1

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, phrases, and clauses. Both . . . and and not only ... but also indicate addition. Either . . . or indicates choice / alternative. Neither . . . nor indicates negative choice / addition. Each conjunction should be placed immediately in front of the word, phrase, or clause it connects. EXA !"E#$ Both %anet and her sister arrived last night. &ou can either go with me or stay here. 'e(s not only intelligent but also wealthy. )oy drives neither carelessly nor fast. *hen the compound subjects of a sentence are joined by either . . . or / neither . . . nor, the general rule is that the number of the verb is determined by the number of the noun phrase closest to it. EXA !"E#$ Either meeting. r. )eynolds or his sons always attend the company(s annual

+either the passengers nor the bus dri er !as injured in the accident.

E"BE##E# $UESTIONS

1. -oth yes.no and /uestion.word /uestions can be set into, or embedded in, other sentences. 0hey become noun clauses and are referred to as e%bedded &uestions. ,. A noun clause introduced by a /uestion !ord is an e%bedded &uestion' !ord &uestion. EXA !"E$ 'ow did he do it1 2/uestion.word /uestion3 4 don(t 5now ho! he did it. 2embedded clause3 6. A noun clause introduced by if or whether is an e%bedded yes'no &uestion. EXA !"E$ 4s he going1 2yes.no /uestion3 7o you 5now i( he is )oin)* 2embedded clause3 8. *hen a /uestion is embedded, its word order changes. EXA !"E$ 'ow did he do it1 2/uestion word.au9iliary verb.subject.main verb3 4 don(t 5now how he did it. 2/uestion word.subject.main verb3 'as he left1 2au9iliary verb.subject.verb3 7o you 5now if he has left1 2conjunction.subject.au9iliary verb : main verb3

;. A noun clause can be used as a subject or as an object. a. +oun clauses in the subject position. EXA !"E$ *hat he did is not yet 5nown. 'ow he got there is not important. b. +oun clauses in the object position usually follow phrases li5e those underlined in the following sentences. EXA !"E$ 4 don(t 5now !hat I +an do. 4 wonder i( he,s +o%in) today. 4 don(t understand !hat he is sayin). 7o you 5now !hether or not +lass is o er1 As5 him/her where !e ha e to +he+- in. Can you tell me !hi+h bus )oes to to!n1

ONE USE O. T/E 0ERUN# A )erund or )erund 1hrase can be the subject of a sentence and may appear before the verb. 4t can be made negative by placing the word not before the gerund. 4f there(s a subject of the gerund, it must be in the possessive< form. EXA !"E#$ Eatin) too much candy is bad for your teeth. Not )ettin) enough sleep will ma5e you feel tired at wor5. %ohnny(s< fast dri in) caused him to lose his license. ANOTHER USE OF THE GERUND A )erund or )erund 1hrase can be the subject of a sentence and may appear after the verb in an anticipatory.it construction. EXA !"E#$ 4t(s been a pleasure %eetin) you. 2means the same as3 eeting you has been a pleasure. 4t hasn(t been fun +li%bin) this mountain. 2means the same as3 Climbing this mountain hasn(t been fun. ONE MORE USE OF THE GERUND A )erund or )erund 1hrase may be used as the object of a preposition. 4t can be made negative by placing the word not before the gerund. 4f there(s a subject of the gerund, it must be in the possessive< form. EXA !"E#$ 0han5 you (or bein) my friend. *e were happy about not ha in) homewor5. *hen he spo5e to the soldiers, the colonel insisted on their< standin) at attention.

THE GERUND AS DIRECT OBJECT #ome verbs in English are followed by a gerund or a gerund phrase. 0he )erund is the verb form which ends in 2in). 0he gerund is used as a noun. TYPE OF SUBJECT SENTENCE Affirmative 4 #he 0hey 4 'e 0hey 4 #he 0hey 4nterrogative 7o you 7id he Can they VERB =E)>+7 2!')A#E3

put off practices considered don(t li5e doesn(t miss don(t mind li5e regrets deny li5e continue begin

studyin) until today. s1ea-in) English every day. in itin) ary. !earin) glasses. bein) with his family. hel1in) the police. not !earin) glasses. not bein) with her family. not hel1in) the police. 1layin) the guitar1 studyin) ?rench1 !or-in) on the report now1

+egative

0his is a partial list of verbs which can be followed by a gerund. allow anticipate appreciate begin can(t help consider continue deny discuss enjoy escape finish imagine 5eep li5e mind miss permit postpone practice put off /uit recall recommend regret remember report resist start stop suggest tolerate understand

TAG QUESTIONS

Ta) &uestions are short /uestions which are attached to statements. Affirmative statements have negative tag /uestions. +egative statements have affirmative tag /uestions.

0ag /uestions can have a risin) intonation or a (allin) intonation. Each 5ind of intonation e9presses something different. 0ag /uestions with a rising intonation are used to see- +on(ir%ation A the spea5er is not certain about the information. 0ag /uestions with a falling intonation are used to seea)ree%ent A the spea5er is certain about the information and wants you to agree with him.

3E /AVE TO REA# T/ESE #IALO0S4 #ON,T 3E * TA0 $UESTIONS does he1 has Is shouldn,t don,t aren,t you1

'e

doesn,t study every day, hasn,t written his family, isn,t leaving tomorrow, Should do your homewor5,

&ou ha e a large family, are a student here,

SUBJUNCTIVE THAT NOUN CLAUSE AFTER ANTICIPATORY -IT A noun +lause which follows an anti+i1atory'it construction has the verb in the subjunctive mood. Anticipato !-it Adjective ad isable best better +o%1ulsory Its +riti+al essential i%1ortant %andatory ne+essary re&uired ur)ent 4 be on time. you do the wor5. he not (ail the e9am. 2that3 she re%ain in class. the boo5 be studied. we re1ort to the chief. they )o to the meeting. S"#$"ncti%& no"n c'a"(&

TENSES INDICATING FUTURE A future addition or condition is e9pressed with !ill or be )oin) to. *hen thereDs certainty about a future action, the simple present tense or the present progressive may also de used. 0ime e9pressions often accompany these last tenses to clarify time. 0he train !ill de1art is )oin) to de1art de1arts is de1artin) At ,$6E p.m.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: SOME-, ANY-, AND NO- COMPOUNDS 0he indefinite pronouns so%ethin)4 so%eone4 so%ebody4 anythin)4 anyone4 and anybody can be used in /uestions. EXA !"E#$ 7id Al put so%ethin) in his car1 7id you see so%eone/so%ebody in the lab1 *ould you li5e anythin) to drin51 7id you spea5 to anyone/anybody about your problem1 0he indefinite pronouns so%ethin)4 so%eone4 so%ebody4 anythin)4 anyone4 anybody4 nothin)4 no one, and nobody can be used in affirmative sentences. EXA !"E#$ Ed put so%ethin) in his des5. 4 saw so%eone/so%ebody in the library. &ou may choose anythin) you want from the menu. Anyone/anybody in that office can help you. Nothin) you say will change my mind. No one/nobody wants to do the assignment.

0he indefinite pronouns anythin)4 anyone4 and anybody can be used in negative sentence. EXA !"E#$ %oe didn(t bring anythin) to wear for cold weather. 4 donGt want anyone/anybody to 5now 4(m leaving.

1E

INDEFINITE ADVERBS: SOME-, ANY-, AND NO- COMPOUNDS

0he indefinite adverbs so%e1la+e4 so%e!here4 any1la+e, and, any!here can be used in /uestions. EXA !"E#$ *ould you li5e to go so%e1la+e/so%e!here after dinner1 Are you going any1la+e/any!here this wee5end1

0he indefinite adverbs so%e1la+e4 so%e!here4 any1la+e, any!here, no 1la+e, and no!here can be used in affirmative sentences. EXA !"E#$ %ohn went so%e1la+e/so%e!here trhis morning. #it down any1la+e/any!here when the show begins. Ed(s going no 1la+e/no!here during his vacation.

0he indefinite adverbs anyplace and anywhere can be used in negative sentences. EXA !"E#$ 4 feel ill, so 4 wonGt go any1la+e/any!here tonight.

11

VERBS OF PERCEPTION + BARE INFINITIVES OR PRESENT PARTICIPLES

Certain verbs of perception and their objects are followed by the bare infinitive 2the simple verb form without HtoH3 or the present participle 2the .ing form of the verb3. 0he bare infinitive is used to emphasiIe completion of the action. 0he present participle is used to emphasiIe the duration of the action. 0hese verbs follow the pattern$ .eel /ear listen to <0he verb, s%ell can be used only with the present participle form. EXAMPLES: *e saw him run/runnin) across the field. 4 didnGt hear -ill -no+-/-no+-in) at the door. 7id you noti+e the doctor )o/)oin) into the room1 CanGt you s%ell the coo5ies ba-in) in the 5itchen1 loo- at noti+e obser e see 5s%ell !at+h

1,

"ANNER USIN0 A 6RESENT 6ARTICI6LE 0he manner in which something is done can be shown using certain terms and e9pressions followed by the 'in) form of a verb. ?or e9ample, in the e9pression Hhave fun singin)H, the word singing indicates the manner of having fun. E76RESSION ha e (un ha e a )ood ti%e ha e trouble ha e di((i+ulty ha e a hard ti%e ha e a di((u+ul ti%e S6EN# / 3ASTE s1end !aste SIT / STAN# / LIE Sit stand lie 8 8 'IN0 sin)in) 1layin) studyin) understandin) hearin) )ettin) E76RESSION O. TI"E a year an hour 8 studyin) !aitin) 'IN0

8 E76RESSION O. 6LACE 8 'IN0 at the +o%1uter !or-in) in line !aitin) on the bea+h slee1in)

16

/E LOVES T/IS BOO94 AN# SO #O I. 'e went downtown. 'e went downtown, and #he doesn(t li5e fish. #he doesn(t li5e fish, and 4 went downtown. I did too. so did I. 0hey don(t li5e fish. neither do they They don,t either.

18

DIRECT OBJECT ) PASSIVE INFINITIVE * PAST PARTICIPLE

*hen we have someone else perform a job for us, we often use a verb of volition 2li-e4 !ant4 need4 or e:1e+t3, followed by a direct object and either a passive infinitive or a past participle. Li-e4 !ant4 need, and e:1e+t can be followed by either a past participle or a passive infinitive. EXA !"E$ 4,d li-e the oil +han)ed this morning. !ete !ants his bra-es +he+-ed before his trip. 'e needs the !heels ali)ned as soon as possible. 0he librarian !ants the boo-s to be returned in good condition. *e(d li5e the 1i+tures to be ta-en by a professional photographer. E:1e+t is usually followed by a passive infinitive. EXA !"E$ 0he boss e:1e+ts this ;ob to be done today. aj =arIa doesn,t e:1e+t his orders to be +han)ed.

1;

The erbs have, ma5e4 and get are +o%%only used in +ausati e +onstru+tions. 1. AJE / A7E

rs. %ones %a-es her children +lean their rooms. 0he instructor %ade the students stay after class. 3hen you <%a-e so%eone do so%ethin)=4 it )i es the idea that there are no +hoi+es> so%eone %ust do so%ethin). The bare in(initi e ?si%1le (or%@ is used a(ter the erb. ,. 'AKE / 'A7 3e have "r. Ja%es paint our house e ery (our years. /e had his (riend help hi% !ith his ho%e!or-. 3hen you Aha e so%eone do so%ethin)A you as- so%eone to do so%ethin)4 so%eti%es (or 1ay. Li-e !ith %a-e4 the bare in(initi e ?si%1le (or%@ is used a(ter the erb. 6. =E0 / =L0 /e,ll get the +ar1enter to build a boo-+ase. She got the %e+hani+ to adjust the bra-es. <0et so%eone to do so%ethin)= has the sa%e %eanin) as <ha e so%eone do so%ethin)=. Bou are as-in) so%eone to do so%ethin) (or you. Noti+e that the to'in(initi e is used a(ter )et in a +ausati e +onstru+tion. Also4 the )et'+ausati e is used (re&uently in +on ersation.

1@

8.

!A##4KE CA>#A04KE# I had %y (il% developed. ?by so%eone@ 3e got our +ar repaired. ?by so%eone@ The +ausati e erbs ha e and )et +an also be used in 1assi e +onstru+tions. In this +ase4 it %eans that you ha e or )et so%ethin) done by so%eone. The 1ast 1arti+i1le o( the erb is used in the 1assi e. In addition4 the by'1re1ositional 1hrase is o(ten o%itted.

1B SO . . . ?T/AT@ / SUC/ . . . ?T/AT@

#o ... 2that3 is used with adjectives, adverbs, or noun phrases. 20he phrases may have MmuchN or MmanyN in them.3 #uch... 2that3 is only used with noun phrases. 20he phrases never have MmuchN or MmanyN before the noun.3

SITUATION
so %im is su+h A tall man tall

RESULT
?that@ he has to bend to enter.

1C

RESTRICTIVE A#JECTIVE CLAUSES A restri+ti e ad;e+ti e +lause modifies a noun by describing or giving additional information about that noun. 4t always directly follows the noun to which it relates. #ince it follows so closely, this clause fre/uently separates the noun from the verb.

Adjective clauses can be introduced by the relative pronouns that / !hi+h / !ho and relate to the subject of the clause. 4n this type of structure, the clause is lin5ed to part or all of the main clause. "ORE RESTRICTIVE A#JECTIVE CLAUSES Adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative pronouns !ho?%@ / !hi+h / that and relate to the object of the clause. 0he relative pronouns may be omitted. 3/ERE / 3/EN USE# AS RELATIVE A#VERBS #ome adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative adverbs !here / !hen and relate to the place or time. 3/OSE IN RESTRICTIVE A#JECTIVE CLAUSES Another restri+ti e ad;e+ti e +lause is introduced by the relative adjective !hose. 4t is used to show possession and replaces the possessive adjectives in combined sentences. 4t comes directly after the noun to which it relates and almost always refers to people.

1F

NONRE.ERENTIAL T/ERE 8 0ERUN# There 8 Be means something e9ists. 4t can sometimes be followed by a )erund 1hrase. There !as yellin) and s+rea%in) at the football game. There !ill be +elebratin) after the graduation. There is no s%o-in) in this building.

,E

A#JECTIVE CLAUSE RE#UCE# TO TO'IN.INITIVE 6/RASE )estrictive adjective clauses can be reduced to to'in(initi e 1hrases. .or : noun pronoun sometimes comes before the to.infinitive phrase. )oger has a lot 2that3 he must learn. )oger has a lot to learn. r. Jent is the man 2whom3 you should tal5 to about your ta9es. r. Jent is the man to tal- to about your ta9es. 4 brought some snac5s 2that3 we can eat later. 4 brought some snac5s (or us to eat later. )elative clauses introduced by !hen and !here can reduced to to'in(initi e phrases. D ! " #$ % & '(&ce )%*e+e, I c&$ -"! -&tte+ies. 7o you 5now a place to buy batteries1 #aturday(s the only day 2when3 4 can do the laundry. #aturday(s the only day to do the laundry. 4 5now of a good place 2where3 you can meet me. 4 5now of a good place (or you to %eet me. also be

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NOUN CLAUSES A.TER CERTAIN VERBS

A noun +lause can be used after certain verbs that e9press necessity and re/uesting. #ome of the more common verbs are$ advise as5 2 O re/uest 3 command recommend re/uest suggest insist order urge

<That= can be used to introduce these clauses. 4t can also be omitted in this structure. *hen a noun clause follows one of these verbs, the verb in the clause has no 's for third person singular and no 'ed for past tense. Be is used instead of is4 a%4 are. *e say that the verb is a subjunctive form. 'is mother insisted 2that3 he be home at eight. 4 su))ested to %ohn 2that3 he study for the test. r. ?ormer re+o%%ended 2that3 we not lea e today.

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NOUN AS OBJECT CO"6LE"ENT A.TER VERBS O. C/OOSIN0 4n sentences that contain verbs of choosing, considering, and thin5ing, two nouns can follow the verb. 0hese two nouns refer to the same person or the same thing. 0hese sentences may be written different ways. E7A"6LES$ 0he players ele+ted %im as their leader. 0he players ele+ted %im to be their leader. 0he players ele+ted %im their leader. 2%im O leader3 0he commander has de+lared ne9t onday as a holiday. 0he commander has de+lared ne9t onday to be a holiday. 0he commander has de+lared ne9t onday a holiday. 2ne9t onday O a holiday3 NOTE$ 4n some sentences, either as or to be can be used, but not both. RE#UCIN0 A#JECTIVE CLAUSES TO A#JECTIVE 6/RASES #entences that contain adjective clauses can be shortened by changing the adjective clauses to adjective phrases. Either the present or past participle is used in the phrase E7A"6LES$ Cars that are 1ar-ed on the )rass must be moved. Cars 1ar-ed on the )rass must be moved +o one !ho is ta-in) the test may leave the room. +o one ta-in) the test may leave the room. 0he meal that is bein) 1lanned is a special one. 0he meal bein) 1lanned is a special one.

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RE#UCIN0 A#JECTIVE CLAUSES TO 6RE6OSITIONAL 6/RASES

#entences that contain adjective clauses with a subject pronoun and the verb be followed by a prepositional phrase or the verb ha e and a direct object can be shortened by changing the adjective clauses to prepositional phrases. Adjective clauses that contain ha e / don,t ha e are reduced to prepositional phrases containing MwithN or MwithoutN. A7%EC04KE #>-%EC0 0he pay phone 0he pay phone 0he cap 0he cap #ubject !ronoun : -e / 'ave that,s ''''' that has ''''' C"A>#E !repositional !hrase on the !all on the !all a star on it !ith a star on it !)E74CA0E doesn(t wor5. doesn(t wor5. is the general(s. is the general(s.

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EMPHATIC DO *hen we want to stress or emphasiIe an action, we can use do, does, or did before the verb. E7A"6LES$ Alan$ 7o you want to play soccer with us this afternoon1 )ic5$ 4 don(t play soccer, but 4 do 1lay tennis. Anne$7oes Andy have a class tonight1 !aul$ +ot tonight, but he does ha e one -art$ 7id you meet my niece last night1 Lwen$ +o, but 4 did %eet your nephew. +L0E$ >se the emphatic do sparingly. onday.

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0ET 2 6ASSIVE 0et ' 1assi e is used to refer to an action that happens to something or someone. E7A"6LES$ 0he house !ill )et (inished eventually %ohn and #ue )ot %arried last #aturday. )ome didn,t )et built in a day. "arry has )otten a++e1ted by #mith >niversity.

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6RESENT AN# 6AST 6ARTICI6LES AS NOUN "O#I.IERS

A participle is a verb form which can be used either in a verb phrase or as an adjective. 0he present participle ends in 'in). 0he past participle ends in 'ed4 'd4 't4 'n o 'en. EXA !"E#$ 0he water which is boilin) produces steam. 2present participle used in a verb phrase3 Boilin) water produces steam. 2present participle used as an adjective3 'e opened the envelope which had been sealed. 2past participle used in a verb phrase3 'e opened the sealed enveloped. 2past participle used as an adjective3 4n a participle.noun combination, the noun receives the primary stress 2 / 3, and the participle receives the secondary stress 2 P 3. EXA !"E#$ P / *e wal5ed for a mile in the 1ourin) rain. P / 0he ban5 will return your +an+elled chec5sQ

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6RESENT AN# 6AST 6ARTICI6LES AS OBJECTIVE CO"6LE"ENTS A present or past participle can be used after a direct object to modify the direct object. 0he direct object and participle will follow the verb +at+h4 dis+o er4 (ind4 -ee14 or lea e. 2+ote$ 0he verb +at+h does not ordinarily ta5e a past participle as a complement.3 A present participle is used when the direct object performs an action. A past participle is used when the direct object receives the action. SUBJECT 3e /e VERB .ound 9e1t #IRECT OBJECT the other )uests his (ear o( hei)hts 6ARTICI6LE !aitin) (or us. hidden.

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REVIE3 O. T/E I"6ERATIVE .OR" 0he second person imperative is used to give commands, instructions, and directions. 0he simple form of the verb 2the bare infinitive3 is used. 0he negative imperative is formed with do not or don,t. ANS3ER T/E 6/ONE ans!er don,t %o e )o the phone, please the victim. two bloc5s straight ahead.

2&ou3

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ADVERB OF TIME

&et, already, still, and anymore are adverbs of time. 0hey have different meanings and are used in different types of sentences. &et shows that we e9pect some action to ta5e place in the future. 4t is used in yes / no /uestions and negative statements at the end of the sentence. 'ave you finished yet1 +o, 4 havenGt received the letter yet.

Already shows that an e9pected activity has happened. 4t is used in /uestions and affirmative statements, usually in the middle of the sentence. 7inner has already been served. 'ave you already mailed the pac5age1

#till shows that a situation continues to e9ist from the past to the present. 4t is used in /uestions and statements in the middle of the sentence. 7oes he still live in "os Angeles1 &es, he still lives there. *e(ve called three times. 'e still isn(t home. #till can also carry a negative meaning. 4t implies that someone is spending too much time doing something. 'e still hasn(t finished what he was told to do.

6E

Anymore shows that a past situation is over and doesnDt continue to e9ist. 4t is used in yes / no /uestions and negative statements at the end of the sentence. 4t is fre/uently used with still to show a contrast. 4 donGt go to the gym any%ore4 but 4 still e9ercise every day. 7o you spea5 4talian any%ore*

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COOR#INATIN0 CONJUNCTIONS SO4 BET4 AN# NOR

0he coordinating conjunctions so, yet and nor, are used to connect two independent clauses. >sually, a comma is placed before the conjunction. #o is used to e9press result. 4 had a bad toothache. 2situation / action3 4 went to the dentist. 2result3 4 had a bad toothache, so 4 went to the dentist. &et is used to e9press contrast. 4t is similar to the conjunction but. #he didnGt study for the test. 2action3 #he passed it. 2contrast3 #he didnGt study for the test, yet she passed it. +or is used to indicate the addition of a negative idea to a negative sentence. 0he verb of the second clause is charge to the affirmative, and the word order is changed to that of a /uestion. %ohn canGt swim. 2negative3 'is brother canGt swim. 2negative addition3 %ohn canGt swim, nor can his brother 2swim3.

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LET,S RE#UCE A#VERBIAL CLAUSES O. CONTRAST TO "O#I.BIN0 6/RASES.

#ome dependent clauses in English can be reduced to phrases by omitting the subject of the clause and the -E form of the verb. "oo5 at these adverb clauses of contrast / concession. !ay special attention to the words in the parentheses 2 3, and notice how the clauses become phrases when the words in 2 3 are omitted.

Even if

? he is @ sic5

ar5 still tries to come to wor5.

0he tan5 was damaged

Even though ? it !as @ made of armor.

Although ? he !as @ tired,

0om studied until 6$EE A.

0he dessert was delicious

0hough 2 it was 3 too sweet

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USIN0 BE TO

Be to meaning Mbe re/uired to,N Mbe supposed to,N or M be scheduled to, M 4s used to e9press necessity / obligation or future time. EXA !"E#$ &ou were supposed to study "esson 0wo last night. &ou !ere to study lesson 0wo last night. 0he plane is scheduled to leave at noon. 0he plane is to leave at noon.

68

I.'CLAUSESC REAL CON#ITIONS AN# UNREAL CON#ITIONS #entences containing if.clauses are called conditional sentences. 0hey have two parts$ the main clause and the if.clause. 0here are three 5inds of conditional sentences$ present real, present unreal, and past unreal. REAL CON#ITIONS )eal conditions are those which presently e9ist, are probable, or are li5ely to happen. !resent tense verb forms 2simple presen , presen pr!"resi#e, !r presen per$e% 3 are used in the if., or conditional, clause. !resent, future, or imperative verb forms may be use in the main clause. +otice that you can also use a variety of modals, such as %&n, s'!(l), mi"' , m&*, to add meaning to the verb in the main clause. *hen a conditional clause begins a sentence, a comma is used to separate it from the main clause. Conditional +lause 4f 4 study hard, 4f 4 a% studyin), 4f you need to tal5 to me, 4f 4 study hard, 4f you !ant to pass the test, 4f *!( have finished, "ain +lause 4 always 1ass the test. please do not disturb me. you +an +all me later. 4 !ill 1ass the test. study hard. you %ay lea e.

*hen the if.clause $!ll!+s the main clause, a comma is not used to separate it form the main clause. Conditional +lause 4 always 1ass test !lease do not disturb me you +an +all me later 4 will 1ass the test study hard you %ay lea e Conditional +lause if 4 study hard if 4 am studyin) if you need to tal5 to me if 4 study hard if you !ant to pass the test if you ha e (inished

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UNREAL CON#ITIONS >nreal or contrary.to.fact conditions are those that are impossible, improbable, or not li5ely to happen. 0hey can belong to either the present or the past. 6resent unreal +onditions ?or present unreal conditions, the verb in the if.clause is in the past tenseR the verb in the main clause is in the conditional$ !ould / +ould / %i)ht 8 the si%1le (or% o( the erb 0he subjunctive form were is used instead of was in the if.clause Conditional +lause 4f 4 studied hard, 4f 4 !ere &ou, "ain +lause 4 +ould 1ass the test. 4 !ould study harder.

"ain +lause 4 +ould 1ass the test 4 !ould study harder

Conditional +lause 4f 4 studied hard. 4f 4 !ere &ou.

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6ast unreal +onditions ?or the past unreal condition, the verb in the if.clause is in the past perfect tense. 0he verb in the main clause is in the perfect conditional tense$ !ould / +ould / %i)ht 8 1resent 1er(e+t tense. Conditional +lause 4f 4 had studied harder, 4f &ou had studied harder, "ain +lause 4 could ha e 1assed the test. &ou would ha e 1assed the test.

"ain +lause 4 +ould ha e 1assed the test would &ou ha e 1assed the test

I('+lause 4f 4 had studied harder. 4f &ou had studied harder1

6B

=L : =E)>+7

The erb )o is so%eti%es (ollo!ed by a )erund to (or% +ertain e:1ressions. Re%e%ber that a )erund is a erb in 2in) that (un+tions li-e a noun. These e:1ressions !ith )o 8 erb'in) are ones that des+ribe a+ti ities. E7A"6LESC 3e !ent (ishin) last !ee-end. 3hat do you usually do in the su%%er* I li-e to go swimming at the la-e. "y (a%ily and I ha en,t gone sailing in years. The (ollo!in) are so%e +o%%on e:1ressions !ith go : gerundC 0o dan+in) )o sho11in) 0o (ishin) )o si)htseein) 0o ;o))in) )o s!i%%in) 0o runnin) )o !al-in) 0o %ountain +li%bin) )o !indo! sho11in)

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A7%EC04KE A+7 !)E!L#404L+ CL -4+A04L+#

So%e 1re1ositions are (ound in +o%binations !ith +ertain ad;e+ti es a(ter the erb BE.

E7A"6LESC "y son is afraid of li)htnin) and thunder.

#on,t be worried about the stor%. 3hen he !as in s+hool4 he !as interested in s+ien+e. Is he absent from s+hool today*

So%e ad;e+ti e 2 1re1osition +o%binations are (re&uently (ollo!ed by a )erund ?a erb in 2in) that (un+tions li-e a noun@.

E7A"6LESC All o( us are e9cited about visiting San .ran+is+o. Bill is accustomed to eating dinner late. "r. 6ri+e is found of reading at ni)ht.

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Absent (ro% A++usto%ed to A(raid o( An)ry at/!ith A11ro1riate (or A!are o( Bad (or Bored !ith Ca1able o( Clear to Cons+ious o( Criti+al o( Cro!ded !ith #i((erent (ro% #i((i+ult (or #isa11ointed in/!ith #oubt(ul about #edi+ated to Enthusiasti+ about E&ual to E:+ited about E:hausted (ro% .aith(ul to .a%iliar !ith .a%ous (or .ond o( .riendly to/ !ith .ri)htened o( .ull o( 0lad about 0ood at 0rate(ul to/(or 0uilty o( /a11y about /un)ry (or

In+a1able o( Inno+ent o( Interested in In ol ed in 9ind to 9no!n (or Loyal to "ad at "arried to Ni+e to 6atient !ith 6olite to 6roud o( 6re1ared (or $uali(ied (or Ready (or Related to Res1onsible (or Satis(ied !ith S+ared o( Si%ilar to Su++ess(ul in Sure about Terri(ied o( Thirsty (or Tired (ro%/o( Tolerant o( U1set about 3orried about

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

7irect speech, or /uoted speech, refers to the original words of the spea5er. Suotation mar5s are used. 4ndirect speech, or reported speech, refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said. Suotation mar5s are not used. Kerbs and pronouns will change from direct to indirect speech.

EXA !"E#$ #ire+t s1ee+h %ohn said, M 4 feel sic5N -ill said, M y car is newN Indire+t S1ee+h %ohn said 2that3 he felt sic5. -ill said 2that3 his car is was new.

VERB FORMS USED IN INDIRECT SPEECH

*hen the verb of the indirect speech sentence is in the past tense 2 said4 told, as-ed3 the verb in the noun clause is usually used when the words of the spea5er are reported at a later time, not immediately after it was said. "oo5 changing an indirect speech noun clause to a past form. +otice also the change in pronouns. 0he conjunction MthatN is optional in the indirect speech noun clause.

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#ire+t S1ee+h

Indire+t S1ee+h
'e said 2that3 he !rote a letter every day. 'e said 2that3 he !as !ritin) a letter. 'e said 2that3 he had !ritten a letter. 'e said 2that3 he had !ritten a letter. 'e said 2that3 he !ould write a letter. 'e said 2that3 he !as )oin) to write a letter. 'e said 2that3 he +ould write a letter. 'e said 2that3 he said %i)ht write a letter. 'e said 2that3 he had to write a letter. 'e said 2that3 he had to write a letter. 'e as5ed me if / whether< 4 !anted to write a letter. 'e as5ed me when<< 4 usually !rote letters. 'e as5ed where the letters !as.

1. ,. 6. 8. ;. @.

'e said, M4 !rite a letter every day.N 'e said, M4 a% !ritin) a letter.N 'e said, M4 ha e !ritten a letter.N 'e said, M4 !rote a letter.N 'e said, M4 !ill write a letter.N 'e said, M4 a% )oin) to write a letter.N B. 'e said, M4 +an write a letter.N C. 'e said, M4 %ay write a letter.N F. 'e said, M4 %ust write a letter.N 1E.'e said M 4 ha e to write a letter.N 11.'e as5ed, M#o you !ant to write a letter1N 1,.'e as5ed, M*hen do you usually !rite a letters1N 16.'e as5ed, M*here is the letter1N

<+otice that either i( or !hether can be used in a reported yes A or A no /uestion and that the usual statement word order is used in the noun clause. <<+otice that the /uestion. word beings a reported /uestion.word /uestion and that the usual statement word order is used in the noun clause.

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C/AN0IN0 E"BE##E# $UESTIONS TO IN.INITIVES #entences containing an embedded /uestion consist of a main clause and a dependent 2noun3 clause. 0he embedded /uestion 2noun clause3 is introduced by !hen4 !here4 ho!4 !ho4 !ho%4 !hose4 !hat4 !hi+h or !hether and usually follows the following phrases$ I don,t -no! I -no! I !onder Can you tell %e #o you -no! /o! +an I

ain Clause Can you tell me 4 don(t 5now

Embedded Suestion 2+oun Clause3 'ow 4 can wrap this pac5age1 *here I +an (ind that boo-* 3hat I should brin) (or the 1arty* /o! I +an !ra1 this 1a+-a)e 3here I +an (ind that boo3hat I should brin) (or the 1arty

#ometimes the embedded /uestion 2noun clause3 in the sentence can be changed or reduced to an infinitive or an infinitive phrase. ain Clause Can you tell me 4 don(t 5now Suestion.word : to. infinitive /o! to !ra1 this 1a+-a)e* 3here to (ind that boo-* 3hat to brin) (or the 1arty* /o! to !ra1 this 1a+-a)e 3here to (ind that boo3hat to brin) (or the 1arty

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"A9IN0 A SU00ESTION *e use shall with 4 or *e in a /uestion when we want to ma5e a suggestion and as5 another person if he/she agree with this suggestion. ?or e9ample, loo5 at the following situations. !ay special attention to shall /uestions and their meanings. #hall 4$ A friend has just told you how he cleans fresh fish, but you 5now a better way of to do it. &ou suggest to your friend, AShall I sho! you ho! I do this*A &ou are hoping heGll agree with or ta5e &ou up on your suggestion. #hall *e$ 4tGs twelve noon, youGre hungry, and you want your friend to go lunch with you. &ou can say$ H4tGs noon. Shall !e )o to lun+h*H or simply, Hshall we go to lunch1H

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SUBJECT'VERB A0REE"ENT 4n English sentences, the verb must always agree with the subject, weather the subject is singular or plural. Lf course, using a verb that agrees with subject re/uires the ability to first identify the subject with its possible modifiers as being either singular or plural. Sin)ular inde(inite 1ronounsC #ome indefinite pronouns are considered singular, and therefore ta5e a singular verb. 0hese pronouns are$ one, each, either, neither, every, body, somebody, someone, everybody, everyone, no one, nobody. EXA !"E#$ One of the teachers in our school has a foreign car. Ea+h of the children in the class has a dictionary. Either of the boo5s on my des5 is acceptable. There 8 BeC 4n a sentence with there 8 be, the verb agrees with the subject that follows it. EXA !"E#$ There is a 1en+il on the table. There are some 1en+ils on the table. 4f the subject consists of two or more parts, the verb is plural. EXA !"E$ There are a noteboo- and a 1en on the table. Co%1ound sub;e+tsC >se a singular verb with the following$ a. *hen both parts of a compound subject refer to the same person or thing.

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EXA !"E$ 'er brother and 1resident of the company !as at the party. b. *hen a singular subject is joined to a noun by to)ether4 !ith4 a++o%1anied by4 or in addition to. EXA !"E#$ -etty, to)ether !ith her sister, is going to 4taly. 7avid, a++o%1anied by 0heresa, !as at the theater. A nut, in addtion to a bolt, is needed to hold this in place.

c. *hen ea+h or e ery modofies singular parts of a compoun subject is joined together by and. EXA !"E#$ E ery student and e ery teacher !as at the meeting. Ea+h coach and ea+h player 5nows this rule. d. *hen two parts of a compound subject are so closely related that they refer to a single thing. EXA !"E$ Ba+on and e))s is my favorite brea5fast. e. *hen two or more singular subjects are joined by or or nor. EXA !"E#$ 0homas or Eric o1erates the new computer. +either 0odd nor )oy understands the problem. 'owever, the verb agrees with the nearest noun when the subjects joined by or or nor differ in number or person. EXA !"E#$ Either you or the )irl has to complete the tas5. Either you or the )irls ha e to complete the tas5. +either 0om nor Ji% !as here. +either 0om nor his (riends !ere there. And when two or more subjects are joined by and, a plural verb is used. EXA !"E#$

8@

)oss and 0ed are good friends. r. and rs. %ones are hardwor5ing individuals. E:1ressions o( &uantityC *hen pronouns of indefinite /uantity are used with an of phrase, the verb must agree with the noun that appears in the of phrase. 0hese pronouns are$ Any, all, some, none, more, and most. EXA !"E#$ Are any of the students from Ecuador1 Is any of the +o((ee from Colombia1 All of the students brin) their dictionaries to class. Irre)ular +onstru+tionC #ome nouns which are irregular always appear in plural form, and therefore re/uire plural verb. EXA !"E$ 0he +lothes are in the dryer. Lther irregular nouns end in 's and are singular in meaning, and therefore ta5e a singular verb. EXA !"E$ 0he ne!s about more >.#. jobs is good. 0here are also irregular nouns that show their plurality by means other than s. *hen these nouns are plural, they re/uire plural verbs. EXA !"E$ 0he %an !or-s eight hours. 0he %en !or- eight hours. #till other irregular noun may either be singular or plural. EXA !"E$ One (ish !as in the shallow water. Ten (ish !ere in deep water.

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6RONOUN A0REE"ENT

PRONOUN FORMS #ubject Sin+, I you she he it P'" , %e ! " they us you them our your their ours yours theirs ourselves yourselves themselves object possessive adjective my your her his its possessive pronoun mine yours hers his itself refle9ive

me you her him it

myself yourself herself himself

)emember that pronouns and possessive adjectives must agree in number, person, and gender with the noun or indefinite pronoun to which they refer.

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