

The word P'u-sa is of frequent occurrence in the Proverbs and other common sayings of the people, and we can see from Some are false teaching, these how loosely the name is applied. abstain from eating and taking life is to which To says as that

be a P'u-sa (i^

^
its

^iF

following satirical saying

cannot protect

An earthen P^u-sa crossing a river body" own { ^ M & H & ^ W W"

U :^ ^ S)ffl

There

is

more truth

in the

The Ho-shang, or Buddhist monk, and his profession are fit subjects for satire or ridicule. The monk is an imhe simpleton or at least is bald-headed. postor or But some of
always
the popular sayings are either in praise or not in censure of the
clergy.

Such

is

that one which tells us that

it

is

'Hhe old

monk who

beats the fish-drum"

/t^ )-

Lao-ho'Shang-Gh'iaO'mU'yii

(^

fU

ItJ

^
and

He

believes in his religion, follows its

precepts,

recites the

sacred books, accompanying himself

fish."

with tapping on the "wooden

There

is

another saying

who have not an untoward destiny become monks (^ s^ 0^ fit ft 1^)- ^^^ ^^^^ saying is given with a slight variaIn the good days of Budtion and is otherwise interpreted.
dhism
in

They

China the believers were wont to say

If

one sou

becomes a Buddhist

monk

nine generations of the family go to

Instead of Ch'u-cJda beHeaven ( Hi :/L ?c)come a monk, we sometimes find ch'eug-tao attain Bodhi or become Buddha. But this saying is now obsolete, and is quoted only as an instance of bygone credulity in heresy. The smooth pate of the " peel'd priest " does good service in the popular *' You are placing language, but one illustration must suffice.

^#

on a monk's head'* (ft must proceed carefully and steadily."

an

olive

^ M M ^ Wi)> means "you

That Buddhist temples are turned into dens

made
(or

nests of vice

is

known
it

to all.

the following strong expression

of thieves and The fact is illustrated in They take the Pahice of Purity
(fg*

Brahma) and make

a house of Vultures

$t

BB

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.
is

495
here

H ^).

The " Brahma Palace "

to

is

a temple, and there

an allusion

an old

story.
is

That the monk's robe though one of humility

also

one
fol-

which protects the wearer from insult

lowing
is

is

expressed in the

The Kasha a Coat-of-mail for enduring insult (^ Ka-sa), as we know, the name Ka-sha ^ >S S J5
la)(or
is

of a robe worn commonly by Buddhist monks.

Of sayings which
take only one.

illustrate the use of expressions relating

to the connection of this life with lives past

and

to

come we

This appears In the popular literature with

several slight variations.

One form runs thus

life

If you enjoy
in

the bloom of prosperity in this

field of

you planted fthe tree]

merit in a former

life

{-^ ^^

H ^ ig

jfl

ff iS

QT

B)The King of the Dead, Yama,

is

referred to in the saying

about the " meere Physicien "

only a bungler.

who

Such a

doctor,

pretends to be clever but is the saying tells us, " talks of

his merit as equal to that of Pien-chiu but actually

he

is

a
ffi

King Yama
fffi

in hastening death " (Ji

fifc

J^f

;g

^
"

S| |g

^ M SI)born wisdom
is

Then we have Death himself

is

as a person in

another saying also given by Mr. Scarborough.

is

When man
is

not born with him, and

man

passing into old age; Life

when wisdom and wisdom are both

born

in ex-

Death has arrived " (/p Jij). This is one of many cases in which Wtc-ch'ang, as death, seems to be in a manner personified.
istence but unperceived

^^^

With

reference to the

Heaven and Hell of the Buddhists

T'ang period.
is

the Confucianists often quote with approval a saying of Li-chou

(^
if

^), an

official
is

in the

His dictum begins

there

thus

If there
is

no Heaven there

an end of the matter, and

it
;

Heaven

exists the

good

will

ascend to
if

if

is

no Hell
(lit.

there

an end of the matter, and

persons) will
HJ

there

is

a Hell the bad

glj

inferior

go into
H'J

it

(5;

^M
There

g.

>J^ ft S? IS given by Mr. Moule which is worth repeating

A A)it
;

I'J

is

" Heaven has a

all

common

S^ ? saying

road to

it

and no one goes by

Hell has no gate but

the

496

The Influence of Buddhism on

the Chinese

Language.

world go in " or " seek for admittance "

{Ji^^^^

AJE

* Ml
let

ft)iJ IS PI Ir #= To illustrate the use of fang-pien in the

common language
Scarborough's

us take one more saying,

It
is

given in Mr.

collection.

"Do
fli

good to others and you do good to

yourself" (!^ That purity

A*
is

^ S * ).
exist
in

may

impurity and good be found

among

the bad

taught in the saying

Get a pearl
all,

fo.

manij

in dirty water {\Si H^

H)shows us the popular belief that the rich have

^M

Another interesting saying

and the poor

have nothing.

The saying runs

They who are in good position

J4).

are universal Sovereigns, the poor have not where to stick an

awl

(*

;if

^ i ^ t fe ft (or S) fi
cannot

If you are high

like,

np

in the world

you can have every thing you

and

if

you
is

are a poor

man you

own

anything.

The K'ung-wang

the Chuan-lun-wang or Universal Sovereign, and the chang are

his magnificent court robes.
is

In popular speech and literature

is

the

first

half of this saying

often omitted as superfluous, the

It is

latter half alone being used.

an old saying dating apdynasty.^

this

parently from the period of the

Han

We

have now come to the end of

Chapter and to the

end of these Essays.

The Essays,

as the reader

may have

observed, are fragmentary and imperfect, partly because in-

formation was lacking, and partly because they have been cut
off

from

their original surroundings.

But

their

aim

is

not so

much

to teach facts

and suggest theories about the Chinese

language as to invite study on the subject.

studied even by the professed sinologists.
dull

For though much,

it

very much has been written on this language

has been
yet
it is

little

And

neither

work nor

toil in

vain to track the Chinese words and phrases

of to-day back to their dens, to trace their line of descent and

watch
^

in their fates the workings of imperceptible influences.

;

Scarborough's Collection of Chinese Proverbs Perny's Prov. Chin. ; Rev. A. H. Smith's Proverbs and Common Sayings of the Chinese in the Ch. Rec, vols. xiv., XV., xvi.; Premare Not. Ling. Sin., p. 135 ; Moule's Four Hundred Millions, ohap* vii.; Sacred Edict, art. 7, Amplification.

INDEX OF FOREIGN WORDS IN CHINESE.

Acharya
Agii

p.

Akanishta

Akshobja
Aloe

Amban
Amifcabha Arara

Anagamin
Aiianda Anavatapta

'

'

Angudan
Anjir

Apium
Arak Aranyaka Arhan Asankhya
Asura
Avichi

402 366 401 389 332 366 389 436 404 393 428 352 349 345 354 409 404 430 398 401

Captain

Carmine Cent

Cha Chaghan

Champaka Chan dan

Chandi
Chao-t'i

Che Cheque
Chocolate Cigar

Cocoa

Company
Consul
Daiji

P 340 333 >) 339 )j 407 J) 374 5J 438 438 399 )J 408 >J 369 )> 336 55 333 333 55 333 55 335 55 337 55
5) 5> 55

Frank
Fujin

p.

334 365
442 344 397 429 398 429 388 429 365 358 340 364 333 364

Gaja
Garabier

i!

55
5 5

Gandharva Ganges Garuda Gatha

,5

Gautama Geya Ghosh Ghyunluk Gig

Gioro

5,

55

55

Gran a Gurun
Hafan
Halileh

55

5>
55
55

Dakshina
Dalai Dana-pati

55 55

Badan Eadik
Baghshi Bal
Ball
Balliifc

348 n 347
,,

Dapon Darkhan
Darughatsi

55
55

Balsam
Batsa Batnru

Beg Bhikshu
Bithese

Bo-de Bodhi

Bodhidharma
Bodhisatfcva

371 378 339 349 339 378 367 357 401 367 377 418
I

Datoh Dharani

55
55 55 55
55 55 55 55 55

Dhima
Dliuta

Dhyana Doro Dozen

Dunya
Dzasssak

372 415 370 414 377 372 372 346 423 442 405 419 365 338 354 372 365
355 352 339 338

Hashima Hingu Hoshang

Hubilhan

p.

Hutukhtu
Ilchi

366 355 368 440 353,406 p. 371 370 55

Imam Imam
India Insure

360 353 353 428 336

Efu
Fara
Firuzah Flannel Foot

Brahma Brahman Buddha

393 391 395 407

55
55
5

Jambu-dvipa 427 Janggin 366 Janji 373 Jetavana 410 ,5 Jhapeva 416 5, Jira 440

p.

387,411

>J

Kablon

377

11

INDEX OF FOREIGN WORDS IN CHINESE.

Kajang

P))

Kalampak
Kalavingka

j
5) >> 5>

Kanpu Kapa
Kappal

Kapur Kara
Karkefcana

5>
5)

55
51 5) 55 55

Karma
Karon
Karpasa Kashaya Kasyapa
K'atags

55
55

Keke Khadga

55
55
55 55
55

346 345 443 376 368 346 345 374 433 420 373 439 413 393 377 366

Mazu
Merchant Metre Mihr
Mile

P55

5>
55

349 340 334

351

Qahwah
Quarter Quinine

p.

,,

55
55

Moksha
Murda-seng Muslim

55
55 55

Myrrh

338 420 348 353 355

373 422 343 430 416 372
371

Rahu
Rakshas

Rapa
Rifle

Sabbath

Nabo
Naraas

35
33
55

Nangka Nayuta
Nirvana Noian

Sabun Sago Saha

Saklat

55

33

35
33
33

Sakra Sakridagama 55
Sakyainuni
Sala Salmali iSamadi Saraghati
55

Khan
Khatun

443 357 357

348 358 398 3^1 430 334 430 398 444 368 441

Nomuukhan
Nor
Nasliadir

33

374 350
373

55 55

Khurma
Khvaja Kinn ara

Obo

53

55 ,,
5>
,5 55

5)
5)
5>

Om maiii pad
me hum
Ounce
Padre Panasa

33
55

Knot
Koti

423 338 333 437 420

370 418 396 425 412 365 348 338 339 413 434 435
441

Sangha Sangbarama Sappau

Sari

Krupp Khsana
Kumbandlias Kumbliira

55 55
)5

53

Sanputra
Sarira

55 55

55
55

J5
55

Paficha varsha

Kusa
Kuslitha

Panshen
deni

Er -

55

Laksha

J>

Lama
Lanza
Latin

55
55
3J

430 375 426 331

391 441 437 344 432 391 332 396 433 440 360

Paramita Pasin Path Patra

Peile

Sarong Sde-pa Shabat Shahr

Shanyii
Shilling

55
55
53

>

55
55

Shir
Si-lin

Maitreya
Malli

35
55

Penang Penny
Pin
Piiid-pata

Siddhanta
Silosu Siraha

33

35 55
55

Maiidara

55

Mango Mani
Manjusri

3>
55

Pin day Pippala

Pippali

Sloka Sphatika

55
53

Siamana
Sranianera .Srotapanna

55

35
53

Mappa
Mara
Marakti Marichi

)i
55

Pound
Prajna- para-

337

Stupa
418 390 340 429

55 53 55 55 55 >

55
55
)3

mita Pratyeka
Protest

Su
Suf
Sula Sultan

Maskah
Maudgalyaya ua

Putalaka
ii

349

Sameru

INDEX OF FOEEiaN WORDS IN CHINESE.

HI

Tala
Tala-pattra

p.
, ,

Tanga Tangha
Tangri
Telephoii T'er

, ,

,,

, ,

489 424 358 374 856

341

Taj Tula
Tu-li

359 439 362

35'..

Tumari Tusbita

,,

Yaidurya p 390,432 Vakucbi 442 p. Vilva 438 Vyakarana 425

,,

4Uu

,,

Yaksbas

, ,

Tirjak Tobacco

, ,

Ton
Toulo

,,
,

Trayas-trinso

378 350 342 338 439 400 373 361

Udnmbara
fjla

,,

Ullambbana,,

435 374 421

Yam a
Yasmiii

Yoga
Yojana

Upadbyaya (See
also
s.

397 395 354 419 431

Kbvajj

Upasaka

,,

Tsala Tu-ch'i

Usu

406 402 374

Zafaraii

Zak

384 375

(XTNIVERSITY

INDEX OF NATIVE WORKS ON CHINESE,

Cheng-shi-chih-yin
Cheng-su-yin-tzii

p.

71

Cheng-tzu-furg
Cheng-yin-chii-hna

-hui-pien -pien-wei
,,

-t'ung-su-piao -tso-yao
,,

46 87 99 99 99 100 99
29

Ku-yun-piao-ch'iin Kuang-kan-Iu-tzii-shu

p.

,,

90 67

Kuang-shi-ming Kuang-ya Kuang-yan

Kuan-yin-hui-chie-shi-i

91 38 59,92 98
,,

Kuei-yuan-chu-tsung
Lei-pien

,,

49
64 77 61 96 73 66 78 80 95 68

Chi-chiu-chang Chi-yun

Ch'i-yin-liao Chia-hsiin Cli4e-yun-chih-chaiig-t*n

60 66 45 65
73

Lei-yun
Li-pu-yun-liao Li-shi-yin-chien

Liu-shu-ku
Liu-shu-liao

,,

Ch4e-yun-chih-nan

Chung-chow-ch'uan-yun

Ching-tien-shi-wen Chuan-chu-ku-yin-liao

48 82
76

Liu-shu-cheng-o Liu-shu-pen-i Liu-shu-yin-ch'un-piao Lung-k'an-shou-ching

Mao-shi-ku-yin-k'ao

Fan-chiang Fang.yen Fu-ku-pien

Han-li-tzu-yuan Hsiang-wen-yii-pien Hsiao-urh-ya Hsu-hsilan-shno-w^n-chu Hsii-yen

,,

29
31

,,

65 68 53 28 56 95 79
52

Ming-yuan
Pan-ma-tzii-lei
>>

83 64
67 88 39 92 64 81 26

P'ei-wen-yun-fu
P'i-ts'ang

n
)) )>

HuDg-wu-cheng-yun
I-ch'ie-ching-yin-i

Pi-ya
P;i-ya
)}

Pien-yun-kuan-chu-chi Po-hsio
San-ts'ang San-ts'ang-hsiin-ku Sh^ng-lei Sheng-lei-piao

>1

,,

J>
)>

Jen-tzu-hsin-k'an-Li.puyun-liao

26 39
38,96

72

it

95
35,91 82

Ku-chin-t'ung-yun ,, Ku-chin-wen-tzti Ku-chin-w6n-tzu-t*ungshi,,

87 44
97 86 85

Shi-ming
Shi-yun-ch'i-liao

it
i> 11

Shuo-wn
Shuo-wen-chie-tzu-i-

33

Ku-chin-yun-liao Ku-shi-yin-hsio-wu-shu

chdng
>

5>

-chu

93 94

INDEX OF NATIVE WOEKS ON CHINESE.

Shno-wen-chie-tzu-hsilshi-hsi-chuan p. t'ung M
,,

Urh-ya- chu-su
55

>>

P>> >j

57

-hsin-i
))

-1

hsun-ting-sheng -yun-pu, n
,

, ,

94
55 42,47

-yin-i

jj

64 68 39 44 49
8i)

Ssii-sh^Dg-ch'ie-yuu
,,

, ,

Ssu-shi-erh-cli4 Ssu-yin-shi-i

-lei-pu

-P^ao

,,

90

Wen-hsin-tiao-luug Wen-tzii-chih-kuei

j> 5)
JJ

,'

, ,

38 88
50,60

Wu-fang-yuan-yin Wu-yin-chi-yan

>>
>>
5>

Ta-kuang-i-hui-yil-pien

, ,

-lei-chii -pien-hai -yan-^pa

68,81 71

69 67

T'ang-yun
T'ien-chu-tzu-yuan Tsaner-chie-hsun-tsuan r '^^ if -pien

,,

, ,

Tseug-yun
Tzu-chien
-Hui

>

,, ,,

,,

50 63 30 26 26 62 77 84

Yen-hsii-ts'ao-t'arig-pi -chi,,

Yuan-li

Yu-pien
Ynii-chi Yun-fu-ch'un-yii -hsio-chi-ch'eng -chih-nan ,, ,, -hui -liao

97 26 45 ,92 40
)>
>>
))
)j

75

-lin

-shi

,,

-shuo

,,

40 46 63
23 92

>> )>

80 88 74
61 69

n
,,

-pu
-tsuan -tsung

>

))

Urh-ya

-cheng-i

,,

))

Yung-hsi-kuang-yun

47 62 58

ERRATA.
P.
1,

line 4,

from foot dele

not.

11, for

La Couperie
J

read Lacouperie.

12,

1.

2 from foot for language read Languages.

^'

14, first note, for

vergleich'^ read Vergleich.

J,

15,

1, 1.

15, for anti-classical read ante-classical.

8,

23,

put inverted

commas
The

after

mean and

another.

,,

24,
,,

1.

13, for These read

subjects.

1.

27, for it read the hook.

14, for
1,

32,

1.

Ju read Tza-ju.

42,

1.

for

Fan-yeng read Fang-yen.

jj

43,
46,

1.

6, the characters for

yim and pu

are transposed.

,,

1.

17, for
1, for

J 4 read
for

"ftt.

47,
48,

1.

yen read

T/^i?^-

I.

11,

from foot

yan read yuan.

in

50,
54,

1.
*'

5, for

Chih read Chi.

of printing

The invention
in

China dates from the

Printing

T'ang dynasty."

This

is

not quite correct.

China
''

first

began in the Sui period.

ed.
i.e.

58, Note, for

13th ed." read 13

the edition

in

93,
97,

1.

Yuan Yuan's Thirteen Classics. 10, for Kuei Fu read Kuei Fu-hsio.
1, 2,

1.

a copy of this work

is in

the

Wylie
of:

collection in

the Bodleian. I had

By

the great kindness

the Librarian

an

opportunity of inspecting the book a few

months

107,
1.

ago.

9, for

,,

108, add "

109,
1.

''use" read ''rise." after " them " at end of

first

paragraph.

17, for "swathling''

15,

read "swathing."

110,

1.

put

comma

after speech

and dele the comma

after

"but."

11

ERRATA.
115, 117,
119,
1.

P.

5, for
9, for

"place

to

place" read "time to time."

1.
1.

"then" read "them."

for I.

10,
8,

from foot read "Missionary."

read o and 1 for 123, Note, add Lu-sUh-chHen-chi (jg 130, 1. 8, after " word " insert " even."

1.

bJ $&) ch. 6.

137,

1.

24, omit
7,
6,

comma

after "breathes."

142,

1.

from foot

for " Saiisselt" read " sausselt."

1.

from foot "inhaling" and "exhaling" exchange

from foot for "pearl" read "pearls."

places.

144,
146,

1. 1.

8,

8, for

1.

13, place a

"work" read "word." comma after " like " and

dele the

comma

after " noh-noh.^^ 147, 1. 6, for " eh " read " keh " and for ? read 148, 1. 8, from foot for "stta/b" read " saukJ'

154, last line, for lu read Lu.

155,
162,

1.

6, for
3,

hang read hsing.

for

1.
1.

from foot

chHang read GhHang.

read "hence

166,

6,

from foot for "is spoken of as"

find."

we

198,
1. 1.

5,
3,

208,

from foot for Jc ^^ad from foot for 0J read ].

i.e. |H|.

210, 1.14,

from foot put

"before

appetiius

and

after

fruentis.

215,

1.

19, put
8, for

comma

after "brothers."

216,

1.

^ Jt read ^ y.
The read To.
for

1. 1.
1.

11, for
8, 9,

220,
222,

from foot from foot

" zeal " read "

real."

for sha-lu read Sha-lu.

234, 261,

1.

14, before
7, for

"included"

insert

"not."

1. 1.

"6e/aZ" read "befall."

297,

10, read "sickness-broken."

7, substitute

1.

"It

is

recorded of Confucius that

when

a friend died and there was no one on

position of the

whom

the dis-

body devolved, he said " yu-wo-pin, &c.

ERRATA.
P.
297, 302, 330, 332,
1. I.
1.

16, dele
20, for
14, for
11,

comma

after

*'

constable."

piu read pin.

*'

chien-ahi
after

'^

read Chien-a^hi.
insert

1.

from foot

"mappa''

"in the sense

of

map."
5, for
1,

341,

1.

no-fa read
read
''

no-t'ou.

343, Note 347, 352,

365,
1.
1.

Crawfurd's Des. Diet.

5, for t*on

read t*ou.

18, for
2, after

"as tone" read "a stone."

" eldest " add But

1.

Kurun

is

an old Nu-chSn

word meaning Princess or wife of chieftain. 366, 1. 7, from foot after "resides" addThis
written

word,

An-pan

(}f i^)

is

found in Chinese literature

as a Nii-chen term,

and interpreted as meaning great,

379,

1.

7,
2,

from foot after

^ substitute

for

399,

1. 1. 1. 1.

403,
417,

from foot for '' Mauchi" read "Marichi." 17, for " Szamana " read " Sramana."
"Saria " read "Sarira.
do.

12, for

14, for

read

do.

1.23, for
1.
1. 1-

"Chatya" read "Chaitya."

'*

425,

24, for " achita " read " a chita"

19, for

Vy-akarana " read Vyakarana."

20, read {oi-Chia or-ga)-lo.

last line, for

Ga

read " gaJ'

>S1Ufonia.

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