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Theresa Spence of Idle No more fights for her Home and NATIVE Land: The violation of Aboriginal Rights by Bill C-45 and the rise of Idle No More in Canada

Melissa Infusino October 23rd, 2013

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Abstract Despite the many injustices Canadas Aboriginal Peoples have experienced since the arrival of Europeans in North America, little has been done by the Canadian Government to end their socio-economic strife. The overall image that emerges from literature is negative, stereotyping the Aboriginal as a drug addict, alcoholic who has a history with law enforcement. This essay explains the reasoning behind the deteriorated state of Aboriginal communities through various academic websites and books. An analysis of these sources yields the Natives views and explanations that bring light to the dark-side of Canadian society through three assumptions: 1) the assimilation of First Nations people throughout history, stemming from racial ideologies; 2) those who are benefitting from the assimilation of Natives by exploiting their resources; and 3) those suffering from assimilative policies entrenched by the government. This essay reveals a shameful side of Canadian history, leaving citizens oblivious to the cultural genocide that has been unraveling for years right under their noses. Rsum Malgr les injustices que subissent les Autochtones du Canada depuis larrive des Europens en Amrique du Nord, trs peu a t fait par le gouvernement Canadien pour mettre fin leurs conflits socio-conomiques. Limage qui merge de la littrature est trs ngative, dcrivant des strotypes the lAutochtone comme un intoxique, alcoolique qui a un pass avec la loi. Cet essai explique le raisonnement derrire ltat dtrior des communauts Autochtones travers trois hypothses: 1) lassimilation des Premires Nations travers lhistoire, cause par des idologies racistes; 2) ceux qui profitent de lassimilation des Indignes en exploitant leurs ressources; et 3) ceux qui souffrent des politiques dassimilation enracines par le gouvernement. Cet essai rvle

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un cot honteux de lhistoire canadienne, laissant les citoyens inconscients du gnocide culturel qui se dnouait juste sous leurs nez.

After bringing disease, war and destruction to the Indigenous Peoples, Canadas colonizers put forth treaties that caused great resistance from Aboriginals because the benefits for the Europeans greatly outweighed the benefits to the first inhabitants of the lands. In 2012, history repeated itself after Prime Minister Stephen Harper introduced Bill C-45 and an investment treaty with China, including the expansion of tar sands on protected Aboriginal lands and waterways. While most Canadians would view The Harper Governments Canada-China Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Act and Bill C-45 as beneficial to the economic growth of the country, many First Nations believe that this bill is a violation of Aboriginal Rights and a menace to the environment, hence evoking a political movement Idle No More of which Chief Theresa Spences hunger strike is a part. The historical context of the mistreatment of Natives during the colonization of North America lead to many sociological problems such as employment barriers and socio-economic disparities as well as political problems such as their legislated assimilation. The relationship between the Crown and Aboriginal people is one in which the government enforced political policies in order to culturally assimilate the First Nations people of Canada. Eurocentrism is the reasoning behind the governments superior status towards Aboriginals and justif ies its need to assimilate and civilize them. Legal assimilation can be observed through the establishment of different policies in the past such as the Crowns Lands

Infusino4 Protection Act of 1839, the Indian Act of 1876, residential schools and the White Paper of 1969. Since colonial times, Europeans have viewed the world as open to conquest, control and domination. Other civilizations have been perceived as weak or vicious, and as in need of being civilized. Eurocentrism hypothesizes the superiority of Europeans over non-Europeans based on a concept called diffusionism (Cannon and Sunseri, 2011). Diffusionism is based on two assumptions: most human communities are uninventive and a few human communities (or cultures) are inventive and are thus the permanent centers of cultural change or progress.1 From this framework, diffusionism emphasizes that European peoples are superior to Indigenous peoples and this superiority stems from the belief that non-European peoples lack mind and culture. The theory argues that because Europeans are superior, First Nations peoples need to be civilized through the diffusion of rationality, innovation and a sense of honor or ethics from Europe in order to progress. Consequently, for centuries, First Nations children grew up being told that their culture was inferior, their religion was wrong and their language useless. Early colonial policy towards Aboriginal Peoples was influenced by Eurocentrism and shaped by two influential ideologies: mercantilism and Roman Catholicism (Cannon and Sunseri, 2011). French Indian policy had two primary objectives: conversion from paganism to Catholicism and the eventual assimilation of Aboriginal Peoples into French civil and commercial life. This
1

Cannon, Martin and Lina Sunseri, Racism, Colonialism and Indigenity in Canada, Ontario: Oxford U P, 2011,11.

Infusino5 policy was established through incorporation and alliances that were cemented through marriage and adoption. (Cannon and Sunseri, 2011). The French Crown relied on the Roman Catholic missionaries to convert Aboriginals in hopes that Christian conversion and French civilizing influences would turn them into strong and loyal allies against the British colonizers. Unlike the French, the English, who were driven by land lust and maintained the idea that a savage could never validly exercise sovereignty, waged war on Aboriginal communities and took their lands by force (Cannon and Sunseri, 2011). As the fur trade became increasingly entrenched in society, the balance of power shifted. Patriarchy and the commodification of First Nation resources and labor introduced by the fur trade slowly destroyed egalitarian or communal relations between First Nations men and women2. Cooperation between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people was replaced by a new situation, one in which the economies of the two peoples were increasingly incompatible. Europeans were interested in establishing permanent settlements on the land and taking advantage of the resources in order to supply their own needs or exploit them to other markets. Thus, Europeans viewed the Native use of the land as a hindrance to productive development forcing missionaries to civilize them through Catholicism. The European ideal of womanhood revolved around female domesticity. The appropriate position of women was confinement to the household where they were subordinate to the wills of their fathers and husbands. Contrarily to European women, Aboriginal women were economically independent, had

Canon and Sunseri 45

Infusino6 considerable personal autonomy, controlled their own sexuality and had the right to divorce. Missionaries represented the condition of Aboriginal women in fatalistic and derogatory terms, believing that they had no value, were savages and their ways of life violated Christian norms. (47) Hence, evangelists attempted to restructure their society by introducing the European family organization with male authority and the elimination of polyandry and divorce. Missionary illustrations of the degraded and inferior condition of Aboriginal women were used to convince the Crown and other Europeans of the savage wretchedness of Aboriginal life3 and were used to justify the ideological Eurocentrism rationale for colonial conquest, dispossession and cultural genocide of the First Nations people (Canon and Sunseri, 49). However, First Nations people were not only being dominated by religion. Colonial administrators undertook many initiatives to legally assimilate and civilize them. Many legal issues of importance to the aboriginal nations were decided early in the 19th century. Starting in the 1830s, the Canadian policies reflected the priorities of protection and assimilation rather than partnership with the First Nations Peoples. Among the most important of these policies was the Crown Lands Protection Act of 1839, which affirmed that aboriginal lands were the property of the Crown unless specifically titled to an individual (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada). Disallowing indigenous control over their lands led to a significant loss of Aboriginal territories and infringed upon their way of life. In 1876, The Indian Act was passed, authorizing Canadian federal

Canon and Sunseri 47

Infusino7 government to regulate and administer in the affairs and daily lives of registered Indians and reserve communities. This federal law imposed governing structures on Aboriginal communities in order to control the rights of Indians to practice their culture and traditions. Furthermore, the government possessed the right to determine the land base of Indians and to define who qualifies as Indian in the form of Indian status (Cannon and Sunseri, 51-52). The main goals of this act were to reduce the number of status Indians the government was responsible for and impose the civilized European system. Consequently, many Indians were legally stripped of their identity, lost the right to live on traditional lands, participate in First Nations local activities and many Aboriginal women who married-out of their race were denied their First Nation identity and were denied the right to live on-reserve free from taxation or liens (Cannon and Sunseri, 50). This regulation remained in effect until the Indian Act was revised in 1985 by bill C-31. Another way to assimilate the First Nations people was placing their children in church-run residential schools. The government believed that it was easier to mould children than adults in order to diminish or completely abolish native traditions and prepare them for mainstream society. Hence, children were taken away from their homes, separated from their families and placed in boarding schools where they were taught to speak English or French and discouraged from speaking their first language or practicing native traditions. According to the Aboriginal Affairs and northern Development Canada, many children were victims of sexual or physical abuse, were malnourished, poorly dressed and

Infusino8 many of the schools were crowded and dirty. The last Indian Residential School was closed in 1996. In 1969, Prime Minister Trudeau proposed a White Paper policy with the goal of achieving greater equality for Natives. Wanting to maintain a legal distinction as Indian people, Natives across Canada rejected this policy because it would assimilate them into mainstream Canadian society. Due to the widespread resistance against the White Paper, the federal government eventually abandoned the policy (Cannon and Sunseri, 63). This was a turning point in Canadian history because the government finally began to abandon its policy of assimilation for a policy geared toward establishing constitutionally protected rights for First Nations. To conclude, Eurocentrism has shaped and influenced the way society views Aboriginals. Ever since the two races met during the colonization of North America, non-Indians have been trying to teach, convert, improve and even change Aboriginals and their lifestyles. A sense of superiority and entitlement from the Whites created a government that believed that First Nations Peoples were undeveloped human beings in desperate need of mentoring in order to properly function in society. This was expressed through the Crowns Lands Protection Act of 1839, the Indian Act of 1876, residential schools, the White Paper and is now being reproduced with the implementation of Bill C-45 by the Harper government in correspondence to the Canada-China treaty. The Conservative Party of Canada led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper is directly focused on creating jobs, promoting economic growth and ensuring long-

Infusino9 term economic prosperity (The Conservative Party of Canada). Hence, the Harper Government has signed a trade-treaty with China in order to help Canadas economy flourish by allowing Chinese investors to exploit natural resources such as the Albertan tar sands. Following the classical liberalist ideology and neo-liberalist economic policies, there will be little to no government intervention pertaining to Chinas business choices regardless of how they may affect Canadians or the fragile environment. The Conservative political ideology is generally characterized by a belief in individualism and minimal government intervention in the economy and society. In Canada, The Conservative Party of Canada presently holds the majority of seats in the House of Commons allowing the Harper Government to pass legislation easily. Although it is a conservative party, it is a less radical version of classical liberalism, combining liberal values and policies such as equality of opportunity, redistribution of income (the social safety net concept with conservative stances) and most importantly promoting a laissez-faire economy and neo-liberalist economic policies (Boyd and Harrison, 202-206). In a laissezfaire, neo-liberalist economy, human needs are best served by free competition in the economic marketplace with minimal government intervention. State-owned enterprises and resources are sold to private investors (privatization), concentrating the wealth into very few hands and making the public pay for its needs (The Shock Doctrine). Furthermore, neo-liberalism liberates private enterprises from any bonds imposed by the government and promotes the idea that markets regulate themselves. Consequently, foreign companies have an

Infusino10 ease of entrance into the economy (Merriam Webster Online), thus explaining the entrance of China into Canadian economy. On September 9th 2012, Prime Minister Stephen Harper signed an agreement while at the APEC Summit in Vladivostok, Russia with China called the Canada-China Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Act also known as the FIPPA. This Canada-China investment treaty was kept from the Canadian public and Parliament until September 26th, when it was quietly made public. In fact, the majority Harper Government continuously avoided democratic debate in the House of Commons by ignoring calls to studying and clarifying the ambiguities of this major foreign investment agreement between the two countries (CBC News). The reason for this secrecy was to avoid the backlash of the many failings of this treaty such as allowing Chinese investors to easily takeover Canadian assets and to sue the Canadian Government outside Canadian courts if the government puts any kind of restrictions or if it does anything that would infringe upon the foreign investors profit. Moreover, this treaty restricts British Columbia and Alberta from controlling their natural resources, negotiating a greater share of profits and creating regulations related to the proposed Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipeline for the next thirty-one years after it comes into effect. The Northern Gateway is a controversial pipeline project proposed to run from the oil sands in Alberta to the north coast of British Columbia. The eastbound pipeline would import natural gas condensate and the twin westbound pipeline would export bitumen from oil sands diluted with the natural gas condensate to

Infusino11 Kitimat, BC where it would be transported to Asian markets by oil tankers (Green Party of Canada). This is proof that the Harper Government is implementing a neo-liberalist economic policy by giving carte blanche to Chinese economic interests to exploit Canadian resources as they see fit with minimal governmental intervention. To conclude, Chinas companies will hold the power to shape Canadas natural resource markets as well as challenge Canadian politics. Not only does this treaty erode Canadas ability to deal with environmental problems and set high environmental and labor standards, it also infringes upon the First Nations Peoples rights, more precisely the right to the property of their lands. Stephen Harper pursued this deal without prior consultation with the Natives. Consequently, this undemocratic treaty has led to the creation of an Aboriginal Activist Group called Idle No More. The image of Canada is one where the world believes that it is a gentle northern neighbor of the United States. What the world sees of First Nations people in Canada is one of beauty and tradition often seen in cultural gatherings. However, they do not see the harsh reality that First Nations face on a regular basis and the horrific human rights violations that Aboriginals have been dealing with for generations which has now been brought to the publics attention by the Idle No More movement. After the public announcement of the Canada-China investment treaty, the Aboriginal community was very upset because it weakens the environmental protections in order to advance the rapid expansion of resource development on

Infusino12 un-ceded First Nations territories. This agreement therefore protects Chinas interests and would significantly increase their investment in the development of the Alberta tar sands, pipelines, mining projects and other resource development projects at the risk of aboriginal rights and the environment. Not only have the Natives lost their land throughout history but now the floodgates have been opened to allow foreign interests to exploit with impunity what is left of their limited resources with no economic benefit or return to them. To make matters worse, on December 5th 2012, the Harper Government passed the Canadian Omnibus Bill C-45, also known as the Jobs and Growth Act, in connection to the Canada-China Investment Treaty. Of particular concern are the changes in Bill C-45 that drastically reduce protections for waterways under the Navigable Waters Act and a private members bill that seeks to amend and ultimately repeal the Indian Act4. The most recent amendments to the Navigable Waters Protection Act further weaken the navigational and environmental protection of Canadian waterways, changing the statutes name to the Navigation Protection Act (NPA), a change that reflects the governments desire to completely separate navigation from the environmental component that enables it. In other words, the law will no longer protect navigable waters, it will only protect navigation5. Consequently, the NPA significantly decreases the regulation of Canadian waterways, excluding 99.7 per cent of Canadas lakes and more than 99.9 per cent of Canadas rivers from federal oversight6. Hence,

Jesse Winter, First Nations slam Bill C-45, Yukon News, (Dec. 2012). Bill C-45 and the Navigable Waters Protection Act, Ecojustice, N.p. (Oct. 2012). 6 Bill C-45 and the Navigable Waters Protection Act.
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Infusino13 under the NPA, proponents of industrial development and large infrastructure projects (e.g. Enbridges Northern Gateway pipeline) will be given free rein to disrupt and impact Canadian waterways without regard to either navigation or environmental rights7. Also, Bill C-45 makes changes to the Indian Act in order to allow First Nations communities to lease designated reserves lands based on a majority of votes from those in attendance at a meeting or in a referendum, instead of waiting for a majority vote from all eligible voters 8. Without the need for the consent of the majority of Natives in a community, lands can be easily taken over by industries without any consultation on the environment, on the land and the waters that are essential to the Aboriginal tradition. With the implementation of Bill C-45, there will be fewer impediments to the development of the Alberta Tar Sands. A rapidly growing economy coupled with low domestic supplies of oil products have forced China to secure a long-term flow of oil to supply its ever-growing energy needs. The Canada-China Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Act will allow China to exploit Canadas oil products, including the Alberta Tar Sands. Although this new presence in Canadian oil production will bring employment to Canadians and large investment projects will diversify Canadian exports, the environmental costs associated with developing oil sand petroleum are significant. Compared to extracting conventional oil, producing sand bitumen is a lot more damaging to the physical environment because it destroys forests for oil sand extraction, utilizes

Janyce McGregor, 22 changes in the budget bill fine print. CBC News. N.p. (Oct. 2012). 8 McGregor
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Infusino14 an enormous amount of natural gas to extract the bitumen from oil sands (Alberta Oil Sands extraction utilizes enough natural gas to heat approximately 3.5 million Canadian homes), produces an important source of greenhouse gas emissions and approximately uses twelve barrels of fresh water to produce each barrel of bitumen in surface mined oil sands operation 9. Furthermore, oil sands productions do not only impact the environment but also cause health problems for the First Nations. Aboriginal populations located downstream from the oil sands are developing respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems and rare cancers that are suspectedly caused by toxic substances leaching into streams (Mech, 11). A 2005 report, conducted as part of an environmental impact assessment by Suncor, concluded: Total metal levels (including arsenic and mercury) in the Athabasca River have been above water quality guidelines, similar to other water bodies in the Oil Sands Region. Chronic toxicity has been observed when laboratory organisms are exposed to Athabasca River sediment 10. Furthermore, deformed fish have been found in nearby Lake Athabasca and drinking water has been contaminated from the oil sands operations. The devastating effects on both wildlife and local indigenous peoples are threatening the preservation of their traditional way of life (Mech, 28) and are direct violations of treaties confirming their rights to their lands. In 1876 and 1899, two treaties were signed, Treaty 6 and 8 between the Queen and the First Nations peoples occupying what is now regions of Oil Sands
9

10

Michelle Mech, A Comprehensive Guide to the Alberta Oil Sands, N.p. (2011) 12-16. Mech 28.

Infusino15 developments. In both of these treaties, the Crown promised that the First Nations would retain hunting, trapping, and fishing rights in perpetuity 11. Moreover, Section 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 protects aboriginal rights and communities from threatening federal and provincial legislative policies. These treaties were promises that were made so that both treaty partners would benefit from the wealth and prosperity of Canadian lands. It is evident that the government of Canada has benefitted from the natural resources, while many of the First Nations peoples are treated like second or third class citizens (e.g. racism, discrimination and employment barriers) resulting in high youth suicide rates, poor health conditions, over-representation in child and family services and prisons, alcoholism and hundreds of murdered and missing indigenous women12. In order to bring attention to and combat what the Harper government is trying to pass in the name of economic growth is the work and awareness being raised by the activist movement known as Idle No More. Idle No More began as the name of a teach-in in Saskatchewan that was organized in December by four activists Jessica Gordon, Sylvia McAdam, Nina Wislon and Sheelah McLean in order to fight the Federal Governments deregulation of most Canadian waterways in its budget implementation bill. As previously stated, the deregulation will make it easier for resource development companies to access rivers and watersheds that flow through First Nations

Mech 30. Andy Radia, AFN runner-up Pam Palmater accuses the Prime Minister of trying to break up communities, Yahoo News, N.p. (Dec. 2012).
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Infusino16 territories by eliminating much of their say in the matter of development. Furthermore, pipeline projects that pass through Aboriginal communities produce large reservoirs of toxic waste, release toxic chemicals into the air and emit greenhouse gas that lead to serious health problems (Gosselin, 4). Idle No Mores primary objective was to have the Federal Government repeal all legislation that violates treaties, including those affecting environmental regulations such as the Omnibus C-45 bill. In addition, Idle No More seeks to educate and revitalize First Nations Peoples, empower them and regain sovereignty and independence. On December 11 2012, Attawapiskat First Nation leader Chief Theresa Spence started a fast to draw public attention to Canadas Bill C-45 and raise awareness for the Idle No More movement. She pledged to continue with a hunger strike consisting of a liquid diet including lemon water, medicinal teas and fish broth (a historical survival diet for Indigenous communities facing poverty and food shortages from land loss and colonial policies) up until she won a meeting with Prime Minister Stephen Harper and Governor General David Johnston to discuss the legislation. After a six-week-long hunger strike spent under a tipi on Victoria Island, near Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Spence agreed to end her fast after members of the Assembly of First Nations and the Liberal and New Democrat caucuses signed a thirteen point declaration of specific commitments asked for by Spence. This declaration was designed to keep up the pressure on Parliament Hill, as well as reaffirming Spences call for a meeting with Harper and Governor-General David Johnston. A copy of the declaration,

Infusino17 obtained by CBC News lists thirteen commitments13: 1. An immediate meeting between the Crown, the federal and provincial governments, and all First Nations to discuss treaty and non-treatyrelated relationships. 2. Clear work plans and timelines, and a demand that the housing crisis within First Nations communities be considered as a short-term immediate action. 3. Frameworks and mandates for implementation and enforcement of treaties on a nation-to-nation basis. 4. Reforming and modifying a land-claims policy 5. A commitment towards resource revenue sharing, requiring the participation of provinces and territories. 6. A commitment towards sustained environmental oversight over First Nations lands 7. A review of Bill C-38 and C-45 to ensure consistency with constitutional requirements about consultation with aboriginal peoples. 8. Ensure that all federal legislation has the consent of First Nations where inherent and Treaty rights are affected 9. The removal of funding caps and the indexing of payments made to First Nations. 10. An inquiry into violence against indigenous women. 11. Equity in capital construction of First Nation schools and additional funding support for First Nation languages. 12. A dedicated cabinet committee and secretariat within the Privy Council Office responsible for the First Nation-Crown relationship. 13. Full implementation of the United Nations declaration of the rights of indigenous peoples. (CBC News)

Unfortunately, Spence did not achieve her initial goal to meet with Harper and Johnston. In fact, she denied meeting the Prime Minister because the GovernorGeneral Johnston would not be attending. Johnston's office said he was not attending "because it consists of a working meeting with government on public
13

Chief Theresa Spence to End Hunger Strike Today, CBC News, N.p. (23 Jan. 2013).

Infusino18 policy issues.14" It was of importance to meet with the Governor-General because his presence was integral to the conference since he represents the Crown, which negotiated the original treaties with aboriginal people. To conclude, Theresa Spences forty-four day fast epitomized the hunger of Canadas First Nations for recognition and fair treatment. Her camp-out near Parliament Hill was essential in helping to drive the issue of aboriginal rights to the top of the national agenda and onto the International stage reaching Indigenous groups from Central and South America, Australia and the United States. Her protest made a strong impact across the world not only because it highlighted the plight of many native communities: high unemployment, youth suicides, underfunded schools and services, poor living conditions and an overrepresentation in the Canadian Justice System, but also the ability of individuals to effect beneficial change. Throughout the years, the United Nations has identified Canada as a country with a high standard of living. Canada is very fortunate, by any criterion, whether it is wealth, natural resources or acceptance of diversity. Yet, there remains within this country an almost unspeakable reality. This is the reality of life for First Nations peoples, who in many parts of the country experience chronic illness, who live in Third World conditions, and who do not have the opportunities available to the majority of mainstream Canadians. Furthermore, all Aboriginal groups have suffered loss of land, language and socio-cultural resources. Ironically, our society values tolerance, acceptance and multicultural diversity
14

Theresa Spence Pulls Out of Meeting with Harper, CBC News, (9 Jan. 2013).

Infusino19 even as Aboriginal peoples are marginalized and their cultures denigrated. Physical environments play a primary role in determining the health of populations. Among Aboriginal peoples, physical environments are largely detrimental to their health. The most extensive outcomes of these structures include substantial housing shortages and poor quality state of existing homes. Hence, the lack of affordable housing has forced many families to live in overcrowded and run-down housing. In 2006, almost 22% of First Nations housing was in need of major repair, compared to 7% of the non-Aboriginal population. Off reserve, First Nations people were more than twice as likely to live in a house that needs major repairs.15 Overcrowding in homes can lead to a number of health outcomes, including increased risk of transmitting infectious diseases, severe lower respiratory tract infections, and higher rates of injuries, mental health problems, and family tensions (Reading and Wien, 8-9). Moreover, many First Nation communities lack potable water and sewage systems. For example, many residents on reserves in Manitoba must use outhouses slop pails or cisterns, whose contents are periodically hauled away by sewage trucks. Water is retrieved from communal standpipes or delivered to households by truck16. According to a national assessment by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, water in First Nations is potentially harmful due to contamination. As of November 2011, there were 131 boil water advisories in First Nations across Canada17. For a country that is supposed to be rich with fresh water, these are

15 16

Why Am I Poor? First Nations Child Poverty in Ontario,Health Nexus (2012), 15. Stastna, Kazi, Clean Running Water Still a Luxury on Many Native Reserves, CBC News Canada, (2011). 17 Why Am I Poor? First Nations Child Poverty in Ontario, 15.

Infusino20 disappointing statistics. Colonization, colonialism, systemic racism and discrimination are responsible for prohibiting Aboriginal peoples to have access to the resources and conditions necessary to maximize their socio-economic status. This disadvantage currently manifests itself in high rates of unemployment, scarce economic opportunities, low literacy and educational attainment as well as meager community resources. Consequently, social exclusion, low social cohesion and increased crime are the results of racism and discrimination by Non-Aboriginal Canadians. Furthermore, this social exclusion prevents individuals from pursuing education and creates anxiety, insecurity, low self-esteem and feelings of hopelessness. These psychological stressors have been linked to substance abuse and violence, hence explaining the high suicide rates and the over-representation of Aboriginals in the criminal justice system (Health Nexus, 12-15). Statistics from Correctional Service Canada show that while Aboriginal people represent only 4.3% of the Canadian population, they account for 18% of those who are incarcerated in federal institutions. In the Prairie Provinces, 50% of prisoners are Aboriginals.18 It is obvious that Aboriginal people are continuously being discriminated against by a system and nation that has gained so much at their expense. Aboriginal people in Canada are less likely to find jobs than Non-Aboriginal Canadians. When they do find jobs, their annual earnings are considerably lower than they are for other Canadians. According to Statistics Canada, the
18

Examining Aboriginal Corrections in Canada, Public Safety Canada, The Government of Canada, (2010).

Infusino21 unemployment rate rose sharply in 2009 for Aboriginal Peoples, rising from 10.4% in 2008 to 13.9%19. Racism and discrimination by employers are causes of the high unemployment rate. Incomes were lower for First Nations People, as compared to the general population who had an average income of $26,000. The median income for Aboriginal people in Ontario age 15 and over was under $19,000 in 2006. This was 25% lower than that of the general population20. However, low levels of post-secondary or secondary education are also contributing factors. An estimated 50% of Aboriginal youth will drop out, or be pushed out, of high schools; resulting in diminished literacy and employment, as well as increased poverty in future generations.21 Inadequate education institutions on reserves often include poor literacy and insufficient skills one might have to offer the labor market often resulting in low paying jobs. Furthermore, insufficient education opportunities for most adults manifest as a lack of capacity to promote education among their children causing a vicious cycle of poverty. These large socio-economic gaps between Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals are the results of social class divisions within society. According to Max Weber, social stratification is based on three concepts: class, status and power. Using Webers theory of stratification, Natives, just like Canadians, occupy the common three-stratum model: upper class, middle class and lower class. In other words, Natives occupy different social classes, they can be rich, poor or in between. However, they occupy a low status within society due to the historical
19
20 21

Aboriginal Peoples, Statistics Canada, Government of Canada, (2011).

Why Am I Poor? First Nations Child Poverty in Ontario, 17. Wien, Fred and Reading, 12.

Infusino22 stigmatization of their ancestors by the colonizers, missionaries, the government, employers and even non-Aboriginal Canadians. Class and status play essential influential roles within political power. Parties in Canada are the organizations of power. Due to the fact that Aboriginals lack prestige, they do not have much of a voice within Canadian politics, explaining their struggle for equality. Unlike Karl Marx who believed that social class was the cause of social disorder, Weber believed that social status was the cause to social conflict. Hence, if we accorded higher social status to Native peoples in Canada, they would occupy a balanced position within society. Furthermore, this would put an end to their social strife. To conclude, racism and social exclusion, stemming from the Eurocentric belief in colonial times, have placed Aboriginal people at the bottom of almost every index of socio-economic well being, including educational levels, employment opportunities, housing conditions and other conditions creating devastating repercussions such as health problems, drug abuse and an overrepresentation of Aboriginals in the Criminal Justice system. The Harper Governments Canada-China Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Act and Bill C-45 are examples of many other violations of Aboriginal rights throughout history. These controversial and deteriorating (for the environment) policies created strong adverse reactions from the First Nations communities across Canada, hence evoking a political movement Idle No More of which Theresa Spences hunger strike made international headlines. She has become an icon, bringing attention to native issues and representing the struggle for equality for Indigenous people across the world taking into account the myriad of

Infusino23 paradigms that were entrenched in order to assimilate them over the years. It is obvious that the Federal Government is neglecting the people of Our Home and Native Land. Idle No Mores protests have triggered a universal theme: the power and ability that humans posses in order to effect beneficial change to obtain world peace and harmony. My research is proof that there are universal themes that occur and are shared in different countries and social groups. The case of Trayvon Martin, who was shot by a racist cop, is very similar to the case of Matthew Dumas, an Aboriginal teen from Winnipeg who was killed due to racial profiling back in 2005. Just like the case of Aboriginals in Canada, African Americans are marginalized within their country and are treated like second or third class citizens due to the color of their skin. In both cases, racism stems from colonial beliefs, making White people superior to people of color, hence explaining the reasoning behind slavery of African-Americans and the cultural genocide of the Indigenous people. Whether it is the struggle against racism, sexism, marginalization or powerful groups, they are all present in different parts of the world hence, proving that there is a problem with social order and the solution still has not been found even though many countries are developed and prosperous.

Infusino24 Works Cited A History of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. The Government of Canada, 2011. Web. 1 Jul. 2013. A History of Residential Schools in Canada. CBC News. N.p. 2008. Web. 1 Jul. 2013. Aboriginal Peoples in Canada: First Nations People, Mtis and Inuit. Statistics Canada. Government of Canada. July, 2013. Web. 18 Jun. 2013. Aboriginal Peoples. Statistics Canada. Government of Canada, 2011. Web. 23 June 2013. Bill C-45 and the Navigable Waters Protection Act. Ecojustice. N.p. Oct. 2012. Web. 18 Jun. 2013. Boldt, Menno. Surviving as Indians: The Challenge of Self-Government. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1993. Web. 16 Jun. 2013. Boyd, Kevin and Tony Harrison. Understanding Political Ideas and Movements. Manchester: U of Manchester P, 2003. Web. 11 Jun. 2013. Cannon, Martin and Lina Sunseri. Racism, Colonialism and Indigenity in Canada. Ontario: Oxford U P, 2011. Print. Chief Theresa Spence can end hunger strike with head high.The Star. 24 Jan. 2013. Web. 16 Jun. 2013. Chief Theresa Spence to End Hunger Strike Today. CBC News. 23 Jan. 2013. Web. 16 Jun. 2013. Chodos, Robert and Renee Dupuis. Justice for Canadas Aboriginal Peoples. Toronto: James Lorimer, 2002. Web. 13 Jun. 2013. Economy. Conservative Party of Canada. Web. 13 Jun. 2013. Examining Aboriginal Corrections in Canada. Public Safety Canada. The Government of Canada, 2010. Web. 21 Jun. 2013. "First Nations in Canada." Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. The Government of Canada, 07 Jun. 2011. Web. 6 Jul. 2013. Five Things to Know About the Canada-China investment treaty. CBC News. Web. 14 Jun. 2013.

Infusino25 Gosselin, Pierre, et al. The Royal Society of Canada Expert Panel: Environmental and Health Impacts of Canadas Oil Sands Industry. Ottawa: The Royal Society of Canada, 2010. Web. 16 Jun. 2013. Hasselriis, Kaj. Meet Idle No Mores Pam Palmater. Herizons. 26.4 (2013): 16-24. Print. Hong, Beth. Chinese companies can sue BC for changing course on Northern Gateway, says policy expert. Vancouver Observer. Oct. 2012. Web. 14 June. 2013. Hulbert, Margot. Pursuing Justice: An Introduction to Justice Studies. Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing, 2011. Print. Ideology. Britannica Encyclopedia Online. Web. 11 Jun. 2013. Laissez-faire. Merriam Webster Online Dictionnary. Web. 11 Jun. 2013. Looking Forward, Looking Back. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Vol. 1. Ottawa: Canada Communications Group, 1996. Web. 6 Jul. 2013. Malcomson, Patrick and Richard Myers. The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada. 5th ed. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2012. Print. McGregor, Janyce. 22 changes in the budget bill fine print. CBC News. N.p. Oct. 2012. Web. 17 Jun. 2013. Mech, Michelle. A Comprehensive Guide to the Alberta Oil Sands. N.p. 2011. Web. 17 Jun. 2013. Radia, Andy. AFN runner-up Pam Palmater accuses the Prime Minister of trying to break up communities. Yahoo News. N.p. Dec. 2012. Web. 19 Jun. 2013. Saggers, Sherry and Dennis Gray. Alcohol: indigenous usage in Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge U P. Print. Seed, Patricia. American Pentimento: The Invention of Indians and the Pursuit of Riches, Volume 7. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 2011. Web. 17 Jun. 2013. Stand up to the sellout to China. Green Party of Canada. Web. 19 Jun. 2013 Theresa Spence Pulls Out of Meeting with Harper. CBC News. 9 Jan. 2013. Web. 17 Jun. 2013. The Shock Doctrine. Naomi Klein. N.p., 2009. Web. 6 Jul, 2013.

Infusino26 Stastna, Kazi. Clean Running Water Still a Luxury on Many Native Reserves. CBC News Canada, 2011. Web. 20 Jun. 2013. Warry, Wayne. Ending Denial: Understanding Aboriginal Issues. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2008. Web. 16 Jun. 2013. Why Am I Poor? First Nations Child Poverty in Ontario.Health Nexus. 2012. Web. 17 Jun. 2013. Wien, Fred and Charlotte Loppie Reading. Health Inequalities and Social Determinants of Aboriginal Peoples Health. Prince George, BC: National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health, 2009. Web. 16 Jun. 2013.

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