Te author of over 20 books on art, religion, and spirituality, Titus Burckhardt (1908-1984) worked

for many years as a UNESCO expert, helping to preserve the historic old city of Fez, Morocco. His
masterpiece, Art of Islam: Language and Meaning was originally published in London in 1976 and is
presented by World Wisdom in a fully revised edition with new illustrations.
Tis edition commemorates the 100th birthday of the author,
Titus Burckhardt;
Features over 350 color and black-and-white illustrations; and
Includes a new Introduction by Burckhardts friend and
collaborator, Jean-Louis Michon.
Tis work stands alone. Nothing of comparable importance has appeared before, and it is hard to
imagine that it will ever be surpassed. Titus Burckhardts book provides a spiritual key to the art
forms in which the religion of Islam has found a particularly striking and compelling expression. In
consequence, this book must be of profound concern not only to those who are interested in the specic
art forms of a particular culture, but to all who are interested in the religion of Islam and, ultimately, in
religion as such.
Charles Le Gai Eaton, author of Islam and the Destiny of Man
Titus Burckhardt looks at Islam with the eyes of a scholar who combines deep spiritual insight with
the love of eternal Truth.
Annemarie Schimmel, Harvard University, author of Mystical Dimensions of Islam
[Tis is] the denitive work on Islamic art as far as the meaning and spiritual signicance of this art are
concerned. Burckhardt brings together a lifetime of outward and inward experience to produce a peer-
less work, one in which Islamic art is at last revealed to be what it really is, namely the earthly crystalliza-
tion of the spirit of the Islamic revelation as well as a reection of the heavenly realities on earth.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Te George Washington University, author of Islamic Art and Spirituality
Tose who can do, and know why they do, will always hold positions of dignity and true knowledge in
the realm of the traditional arts. Titus Burckhardt is one such authority. My recollection of meeting with
him is unforgettable. For the newcomer to the Islamic arts, my assurance is that you could not be in better
hands than those of the great eternalist Titus Burckhardt: he will take you to the very core and heart, if
you are willing.
Keith Critchlow, Te Princes School of Traditional Arts, author of Islamic Patterns: An Analytical
and Cosmological Approach
Burckhardts last major work was his widely acclaimed and impressive monograph Art of Islam. Here
the intellectual principles and the spiritual role of artistic creativity in its Islamic forms are richly and
generously displayed before us.
William Stoddart, author of Susm: Te Mystical Doctrines and Methods of Islam
Islam / Art History
@!
World Wisdom
$ 32.95 US
Art
of Islam
Language and
Meaning
Commemorative Edition
Titus Burckhardt
Foreword by Seyyed Hossein Nasr Introduction by Jean-Louis Michon
T
i
t
u
s

B
u
r
c
k
h
a
r
d
t
A
r
t

o
f

I
s
l
a
m
World
Wisdom
World Wisdom
The Library of Perennial Philosophy
Tc Library ol Pcrcnnial Philosophy is dcdicatcd to thc cxposition ol thc
timclcss Truth undcrlying thc divcrsc rcligions. Tis Truth, oltcn rclcrrcd to as
thc Sophia Perennisor Pcrcnnial Visdomnds its cxprcssion in thc rcvcalcd
Scripturcs as wcll as thc writings ol thc grcat sagcs and thc artistic crcations ol
thc traditional worlds.
Art of Islam, Language and Meaning: Commemorative Edition appcars as
onc ol our sclcctions in thc Sacrcd Art in Tradition scrics.

Sacred Art in Tradition

Tc aim ol this scrics is to undcrscorc thc csscntial rolc ol bcauty and its
artistic cxprcssions in thc Pcrcnnial Philosophy. ach volumc contains lull
color rcproductions ol mastcrpicccs ol traditional artincluding painting,
sculpturc, architccturc, and vcstimcntary artcombincd with writings by
authoritics on cach subjcct. !ndividual titlcs locus cithcr on onc spiritual
tradition or on a ccntral thcmc that touchcs upon divcrsc traditions.
ii Art of Islam
Art of Islam
Languagc and Mcaning
Commcmorativc dition
Titus 8urckhardt
Foreword by
Scyycd Hosscin Nasr
Introduction by
JcanLouis Michon
World Wisdom
Art ol !slam, Languagc and Mcaning
Commcmorativc dition
2009 Vorld Visdom, !nc.
All rights rcscrvcd.
No part ol this book may bc uscd or rcproduccd
in any manncr without writtcn pcrmission,
cxccpt in critical articlcs and rcvicws.
Image research and book design by Susana Marn
Library ol Congrcss CataloginginPublication ata
8urckhardt, Titus.
|Art dc lislam. nglish|
Art ol !slam : languagc and mcaning / Titus 8urckhardt , lorcword by Scyycd Hosscin Nasr ,
introd. by JcanLouis Michon. Commcmorativc cd.
p. cm. (Sacrcd art in tradition)
!ncludcs bibliographical rclcrcnccs and indcx.
!S8N 9781933316659 (pbk. : alk. papcr) 1. Art, !slamic. !. Nasr, Scyycd Hosscin. !!.
Michon, JcanLouis. !!!. Titlc.
N6260.88713 2009
709.1767dc22
2008045561
Cover image: Mosque of Ibn Tulun, Cairo, Egypt
Photograph by Susana Marn
Printcd on acidlrcc papcr in China.
For inlormation addrcss Vorld Visdom, !nc.
P.. 8ox 2682, 8loomington, !ndiana 474022682
www.worldwisdom.com
Contents
Foreword by Seyyed Hossein Nasr vii
Introduction by Jean-Louis Michon ix
Preface xv
Chapter I Prologue: Te Kaba 1
Notcs to Chaptcr ! 6
Chapter II Te Birth of Islamic Art 7
1 Tc Sccond Rcvclation 7
2 Tc omc ol thc Rock 8
3 Tc Umayyads 13
4 Mshatt 15
5 Tc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus 18
Notcs to Chaptcr !! 28
Chapter III Te Question of Images 29
1 Aniconism 29
2 Tc Pcrsian Miniaturc 32
Notcs to Chaptcr !!! 41
Chapter IV Te Common Language of Islamic Art 43
1 Arab Art, !slamic Art 43
2 Arabic Calligraphy 52
3 Tc Arabcsquc 62
4 Tc Sphcrc and thc Cubc 73
5 Tc Alchcmy ol Light 80
Notcs to Chaptcr !\ 85

Chapter V Art and Liturgy 87
1 Tc Naturc and Rolc ol Sacrcd Art 87
2 Tc Mirb 90
3 Tc Minbar 94
4 Tombs 96
5 Tc Art ol Apparcl 102
Notcs to Chaptcr \ 105
Chapter VI Te Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art 107
1 ynastics and thnic Groups 107
2 Tc Art ol thc Carpct 113
3 Knightly Art 122
Notc to Chaptcr \! 124
Chapter VII Synthesis 125
1 \aricty in Unity 125
2 Tc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan 128
3 Tc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba 132
4 Tc Mosquc ol !bn ln at Cairo 138
5 Tc Collcgc Mosquc ol Sultan asan in Cairo 146
6 ttoman Mosqucs 156
7 Tc Shh Mosquc at !fahn 179
8 Tc Taj Mahal 190
Chapter VIII Te City 199
1 Muslim Townplanning 199
2 Art and Contcmplation 220
Glossary 226
List of Illustrations 229
Index 234
Acknowledgments 237
Biographical Notes 238
Foreword
cspitc thc vast amount ol documcntation and dcscriptivc studics alrcady carricd out by
Vcstcrn scholars, !slamic art has rcmaincd until now a singularly ncglcctcd cld as lar as thc
study in dcpth ol its inncr mcaning is conccrncd. Sincc thc tastc ol Vcstcrn historians ol art has
bccn moldcd by scvcral ccnturics ol humanistic art lrom thc Rcnaissancc on, and cvcn bclorc
that by a sacrcd art bascd primarily on thc icon and sccondarily on sculpturc, Vcstcrn scholars
havc naturally lound thc grcat schools ol !ndian and Far astcrn art ol morc intcrcst than thc
!slamic, cvcn whcn thcy havc turncd thcir cycs bcyond thc conncs ol Vcstcrn civilization.
uring thc past ccntury works ol prolundity gradually bcgan to appcar on thc arts ol !ndia and
thc Far ast, rcvcaling thcir symbolism and thc mctaphysical principlcs undcrlying thcm. Tis
activity may bc said to havc culminatcd in thc writings ol A. K. Coomaraswamy, who unloldcd
bclorc thc nglish spcaking world thc unbclicvablc dcpth ol thc traditional art ol !ndia and
also to a largc cxtcnt that ol mcdiacval uropc.
Mcanwhilc, dcspitc ccrtain works ol inspiration which appcarcd hcrc and thcrc, !slamic
art continucd to bc a closcd book as lar as its symbolic mcaning was conccrncd. !ts major art
lorms such as calligraphy wcrc considcrcd as dccoration or minor arts and pcoplc lookcd in
vain in this tradition lor art lorms which wcrc ccntral clscwhcrc. !n addition, thosc who bccamc
intcrcstcd in !slamic art lor its socallcd abstract naturc oltcn did so lor thc wrong rcasons.
Tcy thought that !slamic art is abstract in thc samc scnsc as modcrn Vcstcrn art, whcrcas thc
two stand at oppositc polcs. Tc rcsult ol thc onc lorm ol abstraction is thc glass skyscrapcrs
which scar most modcrn citics, and thc lruit ol thc othcr is thc Shh Mosquc and thc Taj Mahal.
Tc onc sccks to cvadc thc uglincss ol naturalistic and condcnscd lorms ol ninctccnthccntury
uropcan art by appcal to a mathcmatical abstraction ol a purcly human and rationalistic ordcr.
Tc othcr sccs in thc archctypcs rcsiding in thc spiritual cmpyrcan thc concrctc rcalitics ol
which thc socallcd rcalitics ol this world arc nothing but shadows and abstractions. !t thcrclorc
sccks to ovcrcomc this shadow by rcturning to thc dircct rccctions ol thc truly concrctc world
in this world ol illusion and abstraction which thc lorgctlul naturc ol man takcs lor concrctc
rcality. Tc proccss ol socallcd abstraction in !slamic art is, thcrclorc, not at all a purcly human
and rationalistic proccss as in modcrn abstract art, but thc lruit ol intcllcction in its original
scnsc, or vision ol thc spiritual world, and an cnnobling ol mattcr by rccoursc to thc principlcs
which dcsccnd lrom thc highcr lcvcls ol cosmic and ultimatcly Mctacosmic Rcality.
Tc writings ol Titus 8urckhardt havc thc grcat virtuc ol having brought to light lor thc
rst timc in thc modcrn Vcst this and othcr lundamcntal principlcs ol !slamic art and ol
having achicvcd at last lor !slamic art what Coomaraswamy did lor thc art ol !ndia. 8urckhardt
has himscll mcntioncd in his carlicr works that !slamic art dcrivcs lrom thc wcdding ol wisdom
(ikmah) and craltsmanship (fann or inah). Tcrclorc to bc ablc to cxplain this art in dcpth
rcquircs an intimatc knowlcdgc ol both, which 8urckhardt posscsscd to a startling dcgrcc.
Hc is alrcady known as onc ol thc most mastcrly cxpositors ol Susm in thc Vcst, and his
Introduction to Su Doctrine, as wcll as translations ol !bn Arab and Abd alKarm alJl,
havc bccomc classics. Hc spcaks lrom within thc Su tradition ol thc proloundcst aspccts ol
wisdom with an authority which can only comc lrom actual cxpcricncc and rcalization ol thc
world ol thc Spirit.
viii Art of Islam
Morcovcr, 8urckhardt was himscll an artist in thc original, and not thc trivial and modcrn,
scnsc ol thc word. Hc also spcnt a lilctimc in intimatc contact with traditional mastcrs ol thc arts
in North Alrica and playcd a major rolc in saving thc city ol Fcz and its living artistic traditions.
Hc, thcrclorc, combincd within himscll in a uniquc manncr thc qualications ncccssary to
prcscnt at last to thc Vcstcrn world thc dcnitivc work on !slamic art as lar as thc mcaning and
spiritual signicancc ol this art arc conccrncd.
!n thc pagcs which lollow, thc rcadcr will not bc prcscntcd with an cxhaustivc documcnta
tion ol cvcry aspcct ol !slamic art, which in any casc is impossiblc in a singlc volumc. Hc will
bc cxposcd to thc csscncc ol this art and prcscntcd with kcys with which hc can opcn thc door
ol thc trcasurics ol !slamic art whcrcvcr thcy may bc lound. Tc author prcscnts !slamic art
as a dircct dcrivativc ol thc principlcs and lorm ol thc !slamic rcvclation and not as historical
accrctions accidcntally amalgamatcd togcthcr, as so many othcr art historians would havc us
bclicvc. 8urckhardt bcgins with thc rigin and, in thc world ol lorms, with thc Kaba and
takcs thc rcadcr through thc major aspccts ol !slamic art, thc rclation ol this art to liturgy, to
thc polarization bctwccn thc nomads and scdcntary pcoplcs, to thc grcat synthcscs ol !slamic
art and architccturc, and nally to thc !slamic city, whcrc all thc dicrcnt aspccts ol !slamic art
arc to bc sccn in thcir natural rapport with thc rhythm ol lilc dictatcd by thc ivinc Law and
illuminatcd by thc prcscncc ol thc spiritual light containcd within Susm.
!n his carlicr works, cspccially Sacred Art in East and West and Moorish Culture in Spain,
8urckhardt had alrcady writtcn somc ol thc proloundcst pagcs on !slamic art. !n thc prcscnt
work hc brings togcthcr a lilctimc ol outward and inward cxpcricncc to producc a pccrlcss
work, onc in which !slamic art is at last rcvcalcd to bc what it rcally is, namcly thc carthly
crystallization ol thc spirit ol thc !slamic rcvclation as wcll as a rccction ol thc hcavcnly
rcalitics on carth, a rccction with thc hclp ol which thc Muslim makcs his journcy through
thc tcrrcstrial cnvironmcnt and bcyond to thc ivinc Prcscncc !tscll, to thc Rcality which is thc
rigin and nd ol this art.
Svvvvb Hossvix N~sv
Anyonc who has rcad or will rcad Titus 8urckhardts Art of Islam: Language and Meaning, lirst
publishcd in 1976 and, lortunatcly, rcpublishcd now, may bc intcrcstcd to look back on thc
circumstanccs, rcmotc and immcdiatc, that prcparcd and linally triggcrcd oll thc birth ol this
book, placing it as onc ol thc brilliant jcwcls which crown thc rich carccr ol thc author (1908
1984).
Giltcd with an acutc intclligcncc and scnsitivcncss, 8urckhardt was attractcd, and cvcn
lascinatcd at an carly agc by thc bcauty ol traditional arts, primarily thosc ol thc Christian Vcst
whcrc his lathcr, a rcnowncd sculptor, practiccd his cralt and livcd with his lamily now in 8aslc
and now in Florcncc. !n thcsc citics, Titus lrcqucntcd art schools and rcgularly visitcd thc grcat
muscums ol art, cthnography, and ricntal culturc, acquiring ycar altcr ycar a vast knowlcdgc
ol thc civilizations that had produccd thc monumcnts and artclacts hc admircd. vcn morc, his
mcntal and intuitivc lacultics lcd him to clcarly pcrccivc thc idcals and valucs that had inspircd
thc architccts and artists bclonging to thc grcat civilizations and rcligions ol thc world, past and
prcscnt, and to cxposc thc trcasurcs ol supcrnatural wisdom that lay hiddcn undcr thc produc
tions ol sacrcd art, as also bchind thc lormulations ol traditional scicnccs likc cosmology and
alchcmy.
Conscious that thc studics hc had madc ought to bc complctcd by a dircct contact with
pcoplc living in a contcxt imprcgnatcd with traditional bclicls and bchaviors, 8urckhardt dccid
cd to go and livc lor an undctcrmincd timc in a country rcasonably unallcctcd by thc conqucst
ol tcchnical progrcss and thc scarch lor matcrial wcllarc, a country whcrc cntcring into contact
with rcprcscntativcs ol thc local culturc would not rcquirc an apprcnticcship too dillicult and
lcngthy. 8y thcmsclvcs, thcsc conditions pointcd to onc spccilic country: Morocco, a closc
ncighbor ol uropc, wcll known lor thc opcn and hospitablc charactcr ol its inhabitants. For
8urckhardt, thcn agcd twcntytwo, thc choicc was thc morc casy sincc hc had alrcady acquircd
a basic knowlcdgc ol Arabic and a strong allinity with thc spirit and culturc ol !slam.
So it happcncd that during livc ycars, with only a lcw intcrruptions during which hc visitcd
his lamily and lricnds in 8aslc, 8urckhardt livcd lully as an autochthon, travcling up and down
thc northcrn plains and mountains ol North Morocco, obscrving cvcrything ncw around him
and rccording his imprcssions on pcrsonal notcs and lcttcrs to his lricnds. Thcsc living tcstimo
nics, illustratcd with many ol his drawings, skctchcs, and blackandwhitc photographs, wcrc
publishcd by 8urckhardt himscll in thc lorm ol a book
1
a lcw ycars altcr hc had comc back
lrom Morocco and scttlcd in 8aslc to work thcrc as a chicl cditor lor Urs Gral \crlag, a lirm
spccializing in thc rcproduction ol mcdicval manuscripts.
This lirst book, which unlortunatcly only cxists in its original Gcrman vcrsion, contains a
grcat dcal ol inlormation that is still valid today, as il 8urckhardt had pickcd up spontancously
typical traits, ol thc kind that will last as long as thc country is not subjcct to radical changcs
and disruptions ol its anccstral valucs. uring thc two main phascs ol this so to say initiatic
Introduction
1
Vith thc titlc Land am Rande der Zeit (Land on thc \crgc ol Timc) and subtitlcd: A cscription ol Mo
roccan Culturcwith drawings and photographs by thc author, Titus 8urckhardt, publishcd by Urs Gral
\crlag G.M.8.H., 8aslc, Autumn 1941.
x Art of Islam
sojourn, thc lirst onc spcnt in thc rural arcas ol North Morocco, whcrc hc cxcrciscd scvcral jobs,
including thc guard and conduct ol llocks as a shcphcrd, and thc sccond onc spcnt cntircly in
thc urban sctting ol Fcz whcrc hc studicd, with his usual carc and conccntration, writtcn Arabic
and rcligious scicncc at thc Qarawiyyn Univcrsity, 8urckhardt capturcd thc charactcristics ol a
varicty ol pcoplc: Arabs and 8crbcrs, nomads and scdcntarics, pcasants, mcrchants, craltsmcn
ol all kinds, lrom thc hardworking tanncrs and wooldycrs to thc rclincd artisans ol thc archi
tcctural dccor in wood, stucco, and zcllij, rcprcscntativcs ol thc rcligious and civil authoritics,
mastcrs and mcmbcrs ol Suli brothcrhoods. ncountcrs with thcsc lcllow bcings brought him
a lccling ol satislaction, as il hc had rcccivcd a tcaching about thc positivc scnsc ol lilc and a
conlirmation that Tradition,
2
whcn lollowcd with rcspcct and conlidcncc, is a laithlul guidc to
scrcnity and contcntmcnt. Hc also noticcd thc rclraction ol 8cauty on thc pcoplc thcmsclvcs,
thcir attitudcs, thcir garmcnts, thc simplc tools and utcnsils thcy uscd whcn cooking or building
and dccorating thcir houscs.
Thc intimatc rclationship which was cstablishcd bctwccn Titus 8urckhardt and Morocco,
thc Land on thc \crgc ol Timc, ncvcr ladcd out. !n lact, thc basic idcas conccrning thc link
bctwccn thc art lorms (thc languagc) and thcir spiritual roots (thc mcaning) wcrc alrcady
clcarly pointcd out in his ouvragc dc jcuncssc (a Frcnch cxprcssion which is somctimcs tingcd
with condcsccnsion but, hcrc, is a homagc paid to thc lrcshncss and insight ol thc cxpcricnccs
rclatcd by thc young travclcr). Thcsc thcmcs continucd to maturc and wcrc dcvclopcd bctwccn
1935 and 1976 in a scrics ol articlcs and books dcaling with thc pcculiaritics and mcrits ol !s
lamic art. Sincc all thcsc writings wcrc linally intcgratcd to lorm part ol Art of Islam, thc grcat
synthcsis publishcd in 1976, ! will limit myscll to giving somc indications on thc books writ
tcn during thc abovcmcntioncd pcriod. As lor thc articlcs, thcy arc listcd in an anthology ol
8urckhardts cntitlcd, Mirror of the Intellect: Essays on Traditional Science and Sacred Art, whcrc
thc intcrcstcd rcadcr can tracc thcm without dilliculty.
3
!n onc ol his most widcly known books, Sacred Art in East and West,
4
8urckhardt analyzcs
thc mctaphysical basis ol thc traditional art lorms typical ol thc grcat living civilizations and
rcligions: Hinduism, Christianity, !slam, 8uddhism, Taoism. !n chaptcr !\, Thc Foundations
ol !slamic Art, hc obscrvcs that Unity, on which !slam is ccntcrcd, is not cxprcssiblc in tcrms
ol any imagc, which cxplains thc abstract charactcr ol !slamic art. Hc also dissipatcs thc lrc
qucnt conlusion which is madc whcn this abstract charactcr is assimilatcd with thc abstract
2
Tc word Tradition, gcncrally writtcn with a capital T, is uscd by authors likc 8urckhardt and Hosscin
Nasrwho bclong to thc socallcd pcrcnnialist or traditionalist school ol thoughtto dcsignatc thc sct
ol signs, symbols, and tcachings that wcrc at all timcs ol history own down lrom Hcavcn to guidc mcn back
to thcir Crcator. !t is thc rcsult ol thc thcophanic irradiation (Arabic tajall) ol Gods Qualitics and ncrgics,
thc root ol all rcligions and thc univcrsal incitcr to thc spiritual qucst. !n rclation with art, it is thc sourcc ol
inspiration, thc providcntial instrumcnt by which thc artist may rcspond to thc appcal ol thc divinc 8cauty.
3
Translatcd and cditcd by Villiam Stoddart (Cambridgc, U.K.: Quinta sscntia, 1987). Chaptcrs 21: Tc Rolc ol
Finc Arts in Moslcm ducation, 22: Pcrcnnial \alucs in !slamic Arts, and 23: Tc \oid in !slamic Art rccct
thc dccp pcdagogical prcoccupations ol thc author. A complctc bibliography ol Titus 8urckhardt is also prcscntcd
as an appcndix to Te Essential Titus Burckhardt: Reections on Sacred Art, Faiths, and Civilizations, cditcd by Villiam
Stoddart (8loomington, !N: Vorld Visdom, 2003).
4
Publishcd originally in Frcnch undcr thc titlc Principes et Mthodes de l Art sacr (Lyon: Paul crain, 1958), it
was translatcd by Lord Northbournc and publishcd as Sacred Art in East and West (London: Pcrcnnial 8ooks,
1976, sccond cdition Louisvillc, KY: Fons \itac/8loomington, !N: Vorld Visdom, 2001). Scc chaptcr !\,
Tc Foundations ol !slamic Art.
Introduction xi
art as conccivcd and practiccd in thc modcrn Vcst. Thc modcrns, says 8urckhardt, lind in
thcir abstractions a rcsponsc that is cvcr morc immcdiatc, morc lluid, and morc individual to
thc irrational impulscs that comc lrom thc subconscious, to a Muslim artist on thc othcr hand
abstract art is thc cxprcssion ol a law, it manilcsts as dircctly as possiblc Unity in multiplicity.
Rcacting against thc samc widcsprcad misundcrstanding, Scyycd Hosscin Nasr has alrcady
writtcn thc lollowing in his Forcword to thc prcscnt book: Thosc who bccamc intcrcstcd in
!slamic art lor its socallcd abstract naturc oltcn did so lor thc wrong rcasons. Thcy thought
that !slamic art is abstract in thc samc scnsc as modcrn Vcstcrn art, whcrcas thc two stand at
oppositc polcs. Thc rcsult ol thc onc lorm ol abstraction is thc glass skyscrapcrs which scar
most modcrn citics, and thc lruit ol thc othcr is thc Shh Mosquc and thc Taj Mahal.
Two books wholly dcdicatcd to thc civilization and art ol !slam havc also bccn produccd
at tcnycar intcrvals during thc samc pcriod. 8oth illustratc thc subtlc mastcry with which
8urckhardt dcscribcs how !slam, whcn it was propcrly undcrstood and applicd as a gcncral
Law (shara) and as a way to scllimprovcmcnt (tarqa) lor cach bclicvcr, has bccn a powcrlul
inccntivc to build up and maintain, lor ccnturics, a harmonious cnvironmcnt and way ol lilc in a
city (Fcz) and in a wholc country (Moorish Spain or alAndalus). !n Fez: City of Islam,
5
8urck
hardt uscs thc souvcnirs and thc pictorial matcrial bclonging to his carly thirtics, jointly with
documcntation gathcrcd during scvcral sojourns in Morocco altcr thc countrys !ndcpcndcncc
(1956), to draw up a rcmarkablc picturc ol thc city which rcprcscnts a modcl ol human urban
ism. As lor thc book Moorish Culture in Spain,
6
it rcvivcs, as always with thc hclp ol a bright
visual documcntation and mcticulous scicntilic background, thc cight ccnturics ol Arab domi
nancc in Southcrn Spain, a pcriod ol intcnsc intcllcctual, scicntilic, and rcligious intcrchangc
bctwccn Muslims, Jcws, and Christians.
To undcrstand thc spirit which has stimulatcd 8urckhardt to dcdicatc a lilclong attcntion
and carc to thc dillusion ol knowlcdgc on thc artistic patrimony ol !slam, it sulliccs to rcad
carclully his bricl but substantial Prclacc to thc prcscnt book, whcrc hc cxplains how thc study
ol !slamic artan art whosc substancc is 8cauty, a divinc qualitycan lcad to a morc or
lcss prolound undcrstanding ol thc spiritual rcalitics that lic at thc root ol a wholc cosmic and
human world. Thcsc wcrc rcalitics ol which 8urckhardt had acquircd an intimatc knowlcdgc,
not only through thc contcmplation ol lorms ol art typical ol thc !slamic or othcr rcligious
languagcs, but by his continuous contact with thc Koranic tcachings and thc writings ol thc
grcat sagcs and mysticsthc Sulisol !slam. A lcw quotations lrom thc imprcssions rccordcd
by Scyycd Hosscin Nasr whcn, in 1966, hc travclcd in thc Ncar ast in thc company ol 8urck
hardt and visitcd thc tomb ol thc grcat Suli mastcr !bn Arab in amascus, tcstily to thc aura
that radiatcd lrom 8urckhardt whcn hc lound himscll in a propitious ambiancc whcrc his
contcmplativc mood was lclt lrcc to llow insidc and around Him:
Vc cntcrcd thc sanctuary rcvcrcntially and altcr ocring praycrs sat down by thc
tomb ol thc grcat mctaphysician and saint which was surroundcd by an atmosphcrc ol
tranquility and calm. Tc pcacc and scrcnity ol this atmosphcrc wcrc acccntuatcd by
5
Fez, Stadt des Islam publishcd in Gcrman in 1960 by Urs Gral \crlag was translatcd into nglish by Villiam
Stoddart and publishcd in 1992 by !slamic Tcxts Socicty, Cambridgc, ngland.
6
riginally publishcd in Gcrman as Die Maurische Kultur in Spanien (Munich: Callwcy, 1970). An nglish
translation ol thc book by Alisa Jaa was publishcd in 1972 (London: Allcn & Unwin/Ncw York: McGraw
Hill, sccond cdition Louisvillc, KY: Fons \itac, 1999).
xii Art of Islam
thc lact that at thc momcnt Titus 8urckhardt and ! happcncd to bc alonc in that sacrcd
placc. ! occasionally glanccd at thc contcmplating lacc ol my companion whosc
closcd cycs sccmcd to gazc inwardly upon thc hcart and whosc lacc rccctcd thc light
ol thc !ntcllcct bclorc which his mind and soul wcrc so transparcnt. ! thought at that
timc about 8urckhardts signicancc in making !bn Arab known within thc Vcstcrn
world. . . |thcrc lollows a list ol 8urckhardts principal translations ol and commcntarics
on !bn Arabs tcachings|. !n contrast to many who writc ol !bn Arab and claim
traditional orthodoxy without howcvcr having rcalizcd thc truth ol Susm, 8urckhardt
livcd thc truth ol which hc wrotc. Tc cxccptional light ol intclligcncc which cmanatcd
lrom him picrccd to thc hcart ol thc tcxts hc studicd and illuminatcd thcir mcaning in
a manncr which is possiblc only by a pcrson in whom thc truth has dcsccndcd lrom thc
planc ol thc mind to thc ccntcr ol thc hcart and bccomc lully rcalizcd.
7

Thcn, altcr about hall a ccnturys intimatc rclationship with !slam and its arts, Titus 8urck
hardt rathcr uncxpcctcdly rcccivcd an invitation to writc a bookthc prcscnt oncabout thc
artistic crcativity and hcritagc in thc !slamic world. This happcncd in 1975, whcn a Vorld ol
!slam Fcstival ol vast purport was bcing organizcd in ngland with thc participation ol pcrsons
and cultural institutions, including univcrsitics and muscums, capablc ol contributing to thc
major objcctivc ol thc Fcstival: to lamiliarizc thc Vcstcrn public with thc main lcaturcs ol thc
!slamic culturc and with thc ways ol lilc ol thc Muslim pcoplcs around thc world, so as to avoid
or corrcct crroncous prcjudiccs and lacilitatc intcrcommunal contacts and rclationships.
Titus 8urckhardt was at that timc rcsiding in Fcz whcrc, as a UNSC cxpcrt, hc had
alrcady spcnt two lull ycars, lrom 1972 to 1974, invcntorying patrician dwcllings and old sanc
tuarics and prcparing a sct ol rccommcndations lor thc rchabilitation ol thc historic citythc
Mcdinaol Fcz. His lirst proposals having bccn acccptcd by UNSC and thc Moroccan
Govcrnmcnt, an intcrnational tcam ol cxpcrts and tcchnicians was convcncd in Fcz and givcn
as its hcadquartcrs a traditional buildingscat ol an ancicnt Tribunalsituatcd in a quict dis
trict ol thc Mcdina. Thc mandatc ol thc tcam (Atclicr du Schma ircctcur dUrbanismc dc
Fs, ASUF) was to work out a Mastcr Plan lor thc luturc dcvclopmcnt ol thc wholc builtup
arca ol Fcz, including thc historic Mcdina, thc Ncw Fcz (Fcz Jcdid) built by thc Mcrinids in
thc lourtccnth ccntury A.. and containing thc Royal Palacc, and thc Ncw City built during
thc Frcnch Protcctoratc at a distancc ol about onc milc lrom thc Mcdina. Thc tcam was hcadcd
by Prolcssor Aksora, lrom thc Univcrsity ol Ankara, whilc Titus 8urckhardt hcld thc chargc ol
Cultural Adviscr lor thc projcct. Thc tcam compriscd a group ol Moroccan citizcnsincluding
scvcral architccts, a gcographcr, an cconomist, a sociologistand spccialists ol various nation
alitics: a Swiss architcct and townplanncr (Stclano 8ianca), an !talian rcstorcr, a draughtsman
lrom Francc, and othcrsa landscapc gardcncr, sanitary cnginccr, ctc.who wcrc callcd lor
short missions. Vhcn thc rcqucst lrom ngland arrivcd, 8urckhardtwho had much to do
with thc daily consultations and intcrnal mcctings ol thc tcamwas somcwhat hcsitant to ac
7
Vith Titus 8urckhardt at thc Tomb ol !bn Arab, lrom thc Titus 8urckhardt Mcmorial !ssuc in Studies
in Comparative Religion, \ol. 16, Nos. 1 and 2, VintcrSpring 1984 (8cdlont: Pcrcnnial 8ooks). Tc samc
issuc contains an articlc by JcanLouis Michon cntitlcd, Titus 8urckhardt in Fcz, 19721977, whcrc arc
rccallcd somc ol thc circumstanccs which surroundcd our nominations and rcspcctivc missions as cocxpcrts
ol UNSC lor thc prcscrvation ol thc cultural hcritagc ol Morocco.
Introduction xiii
ccpt thc proposal but linally agrccd to writc thc book, lccling that thc subjcct dcscrvcd bcing
trcatcd as an intcgral part ol his mission.
Lct us now hcar ol a moving and truthlul sct ol souvcnirs that Stclano 8ianca, thc Swiss
mcmbcr ol ASUF, who had rcccivcd lrom 8urckhardt a wholc instruction on thc principlcs
and lorms ol !slamic art whcn hc was a young architcct, and latcr again whcn hc was planning
a disscrtation on thc intcraction bctwccn cultural pattcrns and urban lorm in thc !slamic world,
prcscntcd on thc occasion ol an intcrnational Colloquium on !slamic Arts hcld in Marrakcsh
in May 1999 as a homagc to Titus 8urckhardt:
8

A dccisivc turn in our rclations camc about during thc midscvcntics, whcn ! was ablc
to work sidc by sidc with Titus 8urckhardt lor almost thrcc ycars on thc conscrvation
plan lor thc old city ol Fcz. Hc had bccn rcqucstcd by UNSC in 1972 or 1973 to
sct up an invcntory ol thc architcctural hcritagc ol Fcz. Rcalizing that rccording alonc
was not sucicnt, hc advocatcd thc cstablishmcnt ol a lullcdgcd mastcrplan lor
thc complctc city ol Fcz, in ordcr to providc a rcalistic lramcwork lor thc conscrvation
ol thc old city. Upon his initial rccommcndation, ! bccamc a mcmbcr ol thc cnlargcd
intcrdisciplinary tcam ol UNSC consultants cntrustcd with this task lrom 1975 to
1978.
Titus 8urckhardts dccision to givc vc to six ycars ol his lilc to thc causc ol Fcz
was ccrtainly drivcn by a lccling ol gratitudc and dcbt to a country and a city to which
hc owcd so much ol his spiritual dcvclopmcnt during thc latc thirtics and carly lortics.
8cyond that, ! bclicvc it was also motivatcd by a challcnging visionthc vision that
Fcz, arguably thc bcst prcscrvcd and still living cxamplc ol a historic !slamic city, could
bccomc a modcl lor how to pcrpctuatc and cvolvc thc traditional urban lorm without
losing its csscntial qualitics. Although a committcd conscrvationist, hc was rcalistic
cnough to undcrstand that conccssions had to bc madc to contcmporary nccds in ordcr
to prcscrvc and rcstorc thc viability ol thc old city. Yct hc was rcady to ght against
a ccrtain typc ol modcrnization which simply imposcs alicn modcls and proccdurcs
without cvaluating thcir impact and without adapting thcir physical structurc to local
nccds and conditions. His thinking in this rcspcct, oltcn cxprcsscd with striking lucidity
and poignant rcalism, providcd prccious guidancc to thc tcam ol prolcssional architccts
and planncrs. . . .
!n all thcsc ycars, and although cvcrybody would gladly havc conccdcd him any
privilcgc, Titus 8urckhardt workcd as a most conscicntious and rcliablc mcmbcr ol
thc tcam, always availablc whcn and whcrc hc was nccdcd. nly altcr somc timc did !
discovcr that bcsidc this lull work load, hc had still lound thc cncrgy, in his lrcc timc,
to work on thc prcparations ol thc Vorld ol !slam Fcstival hcld in 1976 (hc was onc
ol thc lcading lorccs bchind this cvcnt) and to writc his book Art of Islam: Language and
Meaning.
8
Tc procccdings ol this colloquium wcrc publishcd with thc support ol UNSC, Ccntcr ol thc Vorld Hcr
itagc, in a volumc cntitlcd Sagesse et Splendeur des Arts IslamiquesHommage Titus Burckhardt (Marrakcsh:
Al Quobba Zarqua, 2000), with 140 pagcs ol Frcnch tcxt and 235 pagcs ol Arabic tcxt. 8iancas articlc was
translatcd lrom Frcnch into nglish and publishcd undcr thc titlc, Titus 8urckhardt (19081984): A Pcrsonal
Rccollcction, in Sophia: Te Journal of Traditional Studies, \ol. 5, No. 2, 1999, dcdicatcd to Martin Lings and
Titus 8urckhardt.
xiv Art of Islam
!t was during thcsc ycars in Fcz that ! had an opportunity ol gctting to know him
bcttcr through our joint work, and to obscrvc somc ol his many ways ol intcracting
with othcrs. !t was gratilying and somctimcs amusing to scc how hc commandcd
thc rcspcct cvcn ol thosc who had littlc in common with him or took lundamcntally
dicrcnt positions. His introspcctivc naturc did not prcvcnt him lrom bcing an astutc
ncgotiator, and cvcn to rcturn shrcwdncss, il this was ncccssary, to dclcnd his vision
and thc good causc. Rarcly did hc cmbark in argumcntativc discussions, but a singlc
ashlikc obscrvation, drawn lrom an arca unlamiliar or unsuspcctcd to his partncrs,
would oltcn makc thcir argumcnts collapsc or cxposc thc poorncss ol thcir prcmiscs.
Somctimcs hc would also surprisc thc architccts ol thc tcam with his ability to visualizc
his conccpts through cxccllcnt lrcchand skctchcs. Fcw, il any, kncw that bcing thc son
ol a sculptor, hc also was a giltcd artist with an innatc scnsc lor crcativc proccsscsa
scnsitivity which, combincd with his knowlcdgc ol csotcric traditions, allowcd him to
gain such incomparablc acccss to craltsmanship as thc basc ol !slamic art. . . .
Thc distinctivc sign ol a spiritual mastcr is his awarcncss ol thc rclativity ol lormsas wcll
as ol thcir ncccssity. nly a man whosc knowlcdgc transccnds lorms knows what lorms involvc.
Vith thcsc simplc words Titus 8urckhardt has wcll dclincd his own approach and thc critcria
against which hc cmcrgcs as onc ol thc lcw rcal mastcrs in a timc and a placc whcrc spiritual
rcalitics arc oltcn usurpcd and pcrvcrtcd lor othcr motivcs, il not dclibcratcly ignorcd.
Rcccntly ! was askcd by a journalist prcparing an articlc on Titus 8urckhardt whcthcr ! lclt
that his works havc withstood thc tcst ol timc and whcthcr thcy wcrc still ol rclcvancc. This
qucstion surpriscd mc, bccausc ! had ncvcr thought ol Titus 8urckhardts works as part ol a
trcnd or lashion subjcct to a spccilic pcriod. !l anything, thcy arc distinguishcd by thcir qucst
lor timclcss valucs, and to thc cxtcnt thcy havc succccdcd in that cndcavor thcy havc thcmsclvcs
acquircd a timclcss quality, which rcmains opcn and acccssiblc to thosc who scarch lor it.
! arrivc now at thc point whcrc, having roughly rcconstitutcd onc ol thc tracksthc track
ol artthat 8urckhardt has cxplorcd with a spccial insistcncc and on which hc has guidcd
many scckcrs ol Truth and aspirants to 8cauty, ! might havc somc commcnts to makc on thc
contcnts ol his book Art of Islam. !n lact, ! lccl that nothing has to bc addcd to his invaluablc
tcachings and that thc rcadcr has to bc lclt thc rcsponsibility ol disccrning what, in thcsc tcach
ings, is lundamcntal and may cvcntually constitutc a solid thcorctical basis (scientia) lor action
(ars), c.g. lor thc launching ol a campaign ol conscrvation ol thc artistic hcritagc or ol training
in traditional handicralts. At cvcry pagc ol 8urckhardts Art of Islam, and with thc splcndid
illustrations accompanying thc tcxt, wc arc rcmindcd that art is not only thc cxprcssion ol a
lormal languagc by which man provcs his crcativity, but it is an answcr to a ncccssity dccrccd
by thc Crcator who dclcgatcd to thc human bcing a part ol His Powcr and Visdom. Ars sine
scientia nihil (tcchniquc |or skill| without knowlcdgc |or wisdom| counts lor nothing): this
adagc lrom thc Middlc Agcs is, lor 8urckhardt, thc major thcmc, thc motor that incitcs him
to rccall this lirst truth to his contcmporarics and hclp thcm to tastc with him, through thc art
lorms ol thc grcat civilizations, thc omniprcscncc ol thc nc ivinity.
Jv~xLouis Micnox
!l onc wcrc to rcply to thc qucstion what is !slam: by simply pointing to onc ol thc mastcr
picccs ol !slamic art such as, lor cxamplc, thc Mosquc ol Crdoba, or that ol !bn ln in
Cairo, or onc ol thc madrasahs in Samarqand or cvcn thc Taj Mahal, that rcply, summary as
it is, would bc noncthclcss valid, lor thc art ol !slam cxprcsscs what its namc indicatcs, and it
docs so without ambiguity. Grantcd that its modcs ol cxprcssion vary according to thc cthnic
surroundings and thc passing ol thc ccnturicsthough morc upon thc lormcr than thc lat
tcrthcy arc ncarly always satislying, as much lrom thc acsthctic point ol vicw as lrom that ol
thcir spiritual aim: thcy involvc no disharmony, and thc samc cannot bc asscrtcd ol all domains
ol !slamic culturc. Thcology itscllwc arc spcaking not ol thc Koran but ol thc human scicncc
that llows out lrom itis not lrcc lrom contradictions, and thc cntirc social ordcr, although
linkcd to a law pcrlcct in itscll, is no morc than, at bcst, a scrics ol approximations. Asidc lrom
csotcrism, which is nonc othcr than thc wisdom ol thc saints and is situatcd on quitc anothcr
planc, art appcars to havc thc privilcgc ol bcing always in conlormity with thc spirit ol !slam,
at lcast in its ccntral manilcstations such as sacrcd architccturc and providcd it is not subjcct
to such dclctcrious lorcign inllucnccs as lic at thc root ol ttoman baroquc or to thc lar morc
dcadly impact ol modcrn tcchnology, which dcstroys !slamic art by dcstroying its human basc,
namcly craltsmanship, whosc hcritagc is built on skill and wisdom.
!t is not surprising, nor strangc, that thc most outward manilcstation ol a rcligion or civili
zation likc !slamand art is by dclinition an cxtcriorizationshould rcllcct in its own lashion
what is most inward in that civilization. Thc substancc ol art is bcauty, and this, in !slamic
tcrms, is a divinc quality and as such has a doublc aspcct: in thc world, it is appcarancc, it is
thc garb which, as it wcrc, clothcs bcautilul bcings and bcautilul things, in God, howcvcr, or in
itscll, it is purc inward bcatitudc, it is thc divinc quality which, among all thc divinc qualitics
manilcstcd in thc world, most dircctly rccalls purc 8cing.
This is to say that thc study ol !slamic art, or any othcr sacrcd art, can lcad, whcn it is
undcrtakcn with a ccrtain opcnmindcdncss, to a morc or lcss prolound undcrstanding ol thc
spiritual rcalitics that lic at thc root ol a wholc cosmic and human world. \icwcd in this way,
thc history ol art surpasscs thc lcvcl ol history purc and simplc, il only bccausc it asks thc
qucstion: whcncc comcs thc bcauty ol thc world, ol which wc havc just spokcn, and whcncc
comcs its abscncc in a world which today thrcatcns to covcr thc lacc ol thc wholc carth:
Ti:us 8uvcxn~vb:
Preface
1. Turkish miniaturc lrom thc manuscript Le Livre des Rois rcprcscnting thc Kaba in Mccca, 16th ccntury
V
c shall bcgin our invcstigations into thc
art ol !slam with a dcscription ol thc
Kaba and its liturgical rolc, thc litcrally ccntral
importancc ol which lor !slamic art, and abovc
all lor its architccturc, is quitc clcar. As is wcll
known, cvcry Muslim laccs thc Kaba to rccitc
thc canonical praycrs, and cvcry mosquc is ac
cordingly oricntatcd in this dircction, in thc
subscqucnt chaptcrs wc shall dcmonstratc cv
crything that lollows lrom this.
Tcrc is a lurthcr rcason lor spcaking about
thc Kaba at thc bcginning ol this book. !t is
thc only workcd objcct that plays an obligatory
part in Muslim worship. !l it is not a work ol art
in thc propcr scnsc ol thc tcrmbcing no morc
than a simplc cubc ol masonryit bclongs
rathcr to what might bc tcrmcd protoart,
whosc spiritual dimcnsion corrcsponds to myth
or rcvclation, dcpcnding on thc point ol vicw.
Tis mcans that thc inhcrcnt symbolism ol thc
Kaba, in its shapc and thc ritcs associatcd with
it, contains in cmbryo cvcrything cxprcsscd by
thc sacrcd art ol !slam.
The Kabas role as the liturgical center of
the Muslim world is bound up with the fact
that it demonstrates Islams link with the Abra-
hamic tradition and thereby with the origin of
all the monotheist religions. According to the
Koran, the Kaba was built by Abraham and his
son Ishmael, and it was Abraham who estab-
lished the yearly pilgrimage to this sanctuary.
Center and origin: here are the two aspects of
one and the same spiritual reality, or again, one
could say, the two fundamental options of every
spirituality.
1
For thc gcncrality ol Muslims, to pray lac
ing thc Kabaor lacing Mccca, which comcs
to thc samc thingcxprcsscs a priori a choicc:
by this gcsturc, thc Muslim is distinguishcd
both lrom thc Jcws, who pray lacing Jcrusa
lcm, and thc Christians who oricntatc thcm
sclvcs litcrally by lacing thc sunrisc, hc clccts to
join thc rcligion ol thc ccntcr, which is likc
thc trcc lrom which thc othcr rcligions stcm.
Abraham was ncithcr Jcw nor Christian, says
thc Koran, but dctachcd (anf) and submit
ting (muslim) (3:67). Thc impact ol thcsc
words is that thc laith ol Abrahamwho is
hcrc thc vcry typilication ol a Muslimis lrcc
lrom thc spccializations and limitations rcprc
scntcd, in Muslim cycs, by thc Jcwish conccpt
ol a pcoplc choscn to thc cxclusion ol all othcrs,
and by thc Christian dogma ol a uniquc savior,
thc Son ol God.
Lct us notc that thc Koranic account ol
thc building ol thc Kaba by Abraham docs
not strcss his rolc as anccstor ol thc Arabshis
dcsccndants through !shmacl and Hagarbut
his lunction as thc apostlc ol thc purc and
univcrsal monothcism that !slam purposcs to
rcncw. Vhatcvcr thc historical basis
2
ol this
account, it is inconccivablc that thc Prophct
should havc invcntcd it lor morc or lcss politi
cal motivcs, apart lrom qucstions ol sinccrity.
Thc prc!slamic Arabs wcrc obscsscd with gc
ncalogywhich is, in any casc, a charactcristic
ol nomadsand would ncvcr havc acccptcd
thc intcrpolation ol a hithcrto unknown
anccstor.
3
!l thc 8iblc makcs no rclcrcncc to a
sanctuary loundcd by Abraham and !shmacl in
Arabia, this is bccausc it had no causc to rc
lcr to a sanctuary placcd outsidc thc land and
dcstiny ol !sracl. !t ncvcrthclcss rccognizcd thc
spiritual dcstiny ol thc !shmaclitcs by includ
ing thcm in Gods promisc to Abraham. Lct us
notc linallywithout straying too lar lrom our
subjcctthat it is typical ol a divinc gcom
ctry, which is both strict and unlorcsccablc, to
Chaptcr !
Prologue: The Ka

ba
2 Prologue: Te Kaba
makc usc ol an Abrahamic sanctuary lost in thc
dcscrt and lorgottcn by thc grcat rcligious com
munitics ol thc timc, in ordcr to havc a starting
point lor rcncwing monothcism ol a Scmitic
complcxion.
4
Thc qucstion so many studcnts
ol !slam ask thcmsclvcs: Vhat happcncd at
Mccca to bring about a ncw rcligion:, could
wcll bc put thc othcr way round: For what rca
sons did thc ncw, nasccnt rcligion lirst manilcst
itscll in this spot:
Thc cmincntly archaic lorm ol thc Mccca
sanctuary accords wcll with thc Abrahamic
origin attributcd to it. !t has, indccd, bccn
lrcqucntly dcstroycd and rcbuilt, but thc vcry
namc Kaba, which mcans cubc, is a warrant
that its shapc has not bccn csscntially modilicd,
it is slightly irrcgular, bcing twclvc mctcrs long,
tcn mctcrs broad and about sixtccn mctcrs
high.
Thc building is traditionally covcrcd with a
vcsturc (kiswah) which is changcd ycarly and
which has, sincc thc Abbasid pcriod, bccn madc
ol black cloth cmbroidcrcd with gold lcttcring,
which bcspcaks in striking lashion thc both ab
stract and mystcrious aspcct ol thc cdilicc. Thc
custom ol clothing thc sanctuary was appar
cntly introduccd by an ancicnt Himyaritc king,
and sccms to bc part ol an cxtrcmcly vcncrablc
Scmitic tradition which is, in any casc, alicn in
stylc to thc GrccoRoman world: to clothc a
housc is, in a way, to trcat it as a living body or
as an ark bcaring a spiritual inllucncc, and that
is how thc Arabs undcrstood it. As lor thc cclc
bratcd black stonc, it is cncloscd not in thc ccn
tcr ol thc Kaba but in an outcr wall closc to its
mcridian anglc. !t is a mctcoritc, and thcrclorc
a stonc lallcn lrom hcavcn, and thc Prophct did
no morc than conlirm its sacrcd charactcr.
5
Fi
nally, lct us mcntion thc outcr prccinct, roughly
circular, ol thc aram, which lorms part ol thc
sanctuary.
Thc Kaba is thc only !slamic sanctuary
which can bc comparcd to a tcmplc. !t is com
monly callcd thc housc ol God (baytu Llh),
and it has in lact thc charactcr ol a divinc dwcll
ing, paradoxical as this may sccm in a Muslim
climatc, whcrc thc idca ol divinc transccndcncc
outwcighs cvcrything. 8ut God dwclls, as it
wcrc, in thc ungraspablc ccntcr ol thc world, as
hc dwclls in thc inncrmost ccntcr ol man. !t
will bc rccallcd that thc Holy ol Holics in thc
Tcmplc at Jcrusalcm which was likcwisc a di
vinc habitation, had thc shapc ol a cubc, likc
thc Kaba. Thc Holy ol Holics, or debir, con
taincd thc Ark ol thc Covcnant, whcrcas thc
intcrior ol thc Kaba is cmpty,
6
it contains only
a curtain, which oral tradition calls thc curtain
ol ivinc Mcrcy (Ramah).
Thc cubc is linkcd to thc idca ol thc ccntcr,
sincc it is a crystallinc synthcsis ol thc wholc ol
spacc, cach lacc ol thc cubc corrcsponding to
onc ol thc primary dircctions, namcly thc zc
nith, thc nadir, and thc lour cardinal points. Lct
us rcmcmbcr, cvcn so, that thc positioning ol
thc Kaba docs not cntircly corrcspond to this
schcmc, bccausc it is thc lour corncrs, and not
thc sidcs ol thc Kaba, which lacc thc cardinal
points, doubtlcss bccausc thc cardinal points
mcan, in thc Arab conccpt, thc lour corncr pil
lars (arkn) ol thc univcrsc.
7
Thc ccntcr ol thc tcrrcstrial world is thc
point intcrscctcd by thc axis ol hcavcn: thc
ritc ol circumambulation (awf), around thc
Kaba, which is to bc lound in onc lorm or
othcr in thc majority ol ancicnt sanctuarics,
8
is
thcn sccn to rcproducc thc rotation ol hcavcn
around its polar axis. Naturally, thcsc arc not
thc intcrprctations attributcd by !slam to thcsc
ritual clcmcnts, but arc inhcrcnt a priori in
a vicw ol things sharcd by all thc rcligions ol
antiquity.
Thc axial charactcr ol thc Kaba is, how
cvcr, allirmcd by a wcllknown Muslim lcgcnd,
according to which thc ancicnt housc, lirst
built by Adam, thcn dcstroycd by thc llood
and rcbuilt by Abraham, is situatcd at thc low
cr cxtrcmity ol an axis which travcrscs all thc
hcavcns, at thc lcvcl ol cach hcavcnly world,
anothcr sanctuary, lrcqucntcd by angcls, marks
this samc axis, thc suprcmc prototypc ol cach
ol thcsc sanctuarics bcing Gods thronc, around
which circulatcs thc chorus ol thc hcavcnly
Opposite: 2. Thc Kaba at Mccca
Prologue: Te Kaba 3
4 Prologue: Te Kaba
spirits, but it would bc morc cxact to say that
thcy circulatc within it, sincc thc divinc thronc
cncloscs all crcation.
This lcgcnd bcars clcar witncss to thc rc
lationship which cxists bctwccn ritual oricnta
tion and !slam as submission or abandonmcnt
(islm) to thc ivinc Purposc. Thc lact ol turn
ing in praycr to a singlc point, ungraspablc as
such but situatcd on carth and analogous, in
its singlcncss, to thc ccntcr ol cvcry world, is
cloqucnt ol thc intcgration ol human will in
thc Univcrsal Vill: and to God arc all things
rcturncd (Koran 3:109). At thc samc timc, it
will bc sccn that thcrc is a dillcrcncc bctwccn
this symbolism and that ol Christian worship,
whcrc thc point ol oricntation is that part ol thc
sky whcrc thc sun, thc imagc ol Christ rcborn,
riscs at astcr. This mcans that all oricntatcd
churchcs havc parallcl axcs, whcrcas thc axcs ol
all thc mosqucs in thc world convcrgc.
Thc convcrgcncc ol all thc gcsturcs ol ado
ration upon a singlc point bccomcs apparcnt,
howcvcr, only in thc proximity ol thc Kaba,
whcn thc host ol bclicvcrs bows down in com
mon praycr lrom all sidcs towards a singlc ccn
tcr, thcrc is pcrhaps no morc immcdiatc and
tangiblc cxprcssion ol !slam.
9
!t will havc bccn gathcrcd that thc liturgy
ol !slam is linkcd to thc Kaba in two dillcr
cnt but complcmcntary modcs, onc static and
thc othcr dynamic: thc lirst modc mcans that
cvcry placc on carth is dircctly attachcd to thc
Mcccan ccntcr, and it is in this scnsc that thc
Prophct said, God has blcsscd my community
by giving thcm thc lacc ol thc wholc world as
a sanctuary. Thc ccntcr ol this uniquc sanctu
ary is thc Kaba, and thc bclicvcr, who prays in
thc univcrsal sanctuary, linds that all distancc
is momcntarily abolishcd. Thc sccond modc,
which is dynamic in naturc, is madc manilcst in
thc pilgrimagc, which cvcry Muslim must makc
at lcast oncc in his lilctimc, il hc is ablc. Thcrc
is an aspcct ol divcstmcnt in thc pilgrimagc,
and this ordinarily transmits itscll to thc cntirc
!slamic ambicncc, at thc samc timc, its impact
on thc bclicvcr is that ol a dramatic rccapitula
tion ol his islm: arriving at thc thrcshold ol thc
sacrcd arca surrounding Mccca, thc pilgrim di
vcsts himscll ol all his clothing, purilics himscll
with watcr lrom hcad to toc, and garbs him
scll in two picccs ol scamlcss cloth, onc around
his waist and thc othcr ovcr onc shouldcr. !t is
in this consccratcd statc (irm) that hc ap
proachcs thc Kaba to accomplish thc ritc ol
circumambulation (awf), ccasclcssly invok
ing God. nly altcr this visit to thc housc ol
God docs hc sct out lor thc various placcs as
sociatcd with sacrcd history, and complctcs his
pcrcgrination by sacrilicing a ram in mcmory ol
Abrahams sacrilicc.
10
Vc shall scc latcr how thcsc two modcs ol
adoration, thc onc static and thc othcr dynamic,
arc rcllcctcd at dillcrcnt lcvcls in thc world ol
!slam. !n thc prcscnt contcxt wc wish to show
only onc thing, namcly, that thc Muslim soul
and, thcrcby, Muslim art arc groundcd in a
world that is closcr to that ol thc ld Tcsta
mcnt Patriarchs than to thc GrccoRoman uni
vcrsc, to which !slam had to turn lor thc lirst
clcmcnts ol its art. Lct us not lorgct that !slam
was born in a no mans land bctwccn two grcat
civilizations, thc 8yzantinc and thc Pcrsian,
which wcrc at thc samc timc cmpircs disput
ing Arabia, and which !slam had to light and
ovcrcomc lor its own survival. Comparcd with
thcsc two worlds, both ol which had an artistic
hcritagc
11
tcnding towards naturalism and ra
tionalism, thc Kaba and its associatcd ritcs arc
likc an anchor cast in a timclcss dccp.
@

!

Vhcn thc Prophct had conqucrcd Mccca, hc
wcnt lirst to thc sacrcd cnclosurc and pcrlormcd
thc circumambulation ol thc Kaba on camcl
back. Thc pagan Arabs had surroundcd this
arca with a girdlc ol 360 idols, onc lor cach
day ol thc lunar ycar. Touching thcsc idols with
his riding stick, thc Prophct ovcrturncd thcm
onc altcr thc othcr, whilc rcciting thc vcrsc
lrom thc Koran, Truth has comc, vanity has
vanishcd, in truth vanity is cvancsccnt (17:81).
Prologue: Te Kaba 5
Hc was thcn handcd thc kcy ol thc Kaba and
wcnt in. Thc inncr walls wcrc adorncd with
paintings cxccutcd by a 8yzantinc artist on
thc ordcrs ol thc Kabas pagan mastcrs, thcy
portraycd sccncs lrom thc lilc ol Abraham and
ccrtain idolatrous customs. Thcrc was also a
rcprcscntation ol thc Holy \irgin and Child.
Protccting this icon ol thc Holy \irgin with
both hands, thc Prophct ordcrcd that all thc
othcrs bc cllaccd. Thc icon ol thc \irgin was
latcr dcstroycd by a lirc.
12
This traditional story
dcmonstratcs thc mcaning and thc scalc ol what
is crroncously callcd Muslim iconoclasm, and
which wc would rathcr call aniconism: il thc
Kaba is thc hcart ol man, thc idols, which in
habitcd it, rcprcscnt thc passions which invcst
thc hcart and impcdc thc rcmcmbrancc ol God.
Thcrclorc, thc dcstruction ol idolsand, by cx
tcnsion, thc putting asidc ol cvcry imagc likcly
to bccomc an idolis thc clcarcst possiblc
parablc lor !slam ol thc onc thing ncccssary,
which is thc purilication ol thc hcart lor thc
sakc ol tawd, thc bcaring ol witncss or thc
awarcncss that thcrc is no divinity savc God.
To crcatc a ncw Muslim iconography would
bc supcrlluous altcr such an cxamplc and would
dcprivc thc parablc ol its mcaning. !n !slam,
icons arc rcplaccd by sacrcd writing which is, as
it wcrc, thc visiblc cmbodimcnt ol thc ivinc
Vord.
3. ctail ol cmbroidcry with lcttcring lrom a kiswah (vcsturc ol thc Kaba)
Notcs to Chaptcr !
1. Tc wholc cxistcncc ol thc pcoplcs ol antiquity, and ol
traditional pcoplcs in gcncral, is dominatcd by two prc
siding idcas, thc idca ol Ccntcr and thc idca ol rigin
(Frithjol Schuon, Light on the Ancient Worlds |London:
Pcrcnnial 8ooks, 1965|, p. 7).
2. !t is possiblc lor a sacrcd story to bc morc trucin thc
scnsc ol having a grcatcr rcalitythan a purcly cmpirical
or historical account ol thc cvcnts.
3. Scc Y. Moubarac, Abraham in the Quran, coll. tudcs
musulmancs (Paris: \rin, 1958).
4. Tcrc arc lorms ol monothcism which lic outsidc Sc
mitic or Abrahamic lincagc.
5. For all thc pcoplcs ol antiquity, a stonc lallcn lrom thc
sky could not bc othcr than sacrcd, and ncccssarily so, lor
things arc what thcy mcan.
6. Tis is truc also ol thc ccll ol ccrtain Hindu tcmplcs,
and this ccll or matrix (gharbagriha) has also thc shapc
ol a cubc.
7. St. Johns Apocalypsc dcscribcs thc Hcavcnly Jcrusalcm
as an impcrishablc synthcsis ol thc world in thc shapc ol
a cubc.
8. Notably in Hinduism and 8uddhism, but also in mc
dicval Christianity, in thc lorm ol proccssions around a
saints tomb.
9. !nsidc thc Kaba thcrc is no morc ritual oricnta
tion, thc dicrcncc bctwccn cach convcrgcnt dircc
tion is annullcd, and thc custom ol thc Prophct rc
quircs that lour bricl praycrs bc madc, lacing cach sidc
ol thc sanctuary in turn. Tus it is that in thc worlds
spiritual ccntcr, thc contrasts or oppositions which typ
ily thc world arc no longcr dominating but dominatcd.
According to a Su intcrprctation, thc Kaba corrc
sponds to thc hcart as thc scat ol thc ivinc Prcscncc,
and thc cncircling movcmcnt ol thc pilgrims around thc
Kaba rccalls thc movcmcnt ol thoughts or mcditations
turning pcrpctually around thc souls ungraspablc ccntcr.
10. Tc grcat pilgrimagc movcs across thc !slamic world as
thc circulation ol thc blood movcs through mans body, thc
Kaba bcing thc hcart.
11. Tis hcritagc croppcd up occasionally in uropc and,
with thc Rcnaissancc, nishcd by cngulng thc lunda
mcntally Christian civilization ol thc Middlc Agcs.
12. According to alAzraq, thc author ol thc oldcst his
tory ol Mccca. Tc icon portraycd thc Holy \irgin with
thc !nlant on hcr knccs.
1 The Second Revelation
!
n considcring thc history ol Muslim art, thc
rst qucstion to arisc is thc lollowing: how
was it possiblc lor this art to bc born almost
ovcrnight, about a ccntury altcr thc Prophcts
dcathat thc conclusion, that is, ol thc grcatcr
conqucsts ol !slamand to display almost im
mcdiatcly a complctcly convincing unity ol lorm
that would maintain itscll ovcr thc ccnturics: !t
is pcrhaps only 8uddhist art that has a com
parablc homogcncity and continuity dcspitc all
thc cthnic dicrcnccs within its arca ol dispcr
sion. 8ut thc unity ol 8uddhist art is cxplicablc
as a logical unlolding, in painting, sculpturc,
and architccturc, ol ccrtain basic symbols such
as thc icon ol thc 8uddha in various attitudcs ol
mcditation or tcaching, thc lotus as thc imagc
ol thc soul opcning up to thc transccndcnt light,
thc mandala as a symbolic synthcsis ol thc uni
vcrsc, and so on. Tc art ol !slam, on thc othcr
hand, is abstract, and its lorms arc not dcrivcd
dircctly lrom thc Koran or lrom thc sayings ol
thc Prophct, thcy arc sccmingly without scrip
tural loundation, whilc undcniably posscssing a
proloundly !slamic charactcr.
Nasccnt !slam kncw no art in thc propcr
scnsc, nor could it, sincc its original ambicncc
was nomadic or scminomadic cxistcncc in all
its stark simplicity. Admittcdly, Arab tradcrs
and caravan lcadcrs wcrc in contact with thc
civilizations ol 8yzantium and Pcrsia and
cvcn !ndia. 8ut most ol thc works ol art thcy
could admirc on thcir travcls rcmaincd alicn
to thcir vital nccds, thcy wcrc intcrcstcd only
in wcapons, trinkcts, and cloth. At homc thcy
rctaincd thc lorms ol ancicnt, pastoral lilc. !t
was, onc might say, a barbarian sctting which,
howcvcr, was to bc cnnoblcd by thc Prophcts
cxamplc: this madc it into a support lor spiritual
povcrty and lor a typc ol dignity that was both
virilc and pricstly. Tc soil ol Arabia, in its
majcstic monotony, was ttcd by Providcncc
lor an cxistcncc cntircly ccntcrcd on tawd, thc
consciousncss ol ivinc Unity.
!t was, in lact, abandonmcnt ol thc primitivc
Arabian cnvironmcnt and conlrontation with
thc artistic hcritagc ol thc ncwly conqucrcd or
convcrtcd scdcntary pcoplcs that ncccssitatcd
thc crcation ol an art conlormablc to !slam,
and cnablcd it to comc about. 8ut bclorc this,
thcrc was somcthing ol an hiatus or a pcriod
ol apparcnt stcrility, which can doubtlcss bc
cxplaincd in tcrms ol thc cconomy ol thc lorccs
which imposcd thc grcat conqucsts. Tc ncw
rcligion sprcad with thc swiltncss ol a prairic
rc, scnding its clitc troops to thc bordcrs ol
thc ancicnt cmpirc ol Alcxandcr thc Grcat and
bcyond. Tc conqucrors, still Arabs lor thc most
part and ol 8cdouin stock, had hardly timc,
in any cvcnt, to scttlc down in a conqucrcd
land, thcy rcmaincd strangcrs, lorming a kind
ol aristocratic castc, who kcpt thc conqucrcd
populations at a distancc, and had no usc lor
art cxccpt as plcasurablc spoils, thcy ccrtainly
had no thought ol crcating it thcmsclvcs. 8ut
altcr thc rst phasc ol stabilization, towards
thc cnd ol thc Umayyad pcriod, thc qucstion
ol art bccamc vcry rcal. At that momcnt, thc
urbanizcd population ol Syria, whcrc thc ncw
ccntcr ol cmpirc was situatcd, had lor thc most
part bccomc Muslim, thcy could not go on living
in urban surroundings bcaring thc ubiquitous
stamp ol GrccoRoman civilization, only partly
modicd by thc triumph ol Christianity. To thc
rcligious lccling ol thc collcctivity, thc cxistcncc
ol thc grandiosc 8yzantinc churchcs was a
kind ol dcancc, thc victory ol !slam had to bc
Chaptcr !!
The Birth of Islamic Art
8 Te Birth of Islamic Art
madc disccrniblc. Tat is at lcast thc political
and psychological aspcct ol thc situation, which
must not bc conluscd with thc truc sourcc ol
!slamic art: a collcctivc rcaction, ol an incvitably
scntimcntal naturc, cannot cngcndcr an art
with an inncr cquilibrium that has dccd thc
ccnturics.
Vc would bc tcmptcd, in considcring thc
csscncc ol this art, to spcak ol a sccond rcvcla
tion, wcrc it not ncccssary to rcstrict this tcrm
to dircct and lundamcntal manilcstations ol thc
ivinc on carth. Vc mcan that thc birth ol a sa
crcd artand thc art ol !slam dcscrvcs this cpi
thctncccssarily corrcsponds to a providcntial
cxtcriorization ol what is most inward in tradi
tion, and hcncc thc closc link bctwccn sacrcd
art and csotcrism. Tc appcarancc ol such an art
thcn rccalls thc suddcn crystallization ol a su
pcrsaturatcd solution, to usc a similc capablc ol
various applications and which, in this casc, sug
gcsts not only thc suddcnncss ol thc phcnomc
non but also thc rcgularity and homogcncity ol
thc rcsulting lorms. Tc statc ol supcrsaturation
which prcccdcs thc crystals prccipitation docs
in a way prompt a comparison with thc psycho
logical tcnsion, rclcrrcd to abovc, occasioncd by
thc primitivc Muslim communitys mccting thc
culturc ol thc conqucrcd pcoplcs, but that is no
morc than an appcarancc and a supcrcial as
pcct ol things lor, in rcality, this supcrsaturation
is nonc othcr than thc crcativc potcntiality in
hcrcnt in thc tradition.
2 The Dome of the Rock
Tc omc ol thc Rock (Qubbat a-akhrah) at
Jcrusalcm, which was built bctwccn 688 and
692 A.., about 60 ycars altcr thc Prophcts
dcath, and is thc most ancicnt Muslim monu
mcnt surviving in a statc ol complctc prcscrva
tion, still bclongs to 8yzantinc art, at thc samc
timc as bcing a work ol Muslim art in thc choicc
ol its constitucnt clcmcnts. Tc Grcat Mosquc
ol amascus, startcd in 706 and nishcd in
715 is, on thc othcr hand, a priori a work ol
!slamic art, at lcast in its major lorms il not in
thc dctails. Altcr this datc, and morc prcciscly
towards thc middlc ol thc cighth ccntury A..,
thc ncw art was to cxpand vcry rapidly and on a
broad lront, thc grcat works which thcn cmcrgc
out ol thc darkncss ol timc, such as thc Grcat
Mosquc ol Crdoba, loundcd in 785, and that
ol !bn ln in Cairo, nishcd in 879, no lon
gcr rcprcscnt phascs in a still tcntativc cvolu
tion but arc, in thcir quality as art, unsurpass
ablc mastcrpicccs. Tis mcans that !slamic art
had, by thc middlc ol thc sccond ccntury ol thc
Hcgira, lound its own languagc.
Lct us bricy comparc thcsc datcs with
thosc providcd by thc history ol Christian art:
thc Catacomb paintings, donc during thc rst
thrcc ccnturics A.., arc Christian in subjcct,
though somcwhat disguiscd, thcir stylc rcccts
dccadcnt Roman art. !t is not until thc agc
ol Constantinc that Christian art acquircs its
own languagc whilc rctaining, in its !mpcrial
sctting, somcthing ol thc typically Grcco
Roman vocabulary, as can bc sccn at Ravcnna,
strictly spcaking, Christian art did not bccomc
cntircly itscll until altcr thc onsct ol 8yzantinc
iconoclasm, parallcl thcrclorc to thc upsurgc ol
Muslim art and, in a curious way, as a rcaction
to it. !n thc casc ol !slam, thc cohcsion ol thc
rcligious and social ordcrs wcrc lavorablc to thc
swilt owcring ol art.
Tc omc ol thc Rock is somctimcs callcd
thc Mosquc ol Umar, but this is inaccuratc,
sincc it was loundcd, not by Umar, but by thc
Umayyad Caliph Abd alMalik in 688 A..
Howcvcr, thcrc is a grain ol truth in attributing
it to Umar. Vhcn this Companion ol thc
Prophct camc to Jcrusalcm at thc invitation ol
thc Grcck Patriarch, in ordcr to sign thc trcaty
ol surrcndcr ol thc holy city, hc askcd to bc
lcd to thc placc whcrc Solomons tcmplc had
stood, and whithcr, according to Muslim bclicl,
thc Prophct had bccn miraculously carricd
on thc night ol his asccnsion to Hcavcn. !t
is said that thc placc was chokcd with dcbris
and lth which had bccn strcwn thcrc by thc
Te Dome of the Rock 9
Christian inhabitants to spitc thc Jcws.
1
Umar
rccognizcd thc placc lrom thc way thc Prophct
had dcscribcd it to him, and sct about tidying
it with his own hands.
2
A simplc housc ol
Muslim praycr was, altcr this, built in wood
bctwccn thc rock which lorms thc summit ol
Mount Moriah and thc placc whcrc thc alAq
mosquc would latcr bc crcctcd. As lor thc domc
which covcrs thc sacrcd rock itscll, this was built
by thc Umayyad caliph during thc pcriod whcn
Mccca had lallcn into thc hands ol his rival
!bn azZubayr in ordcr to cnablc thc laithlul
to makc thc pilgrimagc to Jcrusalcm in placc ol
Mccca, lrom which pilgrims wcrc tcmporarily
barrcd. Tc rock is, in lact, sacrcd to Muslims
lor thrcc rcasons: in mcmory ol Abraham, who
bctook himscll to Mount Moriah to sacricc
his son, bccausc ol Solomons tcmplc, whosc
Holy ol Holics had stood upon this spot,
3
and
bccausc thc Prophct Muammad had bccn
carricd thcrc on his night journcy. Tcrc is a
cavc bcncath thc rock, which lcads to a kind ol
wcll opcning out towards thc top, according to
a popular tradition, it was lrom this cavc and
through this wcll that thc Prophct asccndcd to
thc sky, and this is, in any casc, a striking piccc
ol symbolism: thc cavc undcr thc rock is likc thc
hcart or inncrmost conscicncc ol man, joincd
by thc hcavcnly ray to thc highcr worlds.
Tc omc ol thc Rock, dcsigncd to shcl
tcr this sacrcd sitc as il bcncath a vast canopy,
is architccturally quitc uniquc in thc art ol !s
lam and is dircctly linkcd to thc stylc ol thc
8yzantinc sanctuary with a ccntral cupola and
4. Thc omc ol thc Rock vicwcd lrom thc southwcst, with thc Mount ol livcs in thc background
10 Te Birth of Islamic Art
an octagonal dcambulatory, it has cvcn thc
ap pcarancc ol bcing thc logical and dcnitivc
out comc ol an cntirc cvolution ol Roman and
8yzantinc architccturc, ol which various cx
amplcs, not vastly dicrcnt lrom this, arc to bc
lound in thc arca ol Palcstinc.
4
8ut it was only
in a Muslim climatc that this typc ol building
could asscrt itscll in all its Platonic purity.
arly buildings ol thc samc typc wcrc madc
somcwhat morc complicatcd by static consid
crations and liturgical rcquircmcnts, thc nccd
to strcngthcn thc supports ol thc cupola and to
cxtcnd thc inncr spacc lor thc choir mcant that
thc various gco mctrical clcmcnts comprising
thc building had all to bc blcndcd in a singlc
body, whcrcas thc Mus lim sanctuary owcs all its
bcauty to thc contrasting articulation ol thcsc
samc clcmcnts, namcly thc hcmisphcrc ol thc
cupola on its circular drum and thc crystallinc
octagon that surrounds it. Tc cupola is madc
ol a doublc casing in wood, covcrcd with a laycr
ol gildcd mctal, in such a way that thcrc is no
nccd lor clumsy buttrcsscs, it has a morc soar
ing swccp than 8yzantinc cupolas. nc lccls
Figurc 1. Scction ol Santa Constanza in Romc
Figurc 2. Plan ol Saint \italis in Ravcnna Figurc 3. Plan ol thc Church ol thc Asccnsion in Jcrusalcm
Te Dome of the Rock 11
that hcrc lor thc rst timc a cupola acquircs all
thc radiant strcngth that is charac tcristic ol so
much !slamic architccturc. Tc walls ol thc oc
tagon, now ornamcntcd with Turkish ccramic
tilcs, wcrc lormcrly covcrcd with mosaics. Four
portals opcn out onto thc lour cardinal points,
thus placing thc building sym bolically at thc
ccntcr ol thc world.
Tc intcrior ol thc sanctuary lccls morc
8yzantinc or Roman than thc cxtcrior, bccausc
ol thc usc ol antiquc columns partly linkcd with
architravcs. Tc light lalls lrom abovc across thc
drum ol thc cupola, which is adorncd with mo
saics on a gold ground, and illuminatcs thc sa
crcd rock. Tc rock is surroundcd by lour pillars
and twclvc columns which support thc drum
and invitc ritual circumambulation. A sccond,
and largcr, scrics ol pillars and columns is ar
rangcd octagonally and in such a way that thc
spacc rcmains oricntatcd cvcry whcrc towards
thc ccntcr, without bcing drawn into thc circu
lar movcmcnt. Tc sccrct ol this transmutation
ol movcmcnt into rcposc lics in thc lact that thc
bascs ol all thc pillars arc situatcd on thc intcr
sccting points ol a starshapcd polygon lormcd
by two squarcs traccd in thc ccntcr circlc. Tc
rcsult is that thc various groups ol pillars mark
out squarc or rcctangular arcas, whosc propor
tions arc all govcrncd by thc corrcspondcncc
which cxists bctwccn thc sidcs ol a squarc and
its diagonal, or, again, bctwccn thc diamctcr ol
thc circlc inscribcd within a squarc and thc di
amctcr ol thc circlc outsidc it, this corrcspon
dcncc cannot bc cxprcsscd in wholc numbcrs,
but it is proloundly organic. Tus, thc vcry
plan ol thc sanctuary cxprcsscs thc synthcsis
ol thc circlc and thc squarc, movcmcnt and rc
posc, timc and spacc, and this synthcsis is al
rcady cxprcsscd, in thc most striking lashion, by
thc cxtcrior shapc ol thc building in which thc
cclcstial sphcrc ol thc domc marrics thc
carthly crystal ol thc octagon.
5
Figurc 5. Plan ol thc omc ol thc Rock Figurc 6. Gcomctrical schcmc ol thc omc ol thc Rock
Figurc 4. Pcrspcctivc ol thc omc ol thc Rock
12 Te Birth of Islamic Art
Top: 5. !ntcrior ol thc omc ol thc Rock
Bottom: 6. omc ol thc Rock. \icw ol thc Sacrcd Rock, takcn lrom thc castcrn sidc ol thc gallcry at thc basc ol thc omc
Te Umayyads 13
!t is possiblc, and cvcn likcly, that thc plan
bascd on a starshapcd polygon is a 8yzantinc
lcgacy which, in its turn, has a Platonic and
Pytha gorcan antcccdcnt in antiquity. Tc star
shapcd, cightpointcd polygon was to play a
lundamcntal rolc in Muslim art and would ap
pcar not only in architcctural art but also in dcc
orativc motils. !n practicc, thc usc ol thcmatic
planning ol this kind cnablcd an architcctural
plan to bc transposcd lrom onc scalc to anothcr
without rccoursc to vcry cxact units ol mca
surcmcnt. At thc samc timc, this application to
architccturc ol a qualitativcand not a purcly
quantitativcgcomctry, has a spccu lativc, and
cvcn contcmplativc, aspcct, it is thc art ol com
bining thc multiplc and thc divcrsc with unity.
!l prool wcrc ncccssary lor thc continuation ol
an clcmcnt ol ancicnt gnosis in !slamic art, it is
hcrc that it is to bc lound.
Tcrc is no doubt that thc buildcrs ol thc
omc ol thc Rock saw in it an imagc ol thc
spiritual ccntcr ol thc world, grantcd that this
ccntcr is symbolizcd, lor Muslims, by thc Kaba,
ncvcr thclcss Jcrusalcm, and Mount Moriah
in parti cular, has always bccn considcrcd as
an avatar ol this samc ccntcr and also as thc
placc whcrc thc dccisivc cvcnts at thc cnd ol
timc would unlold. Tc drum ol thc cupola is
hcld up by lour pillars and twclvc columns, and
thc dcambulatory has cight pillars and sixtccn
columns, making a total ol lorty supports,
which corrcsponds to thc numbcr ol saints
who, according to a saying ol thc Prophct,
constitutc thc spiritual pillars ol thc world in
cvcry agc. Tc arrangcmcnt ol thc lour portals
lacing thc lour cardinal points ol spacc has bccn
mcntioncd alrcady.
!t rcmains to say a lcw words about thc
mosaics which adorn thc intcrior ol thc drum ol
thc domc. Thcsc consist ol ornamcnts ol vincs,
stylizcd and cnrichcd with jcwcls and diadcms,
in which Sasanid and 8yzantinc cmblcms can
bc disccrncd, in allusion, pcrhaps, to !slams
uni vcrsal cmpirc. This asscmbly ol plants and
jcwcls has somcthing spccilically Asiatic about
it, it has ccrtain analogics with thc sacrcd
ornamcnts ol Hinduism and 8uddhism, at thc
samc timc, thcy rcmind us ol thc garlands which
thc ancicnt Arabs uscd to hang on sanctuarics
as ollcrings.
Tc mosaicworkcrs had undoubtcdly bccn
traincd in a Syrian8yzantinc school. !t should
bc notcd, howcvcr, that thc dccorations ol thc
omc ol thc Rock includc no rcprcscntations
ol animatc bcings, and this docs nothing to
support thc thcsis ol ccrtain oricntalists that
!slam did not rcjcct anthropomorphic imagcs
until a much latcr agc.
Takcn as a wholc, thc omc ol thc Rock
amply dcmonstratcs thc mcctingpoint bc
twccn 8yzantinc and nasccnt !slamic art, and
this mcct ing was madc possiblc by virtuc ol thc
Platonic clcmcnt inhcrcnt in 8yzantinc art, by
this, wc mcan a ccrtain aspcct ol contcmplativc
wisdom, which intcgratcs quitc naturally with
thc !slamic pcrspcctivc oricntcd on thc unity ol
God both transccndcnt and immancnt.
3 The Umayyads
Tc Umayyad pcriod (661750) produccd
a lrankly prolanc and worldly art, thc likc ol
which was ncvcr to bc sccn again on !slamic
soil whcrc thcrc is normally no distinction
bctwccn thc sacrcd and thc sccular cxccpt in thc
Figurc 7. mblcms and jcwcls in thc mosaics ol thc omc ol thc Rock
14 Te Birth of Islamic Art
usc to which works ol art arc put, and not in
thcir lorms, a housc is built in a stylc in no way
dicring lrom a mosquc. Tis worldly art ol
thc Umayyads can bc cxplaincd by thc lact that
!slamic art at this pcriod was still in thc proccss
ol lormation, and by thc sovcrcigns nccd to
surround thcmsclvcs with a ccrtain ostcn tatious
display that would not lall bchind that ol thcir
prcdcccssors. 8ut thc works ol art that adorn
thc hunting pavilions or thc wintcr rcsidcnccs
ol thc Umayyad princcs arc not only cclcctic
paint ings in thc Hcllcnistic modc, Sasanid or
Coptic sculpturc, and Roman mosaicsbut
arc cxamplcs ol actual paganism, cvcn without
judging thcm according to thc standards and
cxamplc ol thc Prophcts Companions. Tc
sight ol thcsc sccncs ol hunting and bathing,
thosc navcly opulcnt statucs ol dancing
girls and acrobats and c gics ol triumphant
sultans, would havc llcd somconc likc thc
Caliph Umar with holy angcr. !n lact thc
phcnomcnon ncvcr ccascs to astonish, il only
bccausc it was all so closc to thc bcginnings
ol !slam and camc about in thc cntouragc ol
thc vcry pcoplc who should havc bccn !slams
protcctors and guarantors. 8ut thc wcllknown
worldlincss ol thc Umayyad princcs can bc
cxplaincd in part by thc rolc which history
assigncd to thcm, thcy rulcd undcr thc sign ol
an irrcsistiblc sccularization ol thc ummah, thc
Muslim community as a collcctivc organism.
Tc rst lour Caliphs ol !slam, thc wcll guidcd
(ar-rshidn) had still bccn ablc to rulc by thcir
spiritual prcstigc and thc support ol thc clitc
composcd ol thc Prophcts lormcr Companions
and thcir immcdiatc dcsccndants, that is, thcrc
still cxistcd a gcnuinc !slamic aristocracy,
inucntial cnough to maintain ordcr in thc
cmpirc and inscparablc lrom thc powcr at
thc ccntcr. 8ut mattcrs bccamc morc complcx
whcn a largc part ol thc conqucrcd populations
acccptcd !slam and thus acquircd a ccrtain
autonomy, at thc samc timc as thc 8cdouin
tribcs, madc strong by thc military scrviccs thcy
had pcrlormcd, acquircd a gradual asccndancy
ovcr thc old clitc.
!slams involvcmcnt in thc social ordcr, and
thc rcsultant wcakcning ol thc powcr ol thc
Cali phatc, wcrc at thc root ol thc tragic cvcnts
which causcd thc dcaths ol thc third and lourth
Caliphs. Uthmn, thc third Caliph, had startcd
to rcinlorcc thc old Mcccan aristocracy inspircd
by cxamplcs givcn by thc Prophct himscll,
6
Al, thc lourth Caliph, was caught bctwccn
this Mcccan party, morc Arab than Muslim,
and an opposing movcmcnt with morc or
lcss Utopian aims, which was dcmanding thc
rcinstitution ol a purcly spiritual hicrarchy.
Ccrtain vacillations on thc part ol this Caliph,
who was a grcat warrior and a grcat saint, can
bc cxplaincd only by this dilcmma: whcthcr to
rulc by mcans ol tribal loyaltics which !slam
had supcrscdcd in thc namc ol thc unity ol all
bclicvcrs, or to rulc inccctually. Tc Umay yads,
lor thcir part, carricd on thc policy ol Uthmn,
thcir kinsman, and pushcd it cvcn larthcr by
opposing thc Alids, thcir rivals, that is, thcy
rclicd opcnly on tribal bonds, and consc qucntly
chcrishcd whatcvcr linkcd thcm to thcir Arab
lorbcars: poctry on 8cdouin thcmcs, horsc
manship, and hunting. According to Muslim
historians, who cannot on thc wholc lorgivc thc
Umayyads, cxccpt lor ccrtain vcry pious sovcr
cigns likc Umar !!, thcsc princcs lovcd winc,
Figurc 8. Vingcd horsc lrom Khirbat alMaljar
Mshatt 15
dancing, and music and carcd nothing lor thc
Sunnah ol thc Prophct.
!n any casc, thc lollowing must bc bornc
in mind. ncc !slam had gonc bcyond its
country ol origin, it was propagatcd by mcans
vastly dillcrcnt lrom thosc which charactcrizcd
thc carly growth ol Christianity. Christianity
cstablishcd itscll in a world ol social and political
homogcncity, thc Roman cmpirc, by pcnctrating
it gradually through hiddcn channcls, as it wcrc,
until thc momcnt whcn thc Christian church
undcr Constantinc camc to thc surlacc ol this
world and took it ovcr. !slams advancc, on thc
othcr hand, was lcd by its armics, it had to makc
surc ol thc lronticrs ol its cmpirc bclorc cvcn
assimilating thc populations it had ovcrrun, likc
an army that brcasts thc cncmys strongpoints
and thcn lcavcs thcm bchind to bc rcduccd at
lcisurc. !n lact, victorious !slam rcquircd no morc
ol thc vanquishcd pcoplcs than rccognition ol
its political suprcmacy, it wishcd abovc all to
prcvcnt thcm damaging its community, and
trustcd in thc pcrsuasivc lorcc ol its mcssagc
to convcrt thcm littlc by littlc. For this rcason,
thcrc was incvitably a momcnt, during thc lirst
ccnturics ol thc Hcgira, whcn thc nonMuslim,
or only supcrlicially !slamicizcd clcmcnts stood
out likc vast islands in thc intcrior ol thc !slamic
world, and this accounts lor such disconccrting
phcnomcna as thc Umayyad courts and ccrtain
Hcllcnistic attitudcs ol mind. According to
cvcry nonsacrcd logic, thc spiritual unity ol
thc world ol !slam should havc split apart, and
yct it did not. 8ut thc sccularization ol politics
drovc thc spiritual lorccs into anonymity, thc
last surviving Companions ol thc Prophct
withdrcw cvcr morc lrom political lilc, togcthcr
with thcir spiritual hcirs. !n compcnsation,
thcir inllucncc pcnctratcd to popular lcvcls, and
it was as a rcsult ol this that thc !slamicization
ol thc world conqucrcd by thc Arabs was to bc
complctcd.
Somcthing analogous camc about in thc
domain ol art, in thc surroundings ol princcly
palaccs, it was craltsmanship in its most humblc
lorm that was thc rst to bc !slamicizcd, and
madc Arab too, in a scnsc that rcmains to bc
dcncd.
4 Mshatt
Qar alayr, Quayr Amra, Khirbat al
Ma(ar, and Mshatt arc among thc namcs ol
country mansions built by thc Umayyads on thc
cdgc ol thc dcscrt as dwcllings during thc wct
scason, and archacology has largcly succccdcd
in rcstoring thcm. Tc architccturc ol thcsc man
sions rccalls both Roman castra and Sasanid
palaccs. Tcrc is, noncthclcss, a ncw clcmcnt
which alrcady bcspcaks !slamic art in thc
dctail and particularly in thc ornamcntation,
whcrc gcomctrical and rhythmic motils, likc
intcrlaccmcnt and mcandcrs in swastikas,
cmcrgc gradually lrom convcntionally classical
compositions, instcad ol continuing to bc
simplc bordcrs, thcy bccomc thc main thcmc.
Tc most notablc work ol prolanc Umay
yad art is indisputably thc sculpturcd laadc ol
thc mansion ol Mshatt,
7
a wintcr rcsidcncc
which, according to cvcry indication, was aban
doncd bclorc bcing nishcd, this allows us to
datc it towards thc cnd ol Umayyad rulc (750).
!l architccturc likc thc omc ol thc Rock prc
supposcs an cntirc urban culturc, thc dcor ol
Mshatt sccms to cxprcss thc tastc ol an Arab
princc ol 8cdouin origins, dcspitc all thc dctails
ol GrccoRoman dcrivation. !t is as il thc Arab
lord who ordcrcd this work had shown thc chicl
artist somc rich brocadc or Sasanid carpct with
symmctrically rcpcatcd motils and askcd him
to rcproducc it in stonc vc mctcrs high and
lortythrcc mctcrs broad. 8ut that is to spcak in
cuphcmisms, what wc mcan is simply this: thc
ovcrall composition ol this sculptcd dcor, with
its grcat zigzag molding and its intcrcalatcd ro
scttcs, somc round and somc octagonal, is at thc
lurthcst possiblc rcmovc lrom thc architcctural
ratio ol classic Grcck or Latin art, it is barbaric,
and all thc morc strikingly so bccausc thc clas
sical clcmcnts it cmploys arc uscd contrary to
thcir original rolc. Tus, lor cxamplc, thc grcat
16 Te Birth of Islamic Art
7. Scction lrom thc laadc ol thc castlc ol Mshatt, in thc Staatlichc Musccn, 8crlin
Mshatt 17
zigzag molding with its acanthus motil accts
thc lorm ol a classical cornicc, an csscntially
static clcmcnt intcndcd to support a rool, in thc
Mshatt contcxt, it takcs on a dynamic or rhyth
mic rolc, as a dccorativc clcmcnt, it is no dicr
cnt lrom a stitchcd lcathcr thong on a 8cdouin
saddlccovcr, in thc samc way that thc roscttcs
which go with it, and which arc no doubt dc
rivcd lrom thc roscttcs adorning ccilingpancls,
pcrhaps stand lor thc littlc ornamcntal bclls. All
this sculptcd carpctry has morc to do with thc
culturc ol thc tcnt than with architccturc prop
cr. 8csidcs, thc Arabs, likc all nomads, had littlc
lccling lor thc con vcntions ol architccturc, on
thc contrary, thcy valucd thc minor arts, trin
kcts, cxpcnsivcly dccor atcd wcapons and, abovc
all, rich tcxtilcs which could bc carricd on thcir
travcls and hung on thc walls ol thcir tcnts. Sccn
lrom alar, thc laadc ol Mshatt looks likc onc
ol thosc cnclosurcs, madc by hanging carpcts,
which surroundcd thc group ol royal tcnts in a
military camp.
Tc dctails ol ornamcntation can, as wc
said, bc linkcd morc or lcss dircctly to thc Hcl
lcnic hcritagc, in lact, onc nds thc vinc and
acanthus motils, as wcll as all thc lantastic ani
mals ol anti quity, such as thc gryphon and thc
wingcd horsc.
8
8ut a vicw ol thc wholc immc
diatcly caccs thc Hcllcnic rcminisccnccs, and
what stands out is a rhythmic and luxuriant
outsprcading ol lorms, which brings us closcr
to !ndia than Grcccc. !t is Asia too, and not
uropc, that is rccallcd by thcsc pairs ol lac
ing bcasts drinking lrom vascs, out ol which
risc climbing vincbranchcs, thcrc is nothing in
thc 8yzantinc art ol thc pcriod that is dircctly
comparablc. Ccrtain ornamcntal motils appcar
to point to Coptic art and othcrs to thc castcrn
conncs ol !ran, whcrc Hcllcnic inucncc com
bincd with an Asiatic lcgacy. !t is cvcn hardcr
to dccidc what this lantastic ora and launa
mcant to thc artists and thcir patrons, lor orna
mcntal art is a kind ol thrcshold bctwccn what
is conscious and what is unconscious, whcrc an
cicnt symbols lall into a latcnt statc lrom which
thcy awakc only latcr whcn somc ncw spiritual
doctrinc coincidcs with thcir mcaning. !n all
this tissuc ol vincs pcoplcd with bcasts, mythi
cal and rcal, thcrc is a kind ol ionysiac rcmi
nisccncc, in thc broad scnsc ol thc word, and
thcrc is nothing paradoxical in this, lor 8acchic
poctry was also pcrpctuatcd in thc world ol
!slam, and oltcn took on a spiritual signicancc.
Morcovcr, in Christian art, thc vinc pcoplcd
with all sorts ol animatc crcaturcs was idcnti
cd with Christ.
Figurc 9. Plan ol Mshatt
8. Triangular ornamcnt lrom Tuarcg lcathcrwork
18 Te Birth of Islamic Art
Thc art ol Mshatt is not yct !slamic art. !t is
likc a prolongation, into thc world ol !slam and
in a lorm alrcady Arabicizcd, ol thc Alcxandrian
lcgacy, and thc Umayyad cmpirc did indccd
almost coincidc with thc Grcco!ranian cmpirc
loundcd a thousand ycars carlicr by Alcxandcr
thc Grcat, thc twohorncd (dhul-qarnayn).
9
Howcvcr, thc art ol Mshatt docs, in a way,
anticipatc monumcntal !slamic art, particu
larly in combining dicrcnt plancs, or dcgrccs,
ol dcor, thc big rclicl ol zigzag moldings and
roscttcs is madc to bc sccn lrom a distancc,
whcrcas thc sculpturcs in vcgctal and zoomor
phic lorms arc thcn no morc than an iridcsccnt
tissuc ol light and shadows, it is on approaching
thcm that thcy bccomc translormcd into living
shapcs. Tc manncr in which thc dccorativc
trianglcs and gcomctrical roscttcs arc supcrim
poscd on thc laccts ol thc bastion towcrs again
lorcshadows thc !slamic art ol thc succccding
ccnturics and, in particular, Scljuk art.
5 The Great Umayyad Mosque
at Damascus
Art ncvcr crcatcs ex nihilo. !ts originality lics
in thc synthcsis ol prccxisting clcmcnts. Thus,
thc sacrcd architccturc ol !slam was born on thc
day whcn succcss was achicvcd in crcating, not
ncw lorms ol pillars and archcs, but a ncw kind
ol spacc conlormablc to !slamic worship.
Lct us comparc thc liturgical plan ol a
church with that ol a mosquc. A church has a
sacramcntal midpoint, thc altar, towards which
cvcrything convcrgcs, thc choir is thc sanctuary
shcltcring thc altar, and thc navc is likc a path
lcading lrom thc outcr world towards this sanc
tuary, whcn thc church is dividcd into narthcx,
navc, and choir, it bcspcaks a hicrarchy ol ap
proach to thc sacrcd, and thc light which lalls,
in a basilicastylc church, lrom thc windows
ol thc choir and thc skylights ol thc middlc
navc, acccntuatcs this movcmcnt and hicrarchy.
8ut thc mosquc has no sacrcd ccntcr within its
walls, thc praycrnichc (mirb) is thcrc simply
to indicatc thc dircction (qiblah) ol Mccca, and
to shcltcr thc imm who lcads thc communal
praycrs standing in lront ol thc laithlul, whosc
ranks arc sprcad out in brcadth rathcr than bc
ing rangcd in dcpth, thc spacc within a mosquc
is likc a scgmcnt ol onc ol thc innumcr ablc
conccntric circlcs surrounding thc sanctuary at
Mccca.
Vhcn Muslims took ovcr somc Christian
basilica, as happcncd occasionally in Syria,
10
thcy translormcd its lcngthwisc axis into a
transvcrsc onc, and this changc was cnlorccd
in any casc by its rcoricntation. Christian
churchcs wcrc oricn tatcd on thc cast, whcrcas
Mccca lay to thc south lrom Syria. nc rcsult
ol this changc ol dircction was to givc thc ar
cadcs scparating thc various navcs an cntircly
ncw lccling, instcad ol lcading thc cyc into
thc dccp intcrior in thc dircction ol thc choir,
thcy cross thc oratory lrontally and bring thc
cyc to rcst, in accordancc with thc csscntially
static and nondynamic conccption ol spacc, in
thc statc ol cquilibrium and rcposc that !slamic
architccturc cxprcsscs in all its lorms.
!n a ccrtain scnsc, thc sacrcd architccturc ol
Christianity rcccts timc in thc lorm ol spacc,
as wc havc alrcady pointcd out in spcaking ol
oricnt ation. Tc liturgical axis ol a church is
Figurc 10. Schcmc ol a Christian basilica sccn lrom insidc
Opposite: 9. astcrn part ol thc praycr hall ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus, thc shrinc on thc lclt
sidc ol thc picturc contains St. John thc 8aptists hcad. Thc uppcr arcadcs havc bccn rcconstructcd altcr a lirc
Te Great Umayyad Mosque at Damascus 19
20 Te Birth of Islamic Art
normally xcd on thc spring cquinox, that is,
thc o ciating pricst and thc congrcgation lacc
that point on thc horizon whcrc thc sun, symbol
ol thc riscn Christ, asccnds at astcr. Tis
point is thcrclorc in rcality a cyclic momcnt, a
momcnt which somchow touchcs on ctcrnity,
and thc cntirc liturgical arrangcmcnt ol thc
church, with its division into cast, wcst,
midday and midnight, accordingly rcccts
cyclic or tcmporal mcasurcmcnts.
11
For thc
Latin Church ol our own day to havc bccn ablc
to lorgct this symbolism, which is ol thc most
cvidcnt kind, it must havc articially dissociatcd
thc lundamcntal data ol spacc lrom thosc ol
timc, thc ordinary run ol mcn wcrc lormcrly
wcll awarc that timc is mcasurcd by thc motions
ol hcavcn.
Tc sacrcd architccturc ol !slam docs not
rccct thc mcasurcmcnt ol timc, oricntatcd as
it is on a tcrrcstrial ccntcr. Tc spacc, ol which it
communicatcs thc cxpcricncc, is as il rcabsorbcd
into thc ubiquity ol thc prcscnt momcnt, it
docs not bcckon thc cyc in a spccic dircction,
it sug gcsts no tcnsion or antinomy as bctwccn
thc hcrcbclow and thc bcyond, or bctwccn
carth and hcavcn, it posscsscs all its lullncss in
cvcry placc. Tis is particularly cvidcnt in thc
socallcd pcristylc mosqucs, which arc built
on thc modcl ol thc rst mosquc at Mcdina.
Tis rcally consistcd ol nothing morc than
thc domcstic courtyard onto which opcncd out
thc vcry simplc dwcllings ol thc Prophct and
his lamily. Against thc wall which boundcd
this courtyard about 100 cubits squarc, on thc
sidc lacing Mccca, a shcltcr had bccn built
with a rool ol branchcs and bcatcn carth hcld
up by palmtrunks likc pillars. At thc timc ol
communal praycrs, bclicvcrs who could nd no
placc undcr this rool praycd in thc courtyard. A
kind ol gallcry, thc uah, was built against thc
oppositc wall, it scrvcd as a shcltcr lor thc poorcr
Companions ol thc Prophct, and onc can scc
in it thc origin ol thc gallcrics or porticos that
surround thc courtyards ol mosqucs. According
to this modcl, mosqucs with a horizontal rool
gcncrally opcn onto a court yard which is part ol
thc liturgical arca, and which ncarly always has
a lountain whcrc thc laithlul can makc thcir
ablutions bclorc pcrlorming thc prc scribcd
praycrs. Tc roolcd oratory can bc morc or lcss
cxtcndcd, it can contain a varying rank ol pillars
without changing its quality. Tc consc cratcd
clcmcnt, il onc may so dcscribc it, is thc ground
itscll, thc cntirc groundspacc ol thc mosquc, it
is usually covcrcd with matting or carpcts, and
thc bclicvcr takcs o his shocs bclorc stcpping
onto it. Tc ritual praycr involvcs pro strations,
in which thc lorchcad touchcs thc ground, and
a sitting position on thc ground itscll, which is
thc normal position ol rcst and contcm plation.
Figurc 11. Schcmc ol thc oricntation ol a church
Figurc 12. Plan ol thc Mosquc ol thc Prophct in Mcdina
Te Great Umayyad Mosque at Damascus 21
Tc intcrior ol a mosquc is madc to bc sccn
lrom this position, which amounts to saying
that it rclatcs to thc carth and that its various
com poncntspillars, columns, and arcadcs
arc distributcd in such a way as to makc cach
spot a ccntcr su cicnt to itscll.
Tc Grcat Mosquc ol amascus built
bctwccn 706 and 715 A.. by thc Umayyad
Caliph alVald, is thc rst to transposc
thc modcl ol thc old Mcdina mosquc into
monumcntal lorms. Tis Caliph also rcbuilt thc
mosquc ol thc Prophct at Mcdina, and whcn
hc had thc modcst huts ol raw brick, whcrc thc
Prophct and his wivcs had livcd, torn down in
ordcr to includc thcir sitcs in thc ncw cdicc,
thc pcoplc ol Mcdina wcpt bittcr tcars. Ccrtain
ol thcm accuscd thc Caliph ol building not
in thc stylc ol mosqucs, but ol churchcs. Tc
triumphal Umayyad stylc did in lact contrast
with thc simplicity and sobricty ol primitivc
!slam, howcvcr, lrom thc political point ol
vicw, alVald was right to put all thc artistic
and tcchnical skill ol his agc at thc scrvicc ol
!slam. History has not provcd him wrong, lor
Umayyad ostcntation was unablc to suocatc
thc spirit ol povcrty inhcrcnt in !slam, in what
lollowcd, !slam was ablc to achicvc a pcrlcct
balancc bctwccn bcautywhich is itscll
richncssand simplicity.
Tc Grcat Mosquc ol amascus covcrs a
rcctanglc 160 by 100 mctcrs lormcd by thc prc
cinct walls ol an ancicnt Hcllcnic tcmplc. Tc
lact that it rcplaccd a church ol St. John thc
8aptistits lamous rclic, thc 8aptists hcad, is
kcpt in thc mosquchas givcn risc to a thcory
that thc mosquc was no morc than a translor
mation ol this church, but thcrc is nothing to
this, lor thcrc was ncvcr a church at amascus
ol such vast dimcnsions, bcsidcs, all thc com
poncnt clcmcnts ol thc mosquc arc obviously
in proportion.
Trcc lincs ol arcadcs arc sct parallcl to thc
rcar wall, on two lcvcls, with largc lowcr bays
and smallcr paircd bays abovc. Tcsc arcadcs
lorm, as it wcrc, thrcc navcs covcrcd by long
rools with doublc slopcs. Tis sct ol thrcc navcs
is rcmini sccnt ol a basilica but, unlikc a basilical
schcma, thc middlc navc is not clcvatcd abovc
Figurc 13. Plan ol thc Grcat Mosquc at amascus
22 Te Birth of Islamic Art
10. Gcncral vicw ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus
11. Courtyard and porticos ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus, takcn lrom thc southwcst corncr
Te Great Umayyad Mosque at Damascus 23
thc lcvcl ol thc two othcrs and has no skylights
which in a basilica would pour light into thc
intcrior, thc light cntcrs latcrally through thc
arcadcs opcning onto thc courtyard.
Tc courtyard is surroundcd by porticos, thc
arcadcs ol which arc also on two lcvcls and havc
thc samc lorm as thosc supporting thc rool ol
thc oratory. Tis rcpctition ol onc and thc samc
architcctural dcvicc is translormcd into rhythm
by thc oncinthrcc altcrnation ol pillars and
columns.
Tc most 8yzantinc, and cvcn Roman,
part ol thc building consists ol a sort ol transcpt,
which cuts across thc oratorys navcs and acccntu
atcs thc axis ol thc mirb by linking it back
to thc courtyard. A tall cupola on an octagonal
drum, thc omc ol thc aglc, surmounts
this transcpt at its midpoint. Tcrc havc bccn
attcmpts to cxplain thc lrankly basilical aspcct
ol this scction ol thc building as a translcrcncc
ol !mpcrial Roman symbolism to thc caliphatc
ol thc Umayyads. !t is possiblc, in lact, that thc
Figurc 14. Scction ol thc Grcat Mosquc at amascus
Figurc 15. Scction ol thc Grcat Mosquc at amascus
24 Te Birth of Islamic Art
Te Great Umayyad Mosque at Damascus 25
cupola marks thc spot whcrc thc Caliph stood
lor Friday praycrs or at thc grcat lcstivals. 8ut
thc architcctural cmphasis hcrc can, in any casc,
bc cxplaincd by thc nccd to indicatc thc qiblah
and to ccho thc mirb on thc inncr laadc ol
thc mosquc which ovcrlooks thc courtyard.
As lor thc lorm ol thc mirb itscll, which
is thought to havc bccn introduccd into mosquc
architccturc at thc timc ol alVald, it is dc
nitcly not thc cquivalcnt ol thc impcrial cxcdra.
!t is bcttcr to comparc it to thc apsc ol Chris
tian churchcs, without ncccssarily thinking ol it
as a borrowing, lor thc sacrcd nichc has a morc
gcncral and ancicnt origin, which wc shall dis
cuss latcr (scc Chaptcr \, 2).
Tcrc arc othcr liturgical clcmcnts which
rst appcar during this pcriod: thc pulpit
(minbar) in thc lorm ol a stcppcd thronc, thc
prototypc ol which was a sort ol stool uscd by
thc Prophct to prcach to thc laithlul gathcrcd
togcthcr in thc Mcdina mosquc, and thc
minarct which is uscd lor thc call to praycr,
at thc bcginning ol !slam, thc muczzin callcd
lrom a rool or rock. Tc Grcat Mosquc ol
amascus had thrcc minarcts, two wcrc simply
thc corncr towcrs ol thc ancicnt GrccoRoman
temenos, thc third, crcctcd by alVald, riscs to
thc north sidc ol thc courtyard, along thc axis
ol thc mirb.
Tc walls ol thc mosquc wcrc adorncd
with mosaics, ol which only lragmcnts survivc,
thcy rcprcscnt lantastic towns and palaccs, sur
roundcd by owcrs and bordcrcd by rivcrs, all
composcd with grcat mastcry ol dcsign and
color, which bcars witncss to thc survival ol a
school ol 8yzantinc art in thc Syria ol thc Umay
yads. Tis was to cnjoy no dircct continuity in
thc world ol !slam, whcrc mosaics would soon
bc rcplaccd by othcr tcchniqucs morc suitablc to
thc gcomctric stylc ol dcor, mosaics with thcir
lragmcntcd iridcsccnt surlaccs, which arc partly
transparcnt, bcstow somcthing incorporcal and
unccrtain on thc walls thcy covcr, ccramic tilcs
on thc othcr hand, so typical ol !slamic art dur
ing thc lollowing ccnturics, dcnc thc surlaccs
at thc samc timc as making thcm luminous. Tc
signicancc ol thc mosaics ol amascus is un
known, thcy havc bccn intcrprctcd by somc pcr
Opposite: 12. \icw ol thc 8ridc (al-Arous) minarct lrom thc courtyard ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus
13. Thc omc ol thc aglc abovc thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus
26 Te Birth of Islamic Art
sons as rcprcscnting thc Koranic Paradisc, and
by othcrs as alluding to thc towns conqucrcd
by !slam, but onc thing is ccrtain: nowhcrc in
thcsc stylizcd landscapcs is thcrc a human or
animal gurc, which is an indircct prool ol thc
traditional origin ol aniconism in !slam.
8ut what is ol morc particular intcrcst
hcrc is thc architcctural spacc, in thc way that
it stands lrom thc largcly intact structurc ol
thc building. Tis is not spacc loldcd back on
itscll, as in a Roman or 8yzantinc church, thc
vast oratory opcns onto thc courtyard, and
thc daylight oods in lrom thc lront, hardly
impcdcd by thc scrccn ol arcadcs, this spacc
has nothing in com mon with a GrccoRoman
pcristylc architccturc, whosc cntirc rcality is
that ol thc walls, columns, and architravcs. Tc
truc aim ol !slamic architcc turc is spacc as such,
in its undicrcntiatcd plcnitudc. Tc majcstic
swccp ol thc arcadcswhich arc not simplc
hallcirclcs but swcll gcntly into horscshoc
lormis cnough to makc this quality manilcst.
!t is not lor nothing that thc Arabic namc
lor thc arcadc, rawq (riwq in thc plural),
has bccomc synonymous with thc bcautilul,
gracclul, and purc, a simplc arcadc built in har
monious proportions has thc virtuc ol translorm
ing spacc lrom a purcly quantitativc rcality into
a qualitativc onc. And it is wcll known that
!slamic architccturc dcvclopcd a grcat varicty
ol lorms ol arch, which wcrc alrcady apparcnt
in Umayyad architccturc and two ol which arc
thc most typical: thc horscshoc arch, thc most
pcrlcct cxprcssion ol which is in Maghrib art,
and thc kccl arch which typics Pcrsian art.
8oth thcsc combinc thc two qualitics ol static
rcposc and asccnding lightncss. Tc Pcrsian
arch is both gcncrous and gracclul, it riscs quitc
cortlcssly, likc thc still amc ol an oillamp
shcltcrcd lrom thc wind, thc Maghrib arch, on
thc othcr hand, is charactcrizcd by thc brcadth
ol its cxpansc, which is lrcqucntly cncloscd in
a rcctangular lramc work, to producc a synthcsis
ol stability and abundancc.
14. Mosaic on thc walls ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus
Figurc 16. Horscshoc arch and kccl arch
Te Great Umayyad Mosque at Damascus 27
17. xamplc ol a kccl arch: cntrancc to thc Shaykh LulAllh Mosquc,
!lahn, Pcrsia
15. Archcs on thc northcrn sidc ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus
16. xamplc ol a horscshoc arch: courtyard ol thc 8cn Ysul Madrasah,
Marrakcsh, Morocco
Notcs to Chaptcr !!
1. Apparcntly Christians considcrcd thc sitc ol thc dc
stroycd tcmplc accurscd.
2. According to thc 8yzantinc historian utychius, Umar
was visiting thc atrium ol thc Church ol thc Holy Scpul
chcr in thc company ol thc patriarch Sophronius, whcn
thc timc lor praycr camc. Hc told thc patriarch, ! wish to
pray, and was told, Pray hcrc. 8ut Umar rcluscd, and
was lcd to thc adjaccnt basilica, to pray thcrc. Again hc
dcclincd, and wcnt out lrom thc basilica towards thc ast,
and praycd alonc. Hc thcn cxplaincd that hc had wishcd
to lorcstall thc Muslims conscating thc church, on thc
prctcxt that Umar had praycd thcrc, and turning it into
a mosquc.
3. Ccrtain archacologists maintain that it was not thc
Holy ol Holics but thc altar lor burnt ocrings that oc
cupicd this sitc, but thc boundary ol thc platcau, whcrc
thc omc ol thc Rock stands today, argucs against a sitc
ol thc tcmplc wcst ol this point.
4. Notably thc 8yzantinc Church ol thc Asccnsion on thc
Mount ol livcs and thc Church ol thc Holy Scpulchcr
at Jcrusalcm.
5. !n thc majority ol domcd Muslim buildings, thc octa
gon is placcd as an intcrmcdiary bctwccn thc cupola and
thc cubic basc, which conlcrs on it anothcr spiritual sig
nicancc. !t thcn corrcsponds to thc cight Angcls bcaring
thc divinc thronc.
6. Tc Prophct did not lail to apprcciatc thc political tal
cnts ol his opponcnts among thc Quraysh, such as thosc
ol Ab Sulyn, whcn thcy wcrc uttcrly vanquishcd, hc did
not hcsitatc to cntrust lcading rolcs to thcm.
7. Tis laadc has bccn rcmovcd in its cntircty to thc Kai
scr Fricdrich Muscum in 8crlin.
8. An cpisodc lrom thc lilc ol thc Prophct provcs that
thcsc lantastic or mythological animals playcd a ccrtain
rolc in thc imagination ol thc Arabs: whcn ishah, thc
daughtcr ol Ab 8akr, was promiscd in marriagc to thc
Prophct, shc was still vcry young and had toys, including
somc wingcd horscs madc ol lcathcr. o horscs havc
wings: askcd thc Prophct, smiling, Vhy! shc rcplicd,
You a prophct, and you dont know that Solomons horscs
could y!
9. r: ol two agcs, with thc horn symbolizing a cyclc or
ccntury.
10. Tcy wcrc oltcn contcnt with onc part ol thc church.
11. Tc cxccptions to this norm, in traditional architccturc,
arc cxplicablc in tcrms ol thc tcrrain. Tus, thc basilica ol
St. Pctcrs at Romc has a choir lacing thc wcst, bccausc ol
thc position ol thc apostlcs tomb and thc uncvcn naturc
ol thc ground. !l thc pricst stood bchind thc altar dur
ing thc Mass and laccd thc congrcgation, this was not at
all in ordcr to comc togcthcr with thcm, but in ordcr to
oricntatc himscll.
1 Aniconism
T
hc prohibition ol imagcs in !slam applics,
strictly spcaking, only to thc imagc ol thc
ivinity, it stands, thcrclorc, in thc pcrspcctivc
ol thc dccaloguc, or morc cxactly ol Abrahamic
monothcism, which !slam sccs itscll as rcncw
ing. !n its last manilcstation as in its lirstin
thc timc ol Muammad as in thc agc ol Abra
hammonothcism dircctly opposcs idolatrous
polythcism,
1
so that any plastic rcprcscntation
ol thc divinity is lor !slam, according to a dia
lcctic that is both historical and divinc, thc dis
tinctivc mark ol thc crror which associatcs thc
rclativc with thc Absolutc, or thc crcatcd with
thc Uncrcatcd, by rcducing thc onc to thc lcvcl ol
thc othcr. To dcny idols, or still bcttcr to dcstroy
thcm, is likc translating into concrctc tcrms thc
lundamcntal tcstimony ol !slam, thc lormula l
ilha illa Llh (thcrc is no divinity savc God),
and just as this tcstimony in !slam dominatcs
cvcrything or consumcs cvcrything in thc man
ncr ol a purilying lirc, so also docs thc dcnial ol
idols, whcthcr actual or virtual, tcnd to bccomc
gcncralizcd. Thus it is that portraiturc ol thc
divinc mcsscngcrs (rusul), prophcts (anbiy),
and saints (awliy) is avoidcd, not only bccausc
thcir imagcs could bccomc thc objcct ol idola
trous worship, but also bccausc ol thc rcspcct
inspircd by thcir inimitability, thcy arc thc vicc
rcgcnts ol God on carth, God crcatcd Adam
in His lorm (a saying ol thc Prophct), and this
rcscmblancc ol man to God bccomcs somchow
manilcst in prophcts and saints, without it bc
ing possiblc, cvcn so, to grasp this on thc purcly
corporcal lcvcl, thc still, inanimatc imagc ol a
divinc man could not bc othcr than an cmpty
shcll, an imposturc, an idol.
!n Sunn Arab circlcs, thc rcprcscntation
ol any living bcing is lrowncd upon, bccausc ol
rcspcct lor thc divinc sccrct containcd within
cvcry crcaturc,
2
and il thc prohibition ol imagcs
is not obscrvcd with cqual rigor in all cthnic
groups, it is nonc thc lcss strict lor cvcrything
that lalls within thc liturgical lramcwork ol !s
lam. Aniconismwhich is thc appropriatc tcrm
hcrc, and not iconoclasm
3
bccamc somchow
an inscparablc concomitant ol thc sacrcd, it is
cvcn onc ol thc loundations, il not thc main
loundation, ol thc sacrcd art ol !slam.
This may appcar paradoxical, lor thc normal
loundation ol a sacrcd art is symbolism, and in
a rcligion cxprcssing itscll in anthropomorphic
symbolsthc Koran spcaks ol Gods lacc,
His hands, and thc thronc Hc sits uponthc
rcjcction ol imagcs sccms to strikc at thc vcry
roots ol a visual art dcaling with things divinc.
8ut thcrc is a wholc array ol subtlc compcn
sations which nccd to bc bornc in mind, and
in particular thc lollowing: a sacrcd art is not
ncccssarily madc ol imagcs, cvcn in thc broad
cst scnsc ol thc tcrm, it may bc no morc than
thc quitc silcnt cxtcriorization, as it wcrc, ol a
contcmplativc statc, and in this cascor in this
rcspcctit rcllccts no idcas, but translorms
thc surroundings qualitativcly, by having thcm
sharc in an cquilibrium whosc ccntcr ol gravity
is thc unsccn. That such is thc naturc ol !slamic
art is casily vcrilicd. !ts objcct is, abovc all, mans
cnvironmcnthcncc thc dominant rolc ol
architccturcand its quality is csscntially con
tcmplativc. Aniconism docs not dctract lrom
this quality, vcry much to thc contrary, lor, by
prccluding cvcry imagc inviting man to lix his
mind on somcthing outsidc himscll and to
projcct his soul onto an individualizing lorm,
Chaptcr !!!
The Question of Images
18. Courtyard ol thc Sahrj Madrasah ncar alAndals Mosquc in Fcz, Morocco, 1322. \icw lrom thc courtyard into thc praycr hall
Aniconism 31
ol vcncration rccalls incidcntally thc gcsturc ol
thc Prophct in placing both hands in protcction
on thc icon ol thc \irgin and Child paintcd on
thc inncr wall ol thc Kaba.
!t might wcll bc thought that this gcsturc
ought to havc lcd to a conccssion in !slamic law
pcrmitting rcprcscntation ol thc Holy \irgin.
8ut this would bc to misconstruc thc spiritual
cconomy ol !slam, which puts asidc cvcry su
pcrlluous or cquivocal clcmcnt, although this
docs not prcvcnt Muslim mastcrs ol thc in
ward scicncc (al-ilm al-bin) lrom acknowl
cdging thc mcaning and lcgitimacy ol icons in
thcir propcr contcxt. Vc actually havc a par
ticularly prolound vindication ol thc Christian
vcncration ol icons in thc words ol onc ol thc
grcatcst mastcrs ol Muslim csotcrism, thc Suli
Muydn !bn alArab, who wrotc in his
Meccan Revelations (al-futt al-makkiyyah):
thc 8yzantincs dcvclopcd thc art ol painting
to pcrlcction bccausc, lor thcm, thc singular
naturc (al-fardaniyyah) ol our Lord Jcsus, is thc
suprcmc support ol conccntration upon ivinc
19. Stucco dccoration lrom thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
Arabcsquc with stylizcd jasminc llowcrs
it crcatcs a void. !n this rcspcct, thc lunction ol
!slamic art is analogous to that ol virgin naturc,
cspccially thc dcscrt, which is likcwisc lavorablc
to contcmplation, although in anothcr rcspcct
thc ordcr crcatcd by art opposcs thc chaos ol
dcscrt landscapc.
Thc prolilcration ol dccoration in Muslim
art docs not contradict this quality ol contcmpla
tivc cmptincss, on thc contrary, ornamcntation
with abstract lorms cnhanccs it through its un
brokcn rhythm and its cndlcss intcrwcaving.
!nstcad ol cnsnaring thc mind and lcading it
into somc imaginary world, it dissolvcs mcn
tal lixations, just as contcmplation ol a run
ning strcam, a llamc, or lcavcs quivcring in thc
wind, can dctach consciousncss lrom its inward
idols.

@

!

!t is instructivc to comparc !slams attitudc
to imagcs with that ol thc Grcck rthodox
Church. Thc 8yzantinc Church is known to
havc gonc through an iconoclast crisis, pcrhaps
not uninllucnccd by thc cxamplc ol !slam. Ccr
tainly, thc Church was movcd to rcconsidcr dc
lining thc rolc ol thc sacrcd imagc, thc icon, and
thc Scvcnth cumcnical Council, in conlirming
thc victory ol thc adorcrs ol imagcs, justilicd its
dccision in thc lollowing words: God Himscll
is bcyond all possiblc dcscription or rcprcscnta
tion, but sincc thc ivinc Vord took human
naturc upon itscll, which it rcintcgratcd into its
original lorm by inlusing it with divinc bcauty,
God can and must bc adorcd through thc hu
man imagc ol Christ. This is no morc than an
application ol thc dogma ol divinc incarnation,
and it shows how lar this way ol sccing things is
lrom thc vicwpoint ol !slam. Ncvcrthclcss, thc
two pcrspcctivcs havc a common basis in thc
notion ol mans thcomorphic naturc.
Thc dcclaration ol thc Scvcnth cumcnical
Council took thc lorm ol a praycr addrcsscd to
thc Holy \irgin, lor it is thc \irgin who lcnt
thc ivinc Child hcr human substancc, thus
making Him acccssiblc to thc scnscs. This act
32 Te Question of Images
Unity. !t will bc sccn that this intcrprctation ol
thc icon, although it is lar rcmovcd lrom Mus
lim thcology as gcncrally acccptcd, is ncvcrthc
lcss at homc in thc pcrspcctivc ol tawd, thc
doctrinc ol ivinc Unity.
Apart lrom this, thc words ol thc Prophct
condcmning thosc who aspirc to imitatc thc
work ol thc Crcator havc not always bccn in
tcrprctcd as a rcjcction purc and simplc ol all
ligurativc art, many havc takcn thcm only as
condcmning Promcthcan or idolatrous intcnt.
For Aryan pcoplcs likc thc Pcrsians, as wcll
as lor thc Mongols, thc rcprcscntational imagc is
lar too natural a modc ol cxprcssion lor thcm to
bc ablc to pass it ovcr. 8ut thc anathcma against
artists sccking to imitatc thc work ol thc Crcator
rcmains nonc thc lcss cllcctivc, lor ligurativc
Muslim art has always avoidcd naturalism, it
is not simply ingcnuousncss or ignorancc ol
visual mcans that causcs Pcrsian miniaturcs not
to usc pcrspcctivc giving thc illusion ol thrcc
dimcnsional spacc or not to modcl thc human
body in light and shadc. !n thc samc way, thc
zoomorphic sculpturc occasionally mct with in
thc world ol !slam ncvcr cxcccds thc bounds
ol a kind ol hcraldic stylization, its products
could not possibly bc mistakcn lor living and
brcathing crcaturcs.
To rccapitulatc thc qucstion whcthcr
ligurativc art is prohibitcd or tolcratcd in !slam,
wc concludc that ligurativc art can pcrlcctly
wcll bc intcgratcd into thc univcrsc ol !slam
providcd it docs not lorgct its propcr limits, but
it will still play only a pcriphcral rolc, it will not
participatc dircctly in thc spiritual cconomy ol
!slam.
As lor !slamic aniconism, two aspccts in all
arc involvcd. n thc onc hand, it salcguards
thc primordial dignity ol man, whosc lorm,
madc in thc imagc ol God,
4
shall bc ncithcr
imitatcd nor usurpcd by a work ol art that is
ncccssarily limitcd and oncsidcd, on thc othcr
hand, nothing capablc ol bccoming an idol, il
only in a rclativc and quitc provisional manncr,
must intcrposc bctwccn man and thc invisiblc
prcscncc ol God. Vhat uttcrly outwcighs
cvcrything clsc is thc tcstimony that thcrc is
no divinity savc God, this mclts away cvcry
objcctivization ol thc ivinc bclorc it is cvcn
ablc to comc lorth.
2 The Persian Miniature
For thc rcasons wc havc just cxplaincd, thc art
ol thc miniaturc cannot bc sacrcd art. To thc
cxtcnt, howcvcr, that it is spontancously intc
gratcd into what may bc callcd thc !slamic
conccpt ol lilc and thc world, it sharcs morc
or lcss in a ccrtain spiritual atmosphcrc, cithcr
as manilcsting virtucs or, again, as incidcntally
rcllccting a contcmplativc vision.
Vhat wc havc in mind in thc lirst
instancc is thc Pcrsian miniaturc, and not thc
Mcsopotamian miniaturcs gcncrally groupcd
undcr thc titlc ol thc 8aghdad School, which
havc somctimcs bccn sccn as Arab painting par
excellence. Thcsc arc lar lrom having thc quality
ol thc Pcrsian miniaturcs, and thcy arc not
Arab, in any casc, cxccpt to thc cxtcnt that thc
Arab racial clcmcnt was onc ol thc constitucnts
in thc vast cosmopolitan city that was 8aghdad
until thc Mongol invasion ol thc midthirtccnth
ccntury A.. A ccrtain grandiloqucncc ol
gcsturc, a lovc ol lincar arabcsquc, and a caustic
wit that lalls occasionally into trivialitythcsc
arc pcrhaps Arab charactcristics, cspccially
sincc thc human typcs portraycd arc lrankly
Scmitic, but thcsc arc Arab charactcristics ol a
lowcr ordcr, dcvclopcd in an cxccssivcly urban
cnvironmcnt. Thc origin ol this school was, in
bricl, thc translation into Arabic ol illustratcd
scicntilic booksabout mcdicinc, botany, or
zoologyas thcy cxistcd among Hcllcnizing
pcoplcs, thc illustrations wcrc adoptcd with
thc tcxts. Thc lirst copyists must havc bccn
Christians or Sabacans. Latcr, Arab or Pcrsian
Muslims took ovcr and gradually camc to apply
thcir ncw art to illustrating popular talcs, likc
arrs Sessions, which pcrpctuatcd thc art ol
thc popular storytcllcr.
Opposite: 20. Brbad, the Concealed Musician, lrom Shh ahmsps Shhnmeh, lol. 731a, attributcd to Mrz Al, c. 1535
21. Sleeping Rustam, lrom a Shhnmeh ol Firdawsi, attributablc to Sultan Muammad, c. 15121522
22. Ysuf Gives a Royal Banquet in Honor of his Marriage, lrom Sultan !brhm Mrzs Haft Awrang, lol. 123a, 16th ccntury
23. Khusraw sees Shrn Bathing in a Spring, lrom Nims Khamsah, composcd lor Shh ahmsp, Tabrz, c. 1535
Te Persian Miniature 37
uring thc cmpirc ol thc Scljuks, who lirst
occupicd 8aghdad in 1055 A.., inllucnccs
lrom Ccntral and astcrn Asia rcachcd thc
mctropolis, and this cxplains thc stylc ol a man
uscript such as thc Book of Teryak ol 1199 A..,
which is kcpt in thc Paris Bibliothque Natio-
nale. Somc ol thcsc miniaturcs, with a ccrtain
clcgancc ol linc, havc an astrological symbol
ism, which is also lound in thc mctalwork ol
thc pcriod and implicitly provcs thc cxistcncc
ol traditions ol non!slamic origin.
!n thc Scljuk pcriod, ligurativc thcmcs
ol a TurcoMongol charactcr arc somcwhat
apparcnt in all thc minor arts, in both !ran
and !raq. Thc truc Pcrsian miniaturc, howcvcr,
which is indisputably thc most pcrlcct
ligurativc art on thc soil ol !slam, did not comc
into thc world until altcr thc conqucst ol !ran
by thc Mongols, and morc prcciscly undcr
thc rulc ol thc lKhns (1256). !t is modclcd
upon Chincsc painting with its pcrlcct blcnd
ol calligraphy and illustration. Following this
modcl, thc rcduction ol spacc to a planc sur
lacc and thc coordination ol human ligurcs
and landscapc wcrc all rctaincd in thc Pcrsian
miniaturc, but thc bold and dclicatc strokcs
ol thc Chincsc brush gavc way to thc prccisc
and continuous linc drawn by thc calamus in
thc truc manncr ol Arabic calligraphy, and thc
contourcd surlaccs wcrc lillcd with unbrokcn
colors. Thc link bctwccn writing and imagc
rcmains lundamcntal to thc Pcrsian miniaturc,
which bclongs, as a wholc, to thc art ol books,
all thc lamous miniaturists wcrc calligraphcrs
bclorc bccoming paintcrs. Vc said carlicr that
thc art ol writing somchow takcs thc placc ol
thc art ol icons in !slam, it was by way ol thc
art ol books that drawing linally camc togcthcr
with writing.
Vhat givcs thc miniaturc its almost uniquc
kind ol bcauty is not so much thc sccncs it por
trays as thc nobility and simplicity ol thc pocti
cal atmosphcrc that pcrvadcs thcm.
This atmosphcrc, or this modcto usc a
tcrm that carrics a prccisc mcaning in tradi
tional musicoccasionally conlcrs upon thc
Pcrsian miniaturc a kind ol dcnic rcvcrbcra
tion, and this is proloundly signilicant, lor onc
ol its basic thcmcs, with distant !ranian roots,
is that ol thc transligurcd landscapc, symbol
izing both thc carthly paradisc and thc hcav
cnly land, which, whilc bcing hiddcn lrom thc
cycs ol lallcn humanity, rcmains cxistcnt in thc
world ol spiritual light that is manilcst to Gods
saints. !t is an unshadowcd landscapc, in which
cach objcct is madc ol cxcccdingly prccious
substancc and whcrc cvcry trcc and llowcr is
uniquc ol its kind, likc thc plants which antc
situatcs in thc carthly Paradisc, on thc mountain
ol Purgatory, and whosc sccds arc bornc by thc
pcrpctual wind that plays upon thc mountain
top to producc all thc vcgctation upon carth.
This symbolic landscapc is csscntially dis
tinct lrom that suggcstcd by Chincsc painting.
Unlikc thc lattcr, it is not undclincd, it docs
not appcar to bc cmcrging lrom thc void, thc
undillcrcntiatcd origin ol all things, it is likc a
wcllordcrcd cosmos, occasionally cncascd in
a crystallinc architccturc that cncloscs it likc a
magic casing and scts thc sccncs without mak
ing thcm too matcrial.
!n gcncral tcrms, thc Pcrsian miniaturc
and wc arc hcrc considcring it in its bcst phas
csdocs not scck to portray thc outward world
as it commonly prcscnts itscll to thc scnscs, with
all its disharmonics and accidcntalitics, what it
is indircctly dcscribing is thc immutablc cs
scnccs (al-ayn ath-thbitah) ol things, by
which a horsc is not simply a particular mcm
bcr ol its spccics but thc horsc par excellence, it is
this gcncric quality that thc art ol thc miniaturc
sccks to grasp. !l thc immutablc csscnccs ol
things, thcir archctypcs, cannot bc apprchcnd
cd bccausc thcy arc bcyond lorm, thcy arc nonc
thc lcss rcllcctcd in thc contcmplativc imagina
tion, hcncc thc drcam qualitynot onc ol idlc
rcvcricthat pcrtains to thc most bcautilul
miniaturcs, it is a clcar and transluccnt drcam
as il illumincd lrom within.
All normal painting is, morcovcr, dcpcn
dcnt upon intuition to takc scnsc cxpcricncc and
draw out lrom it thosc traits that arc typical ol
38 Te Question of Images
a particular thing or bcing and transcribc thcm
in clcmcnts that arc suitcd to twodimcnsional
spacc, namcly linc and colorcd surlaccs. Thc
ricntal artist would ncvcr drcam ol attcmpt
ing to convcy thc cntirc appcarancc ol things,
hc is dccply pcrsuadcd ol thc vanity ol such an
cndcavor and, in this scnsc, thc almost childlikc
navcty ol his works is no lcss than wisdom.
Lct us oncc morc considcr pcrspcctivc,
which thc history ol art takcs, quitc wrongly,
as bcing synonymous with an objcctivc vi
sion ol thc world, and lct us allirm that pcr
spcctivc in no way adhcrcs to things as such,
but to thc individual subjcct, things pcrccivcd
arc arrangcd in ordcr according to thc subjccts
point ol vision. Thc ordcr ol things as such is
thcir hicrarchy in thc cntirc cosmic ordcr, and
this hicrarchy is manilcstcd qualitativcly and
not quantitativcly. Mathcmatical pcrspcctivc
brought rationalism and thcn individualism
into art. This thcn gavc placc to passional in
dividualism which, with 8aroquc art, projcctcd
its convulsions into outward lorms until it was
rcplaccd in its turn by an cvcr morc individu
alist art which linally rctaincd no morc than
dclibcratcly subjcctivc imprcssions bclorc dis
intcgrating into thc irrational. As opposcd to
this dcvclopmcnt ol modcrn uropcan art, thc
Pcrsian miniaturc rcprcscnts a normal vicw ol
things, dcspitc its occasional wcakncsscs, it is
rcalist in thc traditional mcaning ol thc tcrm,
and this mcans that scnsory phcnomcna do rc
llcct lor it thc rcal csscncc ol things.
8y rcason ol its normativc charactcr, thc
Pcrsian miniaturc can scrvc to cxprcss a contcm
plativc vision, this particular quality is partly
duc to thc Shitc milicu in which thc bound
ary bctwccn rcligious law and lrcc inspiration
is lar lcss trcnchant than in thc Sunn onc. Vc
arc thinking ol ccrtain miniaturcs with a rcli
gious thcmc such as thosc which, dcspitc cvcry
traditional rulc, portray thc asccnsion (mirj)
ol thc Prophct through thc hcavcns. 8y lar thc
most bcautilul, and thc most spiritual, minia
turc on this thcmc is thc onc which lorms part
ol a manuscript ol Nims Khamsah, datcd
152943, in thc Salavid pcriod. Vith its con
volutcd clouds in thc Mongol stylc and its ccn
scrbcaring angcls rcminisccnt ol apsaras, this
miniaturc shows a surprising point ol contact
bctwccn 8uddhism and !slam.

@

!

!t is only right, at this point, that wc should
dcvotc a lcw words to clarilying thc spccial
naturc ol Shism. Vhat distinguishcs it par
ticularly lrom Sunn !slam is its thcory ol thc
caliphatc, according to which thc spiritual au
thority bcstowcd by thc Prophct upon Al, his
ncphcw and soninlaw, is pcrpctuatcd in thc
holy imms (modcls or guidcs) ol his lamily.
Thc last ol thc imms known to historythc
twcllth according to ollicial Shismis not
dcad, but is hiddcn lrom thc cycs ol thc world
whilc rcmaining in spiritual communion with
his laithlul. This thcory is a dcvotional lormu
lation ol an csotcric truth: at cach momcnt ol
its history, cvcry traditional world is rulcd by a
polc (qub), which is likc thc hcart, thc placc
whcrc thc inllucncc ol hcavcn pours out onto
thc carthly planc, this polc is abovc all a cos
mic and spiritual rcality, it coincidcs with thc
ivinc Prcscncc at thc ccntcr ol thc worldor
thc ccntcr ol a ccrtain world or, again, ol cach
soul, according to thc various lcvclsbut it is
normally rcprcscntcd by thc saint, or saints,
whosc spiritual station corrcsponds to this cos
mic and divinc locality. !t will bc clcar lrom
thcsc lcw obscrvations that Shism involvcs a
vcry subtlc truth, whosc lormulation in tcrms
that arc commonly acccptablc lcads incvitably
to a ccrtain mythologization, and this is what
chiclly charactcrizcs Shitc immology.
Thc mcmory ol thc timc whcn thc imms
wcrc still visibly prcscnt, thc tragic cnd ol ccr
tain ol thcm, thc occultation ol thc last onc, and
thc wish to attain to thc mystcrious rcgion bc
twccn hcavcn and carth whcrc hc still rcsidcs
conlcrs upon Shitc picty its charactcristic
tonc, which can bc dcscribcd as a poignant nos
talgia lor paradisc, thc statc ol innoccncc and
24. Thc asccnsion (mirj) ol thc Prophct through thc hcavcns, lrom a manuscript ol Nims Khamsah, 15291543
40 Te Question of Images
plcnitudc that stands at both thc bcginning and
thc cnd ol timc.
Paradisc is an ctcrnal springtimc, a gardcn
pcrpctually in bloom, rclrcshcd by living watcrs,
it is also a linal and incorruptiblc statc likc
prccious mincrals, crystal and gold. Pcrsian art,
and in particular thc ornamcntation ol Salavid
mosqucs, scts out to combinc thcsc two qualitics:
thc crystallinc statc is cxprcsscd in thc purity
ol thc architcctural lincs, thc pcrlcct gcomctry
ol thc archcd surlaccs, and thc dccoration in
rcctilincar lorms, as lor thc cclcstial springtimc,
it blossoms in thc stylizcd llowcrs and lrcsh,
rich, and subducd colors ol ccramic tilcs.
@

!

Thc art ol thc miniaturc was morc than oncc
rcvivilicd by dircct contact with Chincsc paint
ing, in its bcginnings at thc timc ol thc lirst
Mongol domination ovcr !ran by thc lKhns
(12561336), thcn again undcr thc Timurids
(13871502), and lastly undcr thc Salavids,
who, dcspitc bcing Pcrsian and libcrators lrom
thc Mongol yokc, cultivatcd rclations with Chi
na. Thc art ol thc Pcrsian miniaturc gavc birth
to that ol thc Turkish miniaturc, which is crudc
and stcrcotypcd in comparison, cxccpt lor ccr
tain cxamplcs which show Mongol inllucncc,
likc thc copybook ol SiyhQalam, thc black
calamus, ol thc liltccnth ccntury A.. How
cvcr, thc Pcrsian miniaturc was latcr pcrpctuat
cd in Mughal painting which dcvclopcd into a
court art and was uscd in particular to illustratc
thc impcrial chroniclcs in a highly dctailcd and
rcalistic stylc.
Thc inllucncc ol thc Hindu cnvironmcnt,
namcly, a ccrtain scnsc ol thc plastic bcauty ol
thc human lorm, is combincd in this painting
with impositions ol stylc lrom thc Rcnaissancc
in uropc. !t is said that Mughal art inllucnccd
ccrtain Hindu schools ol miniaturc painting. !n
lact, howcvcr, this cannot amount to anything
morc than a purcly outward and tcchnical stim
ulus, lor thcsc miniaturcs, which chiclly dcpict
sccncs lrom thc lilc ol Krishna, draw dircctly
upon thc rich hcritagc ol sacrcd Hindu art and
thcy do, lor this vcry rcason, achicvc a spiritual
bcauty which thc csscntially worldly Mughal
art ol painting could ncvcr havc.
Thc art ol thc Pcrsian miniaturc was al
rcady dccadcnt undcr thc Salavids and, morc
prcciscly, lrom thc midsixtccnth ccntury on
wards. Unlirmly groundcd by rcason ol its pcri
phcral rclationship to !slam and its cxclusivcly
courtly charactcr, it succumbcd, at its lirst con
tacts with thc uropcan art ol thc pcriod, likc a
magic goblct whosc crystal suddcnly tarnishcs.
25. A Young Lady Beneath a Tree. Pagc lrom thc ara Shikoh Album,
Mughal pcriod, c. 1613
Notcs to Chaptcr !!!
1. !t is no plconasm to spcak ol idolatrous polythcism, as
is shown by Hinduism, which is polythcist but in no way
idolatrous, bccausc it rccognizcs thc provisional and sym
bolic naturc ol idols and thc rclativc naturc ol thc gods
(devas) as aspccts ol thc Absolutc. Tc csotcric Muslims,
thc Sus, occasionally comparc idols to ivinc Namcs
whosc signicancc had bccn lorgottcn by thc pagans.
2. According to a saying ol thc Prophct, artists who scck
to imitatc thc work ol thc Crcator will bc condcmncd in
thc hcrcaltcr to givc lilc to thcir crcations, and thcir in
ability to do so will causc thcm to bc cast into thc worst
tormcnts. Tis saying can clcarly bc undcrstood in scvcral
ways, it has, in lact, ncvcr prcvcntcd thc growth, in ccrtain
Muslim circlcs, ol a gurativc art lrcc lrom any claims to
naturalism.
3. Aniconism can havc a spiritually positivc charactcr,
whcrcas iconoclasm has only a ncgativc scnsc.
4. From thc !slamic point ol vicw, thc divinc lorm ol
Adam consists csscntially ol thc scvcn univcrsal lacultics
which arc likcwisc attributcd to God, namcly: lilc, knowl
cdgc, will, powcr, hcaring, sccing, and spccch, in man thcy
havc limits, but in God nonc. vcn as attributcd to man,
thcy cannot bc sccn, and go bcyond his bodily lorm, which
alonc can bc thc objcct ol any art.
26. Ysuf Tends his Flocks (dctail), lrom Sultan !brhm Mrzs Haft
Awrang, lol. 110b, 16th ccntury
27. Maghrib Koran 68: 4969: 9, writtcn lor thc Sharli Sultan Abd Allh ibn Muammad, Morocco, 1568
1 Arab Art, Islamic Art

nc may wcll ask whcthcr thc tcrm Arab

art corrcsponds to a wclldcncd rcality,
sincc Arab art bclorc !slam docs not in practicc
cxist lor us bccausc ol thc scarcity ol its rcmains,
and Arab art born undcr thc sky ol !slam is
conluscdand onc wondcrs to what dcgrcc
with !slamic art itscll. Art historians ncvcr lail
to strcss that thc rst Muslim monumcnts wcrc
not built by thc Arabs, who lackcd adcquatc
tcchnical mcans, but by lcvics ol Syrian, Pcrsian,
and Grcck craltsmcn, and that Muslim art was
gradually cnrichcd by thc artistic hcritagc ol thc
scdcntary populations ol thc Ncar ast as thcsc
wcrc takcn into !slam. cspitc this, it is still
lcgitimatc to spcak ol Arab art, lor thc simplc
rcason that !slam itscll, il it is not limitcd to a
racial phcnomcnonand history is thcrc to
provc thc pointdocs nonc thc lcss comprisc
Arab clcmcnts in its lormal cxprcssion, thc
lorcmost ol which is thc Arabic languagc, in
bccoming thc sacrcd languagc ol !slam, Arabic
dctcrmincd to a grcatcr or lcss dcgrcc thc stylc
ol thinking ol all thc Muslim pcoplcs.
1
Ccrtain
typically Arab attitudcs ol soul, spiritually cn
hanccd by thc Sunnah (customary usagc) ol thc
Prophct, cntcrcd into thc psychic cconomy ol
thc cntirc Muslim world and arc rccctcd in its
art. !t would, indccd, bc impossiblc to connc
thc manilcstations ol !slam to Arabism, on thc
contrary, it is Arabism that is cxpandcd and, as
it wcrc, transgurcd by !slam.
!n ordcr to grasp thc naturc ol !slamic
Arab artthc Muslim will naturally strcss thc
rst part ol this tcrm, and thc nonMuslim thc
sccondit is always ncccssary to takc account
ol this marriagc bctwccn a spiritual mcssagc
with an absolutc contcnt and a ccrtain racial
inhcritancc which, lor that vcry rcason, no lon
gcr bclongs to a racially dcncd collcctivity but
bccomcs a modc ol cxprcssion which can, in
principlc, bc uscd univcrsally. Morcovcr, !slam
icArab art is not thc only grcat rcligious art
to bc born lrom such a marriagc, 8uddhist art,
lor cxamplc, whosc arca ol cxprcssion is chicy
conncd to Mongol nations, ncvcrthclcss prc
scrvcs ccrtain typically !ndian traits, particu
larly in its iconography, which is ol thc grcatcst
importancc to it. !n a lar morc rcstrictcd con
tcxt, Gothic art, ol GcrmanLatin lincagc, pro
vidcs an cxamplc ol a stylc so widcsprcad that
it bccamc idcnticd, lrom a ccrtain momcnt on,
with thc Christian art ol thc Vcst.
Vithout !slam, thc Arab thrust ol thc
scvcnth ccnturycvcn supposing it to havc
bccn possiblc without thc rcligious impulsc
would havc bccn no morc than an cpisodc in
thc history ol thc Middlc ast, dccadcnt as thcy
may havc bccn, thc grcat scdcntary civilizations
would havc madc short work ol absorbing thcsc
hordcs ol 8cdouin Arabs, and thc nomadic
invadcrs ol thc cultivatcd lands would havc
nishcd, as is gcncrally thc casc, by acccpting
thc customs and lorms ol cxprcssion ol thc
scdcntarics. 8ut it was cxactly thc oppositc
that happcncd in thc casc ol !slam, at lcast in
a ccrtain rcgard: it was thc Arabs, nomads lor
thc most part, who imposcd on thc scdcntary
pcoplcs thcy conqucrcd thcir lorms ol thought
and cxprcssion by imposing thcir languagc
upon thcm.
2
!n lact, thc outstanding, and
somchow rclulgcnt, manilcstation ol thc Arab
gcnius is languagc, including writing. !t was this
languagc which not only prcscrvcd thc cthnic
hcritagc ol thc Arabs outsidc Arabia, but causcd
it to radiatc lar bcyond its racial homcland. !t
was by thc mcdiation ol thc Arabic languagc
Chaptcr !\
The Common Language of Islamic Art
44 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
that thc csscntial Arab gcnius was ccctivcly
communicatcd to Muslim civilization as a
wholc.
Tc cxtraordinary normativc powcr ol thc
Arabic languagc dcrivcs lrom its rolc as a sacrcd
languagc as wcll as lrom its archaic naturc,
both lactors bcing, in any casc, conncctcd. !t
is its archaic quality that prcdcstincd Arabic
lor its rolc as a sacrcd languagc, and it was thc
Koranic rcvclation that, as it wcrc, actualizcd
its primordial substancc. Archaism, in thc
linguistic ordcr, is not, in any cvcnt, synonymous
with simplicity ol structurc, vcry much to thc
contrary. Languagcs gcncrally grow poorcr
with thc passing ol timc by gradually losing
thc richncss ol thcir vocabulary, thc casc with
which thcy can divcrsily various aspccts ol onc
and thc samc idca, and thcir powcr ol synthcsis,
which is thc ability to cxprcss many things
with lcw words. !n ordcr to makc up lor this
impovcrishmcnt, modcrn languagcs havc bc
comc morc complicatcd on thc rhctorical lcvcl,
whilc pcrhaps gaining in surlacc prccision, thcy
havc not donc so as rcgards contcnt. Languagc
historians arc astonishcd by thc lact that Arabic
was ablc to rctain a morphology attcstcd to as
carly as thc Codc ol Hammurabi,
3
lrom thc
ninctccnth to thc cightccnth ccntury bclorc
thc Christian cra, and to rctain a phonctic
systcm which prcscrvcs, with thc cxccption ol
a singlc sound, thc cxtrcmcly rich soundrangc
discloscd by thc most ancicnt Scmitic alphabcts
discovcrcd,
4
although thcrc was no litcrary
tradition to bridgc thc gap bctwccn thc lar
o agc ol thc Patriarchs and thc timc whcn
thc Koranic rcvclation would cstablish thc lan
guagc lor all timc.
Tc cxplanation ol this pcrcnnial quality ol
Arabic is to bc lound simply in thc conscrving
rolc ol nomadism. !t is in towns that languagcs
dccay, by bccoming worn out, likc thc things
and institutions thcy dcsignatc. Nomads, who
livc to somc cxtcnt outsidc timc, conscrvc
thcir languagc bcttcr, it is, morcovcr, thc only
trcasurc thcy can carry around with thcm in
thcir pastoral cxistcncc, thc nomad is a jcalous
28. Subn Allh al-Am wa bi-amdih (Glory and praisc to God Suprcmc) and Subn Allh wal amdu li-Llh wa l ilha ill Llh waLlhu
Akbar (Glory to God, praisc to God, thcrc is no divinity savc God, God is most grcat). Kl calligraphy in a combination ol glazcd and unglazcd bricks,
shrinc ol Khwjah AbdAllh Anr, GzarGh, Hcrat, Alghanistan, 1428
Arab Art, Islamic Art 45
guardian ol his linguistic hcritagc, his poctry,
and his rhctorical art. n thc othcr hand, his
inhcritancc in thc way ol visual art cannot bc
rich, architccturc prcsupposcs stability, and thc
samc is broadly truc ol sculpturc and painting.
Nomadic art in gcncral is limitcd to simplc, yct
striking, graphic lormulac, ornamcntal motils,
hcraldic cmblcms, and symbols. !n thc situation
wc arc studying, thc cxistcncc ol thcsc lormulac
is by no mcans a ncgligiblc lactor, lor thcy carry
crcativc potcntialitics that will blossom lorth
whcn thcy mcct thc artistic tcchniqucs bclonging
to thc scdcntary civilizations. !t is truc that thc
prcscncc ol thcsc modcl lormulac among thc
prc!slamic Arabs is not gcncrally apparcnt
cxccpt rctrospcctivcly, by analogy with what wc
nd with othcr nomads and in considcration ol
thc suddcn owcring in thc Muslim art ol thc
rst ccnturics ol ornamcntal motils which arc
vastly dicrcnt in thcir modcs lrom anything
coming lrom thc scdcntary civilizations and
which arc, in somc way, parallcl to thc gurativc
dcviccs ol thc Arab languagc.
!n ordcr to cxplain in a lcw words, and with
out rccoursc to spccializcd linguistic knowl
cdgc, thc spccic naturc ol thc Arabic languagc,
lct us rst ol all rccall that cvcry languagc has
at its bcginnings two polcs, as it wcrc, onc ol
which comcs to prcdominatc without cxcluding
thc othcr. Tcsc two polcs can bc dcscribcd by
thc tcrms auditivc intuition and imaginativc
intuition. Auditivc intuition csscntially idcnti
cs thc mcaning ol a word with its quality as
sound, this prcscnts itscll as thc dcvclopmcnt
ol a simplc phonctic lormula which cxprcsscs a
lundamcntal action such as to unitc, to scp
aratc, to pcnctratc, to cmcrgc, and so on,
with all thc physical, psychological, and intcllcc
tual polyvalcncc ol which a typcaction ol this
kind is capablc. Tis has, morcovcr, nothing to
do with scmantic convcntion or onomatopocia,
thc idcntication ol sound and act is immcdiatc
and spontancous, and in this rcgard, spccch con
ccivcs cvcrything it namcs as bcing basically an
act or as thc objcct ol an act. !maginativc intu
ition, on thc contrary, manilcsts itscll in spccch
29. Carvcd inscription ol thc namc ol Muammad, Mausolcum ol Sultan Uljaytu, Sultaniyah, Pcrsia
46 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
31. ctail lrom thc minbar ol thc Mausolcum ol Qytby, Cairo, gypt, 14721474
30. ctail lrom thc woodcn minbar ol thc Kutbiyyah Mosquc, Marrakcsh, Morocco, Almoravid pcriod, 11251130
Arab Art, Islamic Art 47
by thc scmantic associations ol analogous im
agcs, cvcry word pronounccd cvokcs inwardly
a corrcsponding imagc, which calls up othcr
imagcs, with thc typcimagcs dominating thc
morc particular oncs, according to a hicrarchy
that stamps itscll, in its turn, on thc structurc
ol spccch. Tc Latin languagcs arc cxamplcs
ol this lattcr typc, whcrcas Arabic discloscs an
almost untrammclcd auditivc intuition or pho
nctic logic, in which thc idcntity ol sound and
act, as wcll as thc primacy ol action, arc armcd
across thc cntirc rich tissuc ol this languagc. !n
principlc, cvcry Arabic word is dcrivcd lrom a
vcrb consisting ol thrcc invariablc consonants,
somcthing likc an aural idcogram, lrom which
arc dcrivcd as many as twclvc dicrcnt vcrbal
modcssimplc, causativc, intcnsivc, rcciprocal,
and so onand cach ol thcsc modcs produccs
in its turn a plcthora ol nouns and adjcctivcs
whosc rst mcaning is always linkcd, in a morc
or lcss dircct way, to that ol thc lundamcntal ac
tion dcpictcd by thc trilatcral root
5
ol thc cntirc
vcrbal trcc.
Tis scmantic transparcncy ol thc languagc,
thc lact that in its symbolism it ows wholly
lrom thc phonctic charactcr ol thc vcrb, is a
clcar prool ol its rclativc primordiality. !n thc
bcginning, and in thc vcry scat ol our con
sciousncss, things arc spontancously conccivcd
as dctcrminations ol thc primordial sound
which rcsounds in thc hcart, this sound bcing
nonc othcr than thc rst, nonindividualizcd,
act ol consciousncss, at this lcvcl, or in this
statc, to namc a thing is to idcntily oncscll
with thc action or thc sound which brings it
lorth.
6
Tc symbolism inhcrcnt in spccchand
obscurcd or dclormcd to a grcatcr or lcsscr cx
tcnt by acquircd habitsscizcs on thc naturc
ol things not in a static lashion, as an imagc is
scizcd but, as it wcrc, in statu nasciendi, in thc
act ol bccoming. Tis aspcct ol languagc in gcn
cral, and ol thc Arabic languagc in particular is
morcovcr, in thc Muslim world, thc objcct ol
a wholc gamut ol scicnccs, somc philosophi
cal and othcrs csotcric. Muslim scholars can bc
said not only to havc conscrvcd this structurc
ol Arabic, but cvcn to havc contributcd to its
prccisc dcnition.
!n Arabic, thc trcc ol vcrbal lorms, ol
dcrivations lrom ccrtain roots, is quitc incx
haustiblc, it can always bring lorth ncw lcavcs,
ncw cxprcssions to rcprcscnt hithcrto dormant
variations ol thc basic idcaor action. Tis cx
plains why this 8cdouin tonguc was ablc to bc
comc thc linguistic vchiclc ol an cntirc civiliza
tion intcllcctually vcry rich and dicrcntiatcd.
Lct us point out, ncvcrthclcss, that thc log
ical link bctwccn a lorm ol cxprcssion and its
vcrbal root is not always casy to grasp, bccausc
ol thc occasionally convcntionalizcd mcaning
givcn to that particular lorm and thc cxtrcmcly
complcx signicancc ol thc root idca. nc ori
cntalist has gonc so lar as to say that thc struc
turc ol thc Arabic languagc would bc ol in
comparablc transparcncy wcrc thc mcanings ol
thc vcrbal roots not arbitrary, but it is actually
hardly possiblc lor thc basis ol a languagc to bc
arbitrary. Tc truth is that thc vcrbal roots con
stitutc a thrcshold bctwccn discursivc thought
32. Stucco window grillc lrom thc anbal Mosquc in amascus,
Syria, 1297
48 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
and a kind ol synthctic pcrccption.
7
Tc Arabic
languagc is, as it wcrc, dcpcndcnt upon audi
tivc intuition, and wc shall scc, in what lollows,
what this signics lor art.

@

!

!t would bc tcmpting to say that thc Arab docs
not so much scc things as hcar thcm, but that
would bc a lalsc gcncralization. !t is truc, ncvcr
thclcss, that thc nccd lor artistic cxtcriorization
is, in thc Arab, largcly absorbcd by thc cultiva
tion ol his languagc with its lascinating pho
nctic rangc and almost unlimitcd possibilitics ol
cxprcssion. !l thc tcrm contcmplativc bc takcn
to dcscribc thc typc ol man who contcmplatcs
rathcr than acts and whosc mind lovcs to rc
posc in thc bcing ol things, thcn thc Arab, who
posscsscs a dynamic mcntality and an analytical
intclligcncc, is no contcmplativc. 8ut that hc is
ncvcrthclcss contcmplativc is provcd by !slam
and conlirmcd by Arab art. Contcmplation is
not, in any casc, limitcd to simply static modcs,
it can pursuc unity through rhythm, which is
likc a rcllcction ol thc ctcrnal prcscnt in thc
llow ol timc.
Plastic cxamplcs illustrating thcsc tcn
dcncics lcap to thc cyc. Tc arabcsquc in particu
lar, with its both rcgular and indcnitc unlold
ing, is thc most dircct cxprcssion ol rhythm in
thc visual ordcr. !t is truc that its most pcrlcct
lorms arc inconccivablc without thc artistic
contribution ol thc nomads ol Ccntral Asia, it
was, howcvcr, in an Arab milicu that it owcrcd
most rcsplcndcntly. Anothcr clcmcnt which
is typical ol Muslim art, and whosc dcvclop
mcnt gocs sidc by sidc with Arab domination,
is intcrlaccmcnt. !t rst appcars in all its pcr
lcction in thc lorm ol sculpturcd trclliswork
on thc windows ol mosqucs and palaccs.
8
!n
ordcr to apprcciatc thc gcomctrical play ol in
tcrlaccmcnt, it is not cnough simply to look at
it hcad on, it must bc rcad, by lctting thc cyc
lollow thc ow ol intcrtwining and compcnsat
ing lorccs. !ntcrlaccmcnt cxists alrcady in thc
pavcmcnt mosaics ol latc antiquity, but it is ru
dimcntary and naturalistic in conccption, with
out any ol thc complcxity and rhythmic prcci
sion ol ArabMuslim intcrlacing work. Tcsc
cxamplcs bclong to abstract art, which is itscll
charactcristic ol thc Arab gcnius. Contrary to
what is customarily bclicvcd, thc avcragc Arab
docs not by any mcans posscss an cxtravagant
imagination. Vhcncvcr such imagination is
lound in Arab litcraturc, in thc Tales of the Tou-
sand and One Nights lor cxamplc, it comcs lrom
somc nonArab sourcc, Pcrsian and !ndian in
this casc, only thc art ol storytclling is Arab.
Tc crcativc spirit ol thc Arabs is a priori logi
cal and rhctorical, thcn rhythmic and incanta
tional. Tc luxuriancc ol typically Arab poctry
lics in mcntal and vcrbal arabcsquc and not in
thc prolusion ol imagcs cvokcd.
!slam rcjccts portraiturc lor thc thcological
rcasons wc havc dcscribcd (scc Chaptcr !!!, 1).
Now it is a lact that thc Scmitic nomads had
33. Stonc window grillc lrom thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus,
Syria
Arab Art, Islamic Art 49
no gurativc traditionthc prc!slamic Arabs
importcd most ol thcir idols lrom abroad
and thc imagc ncvcr bccamc a natural and
transparcnt mcans ol cxprcssion lor thc Arabs.
\crbal rcality cclipscd thc rcality ol static
vision: comparcd with thc word lorcvcr in act,
whosc root is anchorcd in thc primordiality ol
sound, a paintcd or a carvcd imagc sccmcd likc
a disquicting congcalmcnt ol thc spirit. For thc
pagan Arabs, it smackcd ol magic.

@

!

Thc Arabic languagc is not wholly dynamic,
truc, its basc is thc actionvcrb, but it posscss
cs likcwisc a static, or morc cxactly a timclcss,
ground which corrcsponds with bcing, and
which rcvcals itscll particularly in thc socallcd
nominal scntcncc, whcrc thc noun and its prcdi
catcs arc juxtaposcd without a copula, thcrcby
pcrmitting a thought to bc cxprcsscd in lapi
dary lashion and without any considcration ol
timc. Thc Arabic languagc is such that a wholc
doctrinc can bc condcnscd into a short and con
cisc lormula ol diamantinc clarity. This mcans
ol cxprcssion is rcalizcd in all its lullncss only
in thc Koran, yct it is part ol thc Arab gcnius
nonc thc lcss, and is rcllcctcd in ArabMuslim
art, lor this art is not only rhythmical, it is also
crystallinc.
Thc conciscncss ol thc Arabic scntcncc docs
not, quitc clcarly, limit thc prolundity ol thc
mcaning, but ncithcr docs it lacilitatc synthcsis
on thc dcscriptivc lcvcl: an Arab will rarcly as
scmblc a numbcr ol conditions or circumstanccs
in a singlc scntcncc, hc prclcrs to string togcth
cr a scrics ol bricl phrascs. !n this rcspcct, an
agglutinativc languagc likc Turkish, which bc
longs to thc lamily ol Mongol languagcs, is lcss
austcrc and morc llcxiblc than Arabic, whcn it
comcs to dcscribing a situation or a landscapc,
Turkish is lrankly supcrior to Arabic, and thc
samc applics to Pcrsian which is an !ndou
ropcan languagc closc to Gothic, howcvcr, both
languagcs havc borrowcd not only thcir thco
logical tcrminology, but also thcir philosophical
and scicntilic tcrms, lrom Arabic.
Thc oppositc cxtrcmc to Arabic is a languagc
likc Chincsc, which is rulcd by a static vision
ol things and which groups thc clcmcnts ol a
thought around gcncric imagcs, as is shown by
thc idcographic naturc ol Chincsc script.
Thc Turks, likc thc Arabs, wcrc originally
nomads, but thcir languagcs rcvcal vastly dil
lcrcnt mcntal typcs, thc Arab is incisivc and
dynamic in his thought proccsscs, thc Turk, lor
his part, is allcmbracing and circumspcct. !n thc
gcncral lramcwork ol Muslim art, thc Turkish
gcnius rcvcals itscll by a ccrtain powcr ol syn
thcsisonc might almost say, by a totalitarian
spirit. Thc Turk has a plastic or sculptural gilt
which thc Arab docs not havc, his works always
procccd out ol an allcnvcloping conccpt, thcy
arc as il hcwn lrom a singlc block.
As lor Pcrsian art, it is distinguishcd by
its scnsc ol hicrarchical gradations, Pcrsian
34. Tilcwork dctail lrom a window in thc domc ol thc Shaykh LulAllh
Mosquc, !lahn, Pcrsia
50 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
architccturc is pcrlcctly articulatcd, without
cvcr bcing lunctional in thc modcrn scnsc ol
thc tcrm. For thc Pcrsian, Unity manilcsts itscll
abovc all as harmony. Morcovcr, Pcrsians arc by
naturc and by culturc pcoplc who scc things,
but scc with lyrical cycs, thcir artistic activity
is as il animatcd by an inncr mclody. !t is said
provcrbially in thc ast that Arabic is thc
languagc ol God, but Pcrsian is thc languagc
ol paradisc, and this dcscribcs vcry wcll thc
dillcrcncc that cxists, lor cxamplc, bctwccn a
distinctivcly Arab typc ol architccturc, likc that
ol thc Maghrib, whcrc crystallinc gcomctry
ol lorms proclaims thc unitary principlc, and
Pcrsian architccturc with its bluc domcs and
lloral dccoration.
Tc Arab architcct is not alraid ol mon
otony, hc will build pillar upon pillar and
arcadc upon arcadc and dominatc rcpctition
by rhythmic altcrnation and thc qualitativc
pcrlcction ol cach clcmcnt.

@

!

Thc languagc ol thc Koran is omniprcscnt in
thc Vorld ol !slam, thc cntirc lilc ol a Muslim
is lillcd with Koranic lormulac, praycrs, lita
nics, and invocations in Arabic, thc clcmcnts
ol which arc drawn lrom thc Sacrcd 8ook, in
numcrablc inscriptions bcar witncss to this. !t
could bc said that this ubiquity ol thc Koran
works likc a spiritual vibrationthcrc is no
bcttcr tcrm to dcscribc an inllucncc which is
both spiritual and sonorousand this vibration
ncccssarily dctcrmincs thc modcs and mcasurcs
ol Muslim art, thc plastic art ol !slam is thcrc
lorc, in a ccrtain way, thc rcllcction ol thc word
ol thc Koran. !t is assurcdly vcry dillicult to
grasp thc principlc by which this art is linkcd
to thc tcxt ol thc Koran, not on thc narrativc
planc, which plays no part in thc customary art
ol !slam, but on thc lcvcl ol lormal structurcs,
sincc thc Koran obcys no laws ol composition,
ncithcr in thc strangcly disconncctcd linking
togcthcr ol its thcmcs, nor in its vcrbal prcscn
tation, which cvadcs all thc rulcs ol mctcr. !ts
rhythm, powcrlul and pcnctrating as it is, lol
lows no lixcd mcasurc, cntircly unprcdictablc, it

maintains at timcs an insistcnt rhymc likc thc
bcat ol a drum and will thcn suddcnly modily
its brcadth and pacc, shilting its cadcnccs in a
manncr as uncxpcctcd as it is striking. To al
lirm that thc Koran is Arabic vcrsc, bccausc it
includcs passagcs with a unilorm rhymc likc
thc 8cdouin rajaz, would bc mistakcn, but to
dcny that thcsc unilormitics and abrupt brcaks
corrcspond to prolound rcalitics in thc Arab
soul, would bc cqually so. Arab artpoctry
and music as wcll as thc plastic artslovcs to
rcpcat ccrtain lorms and to introducc suddcn
and unlorcsccn variants against this rcpctitivc
background. 8ut, whcrcas art is playcd out in
35. omc ol thc arbi!mm Mausolcum, !lahn, Pcrsia
Arab Art, Islamic Art 51
8ut thc most prolound link bctwccn !s
lamic art and thc Koran is ol anothcr kind:
it lics not in thc lorm ol thc Koran but in its
aqqah, its lormlcss csscncc, and morc particu
larly in thc notion ol tawd, unity or union,
with its contcmplativc implications, !slamic
artby which wc mcan thc cntircty ol plastic
arts in !slamis csscntially thc projcction into
thc visual ordcr ol ccrtain aspccts or dimcnsions
ol ivinc Unity.
accordancc with casily lathomablc rulcs, thc
wavcs ol sacrcd spccch may somctimcs lall in
rcgular pattcrns but thcy arisc out ol a wholc
lormlcss occan. !n thc samc way, thc statc ol in
ncr harmony cngcndcrcd by thc words and so
norous cnchantmcnt ol thc Koran is situatcd on
quitc anothcr planc than, lor cxamplc, pcrlcct
poctry. Thc Koran docs not satisly, it givcs and
at thc samc timc takcs away, it cxpands thc soul
by lcnding it wings thcn lays it low and lcavcs
it nakcd, lor thc bclicvcr, it is both comlorting
and purilying, likc a rainstorm. Purcly human
art docs not posscss this virtuc. That is to say,
thcrc is no such thing as a Koranic stylc which
can simply bc transposcd into art, but thcrc
docs cxist a statc ol soul which is sustaincd by
thc rccitation ol thc Koran and which lavors
ccrtain lormal manilcstations whilc prccluding
othcrs. Thc diapason ol thc Koran ncvcr lails to
join intoxicating nostalgia to cxtrcmc sobricty:
it is a radiation ol thc divinc Sun on thc hu
man dcscrt. !t is to thcsc polcs that thc lluid
and llamboyant rhythm ol thc arabcsquc, and
thc abstract and crystallinc charactcr ol archi
tccturc, in somc way corrcspond, wc shall comc
back to thcsc two polcs timc and again.
36. ctail ol thc laadc ol thc mausolcum built by Mastcr Al ol
Nasal, ShhiZindah, Samarqand, Uzbckistan
37. !nscription in tilcwork: !n thc Namc ol God, thc Mcrcilul, thc Compassionatc, in thc sanctuary ol Khwjah AbdAllh Anr, GzarGh, Hcrat,
Alghanistan, 15th ccntury
2 Arabic Calligraphy
Tc art ol Arabic writing is by dcnition thc
most Arab ol all thc plastic arts ol !slam. !t bc
longs ncvcrthclcss to thc cntirc !slamic world,
and is cvcn considcrcd to bc thc most noblc
ol thc arts, bccausc it givcs visiblc lorm to thc
rcvcalcd word ol thc Koran. Princcs and prin
ccsscs practiccd copying out thc Sacrcd 8ook
in bcautilul script. Calligraphy is also thc art
most widcly sharcd by all Muslims, sincc any
onc who can writc is in a position to apprcciatc
thc mcrits ol a good calligraphcr, and it can bc
said without lcar ol cxaggcration that nothing
has typicd thc acsthctic scnsc ol thc Mus
lim pcoplcs as much as thc Arabic script. nc
nccds to bc lamiliar with its lorms and stylcs in
ordcr to lollow thc lull swccp ol thc art, par
ticularly in architcctural ornamcntation which
is lrcqucntly dominatcd by cpigraphy.
Vc can givc thc mcasurc ol Arabic cal
ligraphy, which is so astonishingly rich in stylc
and modcs, il wc say that it knows how to
combinc thc grcatcst gcomctrical strictncss with
thc most mclodious rhythm. And in saying this
wc also dcnc thc two polcs bctwccn which this
art cvolvcs and which it succccds in rcconciling
in various ways and various stylcs, cach ol which
rcprcscnts a pcrlcct graphic balancc and cach
ol which is consistcntly valid. For onc ol thc
typical charactcristics ol Arabic calligraphy is
that nonc ol its various stylcs, born at dicrcnt
pcriods, has cvcn lallcn into disusc, calligraphy
turns to cach ol thcm, dcpcnding on thc naturc
and contcxt ol tcxts, and docs not hcsitatc,
should thc occasion arisc, to placc inscriptions
in contrasting stylcs sidc by sidc.
Tis multilorm charactcr ol Arab cal
ligraphy might tcmpt onc to comparc it with
thc calligraphy ol thc Far astalso onc ol
thc pinnaclcs ol thc art ol writingwcrc not
Chincsc script at thc antipodcs ol Arabic script.
As is wcll known, Chincsc script is bascd on
pictography, in which cach sign is likc thc
imagc ol a distinct idca, whcrcas Arabic script
is purcly phonctic, pcrhaps thc most rigorously
phonctic script that cxists. Tis mcans that thc
stylization ol thc Arabic lcttcrs is ol an cntircly
abstract kind, without any gurativc root. Tc
tcchniqucs cmploycd in thc rcspcctivc typcs
ol writing arc, morcovcr, cntircly dicrcnt. Far
astcrn writing, Japancsc or Chincsc, prclcrs
thc brush, whosc strokcs ol varying lightncss or
hcavincss arc balanccd out in thc composition
ol cach idcogram, but thc Arab writcs with thc
calamusa rccd trimmcd to a doublc point
with which hc traccs out prccisc and lrcqucntly
intcrlacing lincs, hc has no inclination to isolatc
thc signs but prclcrs to intcgratc thcm in a
continuous rhythm without, howcvcr, kccping
distinct lorms on singlc lcvcls, in lact thc wholc
charm ol Arabic calligraphy lics in thc way it can
combinc thc distinctivc shapc ol thc charactcrs
with thc uidity ol thc wholc.
Chincsc charactcrs unlold vcrtically, lrom
thc top to thc bottom, thcy imitatc thc movc
mcnt ol a thcogony dcsccnding lrom hcavcn to
carth. As lor Arabic script, it procccds horizon
tally, on thc planc ol bccoming, but starts lrom
thc right, which is thc cld ol action, and movcs
to thc lclt, which is thc rcgion ol thc hcart, it
thcrclorc dcscribcs a progrcssion lrom thc out
ward to thc inward.
Tc succcssivc lincs ol a tcxt can bc com
parcd to thc wclt ol a piccc ol cloth. !n lact, thc
symbolism ol writing is cognatc with that ol
wcaving, both rclcr to thc crossing ol thc cosmic
axcs. !n ordcr to undcrstand this allusion, it is
ncccssary to imaginc thc primitivc cralt ol wcav
ing with thc thrcads ol thc warp hcld vcrtically
and thc wclt uniting thcm horizontally by thc
toandlro movcmcnt ol thc shuttlc, which
rccalls thc dcvolution ol thc cyclc ol days,
months, or ycars, whcrcas thc immobility ol
thc warp corrcsponds to thc immobility ol thc
polar axis. Tis axis is, in rcality, onc alonc, but
its imagc is rcpcatcd in all thc thrcads ol thc
warp in thc samc ways as thc prcscnt instant,
which rcmains always onc, appcars to rcpcat
itscll through timc.
As in wcaving, thc horizontal movcmcnt
ol thc script, which is a rippling movcmcnt,
Opposite: 38. Koran 1: 14, calligraphy in Muaqqaq stylc with srah hcadings in ornamcntal astcrn Kl, writtcn by Mubrak Shh, 13201330
52 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
Arabic Calligraphy 53
54 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
corrcsponds to changc and bccoming, whcrcas
thc vcrtical rcprcscnts thc dimcnsion ol thc s
scncc or thc immutablc csscnccs.
Now this is important. ach ol thc two
dimcnsions scparatcs in thc samc rcspcct
as thc othcr unitcs. Tus, lor cxamplc, thc
horizontal movcmcnt ol thc script, its aspcct
ol bccoming, tcnds to conlusc and lcvcl out
thc csscntial lorms ol thc various lcttcrs, but, on
thc othcr hand, thc horizontal shalts ol thcsc
lcttcrs transccnd and intcrrupt thc ow ol thc
writing. Tc vcrtical is thcrclorc sccn to unitc
in thc scnsc that it arms thc onc and only
sscncc, and thc horizontal dividcs in thc scnsc
that it sprcads out into multiplicity.
!t may wcll appcar that thcsc considcra
tions havc gonc bcyond thc subjcctmattcr,
but actually thcy show thc basis ol all graphic
symbolism and thcrcby pcrmit all thc various
stylcs ol Arabic script to bc givcn thcir duc
placc.
Arabic writing is dcrivcd lrom thc Syriac
or Nabatcan alphabct and its cxistcncc thus
prcccdcs !slam, but it posscsscd, at thc dawn
ol !slam, no morc than a rathcr rudimcntary
charactcr, a largc numbcr ol lcttcrs lookcd
alikc and, sincc vowcls wcrc not indicatcd,
thc mcaning ol many words could oltcn bc
Top: 39. Pagc lrom thc Hannya Shinky Stra, Nara, Japan, latc Hcian pcriod, Bottom left: 40. Koran 43: 36, calligraphy in Muaqqaq stylc, writtcn by
Amad ibn ashShaykh asSuhraward, 8aghdad, 1304, Bottom right: 41. Platc with Kl inscription, Nishapur or Samarqand, 10th ccntury
Arabic Calligraphy 55
madc out only by thc contcxt. Tc cvolution ol
writing had thcrc lorc to procccd ncccssarily in
thc dircction ol grcatcr dicrcntiation. At thc
samc timc, it cm braccd thc symbolical schcmc
wc havc just dc scribcd. A hicratic trcnd which
rcadily acccntu atcs thc distinctivc shapcs ol
cach lcttcr is countcrbalanccd by thc naturally
inhcrcnt tcn dcncy ol thc script to blcnd thc
wholc into a continuous rhythm. Two stylcs ol
writing havc cocxistcd sincc thc rst ccnturics
ol !slam: Kl, which is distinguishcd by thc
static naturc ol thc lcttcrs, and a kind ol cursivc
script, Naskh, with lorms ol varying uidity.
Kl, namcd altcr thc town ol Kula, onc ol thc
main ccntcrs ol Arab culturc in thc days ol thc
Umayyads, was oltcn uscd lor thc calligraphy
ol thc Koran.
9
!t combincs a grcat cxactitudc
ol strokcs with a lovc ol gcomctrical synthcsis,
which docs not makc it casy to rcad. Vc should
point out that it is possiblc in Arabic to bring
togcthcr groups ol lcttcrs and lorm thcm into
thc appcarancc ol a singlc sign.
Kl gavc birth to scvcral variants which
arc principally uscd in architcctural dccoration,
such as rcctangular Kl, which can bc built up
in units likc bricks, oriatc Kl, which is also
lound in thc art ol books, cspccially on thc titlc
pagcs, and Kl with intcrlacing shalts, which
has bccomc onc ol thc lavoritc ornamcntal
motils in Maghrib art, particularly in thc art ol
chisclcd plastcrwork.
42. Koran in Kl script copicd in Kairouan, Tunisia, 9th10th ccntury
Figurc 17: Arabic script: inscription lrom Karbala, datcd 74 A. H. (693 A..)
43. xamplc ol intcrlaccd Kl script lrom thc Alhambra Palacc,
Granada, Spain
44. Koran 113: 15, calligraphy in Muaqqaq stylc with srah hcadings in ornamcntal astcrn Kl, Cairo, gypt, 1368
Arabic Calligraphy 57
with angular outlincs, both horizontal and
vcrtical, wcll cmphasizcd and accompanicd by
largc curvcs opcn at thc top.
Turkish calligraphy, which is vcry rich,
docs not dillcr csscntially lrom astcrn Arabic
calligraphy, but it lovcs to composc kinds
ol magic knots and graphic cmblcms, by
symmctrical rcduplication, which arc somchow
rcmi nisccnt ol Mongol art.
!n parcnthcscs, wc should not lorgct
thc vcry curious lusion ol Arabic script with
Chincsc calligraphic stylc which is lound
among thc Muslims ol Sinkiang, it is hcrc that
two cxtrcmcs mcct.
!n architcctural dccoration and cvcn in thc
art ol books, calligraphy is lrcqucntly marricd to
thc arabcsquc. nc ol thc most happy combina
tions ol this kind is ol Kl with vcrtical shalts
and vinc tcndrils twining in an unbrokcn ow.
Tc tcndrils occasionally ow dircctly out ol
thc lcttcrs, and this is without doubt thc origin
ol oriatc Kl.
Tc bringing togcthcr ol writing and
stylizcd vcgctation cvokcs thc analogy which
cxists bctwccn thc book ol thc world and
thc worldtrcc, two symbols wcll known to
Muslim csotcrism. Tc rst ol thcsc originatcs
in thc Koran, whilc thc sccond is common to
various Asian traditions. 8csidcs, it ows lrom
thc vcry naturc ol things.
Tc univcrsc is both a rcvcalcd book and a
trcc whosc lcavcs and branchcs unlold lrom a
singlc trunk. Tc lcttcrs ol thc rcvcalcd book arc
likc thc lcavcs ol thc trcc, and just as thcsc arc
linkcd to thc branchcs and nally to thc trunk,
so too arc thc lcttcrs linkcd to words, thcn to
scn tcnccs, and nally to thc total and singlc
truth ol thc book.
Lct us also mcntion, in this ordcr ol idcas,
thc Koranic symbol ol thc Suprcmc Pcn
which inscribcs thc dcstiny ol all bcings on thc
Guardcd Tablct, thc Pcn (or Calamus) is nonc
othcr than thc ivinc Spirit or thc Univcrsal
Spirit, and thc grcatcst titlc ol nobility accordcd
to thc art ol writing is thc lact that it is likc thc
distant shadow ol thc ivinc Act.
Tc opposition bctwccn thc two trcnds in
calligraphythc onc acccntuating thc static
lorm ol lcttcrs and thc othcr blcnding thcm in
a continuous owis ncvcr absolutc, in cvcry
phasc ol dcvclopmcnt, synthcscs wcrc madc,
such as thc Muaqqaq whosc cntirc bcauty
lics in thc lact that thc polarization ol both
trcnds is carricd to thc cxtrcmc limit, without,
howcvcr, dcstroy ing thc unity ol thc wholc,
thc incisivc rcpctition ol thc vcrticals, brought
about chicy by clon gating thc shalts ol thc alif
and thc lm, is cchocd, along thc horizontal
ow, by thc dcscant ol amplc and varicd curvcs.
Transposcd to thc monu mcntal ordcr and uscd
lor thc cpigraphy ol thc Koran, this script is likc
an indclatigablc attcsta tion ol thc ivinc Unity
accompanicd by joylul and scrcnc cxpansion ol
thc soul.
Calligraphcrs rccognizc ccrtain rulcs ol
proportion lor cach stylc. Tc unit ol mcasurc
is thc point (or dot) which is cqual to thc
dia critical point bcncath thc lcttcr b. Tc
grcatcst vcrtical cxtcnsion is that ol thc lcttcr
alif, com poscd ol a ccrtain numbcr ol points.
Tc grcatcst horizontal cxtcnsion is dctcrmincd
by thc lowcr hall ol a circlc whosc diamctcr is
thc lcngth ol thc alif.
Tc various cthnic milicux havc madc thcir
mark in writing. Tus, thc Pcrsians dcvclopcd
a kind ol pcarllikc cursivc, ol an almost acrial
uidity, with which to writc thcir languagc
in Arabic script. Tc cxtrcmc oppositc, in thc
graphic ordcr, is thc writing ol thc Maghrib,
whosc arca ol diusion cxtcnds lrom Muslim
Spain to thc Alrican Sahil and which has prc
scrvcd a rclativcly ancicnt synthcsis ol Kl and
Naskh. !ts stylc is both virilc and gcncrous,
Figurc 18: Mcasurc ol lcttcrs in dots
48. Two inscriptions in contrasting stylcs: uid Naskh and rcctangular Kl, at thc cntrancc ol thc khnaqh in Natanz, Pcrsia, 14th ccntury
Left: 46. !lluminatcd pagc ol a mirror script in thc lorm ol a knot, lrom a poctry anthology by Jm, Turkcy, 15th ccntury
Right: 47. An inscribcd opcnwork stccl plaquc, Pcrsia, Salavid pcriod, latc 17th ccntury
58 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
45. !nscription in monumcntal Kl script combincd with arabcsquc, lrom thc Sultan asan Madrasah, Cairo, gypt
Arabic Calligraphy 59
50. Kl and Naskh inscription lrom a woodcn minbar in
thc rclolu Mosquc, 8cychir, Turkcy, 13th ccntury
49. Tilcwork inscription in rcctangular Kl lrom thc domc ol thc Shaykh LulAllh
Mosquc, !lahn, Pcrsia
51. !nscription in Tuluth and Kl scripts combincd with arabcsquc dccoration,
lrom thc Friday Mosquc ol Kcrman, Pcrsia
52. Tilcwork inscription lrom thc Vazr Khn Mosquc,
Lahorc, Pakistan, 17th ccntury
53. !nscription in thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia. Tc spiral background motils tcrminatc in loliatcd scrolls
54. A lcact ol a Kl Koran with gold lcttcring on bluc parchmcnt, Kairouan, Tunisia, mid 10th ccntury
55. Koran 87: 1315, astcrn Kl script, !raq or Pcrsia, carly 11th ccntury 56. Koran 39: 7540: 2, Maghrib script on vcllum, Spain, 13th ccntury
57. Koran 1, Naskh script with srah hcadings in ornamcntal Tuluth, !raq or Pcrsia, 15th ccntury
62 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
3 The Arabesque
!n thc broad scnsc ol thc tcrm, thc arabcsquc
includcs ornamcntation in stylizcd plant lorms
and strictly gcomctrical intcrlacing work. Thc
lirst kind ol ornamcntation is all rhythm, or,
to put it morc cxactly, it is a practically pcrlcct
visual transcription ol rhythm, whcrcas thc scc
ond is crystallinc in naturc. Again thcn, in this
domain, wc discovcr thc two polcs ol all artistic
cxprcssion in !slam: thc scnsc ol rhythm and
thc spirit ol gcomctry.
Historically, thc arabcsquc in plant lorms
sccms to bc dcrivcd lrom thc imagc ol thc vinc,
whosc intcrlacing lcalscrolls and branchcs
winding back on thcmsclvcs lcnd thcmsclvcs
quitc naturally to stylization in undulating and
spiraloid lorms. Vc havc lound thc vinc in thc
dcor ol scvcral ol thc most ancicnt monumcnts
ol !slamic art, particularly at Mshatt, whcrc thc
vinc, pcoplcd with all kinds ol animatc objccts,
rccalls thc thcmc ol thc trcc ol lilc, as wcll as
in thc mosaics ol thc omc ol thc Rock, thc
mirb ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol thc Umayyads
at amascus is ornamcntcd with a vinc, and this
motil is rcproduccd in thc mirb ol thc Grcat
Mosquc at Kairouan. !t is clcar, cvcn so, that thc
arabcsquc combincs vcry varicd plant lorms. Thc
vinc is lound togcthcr with thc acanthus and
thc palm, instcad ol grapcs, it occasionally bcars
pomcgranatcs, pincconcs, or llowcrs. !t carcs
nothing lor botanical catcgorics, and it could
wcll bc that its gcncsis is quitc dillcrcnt lrom
that suggcstcd to us by cxamplcs ol ollicial
art. !ts abstract stylc, madc up lrom a scrics
ol spiraloid and altcrnating curvcs, is ccrtainly
lar morc ancicnt than its rclativcly naturalistic
lorm. Abstract ornamcntation ol this kind cxists
among thc barbarian or nomad pcoplcs who,
coming lrom Ccntral Asia, invadcd uropc
at thc bcginning ol thc Middlc Agcs. Vhat
is tcrmcd thc zoomorphic art (Ticrstil) ol
thc Scythians and Sarmatians, which survivcd
in barbarian art bclorc thc Middlc Agcs, is
58. Stucco mcdallion adorning thc southcrn wn vault ol thc Mristn alQaymar, amascus, Syria
Te Arabesque 63
cntircly modclcd on such lorms as thc doublc
spiral or thc doublc vortcxthc yin-yang
ol thc Chincscwhosc univcrsal symbo lism is
hardly obscurcd by thc zoomorphic thcmc. !t is
always a casc ol cosmic rhythms with altcrnatc
and complcmcntary phascs ol cvolution and
involution, cxpansion and contraction. Groups
ol lacing animalspairs, or wild bcasts with
thcir prcyarc, in any casc, no morc than a
variation on this basic thcmc.
A continuous scrics ol spirals twining and
untwining likc wavcs on thc sca may bc
translatcd in barbarian art into a linc ol ani
mals in pursuit, it can just as wcll givc risc to a
59. Ccramic pancl lrom thc Mausolcum ol ShdiMulk Aqa, Shhi
Zindah, thc lamous cnscmblc ol ccmctcrics in Samarqand, Uzbckistan,
14th ccntury
62. ctail ol tilcwork on thc tomb ol mir Zadch, ShhiZindah,
Samarqand, Uzbckistan, 1386
61. ctail ol arabcsquc in thc Palacc ol Raja 8irbal at Fatchpur Sikri,
Agra, !ndia
60. Carvcd stonc domc ol thc Mausolcum ol Qytby, Cairo, gypt,
1472. Thc ornamcnt, madc up ol gcomctrical intcrlacing and lloral
arabcsqucs, covcrs thc cupola likc a nct
64 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
plantlikc composition, and it is hcrc that wc arc
brought back to thc history ol thc arabcsquc.
!t is strangc that, in achicving pcrlcction in a
dccorativc scnsc, thc arabcsquc in plant lorms
should comc closcst to its purcly lincar and
rhythmical prototypc, whcrcas its lirst manilcs
tations in thc Umayyad pcriod arc still cnlcoll
cd to Hcllcnic naturalism. 8ut this rcduction ol
an ornamcntal motil to its csscntial lorms cor
rcsponds to a powcr inhcrcnt in all !slamic art.
Thc ornamcntal art ol !slam was always
ablc to draw upon popular art, whosc products,
cxccutcd in vcry pcrishablc matcrials, havc not
oltcn survivcd. So it is hard to say how and whcn
popular art nourishcd linc art. Ncvcrthclcss,
onc obscrvcs thc suddcn appcarancc in archi
tcctural dccoration ol archaic lorms and tcch
niqucs. Thus it was that in thc art ol Smarr,
thc city loundcd by thc Abbasid caliphs on thc
bank ol thc Tigris, thc rclativcly naturalistic
vinc motil quitc sud dcnly gavc placc to abstract
spiraloid lorms, and it is ccrtainly no mistakc
to scc thcrc thc inllucncc ol thc Turcoman prc
torian guards who had bccomc powcrlul at thc
Abbasid court.
Thcrc is a curious parallcl bctwccn thc
llowcring ol an art with gcomctrical motils likc
intcrlaccmcnt, doublc spirals, triplc vorticcs,
continuous swastikas, and so on in Northcrn
uropc, and particularly in thc 8ritish !slcs, and
thc almost simultancous appcarancc ol thcsc
samc lorms in thc nasccnt art ol !slam. Thcsc
two manilcstations ol art dillcr in only onc rc
spcct: in northcrn countrics, it is thc stylizcd
animals that sccm somchow to bc thc lirst clc
mcnt ol thc ornamcntation, thcy arc cntwincd
in spirals, lold into knots, and lorm intcrlacc
mcnts ol lacing pairs, whcrcas it is thc stylizcd
plant, in !slamic surroundings, lrom which
most ol thc ornamcntal motils arc lashioncd.
Thc analogics arc occasion ally striking, as, lor
cxamplc, bctwccn onc pagc ol thc Lindislarnc
Gospcl (698 A..) and a ccrtain mosaic pavc
mcnt in thc Umayyad palacc ol Minya on Lakc
Tibcrias (705 A..), but it would bc pointlcss
to attcmpt to cxplain cvcrything by cxchangcs
Figurc 19: xamplc ol Scythian zoomorphic art
63. Animal intcrlacing lrom thc 8ook ol urrow, lol. 192v
Figurc 20: ctail lrom an ornamcntal pagc ol thc Lindislarnc Gospcls
Te Arabesque 65
that might havc takcn placc on thc pcriphcry ol
a uropc ovcrwhclmcd by barbarian invasions,
bctwccn thc Northcrn !slcs and thc Ncar ast.
Thc parallcl in qucstion is all part ol a much
vastcr phcnomcnon, namcly thc cmcrgcncc at
thc conlincs ol thc GrccoRoman world ol an
archaic art whosc clcmcnts, abstract rathcr than
dcscriptivc, arc linkcd to a univcrsal and pri
mordial symbolism. Thcsc clcmcnts losc thcir
immcdiatcly symbolic charactcr on contact with
thc civilizcd world or, morc cxactly, this charac
tcr is suddcnly obscurcd by thc llowcring ol or
namcntal possibilitics inhcrcnt in thcm. This
mctamorphosis is dircctly pcrccptiblc in thc
Christian art ol !rcland, whcrc it is calligraphy
that lays hold ol, and translorms most naturally,
thc ancicnt hcritagc ol lorms, but hcrc, again,
thcrc is an analogy and a kind ol anticipation ol
what was to comc about in Muslim art.
Christian art in abstract lorms was ol only
bricl duration, its cxtraordinary gcnius crum
blcd as thc northcrn islands gradually bccamc
rc intcgratcd into thc Latin world. Thc art ol
!slam, on thc othcr hand, workcd out a synthc
sis bctwccn thc broad currcnt ol archaic lorms,
which llourish in popular art and that ol thc
nomads, and thc morc rational rcquircmcnts ol
urban art, it assimi latcs archaic motils by rcduc
64-65. Stucco dccorations lrom Smarr, !raq
Figurcs 2122: xamplcs ol Scythian zoomorphic art
66 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
ing thcm to thcir most abstract and gcncral lor
mulac. !n a ccrtain way, thcrclorc, it lcvcls thcm
out and, in so doing, takcs away cvcry magical
quality, but, in com pcnsation, it cndows thcm
with a ncw lucidity, almost, onc could say, with
spiritual clcgancc. Lct us not lorgct that !slam
is thc rcligion ol rcturn to thc bcginning, and
that this rcturn shows itscll as a rcstoration ol
all things to unity.
!n its morc stylizcd vcrsions, an arabcsquc
in plant lorms bcars no morc than a distant likc
ncss to a plant. 8ut it docs rcprcscnt a pcrlcct
transcription ol thc laws ol rhythm into visual
tcrms. !ts unlolding is continuous, likc a wavc,
with contrasting phascs having various dcgrccs
ol rcsonancc. Thc dcsign docs not nccd to bc
sym mctrical, but, to makc up lor this, it always
has ccrtain rcpctitions, whosc rhythmic char
actcr is acccntuatcd by thc lact that thc sounds
and thc silcnccs arc acsthctically cquivalcnt.
Strictly spcaking, rhythm bclongs not to
spacc but to timc, ol which it is not thc quantita
tivc mcasurc but thc qualitativc onc. !t is by thc
mcdiation ol movcmcnt that rhythm is rc cs
tablishcd in thc spatial dimcnsion.
At thc samc timc as bcing rhythm and
mclody, thc arabcsquc implicitly rctains its
lamily rclationship with thc plant world, and
its plantlikc virtualitics arc rcady to burst lorth
67. Valltilc lrom thc Ycil Cami (Grccn Mosquc), 8ursa,
Turkcy, 1420
66. ctail lrom a glazcd tilc pancl in thc Tash Havli Palacc, Khva,
Uzbckistan, 18311841
Figurc 23: !ntcrlaccmcnt lrom a Roman pavcmcnt
Te Arabesque 67
at any appropriatc momcnt, thc stylistic lramc
work and thc spccial gcnius ol thc artist or thc
cthnic group will scrvc to dctcrminc thc cxtcnt
to which thc dcsign can draw closc to naturc
without losing its rhythmic continuity, or, again,
movc away lrom naturc without impovcrish
mcnt, lor a ccr tain richncss is part ol thc idca ol
dccoration and, in an arid land, nothing is morc
rich and prccious than cxubcrant vcgctation.
@

!
Thc sccond modc, or clcmcnt, ol thc arabcsquc
is intcrlaccmcnt, pcrlcct cxamplcs ol which arc
alrcady to bc sccn in Umayyad monu mcnts, in
thc palacc ol Khirbat alMaljar and, abovc all,
in thc Grcat Mosquc ol amascus, whcrc thcy
takc thc lorm ol carvcd trclliswork protccting
thc windows. According to ccrtain art histori
ans, Arab intcrlaccmcnt is supposcdly dcrivcd
lrom Roman pavcmcnt mosaics, which wcrc
still bcing uscd in thc Syria ol thc Umayyads.
!n lact, howcvcr, it is Roman intcrlaccmcnt that
is a naturalistic and urban imitationor para
phrascol a motil bclonging csscntially to thc
archaic arts, that is, to arts still linkcd to a lan
guagc ol symbolism. Hcrc again, !slamic art has
takcn ovcr a vcry ancicnt motil and dcvclopcd
it with a kind ol mathcmatical gcnius. Arab
Figurc 24: Vindow grillc lrom Khirbat alMaljar and its gcomctrical schcmc
68. oorknockcr lrom thc Pucrta dcl Pcrdn, Scvilla, Spain, an
cxamplc ol purc arabcsquc with rhythmical altcrnation ol solid and
void lorms, 12th ccntury
69. ctail ol cut tilcwork lrom thc Mosquc ol Gawhar Shd,
Mashhad, Pcrsia, 15th ccntury. Floral arabcsquc
68 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
intcrlaccmcnt has a gcomctrical complcxity
and rhythmic quality quitc lacking in its Ro
man countcrpart. This lattcr amounts to thc
rcprcscntation ol a knottcd ropc, and it is this
ropc which holds thc intcrcst, in Arab intcr
laccmcnt, on thc othcr hand, thc lillcd spaccs
and thc cmpty arcas, thc dcsign and its ground,
arc both ol strictly cquivalcnt valuc and balancc
cach othcr out, in thc samc way that thc lincs
always llow back on thcmsclvcs, so that oncs
attcntion ncvcr halts on a particular clcmcnt ol
thc dcor. Thc continuity ol thc intcrlaccmcnt
invitcs thc cyc to lollow it, and vision is thcn
translormcd into rhythmic cxpcricncc accom
panicd by thc intcllcctual satislaction givcn by
thc gcomctric rcgularity ol thc wholc.
Thc shapcs ol !slamic intcrlaccmcnt arc
normally built up lrom onc or scvcral rcgular
ligurcs inscribcd in a circlc which arc thcn dc
vclopcd according to thc principlc ol thc star
shapcd polygon, which mcans that thc propor
tions inhcring in thc basic ligurc arc rccchocd
at cach lcvcl ol dcvclopmcnt. illcrcnt dcsigns
ol an analogous naturc may intcrpcnctratc
and lorm a continuous nctwork ol lincs which
radiatc simultancously lrom onc and scvcral
ccntcrs.
Thc lavoritc pattcrns arc thosc bascd on
dividing a circlc by six, cight, and livc. Thc
sixlold division is thc most organic bccausc
it comcs about naturally lrom thc radius,
subdividcd into twclvc, it corrcsponds to thc
zodiac. To dividc thc circlc by cight makcs
lor grcatcr amplitudc, bccausc it somchow
cmbraccs thc cxtrcmc contrast ol thc squarcd
circlc. Gcomctrical dcvclopmcnt out ol an
octagon, or morc cxactly out ol two squarcs
inscribcd in a circlc, is thc most habitual in
!slamic art, wc havc alrcady cncountcrcd it in
thc plan ol thc omc ol thc Rock. !t is lound
likcwisc in thc construction ol a cupola upon
a squarc basc, mcdiatcd by an octagon. A
scrics ol octagons inscribcd onc upon anothcr
cnsurcs a particularly harmonious progrcssion
ol proportions.
!t is rccognizcd that thc livclold or tcn
lold division ol thc circlc corrcsponds to thc
Goldcn Rulc, it cngcndcrs thc proportion ,
and this is thc most pcrlcct intcgration ol a part
into thc wholc.
Particularly wcllconccivcd intcrlaccmcnts
combinc starshapcd polygons ol various typcs,
lor cxamplc ol twclvc and cight radii rcspcc
tivcly.
70. Tilc dccoration lrom thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
Pattcrn bascd on octagon
71. Tilc dccoration lrom thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
Pattcrn bascd on hcxagon
A
8
-
8
A8
Te Arabesque 69
72. ctail ol tilcwork lrom thc main cntrancc to thc Friday Mosquc in Yazd, Pcrsia, mid 14th ccntury
Figurc 25: Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom a twclvclold division ol thc circlc Figurc 26: Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom an cightlold division ol thc circlc
70 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
73. Tilcwork on thc domc ol thc Shh Nimatullh tomb in Mahan,
Pcrsia, 15th ccntury (Salavid rcconstruction)
Figurc 27: Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom an cightlold division ol thc circlc
Figurc 28: Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom a livc and tcnlold division ol thc circlc
74. Picrccd marblc scrccn lrom thc tomb ol Salm Chishti at Fatchpur
Sikri, Agra, !ndia, latc 16th ccntury
75. ctail ol dccoration in thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain
Te Arabesque 71
76. ctail ol tilcwork in thc mirb ol rclolu Mosquc, 8cychir, Turkcy, 13th ccntury
79. Ccramic pancl lrom thc Grcat Mosquc ol Yazd, Pcrsia, 14th ccntury. Pattcrn bascd on
a twclvclold division ol thc circlc
77. ctail ol thc ccramic covcring thc principal laadc ol thc
Mausolcum ol Zang Ata in Tashkcnt, Uzbckistan, latc 14th ccntury
78. ctail ol a grillc with a pattcrn ol stars and hcxagons lrom thc
Mosquc ol thc ld Fort, clhi, !ndia, 1541
72 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
80. Tilc dccoration lrom thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain. Pattcrn bascd on octagon
82. Tilc dccoration lrom Scvilla, Spain. Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom a livc
and tcnlold division ol thc circlc
81. Tilc dccoration lrom Fcz, Morocco. Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom a livc
and tcnlold division ol thc circlc
Te Sphere and the Cube 73
Thc Muslim artist or craltsman who
draws a gcomctric ornamcntand this may
bc a vcritablc wcb ol intcrlacing roscttcs and
covcr a surlacc ol varying sizcdocs not, as
a rulc, rctain thc circlc which has guidcd thc
dcsign and within which thc basic pattcrn has
bccn traccd out, this circlc is implicit, and lclt
instcad ol bcing sccn, and this simply brings
out thc radiation ol thc rcctilincar dcsign morc
strongly: thus it bclongs to thc world ol crystal,
snowllakcs, and thc scrcnc and distant shining
ol thc stars.
@

!

For a Muslim artist orwhat comcs to thc
samc thinga craltsman who has to dccoratc
a surlacc, gcomctrical intcrlaccmcnt doubtlcss
rcprcscnts thc most intcllcctually satislying
lorm, lor it is an cxtrcmcly dircct cxprcssion
ol thc idca ol thc ivinc Unity undcrlying thc
incxhaustiblc varicty ol thc world. Truc, ivinc
Unity as such is bcyond all rcprcscntation,
bccausc its naturc, which is total, lcts nothing
rcmain outsidc itscll, it is without a sccond.
Ncvcrthclcss, it is through harmony that it is
rcllcctcd in thc world, harmony bcing nothing
othcr than unity in multiplicity (al-wadah
f i l-kathrah), thc samc as multiplicity in
unity (al-kathrah f i l-wadah). !ntcrlaccmcnt
cxprcsscs thc onc aspcct and thc othcr. 8ut it is
in yct anothcr rcspcct that it rccalls thc unity
undcrlying things, namcly that it is gcncrally
constitutcd lrom a singlc clcmcnt, a singlc ropc
or a singlc linc, which comcs cndlcssly back
upon itscll.
4 The Sphere and the Cube
Thc synthcsis ol gcomctry and rhythm is likc
wisc lound, in a lorm which is not simply lincar
but lully spatial, in a vcry typical clcmcnt ol !s
lamic architccturc, namcly, thc muqarnas which
arc dcscribcd by thc vcry approximatc tcrm ol
stalactitcs. 8riclly, it is a casc ol having cu
pola supports in thc lorm ol nichcs, rcpcatcd
onc altcr thc othcr in thc samc way as thc cclls
ol a honcycomb arc rcpcatcd or as crystals clus
tcr togcthcr according to thc radiation ol thcir
axcs. This clcmcnt pcrmits thc clcar articulation
ol any passagc bctwccn planc and curvcd sur
laccs and, in particular, thc transition bctwccn
a cupola and its rcctangular basc. For this samc
purposc, Roman art cmploycd thc pcndcntivc,
which providcs a continuous and, as it wcrc,
gliding transition bctwccn thc hcmisphcrc ol
Left: 83. Vall pancl lrom Akbars tomb, Agra, !ndia, Center: 84. 8rickwork on thc laadc ol thc Mustaniriyyah Madrasah, 8aghdad, !raq. Pattcrn bascd
on a twclvclold division ol thc circlc, Right: 85. Vindow grillc with hcxagonal hollowcdout ccramic tilcs lrom thc Mausolcum ol Shamsi Tabrzi in
Muln, Pakistan
74 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
thc cupola and thc right anglc ol thc basc. From
thc gcomctrical point ol vicw, thc cupola and
thc pcndcntivc bclong to two sphcrcs ol dil
lcrcnt sizcs, and thc transition lrom onc to thc
othcr implics a changc ol prolilc which thc cyc
hardly pcrccivcs. This did not at all satisly thc
nccd lor gcomctrical clarity and rhyth mic ar
ticulation that animatcd Muslim architccts. As
lor construction with corncr squinchcs in thc
lorm ol scashclls or nichcs, that was no morc
satislactory than thc othcr, bccausc it did not
cnsurc allround continuity bctwccn thc rcct
angular basc and thc cupola. !nstcad ol a singlc
nichc mountcd saddlcwisc in thc corncr walls
and supporting by its vault thc sidc ol an oc
tagon, which supportcd in its turn thc circular
basc ol thc cupola, a numbcr ol honcycomb
nichcs wcrc brought togcthcr in such a way as
to crcatc a gradual transition bctwccn thc cor
ncr and thc domcs circular basc. \crtically, thc
nichcs mount onc upon thc othcr, horizontally
thcy arc joincd togcthcr by thcir arriscs which
bccomc variously acccntuatcd, whcn thcsc ar
riscs arc cxtcndcd into spacc, thcy look rathcr
likc stalactitcs.
Thc muqarnas havc a both static and rhyth
mical charactcr, as is brought out most clcarly by
transposing thc rclationship ol domc to basc, or sphcrc to cubc, back to its cosmic modcl, which
is nonc othcr than that ol hcavcn to carth,
whcn hcavcn is charactcrizcd by its indclinitc
circular movcmcnt and carth by its polariza
tion into such loursidcd contrasts as hot and
cold, humid and dry. Thc honcycomb ol muqa-
rnas linking thc cupola to its quadrangular basc
is thcrclorc an ccho ol thc motion ol hcavcn
in thc tcrrcstrial ordcr. 8ut thc immobility ol
thc cubc clcmcnt may cqually havc thc scnsc
ol complction, or thc lixcd and timclcss statc
ol thc world, and this scnsc is morc bclitting
to thc architccturc ol a sanctuary. !n this casc,
thc honcycomb ol thc muqarnas cxprcsscs a co
agulation ol cosmic motion, its crystallization
in thc purc prcscnt.
!n practicc, muqarnas consist ol itcms which
arc carvcd or moldcd according to a ccrtain
numbcr ol modcls and which can bc variously
Figurc 29: Roman pcndcntivc, a gcomctrical analysis
Figurc 30: Muqarnas as squinch ol a cupola
Te Sphere and the Cube 75
Raqqa in Syria and datcs lrom thc cnd ol thc
cighth ccntury. 8y thc twcllth ccntury it had
sprcad throughout thc Muslim world. \aults
composcd cntircly in thcsc stalactitcs saw thc
light ol day simultancously in thc Maghrib and
thc countrics ol thc ast. !n thc Vcst, thcy arc
gcncrally con structcd in plastcr and attain an
almost diaphanous dclicacy, occasionally thcy
arc in wood, likc thc magniliccntly paintcd ccil
ing ol thc Capclla Palatina in Sicily, thcn hall
Arab. !t is in Asia Minor and Mamluk gypt
that arc lound thc most bcautilul muqarnas
carvcd in stonc, thc Turkish pcoplcs, lirst thc
Scljuks and thcn thc ttomans, wcrc ablc to
givc this clcmcnt its grcatcst plastic vigor.
Thc uropcan obscrvcr may wcll bc sur
priscd to lind that this architcctural clcmcnt
was ablc to conqucr thc cntirc Muslim world,
lrom Arab Spain to Alghanistan and !ndia.
Thc rcason lor its succcss undoubtcdly lics in
thc lact that it pcrmits spacc to bc articulatcd
in a both gco mctrical and rhythmic manncr, its
conccption must bc ascribcd to a pcrspcctivc
that unitcs spacc and timc.
!slamic architccturc also kncw thc rib
cupola or ribvault, analogous to thc Gothic
vault, which was pcrhaps inllucnccd by !slamic
modcls. !t is particularly in Pcrsian brick ar
chitccturc that this mcthod ol construction
was dcvclopcd to pcrlcction and with ccrtain
spccial tcchniqucs which distinguish it sharp
asscmblcd. Thc ways in which thcy arc dcploycd
vary according to thc prolilc ol thcir archcs and
thc dcgrcc ol concavity ol thcir vaults, thcy may
cvcn cspousc rcctilincar lorms, or concavc oncs
madc convcx.
Thc historical origin ol this clcmcnt is un
ccrtain. !t is vcry probably a crcation ol archi
tccturc in bakcd brick, as dcvclopcd in !ran
and !raq. Thc oldcst cxamplc lound so lar is at
Figurc 31: Sasanid corncr squinch
Figurc 32: Corncr squinch in thc lorm ol a nichc
Figurc 33: Muqarnas lorming a transition lrom squarc to octagon
Figurc 34: Muqarnas lorming a transition lrom squarc to circlc
76 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
ly lrom its countcrpoint in Christian art. Thc
ribs ol a Pcrsian vault do not support it likc a
timbcr lramcwork, but thcy strcngthcn it and,
as it wcrc, strctch it out by mcans ol brick ar
riscs which arc apparcnt only at thc cxtrados, at
thc intrados, thc ribs arc barcly pcrccptiblc, so
that thc dillcrcnt scgmcnts ol thc vault arc prc
scntcd as laccts ol a singlc concavc surlacc. At
thc samc timc, thc ribs do not all comc togcthcr
in thc crown ol thc vault, thcy arc intcrlaccd
likc baskctwork, lcaving thc ccntral crown ol
thc vault or cupola lrcc. All this rcvcals an cn
tircly dillcrcnt conccpt lrom that inhcring in
thc Gothic vault, thc lattcr somchow comcs
86. Muqarnas at thc Sibiyya Madrasah, amascus, Syria, 16th ccntury
89. Muqarnas with tcrracotta pancls, Abbasid Palacc, 8aghdad, !raq,
c. 1230
88. Muqarnas at rclolu Mosquc, 8cychir, Turkcy, 13th ccntury
87. Muqarnas at thc Mausolcum ol alGulshn, Cairo, gypt, 15th
ccntury
Te Sphere and the Cube 77
90. Muqarnas abovc thc main cntrancc ol alAzhar Mosquc, Cairo, gypt
91. Muqarnas at thc cntrancc ol thc Shh Mosquc in !lahn, Pcrsia
78 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
about as thc convcrgcncc ol lorccs which as
ccnd by thc columns and arc thcn takcn up by
thc ribwork as lar as thcir point ol junction in
thc vaultcrown, whcrcas thc Pcrsian orin
morc gcncral tcrmsthc !slamic vault unlolds
lrom thc top down wards, lcaving its sphcrical
unity, which bccomcs dillcrcntiatcd towards its
pcriphcry, to bc gradu ally translormcd by cvcr
morc articulatcd laccts into thc polygonal lorm
ol thc substructurc.
This dillcrcncc bctwccn thc Pcrsian and
thc Gothic ribvault is, morcovcr, only onc cx
amplc ol a lar morc gcncral dillcrcncc. !n Mus
lim art, unity is ncvcr thc rcsult ol synthcsis ol
componcnt clcmcnts, it cxists a priori, and all
thc particular lorms arc dcduccd lrom it, thc
total lorm ol a building or an intcrior cxists bc
lorc its parts, whcthcr thcy havc a static lunc
tion or not. Sincc thcrc is nothing lortuitous in
thc lormal languagc ol a sacrcd art, and sincc
architccturc in particular is likc a gcomctrical
lormulation ol thc truths inhcrcnt in thc rc
ligion lrom which it dcrivcs, it is pcrmissiblc
Figurc 35: Muqarnas lorming stalactitcs
Figurcs 3637: Rcctilincar and curvilincar muqarnas
Figurc 38: Muqarnas: nichc
92. Muqarnas in thc southwcst wn ol thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia
80 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
This is truc ol thc sphcrc or thc circlc and
thc lorms dcrivcd most dircctly lrom thcm,
such as rcgular polyhcdrons or polygons.
!n a ccrtain scnsc thc sphcrc rcprcscnts, in
thc gcomctrical ordcr, thc thrcshold bctwccn
lorm and its lormlcss principlc, indicatcd by
thc point without cxtcnsion. Thc sphcrcor
thc circlc, il onc is dcaling simply in plancs
comc about as thc rcsult ol thc radiation ol thc
point which is thc principlc, whcrcas rcgular
lorms llow lrom thc sphcrcor circlcby
qualitativc dillcrcntiation, and irrcgular or ac
cidcntal lorms by quantitativc lragmcntation.
Transposcd into thc univcrsal ordcr, thc sphcrc
corrcsponds to thc Spirit (ar -R) cmanating
lrom thc ungraspablc point ol 8cing. Rcgular
lorms or imagcs corrcspond to thc archctypcs
or immutablc csscnccs (al-a

yn ath -thbitah)
containcd in thc Spirit, and accidcntal lorms to
cphcmcral bcings.
5 The Alchemy of Light
Tc artist who wishcs to cxprcss thc idca ol thc
unity ol cxistcncc or thc unity ol thc rcal
(wadat al-wujd),
10
has actually thrcc mcans
at his disposal: gcomctry, which translatcs unity
into thc spatial ordcr, rhythm, which rcvcals it in
thc tcmporal ordcr and also indircctly in spacc,
and light which is to visiblc lorms what 8cing is
to limitcd cxistcnccs. Light is, in lact, itscll indi
visiblc, its naturc is not altcrcd by its rclraction
into colors nor diminishcd by its gradation into
clarity and darkncss. And in thc samc way as
nothingncss docs not itscll cxist cxccpt by its
illusory opposition to 8cing, so also darkncss is
visiblc only by contrast with light, to thc cxtcnt
that light makcs shadows appcar.
11
God is thc light ol thc hcavcns and thc
carth, says thc Koran (24:35). !t is thc divinc
light which brings things out lrom thc darkncss
ol nothing. !n thc symbolical ordcr in qucstion,
to bc visiblc signilics to cxist, now, just as shad
ow adds nothing to thc light, things arc rcal
to ascribc thc dillcrcnccs bctwccn thcmand
this dillcrcncc is spcllcd out with outstanding
clarity in thc divcrgcncc ol thc Pcrsian and thc
Gothic vaultsto thc spiritual possibilitics ol
thc rcspcctivc rcligions. Thc ccntral thcmc ol
Christianity is union with God, which is sccn
as an cnd towards which cvcry human cllort
must aspirc, thc ccntral thcmc ol !slam, on thc
othcr hand, is Unity as such, which cxists a pri-
ori, cvcrywhcrc and at all timcs, and which sim
ply nccds to bc rccognizcd, so that mans cllort
in this rcgard scrvcs only to cxtricatc thc Unity
alrcady cxisting in himscll and in all things.
Grantcd that ncithcr ol thcsc pcrspcctivcs prc
cludcs thc othcr and that thcy arc cvcn csscn
tially onc, ncvcrthclcss thcrc is a dillcrcncc ol
cmphasis, which is dccisivc lor thc stylcs ol
thcsc two traditional worlds.
@

!
Having arrivcd at this point in our dis cussion,
wc should likc to inscrt a lcw considcrations
ol a principial ordcr, drawn lrom what wc
would happily tcrm thc Platonic dimcnsion ol
!slam.
Form is both quality and limitation, it is
limitcd, and limiting, to thc cxtcnt that it is pc
riphcral and accidcntal, and qualitativc to thc
cxtcnt that it carrics its principlc within itscll.
Figurc 39: Pcrsian vault
Te Alchemy of Light 81
93. Stalactitcs in thc cciling ol thc Sala dc los Abcnccrrajcs in thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain
94. Muqarnas in thc castcrn wn ol thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia
95. Court ol Lions in thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain
96. Thc Mirador ol Lindaraja in thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain
84 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
97-98. ctails ol stucco dccoration in thc Court ol Lions, Alhambra
Palacc, Granada, Spain
only to thc cxtcnt that thcy sharc in thc light
ol 8cing.
Thcrc is no morc pcrlcct symbol ol thc i
vinc Unity than light. For this rcason, thc Mus
lim artist sccks to translorm thc vcry stull hc
is lashioning into a vibration ol light. !t is to
this cnd that hc covcrs thc intcrior surlaccs ol
a mosquc or palaccand occasionally thc outcr
oncswith mosaics in ccramic tilcs. This lin
ing is oltcn conlincd to thc lowcr part ol thc
walls, as il to dispcl thcir hcavincss. !t is lor thc
samc purposc that thc artist translorms othcr
surlaccs into pcrloratcd rclicls to liltcr thc light.
Muqarnas also scrvc to trap light and dillusc it
with thc most subtlc gradations.
Colors rcvcal thc intcrior richncss ol light.
Light vicwcd dircctly is blinding, it is through
thc harmony ol colors that wc divinc its truc
naturc, which bcars cvcry visual phcnomcnon
within itscll.
Among thc cxamplcs ol !slamic architccturc
undcr thc sway ol thc sovcrcignty ol light, thc
Alhambra at Granada occupics thc lirst rank.
Thc Court ol Lions in particular scts thc
cxamplc ol stonc translormcd into a vibration
ol light, thc lambrcquins ol thc arcadcs, thc
lriczcs in muqarnas, thc dclicacy ol thc columns
which sccm to dcly gravity, thc scintillation
ol thc rools in grccn tilcwork, and cvcn thc
watcrjcts ol thc lountain, all contributc to this
imprcssion.
Vc havc comparcd this art to alchcmy,
12

thc wcllknown thcmc ol which is thc trans
mutation ol lcad into gold, lcad is thc basc mc
tallic substancc, shapclcss and opaquc, whcrcas
gold, thc solar mctal, is in somc way light madc
corporcal. !n thc spiritual ordcr, alchcmy is
nonc othcr than thc art ol transmuting bodily
consciousncss into spirit: body must bc madc
spirit, say thc alchcmists, lor spirit to bccomc
body. 8y analogy, onc can say ol Muslim ar
chitccturc that it translorms stonc into light
which, in its turn, is translormcd into crystals.
Notcs to Chaptcr !\
1. Tc grcat Muslim scholar Ab Rayn al8rn, born
in 973 A.. at Khva, wrotc on this subjcct: ur rcli
gion and our cmpirc arc Arab subjcct tribcs havc oltcn
joincd togcthcr to givc thc statc a nonArab charactcr. 8ut
thcy havc not bccn ablc to achicvc thcir aim, and as long as
thc call to praycr continucs to ccho in thcir cars vc timcs
a day, and thc Koran in lucid Arabic is rccitcd among thc
worshippcrs standing in rows bchind thc imm, and its
rclrcshing mcssagc is prcachcd in thc mosqucs, thcy will
nccds submit, thc bond ol !slam will not bc brokcn, nor
its lortrcsscs vanquishcd. 8ranchcs ol knowlcdgc lrom
all countrics in thc world havc bccn translatcd into thc
tonguc ol thc Arabs, cmbcllishcd and madc scductivc, and
thc bcautics ol languagcs havc inluscd thcir vcins and ar
tcrics, dcspitc thc lact that cach pcoplc considcrs its own
languagc bcautilul, sincc it is accustomcd to it and cm
ploys it in its daily occs. ! spcak lrom cxpcricncc, lor !
was rcarcd in a languagc in which it would bc strangc to
scc a branch ol knowlcdgc cnshrincd. Tcncc ! passcd to
Arabic and Pcrsian, and ! am a gucst in both languagcs,
having madc an cort to acquirc thcm, but ! would rathcr
bc rcprovcd in Arabic than complimcntcd in Pcrsian.
2. Ccrtain pcoplc will raisc thc objcction that not all Ar
abs wcrc nomads and that thcrc wcrc citics in Arabia likc
Mccca and Yathrib (Mcdina) bclorc !slam. Tc answcr is
that in Ccntral Arabia, whcrc !slam had its birth, nomad
ism was broadly prcdominant, cvcn thc aristocracy ol thc
Quraysh, lormcd ol caravan mcrchants, is inconccivablc
without a nomadic background. !t is truc that Mccca al
rcady constitutcd a spiritual ccntcr and, thcrclorc, a lactor
making lor stability in thc midst ol tribal uctuations. 8ut
Mccca is prcciscly thc anchor which !slam uscd to trans
lorm thc cthnic substancc rcprcscntcd by thc nomadic
Arabs into a rcligious community.
3. Scc douard ormc, LArabc littral ct la languc dc
Hammourabi, in Louis Massignon, Mlanges (amascus,
1957).
4. Tc most ancicnt Scmitic alphabcts havc a total ol
twcntyninc sounds or lcttcrs, twcntycight ol which arc
rctaincd by Arabic, thc missing sound bcing a variant
ol S. !t is possiblc that thc rcduction ol thc alphabct to
twcntycight lcttcrs convcys a symbolic purposc, lor ccr
tain Arab authors scc a corrcspondcncc bctwccn thcsc
sounds and thc twcntycight stations ol thc moon. Tc
phonctic cyclc progrcssing lrom gutturals to palatals, dcn
tals, and labials rctraccs thc lunary phascs ol primordial
sound cmanating lrom thc sun.
5. Tcrc do cxist vcrbs composcd ol lour or vc root con
sonants, but in such cascs, consonantal groups likc ts or br
play thc rolc ol singlc sounds.
6. According to thc Koran (2:3133), it was Adam who
was ablc to namc all bcings, whcrcas thc angcls could
not.
7. Tc phonctic symbolism which inhcrcs in Arabic
is rcvcalcd in particular by thc pcrmutation ol radical
consonants: lor cxamplc, thc root RM signics to bc
mcrcilul, to havc pity on, whcrcas thc root RM has
thc scnsc ol to lorbid, to makc inacccssiblc, sacrum fa-
cere, similarly, thc root Q8L has thc scnsc ol to lacc,
to rcccivc (whcncc thc Hcbrcw word Qabbalah), whilc
thc root QL8 has thc scnsc ol to rcturn, to rcvcrsc
(whcncc thc tcrm qalb mcaning matrix and hcart). A
lurthcr cxamplc is thc root FRQ, mcaning to scparatc,
to dividc (thc Latin word furca sccms to bc dcrivcd lrom
an analogous root), and its pcrmutation RFQ which has
thc scnsc ol to accompany, to join, whcrcas thc group
FQR mcans to bc poor, in want.
8. !n thc Umayyad mosquc at amascus, lor cxamplc, or
thc palacc ol Khirbat alMa(ar.
9. Scc Martin Lings, Te Quranic Art of Calligraphy and
Illumination (London: Vorld ol !slam Fcstival Publishing
Co., 1976).
10. Tc tcrm wadat al-wujd, which bclongs to !slam
ic csotcrism and morc particularly to thc school ol !bn
Arab, can apply at various lcvcls and so bc translatcd in
various ways: unity ol cxistcncc, unity ol bcing, unity ol
thc Rcal, ctc.
11. Hast thou not lookcd to thy Lord, how Hc sprcad thc
shadow: Had Hc wishcd, Hc had madc it without motion.
Tcn Vc madc thc sun to show it. Tcn Vc withdrcw it
back to Us, an casy withdrawing. . . (Koran 25:4546).
12. Titus 8urckhardt, Moorish Culture in Spain (London:
Gcorgc Allcn & Unwin, 1972).
86 Te Common Language of Islamic Art
Opposite: 99. wn in thc courtyard ol alGhr Mosquc, Cairo, gypt, Above: 100. Praycr hall ol thc Qarawiyyn Mosquc, Fcz, Morocco
1 The Nature and Role of
Sacred Art
!
n spcaking ol !slamic worship in rclation to
art, wc uscd thc tcrm liturgy, and this nccds
lurthcr dclinition bccausc it cvokcs a priori thc
Christian pattcrn ol worship, which dcvclopcd
gradually on thc basis ol an apostolic tradition
and by thc work ol thc Church Fathcrs. !n this
contcxt, thc liturgy is distinguishcd lrom thc
sacramcnt, thc divincly institutcd ritc which, in
a way, thc liturgy cnlolds, protccting it and at
thc samc timc manilcsting it, whilc bcing it
scll protcctcd and unloldcd by sacrcd art which
transposcs its thcmcs into architccturc and ico
nography, to mcntion only thc two most im
portant visual arts in thc milicu ol Christianity.
Things prcscnt thcmsclvcs quitc dillcrcntly in
!slam, whcrc thc lorms ol worship arc lixcd,
down to thc smallcst dctail, by thc Koran and
thc Prophcts cxamplc. Thcrc is practically no
liturgical bordcrlinc, so that onc can say cqually
that thc liturgy is compriscd within thc ritc
itscll, that is, in thc lorm ol worship divincly
institutcd or, again, that sacrcd art assumcs thc
rolc ol thc liturgy, and that this rolc consists in
crcating a lramcwork to suit thc ritc, opcn to
angclic blcssings and closcd to dark psychic
inllucnccs. Vc shall scc that such is indccd thc
rolc and position ol art in !slam, and it immc
diatcly cxplains thc importancc assumcd in this
contcxt by rcligious architccturc and cvcn by
architccturc in gcncralsincc cvcry dwclling is
in principlc a placc ol worshipas wcll as by
cvcry othcr art that scrvcs to shapc thc cnviron
mcnt, such as dccoration, cpigraphy, and thc art
ol carpcts, not lorgctting thc liturgical rolc ol
clothing.
Chaptcr \
Art and Liturgy
88 Art and Liturgy
101. Thc wintcr praycr hall ol thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia, 1575
Sacrcd art thcrclorc lullills two mutually
complcmcntary lunctions: it radiatcs thc bcauty
ol thc ritc and, at thc samc timc, protccts it. Thc
lirst ol thcsc lunctions is lcgitimizcd in !slam
by thc lact that thc Prophct adviscd his com
panions to chant thc Koran, that is, to rccitc it
in rhythmic and mclodious lashion. Thus, thc
rcvcalcd word rcvcrbcratcs in thc musical ordcr,
and this is assurcdly thc lirmcst possiblc link
bctwccn ritc and art.
Thc notion that worship should bc accom
panicd by bcauty and, as it wcrc, cnwrappcd in
it, is also conlirmcd by thcsc passagcs lrom thc
Koran: h sons ol Adam! wcar your comcly
garmcnts in cvcry placc ol praycr.Vho thcn
has dcclarcd unlawlul thc comcly garb that
God has brought lorth lor His scrvants:
(7:3132). Vc shall rcturn latcr to thc liturgical
rolc ol clothing.
Thc complcmcntary lunction ol sacrcd art,
that ol protcction, is illustratcd by thc tradition
al story (adth), in which thc Prophct is said to
havc had a cloth or curtain, which was dcco
ratcd with ligurcd dcsigns, rcmovcd lrom his
room bccausc, hc said, thcsc ligurcs disturbcd
his praycrs. Now thc Prophct ccrtainly did not
lack thc powcr ol abstract conccntration, but hc
wishcd thcrcby to show that ccrtain lorms ol
art arc incompatiblc with !slamic worship. !t
must not bc said that hc was condcmning art
as such, as il thc rcjcction ol ccrtain lorms did
not ncccssarily call lorth othcrs, lor wc livc in a
world wovcn out ol lorms and wc cannot avoid
choosing bctwccn thcm.

@

!

!n a ccrtain scnsc, a ritc is a divinc art. For thosc
who baulk at this way ol cxprcssing things, lct
us makc clcar that wc mcan by this a manilcsta
tion, on thc lcvcl ol lorms and according to a
spccilically human modc, ol a rcality which
Te Nature and Role of Sacred Art 89
102. Praycr hall ol alAzhar Mosquc, Cairo, gypt
itscll gocs bcyond all lorm or limitation. This
art cannot thcrclorc bc imitatcd, but it radiatcs,
wc could also say that it rcvcrbcratcs and nccds
surroundings to ccho in.
Thc tcrm mosquc, which applics to cvcry
Muslim placc ol praycr, comcs lrom thc Arabic
masjid which mcans a placc ol prostration,
and this shows implicitly that canonical praycr
in !slam involvcs ccrtain bodily gcsturcs or
positions.
Thcrc is nothing surprising in thc bodys
bcing rcquircd to sharc in thc act ol adora
tion, whcn it is rcmcmbcrcd that this act cn
gagcs man in his totalityhc must pray with
his wholc bcing and his wholc awarcncssand
that this totality is conccivcd cmpirically only
lrom thc startingpoint ol thc body. Thc bodys
intcgration into praycr dcmands its sacraliza
tion, and this is cllcctcd in thc ablution prcccd
ing praycr, to bring thc limbs into contact with
watcr, an imagc ol primordial indillcrcntiation,
scrvcs morcovcr, by analogy and according to
intcntion, as a kind ol rcstoration to thc statc
ol innoccncc.
Lct us notc in parcnthcscs that thcrc is a
link bctwccn thc sacralization ol thc body, as
rcalizcd by ritual purilications, and thc !slamic
conccption ol scxuality.
Thc chicl positions or attitudcs ol praycr
arc thc lollowing: thc upright position lacing
thc qiblah, in which thc worshippcr rccitcs thc
words ol praycr rcvcalcd in thc Koran, thcn
bowing, and prostration. Thc signilicancc ol
thcsc thrcc attitudcs, which arc linkcd in a
scqucncc ol movcmcnt and rcposc to thc ac
companimcnt ol sacrcd uttcranccs, is clcar: it
is in thc upright position, which distinguishcs
man lrom all othcr animals, that thc bclicvcr
spcaks to God, or that God spcaks through
him, bowing is an act ol homagc by thc scrvant
to what surpasscs him, whilc prostration is thc
abandonmcnt ol oncscll to thc will ol an all
90 Art and Liturgy
Opposite: 104. Mirb ol Uljaytu in thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia, 1310
powcrlul Lord. Thcsc thrcc attitudcs dcscribc
in spacc thc dircctional scgmcnts ol a cross,
which csotcric scicncc idcntilics with what
might bc tcrmcd thc cxistcntial dimcnsions
ol man, namcly: activc and upright participa
tion in thc spirit which transccnds thc natural
world, thc unlolding ol consciousncss into thc
horizontal ol cxistcncc and, linally, thc crca
turcs movcmcnt away lrom its divinc sourcc,
a downward lall lor which submission to thc
ivinc Vill compcnsatcs.
Thc actualization ol thcsc dimcnsions is
cquivalcnt to rcintcgrating thcm into Adam
ic cquilibrium. And it is this cquilibrium, by
virtuc ol which man is all and nothing bclorc
God, which conlcrs on !slamic art its plcnitudc,
sobricty, and scrcnity.
2 The Mirb
Thc praycrnichc, or mirb, is indisputably a
crcation ol sacrcd art, and has bccomc in prac
ticc a rcgular clcmcnt in thc liturgy, though not
an indispcnsablc onc. Art historians bclicvc
that this clcmcnt was introduccd into mosquc
architccturc in thc timc ol thc Umayyad caliph
alVald and, morc cxactly, whcn this caliph
rcbuilt thc mosquc ol thc Prophct at Mcdina.
8ut it is cxtrcmcly probablc that thc nichc rc
placcd a morc simplc lorm, such as a lalsc door,
which showcd thc dircction ol Mccca in primi
tivc mosqucs. !l thc mirb in thc cavc bcncath
thc rock ol thc omc ol thc Rock (Qubbat a-
akhrah) at Jcrusalcm gocs back to thc ycars dur
ing which this sanctuary was built (691692), it
is an cxamplc ol this. This mirb consists ol an
arch on small columns, carvcd in rclicl on a slab
ol marblc. At thc lcvcl ol thc capitals, thcrc is a
vcry simplc inscription in Kl script across thc
back: thc two Muslim dcclarations ol laith. !n
thc ccntcr ol thc background is a roscttc with
cight pctals. An cvcn simplcr indication ol thc
qiblah must havc cxistcd in thc ancicnt mosquc
at Mcdina, according to ccrtain accounts, a
stonc slab markcd thc spot whcrc thc Prophct
stood to lcad thc communal praycrs.
Thc lorm ol thc nichc may wcll havc bccn
suggcstcd by thc cxamplc ol thc apsc in Cop
tic churchcs, or cvcn by that ol thc liturgical
nichcs in ccrtain synagogucs,
1
but thcsc arc no
morc than incidcntal causcs, what mattcrs is
that thc sacrcd nichc dcrivcs lrom a worldwidc
symbolism, and that this symbolism is implic
itly conlirmcd by thc Koran.
!ts vcry shapc, with its vault corrcsponding
to hcavcn and its picdroit to thc carth, makcs
thc nichc a consistcnt imagc ol thc cavc ol thc
world. Thc cavc ol thc world is thc placc ol
appcarancc (mahar) ol thc ivinity, whcthcr
it bc a casc ol thc outward world as a wholc or
thc inncr world, thc sacrcd cavc ol thc hcart. All
oricntal traditions rccognizc thc signilicancc ol
this, and thc cxcdra ol Roman basilicas is sim
ply a worldly vcrsion ol it, with thc cmpcror rc
placing thc divinity.
2
To cstablish thc symbolism ol thc mirb
in its !slamic pcrspcctivc, it must bc rclatcd to
its Koranic contcxt. Thc word mcans, litcrally,
103. Fatimid mirb ol alAzhar Mosquc, Cairo, gypt
Te Mirb 91
92 Art and Liturgy
105. Mirb ol thc Taybars Madrasah, Cairo, gypt, Mamluk pcriod
106. Tilcd mirb ol thc Madrasah !mmi, !lahn, Pcrsia, 1325
108. Tilcd mirb ol thc ol Rustcm Pasha Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy, 1560 107. Voodcn mirb ol Tashun Pasha Mosquc, ncar Urgub, Turkcy,
13th ccntury
Te Mirb 93
109. Mirb ol thc Mausolcum ol Sultan 8aybars, Cairo, 13th ccntury
rclugc, thc Koran in particular uscs this word
to dcscribc a sccrct placc in thc Tcmplc at
Jcrusalcm whcrc thc Holy \irgin cntcrcd into a
spiritual rctrcat and was nourishcd by angcls. !t
is idcntilicd by ccrtain Arab commcntators with
thc Holy ol Holics, thc debir ol thc Tcmplc at
Jcrusalcm, and this intcrprctation, which docs
not appcar to takc into account thc Judaic laws
govcrning acccss to thc debir, accords in lact
with thc Patristic tradition and thc liturgy ol
thc Grcck rthodox Church.
3
Thc inscriptions
round thc arch ol thc mirb arc lrcqucntly
such as to rccall thc Koranic story in qucstion,
cspccially in Turkish mosqucs, starting with
thc mirb ol thc Hagia Sophia, thcrcby con
lirming its dcdication to thc Holy \irgin.
Thc link bctwccn thc mirb and Sayyidatn
Maryam (ur Lady Mary) lcads us again to
thc analogy bctwccn thc praycrnichc and thc
hcart: it is in thc hcart that thc virginsoul takcs
rclugc to invokc God, as lor thc nourishmcnt
miraculously bcstowcd thcrc, it corrcsponds to
gracc.
Thc lorm ol thc mirbdiscounting its
namccalls to mind anothcr passagc lrom thc
Koran, thc vcrsc ol light, whcrc thc ivinc
Prcscncc in thc world or in thc hcart ol man
is comparcd to a light lrom a lamp placcd in a
nichc (mishkh): God is thc light ol thc hcav
cns and thc carth. Thc symbol ol His light is a
nichc whcrcin is a lamp, thc lamp is in a glass,
and this glass is as a radiant star. (Thc light)
is nourishcd by a blcsscd olivc trcc, which is
ncithcr ol thc cast nor ol thc wcst, whosc oil
would all but glow though lirc touch it not.
Light upon light. God guidcth to His Light
whom Hc will, and God strikcth symbols lor
man, and God knowcth all things (24:35). Thc
analogy bctwccn thc mirb and thc mishkh is
clcar, it is cmphasizcd, morcovcr, by hanging a
lamp bclorc thc praycrnichc.
Many ol thc oldcst praycrnichcs arc
adorncd with a canopy in thc lorm ol a sca
shcll. This motil is lound alrcady in Hcllcnistic
art, but it would not havc bccn incorporatcd
into thc art ol !slam unlcss it had a spiritual
110. Mirb ol thc 8cn Ysul Madrasah in Marrakcsh, Morocco,
16th ccntury
94 Art and Liturgy
signilicancc. Thc shcll is associatcd with thc
pcarl, which is onc ol thc !slamic symbols ol
thc ivinc Vord, according to a saying ol thc
Prophct, thc world was crcatcd lrom a whitc
pcarl. Thc scashcll cnclosing thc pcarl is likc
thc car ol thc hcart rccciving thc ivinc Ut
tcrancc, it is, in lact, in thc mirb that this ut
tcrancc is madc.
!t may sccm surprising that a lorm such
as thc mirb which is, altcr all, simply an ac
ccssory to thc liturgy, should bc thc locus ol a
particularly rich and prolound symbolism. 8ut
this is implicit prool ol thc link bctwccn sacrcd
art and csotcrism, thc scicncc ol thc inward
(ilm al-bin). !t is on this samc planc that thc
somcwhat Christian typology ol thc praycr
nichc is situatcd, it is in !slamic csotcrism that
ccrtain Christly thcmcs rcappcar, not in thcir
historical or dogmatic contcnt, but as pattcrns
ol thc contcmplativc lilc.
3 The Minbar
Thc Arabic tcrm al-jmi which mcans litcr
ally what brings togcthcr, rclcrs to a mosquc
whcrc thc Friday praycrs arc cclcbratcd togcthcr.
Thc tcrm has somctimcs bccn translatcd cathc
dral mosquc, sincc, as a gcncral rulc, it is only
mosqucs ol this ordcr which havc a cathedra, a
pulpit, callcd minbar in Arabic. Thc qucstion rc
mains to what cxtcnt thc minbar corrcsponds to
a bishops chair, or cvcn to a kings thronc. Ac
tually, it is ncithcr thc onc nor thc othcr, or it is
both at thc samc timc, sincc it is in somc way an
imagc ol thc Prophcts lunction and thcn ol thc
lunction ol his caliphs, and thus unitcs in itscll
both spiritual authority and tcmporal powcr.
Thc prototypc ol thc minbar is a sort ol
stcppcd stool which thc Prophct uscd in his
mosquc at Mcdina to talk to thc asscmblcd
laithlul. According to ccrtain traditional au
thoritics, this stool had thrcc lcvcls. Thc Proph
111. Mirb and minbar ol thc Grcat Mosquc at amascus, Syria
Te Minbar 95
112. Marblc minbar ol thc Sclimiyc Mosquc in Konya, Turkcy, 16th ccntury
114. Minbar ol thc Mosquc ol alMuayyad in Cairo, gypt
113. Voodcn minbar in thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan, Tunisia
115. Minbar in thc sidc praycr hall in thc wcstcrn arcadc ol thc Masjidi
Jmi (Friday Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia
96 Art and Liturgy
ct sat upon thc third lcvcl and rcstcd his lcct
on thc sccond. Altcr him, Ab 8akr, thc lirst
caliph, sat on thc sccond lcvcl and rcstcd his
lcct on thc lirst: Umar, thc sccond caliph, took
his scat on thc third lcvcl and placcd his lcct on
thc ground. Thc hicrarchical scnsc ol thc lcvcls
is clcar.
According to othcr sourccs, thc original
minbar at Mcdina had six stcps. Thc oldcst
surviving manbir (plural ol minbar) havc lrom
scvcn to clcvcn, and this multiplication ol lcvcls
is casily cxplaincd by thc custom which rcquircs
thc imm to prcach his Friday scrmon lrom onc
ol thc minbars lowcr lcvcls. Hc stands up to
spcak, hcad and shouldcrs covcrcd in a whitc
cloth and a stall in his hand. 8ctwccn thc two
canonical scctions ol thc scrmon, cxhortation ol
thc laithlul and praisc ol thc Prophct, hc sits
briclly on thc ncarcst stcp. Thc uppcr stcps ol
thc minbar, and in particular thc top onc, which
is adorncd with a hcadboard in thc manncr ol
a thronc, arc lclt cmpty, thcy rccall thc prccm
incnt lunction ol thc Prophct.
Thc ovcrall shapc ol thc minbar bcspcaks
thc continuity ol tradition, it always takcs thc
lorm ol a staircasc, lairly narrow and ncarly al
ways cncloscd by handrails. Sincc thc Scljuk
pcriod, this simplc structurc has bccn supplc
mcntcd by a canopy shcltcring thc topmost
lcvcl and by a doorway at thc loot ol thc stairs.
Thcsc additions havc simply acccntuatcd thc
minbars symbolism which corrcsponds to thc
laddcr ol thc worldsthc most broadly spaccd
lcvcls arc thc corporcal world, thc psychic world,
and thc world ol purc spiritand to thc thronc
as a polar station. Nonc ol thcsc points ol sig
nilicancc was addcd latcr, thcy rcsult logically
lrom thc lirst action ol thc Prophct in choosing
a stool with thrcc stcps to prcsidc ovcr thc as
scmblcd bclicvcrs.
Thc lact that thc uppcrmost lcvcl ol thc
minbar, thc thronc shcltcrcd by its canopy, rc
mains cmpty, is strangcly rcminisccnt ol thc
awaiting thronc which, in both 8uddhism and
Christianity, rcprcscnts thc unsccn prcscncc ol
thc Logos or ol thc Tathagata or, in othcr tcrms,
thc unsccn prcscncc ol thc ivinc Mcsscngcr.
8ut this is ccrtainly not a casc ol an inllucncc
coming lrom outsidc !slam, but ol a coincidcncc
duc to thc univcrsal charactcr ol symbolism.
4 Tombs
That a grcat many mausolcums arc lound in !s
lamic lands is somcthing ol a paradox, lor thc
glorilication ol thc dcad is lorcign to thc spirit
ol !slam. Thc most bcautilul tomb, said thc
Prophct, is onc that vanishcs lrom thc lacc
ol thc carth, and thc Koran says, All who arc
upon it (thc carth) arc llccting, and thcrc abidcs
only thc lacc ol thy Lord lull ol majcsty and
gcncrosity (55:2627). This paradox is cxplica
blc by two lactors that arc in a way incluctablc,
thc lirst ol which is thc ambition ol sovcrcigns
to pcrpctuatc thcir namcs, implying as it docs a
wish lor pcrsonal glory, this ambition is pcrhaps
not altogcthcr !slamic but it is, altcr all, lairly
116. Mausolcum ol Fakhr adn Rz, Kunya Urgcnch, Turkmcni
stan, 12th ccntury
Tombs 97
117. \icw ol thc Mamluk nccropolis, Cairo, gypt
118. ShhiZindah cnscmblc ol ccmctcrics in Samarqand, Uzbckistan
98 Art and Liturgy
natural and it is madc lcgitimatc by thc hopc
that thc soul ol thc dcccascd shall bcnclit lrom
thc praycrs ollcrcd up lor it by thc visitors to thc
tomb. Thc sccond lactor lollows closcly upon
thc lirst, and consists in thc wish ol thc commu
nity ol bclicvcrs to honor thc saints, whom thcy
119. Tomb ol Humyn, clhi, !ndia, Mughal pcriod, 16th ccntury
120. Tomb ol !timd adaula in Agra, !ndia, Mughal pcriod, 17th ccntury
Tombs 99
scc as thc truc kings ol thc carth as much as, or
morc than, princcs. Thc prolilcration ol princc
ly mausolcums coincidcs historically with thc
coming to powcr ol thc Scljuks who, pcrhaps,
rctaincd and transposcd thc luncral customs ol
thcir Ccntral Asian anccstors, lor thcir tombs
grcatly rcscmblc ccrcmonial yurts. !n thc samc
pcriod, that is, lrom thc twcllth to thc lour
tccnth ccntury, thc gcncral vcncration ol saints,
among both pcoplc and sovcrcigns, rcachcd its
dclinitivc lorm with thc organization ol Su
lismthc mysticism ol !slaminto ordcrs or
brothcrhoods, cach with its chain ol lounding
or rcnovating mastcrs. Thc Muslim saint (wal)
is ncarly always a contcmplativc whosc statc ol
spiritual pcrlcction linds pcrmancnt cxprcssion
in thc tcaching bcqucathcd to his disciplcs. To
this bcqucst, to a grcatcr or lcsscr dcgrcc csotcr
ic, thcrc is gcncrally supcraddcd thc spontanc
ous vcncration ol thc pcoplc, and it is this which
cllccts his canonization, and not somc ccclc
siastical institution. Vc havc no hcsitation in
translating thc Arabic tcrm wal-Allh, litcrally
lricnd ol God, by thc word saint, lor what is
undcrstood by thc onc tcrm as much as by thc
othcr is a man who has bccomc thc objcct and
instrumcnt ol a divinc gracc. Vhat is sought at
thc tomb ol a wal is his barakah, his blcssing
or spiritual inllucncc, which rcmains activc and
is in a way linkcd with thc corporcal rcmains
ol a man who was in lilc a rccipicnt as it wcrc,
ol thc ivinc Prcscncc. Morcovcr, thc saint is
not thought ol as bcing dcad, but as mystcri
ously alivc, according to this passagc lrom thc
Koran: Say not ol thcm that wcrc killcd in thc
path ol God that thcy arc dcad, thcy arc alivc,
but yc pcrccivc not (2:154). This vcrsc rclcrs in
its most immcdiatc scnsc to thosc who lall in
thc holy war, and many ol thc tombs vcncratcd
arc in lact martyria (mashhid), burial placcs ol
thosc who lought against thc cncmics ol !slam.
8ut sincc thc Prophct dcscribcd thc strugglc
against thc passions ol thc soul as thc grcatcst
holy war (al-jihd al-akbar), this vcrsc applics a
priori to all thosc who havc sacriliccd thcir livcs
to thc contcmplation ol God. Thc vcncration
121. GuriAmir Mausolcum, Samarqand, Uzbckistan
122. Mausolcum ol Al adn Khilji, Quub Minr, clhi, !ndia
100 Art and Liturgy
124. AlQarla ccmctcry, Cairo, gypt
126. Mausolcum ol thc Samanids, 8ukhara, Uzbckistan, 10th ccntury
123. Tomb ol a marabout (vcncratcd saint) in Morocco
125. Shaykh al adn Mausolcum, Arbcdil, Pcrsia, 14th ccntury
Tombs 101
ol saints is, morcovcr, a kind ol rcllcction ol
thc vcncration accordcd to thc Prophct, whosc
tomb at Mcdina is sccond as a placc ol pilgrim
agc only to thc sanctuary ol Mccca.
Vhcrcas thc mausolcums ol princcs wcrc
usually built by thc pcrsons who cxpcctcd to rc
posc in thcm, thosc ol saints wcrc thc gilt cithcr
ol thcir disciplcs or ol sovcrcigns, likc thc la
mous tomb ol Salm Chishti at Fatchpur Sikri
built by thc mpcror Akbar, or ol thc namclcss
common pcoplc.
8csidcs thc mausolcums ol princcs and thc
tombs ol saints, thcrc arc thc luncrary monu
mcnts dcdicatcd to dcsccndants ol thc Prophct.
Thcir architcctural lorms givc all thcsc monu
mcnts an cqual dignity, thc mausolcum ol a
grcat conqucror likc Tamcrlanc is simply a
glorilication ol God, and thc tomb ol onc ol
Gods poor oltcn stands as a tokcn ol homagc
to his spiritual kingship.
Thc intcrior ol a mausolcum gcncrally con
tains a ccnotaph indicating thc spot whcrc thc
dcccascd is buricd, or laid to rcst, in a crypt ol
indctcrminatc dcpth. Thcrc is also a mirb
showing thc dircction ol Mccca, but so placcd
that pcrsons at praycr shall not lacc thc tomb.
Mausolcums ol princcs arc occasionally
groupcd around thc tomb ol a saint in such a
way as to constitutc, togcthcr with all thc morc
humblc gravcs that comc to bc placcd ncarby,
vcritablc citics ol thc dcad likc thc nccropo
lis ol ShhiZindah (Thc Living King) at
Samarqand or that ol thc Mamluk tombs at
Cairo. Thcsc citics ol thc dcad havc nothing
mournlul or sad about thcm, as in all Muslim
ccmctcrics, thc dominant notc is scrcnity.
Thcrc is onc architcctural lormula that has
comc to bc most prcvalcntly uscd lor rclativcly
simplc mausolcums, namcly, thc cubc crowncd
with a cupola, thc transition bctwccn thc two
usually bcing mcdiatcd by a polygon. Funcr
ary buildings ol this sobcr lorm prcdominatc
in Muslim ccmctcrics and risc as landmarks on
thc cdgcs ol thc dcscrt and thc scacoasts lrom
thc Atlantic to !ndia. ltcn whitcncd with
limc, thcy attract thc cyc lrom alar and hold it
by thcir imagc ol an cquilibrium that rcconcilcs
hcavcn with carth.
127. Tomb ol Salm Chishti at Fatchpur Sikri, Agra, !ndia
102 Art and Liturgy
5 The Art of Apparel
Vc havc alludcd to thc liturgical rolc ol cloth
ing. Lct us makc clcar that thcrc arc no pricstly
vcstmcnts in !slam bccausc, propcrly spcaking,
thcrc is no pricsthood, but ncithcr is thcrc any
clothing that is Muslim and prolanc. Vhat
dctcrmincs Muslim costumc in gcncral is lirst
ol all thc Sunnah, thc cxamplc givcn by thc
Prophct, and sccondly thc lact that clothing
must suit thc movcmcnts and positions ol thc
prcscribcd praycrs. !t is in this lattcr rcspcct that
!mm Mlik condcmns clothing that clings to
thc body, in lact thc traditional clothing ol all
Muslim pcoplcs is distinguishcd by its amplc
cut, it conccals thc body, or part ol thc body, at
thc samc timc as adapting itscll to thc bodys
movcmcnts.
Thc cxamplc givcn by thc Prophct amounts
to no morc than a lcw guidclincs which pcr
mit a grcat dcal ol libcrty in thc art ol drcss,
whilc indicating thc limits sct on thc onc hand
by spiritual povcrty and, on thc othcr, by thc
dignity ol thc imm, which pcrtains in principlc
to cvcry Muslim ol malc scx and maturc ycars.
!t is known that thc Prophct took thc occasion
to wcar clothcs ol various colors and various
placcs ol origin as il to dcmonstratc that !slam
would sprcad to dillcrcnt cthnic surroundings,
howcvcr, hc prclcrrcd whitc and rcjcctcd cxccs
sivcly sumptuous matcrials, whilc insisting on
thc nccd lor ccrtain ol his Companions to mark
thcir rank and standing in thc community. Hc
lorbadc mcn to wcar gold ornamcnts or silkcn
robcs, rcscrving thcsc lor womcn. Gold is by
its naturc sacrcd, and !slam rcscrvcs it lor thc
domain which is, lor !slam, sacratum (arm)
par excellence, that ol woman, conjugal lovc, and
lamily lilc shcltcrcd lrom all public gazc.
!t is lashionablc to qucstion thc authcn
ticity ol adth cxtolling thc wcaring ol thc
turban. Now whcthcr thc saying thc turban is
thc crown ol !slam is thc word ol thc Prophct
or not, this saying is in any casc cxprcssivc ol
thc inhcrcnt signilicancc ol this itcm ol manly
apparcl, which proclaims both thc majcsty ol
thc bclicvcr who is Gods rcprcscntativc on
carth and his submission (islm) to Gods will.
!n thc Scmitic cnvironmcnt, it is always a tokcn
ol rcvcrcntial lcar to kccp thc hcad covcrcd, no
doubt bccausc to cxposc it to thc sun is sym
bolically cquivalcnt to cxposing it to thc divinc
rigor. !t may wcll bc suggcstcd that thc turban
bccamc an intcgral part ol Muslim costumc
bccausc it was worn by thc Arabian 8cdouins,
but this is not provcd nor, lor that mattcr, docs
it disprovc our point. !t was only natural that
Arab costumc should havc bccn sprcad by thc
!slamic conqucsts, but thc positivc valuc ol this
phcnomcnon lics in thc simplc lact that thc
Prophct had takcn ovcr ccrtain Arabian and
8cdouin customs, rcctilying thcm and trans
posing thcm into a spiritual ordinancc. !t is
cxtrcmcly probablc that looscly cut garmcnts,
which arc cmincntly suitablc lor thc dcscrt cli
matc with its cxtrcmcs ol tcmpcraturc, arc ol
128. Tuarcg lrom Nigcr
Te Art of Apparel 103
Arab origin, and onc can bc ccrtain that gar
mcnts ol vcry simplc cut likc thc aba, or
thc scamlcss ik which covcrs thc hcad and
shouldcrs, arc ol nomadic origin. !t is pcrhaps
thc Maghrib costumca long tunic, a rcct
angular robc with or without slccvcs, burnous,
and turban wrappcd in a lithamthat consti
tutcs thc most typically Arab and Muslim stylc,
lor it sits cqually wcll on thc scholar ol !slamic
scicnccs, thc warrior chicl, and thc man ol thc
pcoplc. !ts bcauty and dignity arc at onc with
its simplicity. !n thc !slamic ast, Turkish and
Mongol inllucncc arc rcsponsiblc lor a grcatcr
divcrsity in lorms ol drcss which, howcvcr, arc
ncvcr incompatiblc with thc gcncral !slamic
stylc ol apparcl, a host ol Muslim pilgrims lrom
thc most divcrsc countrics is always rccogniz
ably a host ol Muslims.
Vc arc considcring masculinc garb in par
ticular, lor womcns drcss has lar lcss unity sincc
it is madc lor lilc at homc, and womcn go vcilcd
in thc strccts. Fcmininc garb is happy to hold
on to ccrtain itcms ol a rcgional charactcr and
to rctain occasional lorms ol apparcl ol grcat
antiquity, such as thc robc madc lrom a singlc
piccc ol unstitchcd cloth, drapcd around thc
129. Vomcn lrom Talilalct, Morocco
131. Arabian shaykh
130. !raqi bcdouin
104 Art and Liturgy
body and sccurcd by two clasps at thc shoul
dcrs, which is lound in particular among ccrtain
tribcs in thc Sahara.
Mcns garb in !slamic countrics makcs lor
thc cllaccmcnt ol social dillcrcnccs, with thc
cxccption ol ccrtain cxtravaganccs ol drcss dc
riving cithcr lrom princcly courts or, again, lrom
groups ol ascctics who havc cut thcmsclvcs oll
lrom thc world. Thcsc lattcr may wcll lollow
thc cxamplc ol thc Prophct, who occasionally
worc a robc madc up ol picccs ol cloth stitchcd
togcthcr.
Thc art ol apparcl is madc all thc morc im
portant in !slamic countrics by thc abscncc ol
any human imagc, it is thc art ol clothing that
in a way convcys thc Muslims idcal imagc ol
himscll as a Muslim. Thcrc is, morcovcr, no art
that has a morc tclling cllcct on a mans soul
than that ol clothing, lor a man instinctivcly
idcntilics himscll with thc clothcs hc wcars.
!t is vain to say that thc habit docs not makc
thc monk, in a ccrtain scnsc thcrc is no monk
without an appropriatc habit.
Thc art ol clothing is an csscntially col
lcctivc onc, it is thcrclorc subjcct to lluctua
tions and obcys, to somc dcgrcc or othcr, thc
psychological law rclcrrcd to by !bn Khaldn,
according to which conqucrcd pcoplcs imitatc
thc manncrs and clothing ol thcir conqucrors.
cspitc this, Muslim drcss shows such histori
cal and gcographical continuity that onc can
attributc it only to that positivc quality ol thc
ummah, thc rcligious collcctivity, which movcd
thc Prophct to say my community will ncvcr
bc singlcmindcd in crror.
Thc gradual disappcarancc ol traditional
Muslim costumc in lavor ol modcrn uropcan
drcss can bc only partly cxplaincd by thc law
ol psychology rclcrrcd to abovc. This lorm ol
acculturation docs amount to imitating thc
man who holds in his hands thc mcans ol pow
cr and succcss, and modcrn uropcan clothing
has bccomc thc cmblcm ol matcrial cllicicncy.
At thc samc timc, a morc acutc changc ol dircc
tion in thc soul is involvcd. Thcrc is a turning
away lrom a way ol lilc cntircly dominatcd by
132. Mcn wcaring thc burnous, Rabat, Morocco
133. Tuarcg womcn lrom thc Sahara dcscrt
Te Art of Apparel 105
contcmplativc valucs with its bcarings lixcd on
thc hcrcaltcr, thc aim is to bc in thc hcrc and
now, on thc lcvcl ol ncwspapcr cvcnts. Modcrn
uropcan drcss is wclcomc in such a pcrspcc
tivc, bccausc it cxprcsscs individualism, an at
titudc that stands outsidc all that is sacrcd, in
thc samc way as cgalitarianism has nothing in
common with thc scllcllaccmcnt ol thc Mus
lim within thc ummah, but rcprcscnts a lcvcling
down, a ncgation ol any litc, whcthcr ol nobil
ity or saints.
nc could wcll bclicvc that modcrn uro
pcan drcss had bccn cxprcssly invcntcd to
dcstroy thc pattcrns ol Muslim lilc, it makcs thc
ablutions prcscribcd by thc Koran dillicult, and
dircctly impcdcs thc movcmcnts and positions
ol thc canonical praycr by its still lolds. !l it is
not within its powcr to dcstroy thc inncr valuc
ol thcsc ritcs, it dctracts nonc thc lcss lrom
thc radiation ol thcir valuc by thc unavoidablc
triviality ol its associations.
Thc tcaching that inhcrcs in thc traditional
apparcl ol !slam is, in sum, that thc human
body, crcatcd according to thc lorm ol God,
is a kind ol rcvclation. This is truc ol man as
hc was bclorc thc Fall, and still is in virtuality,
although hc bcars thc marks ol his dccadcncc
upon him, which lovc alonc lorgivcs. Thus it is
litting that thc body should bc vcilcd at lcast in
part, but not that it should havc lorms imposcd
on it that arc not its own. To vcil thc body is
not to dcny it, but to withdraw it likc gold, into
thc domain ol things conccalcd lrom thc cycs
ol thc crowd.
135. Turcoman or Tirgiz woman in lront ol hcr yurt, Turkcstan
134. Vomcn lrom Ramallah, Palcstinc
Notcs to Chaptcr \
1. For cxamplc, a sacrcd nichc in thc undcrground nccro
polis ol Mca Shcarim, which is vcry likc a mirb.
2. !n Hindu iconography also, divinc appcaranccs arc usu
ally surroundcd by an arch rcprcscnting thc cosmos.
3. According to this tradition, Zacharias took Mary as a
child into thc Holy ol Holics bccausc hc rccognizcd that
shc was hcrscll thc holy tabcrnaclc.
136. ill Kr Madrasah and Mosquc, Rcgistan, Samarqand, Uzbckistan
1 Dynasties and Ethnic Groups
T
hc dillcrcnt stylcs ol Muslim art arc usual
ly namcd altcr thc dynastics which rcigncd
during thc pcriods, and ovcr thc countrics, in
which thcsc stylcs appcarcd, and this implic
itly conlirms thc dctcrmining rolc playcd in
Muslim art by thc patronagc ol sovcrcigns. !t
is thcy who built thc grcat mosqucs and univcr
sitics and who cncouragcd thc rclincmcnts ol
such lcsscr arts as ccramics, damasccnc warc, or
thc wcaving ol brocadc. Sovcrcigns vcry oltcn
rccruitcd craltsmcn lrom various countrics or
rcgions to rcalizc somc grcat architcctural proj
cct, and thcrcby contributcd to ncw synthcscs
ol stylc which bcar thcir namcs.
Morc important still is thc lact that cach
dynasty coincidcs with thc hcgcmony ol a
particular cthnic group. As thc grcat Maghrib
historian !bn Khaldn cxplaincd vcry convinc
ingly, cach dynasty is normally answcrablc to a
ccrtain tribc or racc which brings it to powcr
and kccps it thcrc, whilc itscll assuming thc rolc
ol an aristocracy in rclation to thc subjcct pco
plc, as warriors in thc lirst placc and latcr as ad
ministrators. !n most cascs, this aristocracy is ol
8cdouin or nomadic origin, and it can bc statcd
without cxccssivc gcncralization that thcrc havc
bccn no loundcrs ol cmpirc in thc world ol !s
lam who did not comc cithcr lrom thc dcscrt or
thc stcppcs, starting with thc Arabs thcmsclvcs
who wcrc in turn rcplaccd by Turks, Mongols,
and 8crbcrs lrom thc Sahara.
!n thc world conqucrcd by thc Arabs, thc
nomad Turks appcarcd rclativcly carly, at lirst as
slavcs and mcrccnarics who bcat out a track to
powcr. Alrcady undcr thc Abbasids, thc Turk
ish prctorian guards wcrc bccoming incrcas
ingly powcrlul. !t was onc ol thcsc, !bn ln,
who bccamc in thc ycar 868 A.. thc Govcrnor
ol gypt and thcn, in practicc, its autonomous
mastcr. Hc loundcd his own dynasty, as did
Mamd ol Ghazna, thc son ol anothcr Turkish
govcrnor, who carvcd out a kingdom lor himscll
in astcrn Pcrsia, starting in 1037, and thcn lcll
upon !ndia as a conqucror in thc Punjab, Hin
dustan, and Gujarat. Somcwhat dillcrcnt was
thc lot ol thc Mamluks, who hcld gypt lor thc
lcngthy pcriod cxtcnding lrom 1250 to 1517
A.., thcy wcrc not, strictly spcaking, a dynasty
but a sort ol military castc consisting cxclusivc
ly and paradoxically ol lormcr Turcoman slavcs
137. 8rick and tilcwork dccoration in thc ill Kr Madrasah
and Mosquc, Rcgistan, Samarqand, Uzbckistan
Chaptcr \!
The Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art
108 Te Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art
who had usurpcd powcr and appointcd thcir
own chicls and princcs. Thc word mamlk actu
ally mcans slavc. !n all thcsc cascs, thc nomad
clcmcnt, il it may still bc so considcrcd, was no
morc than a vcry rcstrictcd cthnic minority but
its rolc was dccisivc.
Quitc othcr was thc invasion ol thc Scljuks,
also Turks, who in thc mid clcvcnth ccntury
pourcd out ol Ccntral Asia into !ran, Mcso
potamia, Syria, and Asia Minor. This was a
casc ol thc cmigration ol an cntirc pcoplc, who
sharcd out thc abovc tcrritorics among thcm
sclvcs in a wcltcr ol princcdoms, which wcrc
at lirst unitcd and latcr dividcd. Thc Scljuks
brought with thcm thc customs and art lorms
ol thcir homcland.
n thcir tracks camc thc Mongols ol Ch
ingiz Khn (Gcnghis Khan), dcstroying Samar
qand, 8ukhr, Khwrizm, and Hcrat to crcatc
around thcmsclvcs thc cmptincss ol stcppc and
dcscrt. Undcr Hulagu thcy conqucrcd 8aghdad
in 1258 A.. and brought an cnd to thc Ab
basid Caliphatc. Thcy thrcw back thc Scljuks
ol Asia Minor as lar as thc bordcrs ol 8yzan
tium and, as it wcrc, prcparcd thcm by a tcrriblc
tcst ol strcngth lor thcir sccond and morc glo
rious cxpansion, it was thc Scljuk tribc ol thc
ttomans who, surviving this tcst, conqucrcd
Constantinoplc and crcatcd thc ncw Turkish
cmpirc. This conqucst dillcrs lrom all othcr no
madic cxploits, lor thc Scljuks ol Rm in Asia
Minor had alrcady bccomc scdcntarics bclorc
undcrgoing thc shock ol thc Mongol advancc,
thus thcy arrivcd in 8yzantinc tcrritory, not as
nomads or barbarians, but having alrcady as
similatcd thc culturc ol thc countrics thcy had
crosscd.
Thc Mongols, who scttlcd in !ran and
Mcsopotamia, bccamc in thcir turn scdcntarics
and Muslims. Thc sccond wavc ol Mongols,
138. Thc minarct ol thc Kutbiyyah Mosquc in Marrakcsh, Morocco,
built towards thc cnd ol thc 12th ccntury by thc Almohads, a conqucring
mountain tribc
139. Thc minarct ol Jam, Alghanistan, built towards thc cnd ol
thc 12th ccntury by thc Ghorids, a conqucring mountain tribc
Dynasties and Ethnic Groups 109
thc Timurids, arc distinct lrom thc lormcr in
that thcy camc, not lrom thc outsidc, lrom
nonMuslim Asia, but lrom that part ol Ccn
tral Asia which was alrcady a scat ol !slam, it
was lrom Samarqand, which hc had rcbuilt,
that thc lcarsomc Tmri Lang (Tamcrlanc),
chicltain ol a TurcoMongol tribc, conqucrcd
!ran, Mcsopotamia, Syria, and Asia Minor and
dcsccndcd upon !ndia. Hc dicd in 1405 A..
whilc campaigning against China.
nc branch ol thc Timurids madc itscll
mastcr ol Northcrn !ndia and loundcd thc
grcat Mughal cmpirc, lrom bcing uncouth no
mad warriors, thcy translormcd thcmsclvcs into
protcctors and promotcrs ol onc ol thc most rc
lincd and rcsplcndcnt civilizations that has cvcr
cxistcd.
Vc havc spokcn so lar about nomadic in
vasions lrom Ccntral Asia. A sccond rcscrvoir
ol nomadic pcoplcs, who pcriodically burst out
into morc lcrtilc rcgions, is thc Sahara. Thc
Almoravids (al-murbin), who, towards thc
middlc ol thc clcvcnth ccntury, conqucrcd Mo
rocco, Algcria, and linally Spain as lar as thc
Tagus, wcrc nomadic 8crbcrs lrom thc dccp
Sahara on thc banks ol thc Nigcr. Thc Al
mohads (al-muwaidn) who lollowcd and
rcplaccd thcm camc, not lrom thc dcscrt, but
lrom thc mountains ol thc High Atlas, which
is quitc anothcr mattcr, thcrc is, ncvcrthclcss, a
ccrtain analogy bctwccn nomads and mountain
pcoplcs, sincc thc lattcr practicc a shilting lorm
ol livclihood, and both arc uscd to a harsh and
indcpcndcnt way ol lilc.
As rcccntly as thc ninctccnth ccntury, thc
southcrn lringc ol thc Sahara providcd thc sct
ting lor thc loundation ol a thcocratic cmpirc
by thc Fulani (Fulbc) nomads.
Thc advcnt to powcr ol nomadic or scmi
nomadic pcoplcs occurs within an ovcrall
dcmographic movcmcnt which llows pcriodi
cally lrom arid rcgions to morc lcrtilc oncs, and
which assumcs thc charactcr ol a violcnt con
qucst only whcn a ccrtain political and military
wcakncss on thc part ol scdcntary communitics
invitcs aggrcssion. ncc victorious and scttlcd
in towns, thc nomad conqucrors gradually losc
thcir warlikc prowcss and arc not slow to suc
cumb in thcir turn to a lrcsh wavc ol 8cdou
ins.
!t will bc notcd in this contcxt that all thc
countrics ol classical !slam, lrom Morocco to
!ndia, arc locatcd in lcrtilc zoncs bordcring on
grcat spaccs that arc morc or lcss dcscrt, whcrc
thc mcagcr vcgctation providcs a livclihood only
lor brccdcrs ol camcls or shccp, whosc llocks
roam ccasclcssly ovcr vast cxpanscs ol land.
Thc contrast bctwccn scdcntarics and nomads
is thus prcligurcd in thc vcry gcography ol !s
lam, but it would bc wrong to scc this simply in
tcrms ol an cconomic or social problcm whosc
solution would lic in supprcssing thc nomadic
way ol lilc, nomads arc not synonymous with
thc disinhcritcd, and thcy havc ncvcr so consid
crcd thcmsclvcs. n thc contrary, thcy arc con
vinccd that thcir way ol lilc is thc cxprcssion
140. Minarct ol thc Grcat Mosquc in Agadcz, Nigcr
110 Te Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art
ol a lrcc choicc ol which thcy arc proud. For
thc nomad, thc scdcntary is, as it wcrc, his own
prisoncr, and lor thc scdcntary, thc nomad is a
barbarian or cvcn a savagc. Thcrc is no doubt
that thcsc two ways ol living arc cach lavorablc
to dillcrcnt human qualiticsdillcrcnt yct com
plcmcntary, thcy rcprcscnt somcthing likc thc
two halvcs ol thc totality that is mankind.
Thc irruption ol nomadic pcoplcs into city
culturcs has oltcn bccn painlul. Thc most tcr
riblc was whcn thc Mongols undcr Chingiz
Khn, in thc lirst hall ol thc thirtccnth ccntury,
invadcd and dcvastatcd !ran, !raq, and Asia Mi
nor. Howcvcr, nonc ol thcsc invasions was ablc
to wrcck thc continuity ol !slamic art. Altcr thc
conqucring nomads, whcthcr Turks, Mongols,
or 8crbcrs, had scttlcd down in thc towns, thcy
madc it thcir duty to protcct thc arts and scicnc
cs, which wcrc thcn rcborn with ncw strcngth,
as il thc brcath lrom thc dcscrt had scparatcd
out what was most typically !slamic in thcm.
This is truc cvcn ol architccturc, lor all that it is
a spccilically scdcntary art.
A uropcan travclcr ol thc sixtccnth ccn
tury, who visitcd Samarqand, thc thcn Timurid
capital, has dcscribcd thc cxtraordinary sccncs
whcn TurcoMongol chicltains wcrc having
immcnsc mosqucs and univcrsitics crcctcd
whilc thcmsclvcs living in thcir tcnts sct up in
thc midst ol gardcns.
1
Thc buildings dcscribcd
arc largcly still cxtant, with thcir lacings in mo
saics and ccramic tilcs thcy arc among thc most
bcautilul monumcnts ol !slam.
Thc rcncwal ol !slamic art by thc contri
bution ol thc nomads is a phcnomcnon which
cannot rcally bc cxplaincd cxccpt in tcrms ol
a ccrtain prcdisposition ol Muslim mcntality.
Thc lact is that !slam bcars within itscll and
on thc spiritual lcvcl thc synthcsis ol two hu
man attitudcs, that ol thc scdcntary and that
ol thc nomad, thc lirst chooscs stability, which
rcstricts him in spacc but allows him to count
on thc rccurrcnt tcrms ol timchc sows and
rcaps, dismantlcs and constructsand thc scc
ond chooscs lrcc movcmcnt in spacc, which
placcs him, in a way, outsidc timc and history,
lor nomadic lilc is not subjcct to translorma
tion, rcmaining always at thc point whcrc it
bcgan. !n thc spiritual cconomy ol !slam, thc
attitudc ol thc scdcntary cstablishcs itscll at a
highcr lcvcl as spiritual stability, whilc thc at
titudc ol thc nomad cstablishcs itscll as non
attachmcnt to cphcmcral things. !n a ccrtain
scnsc, it is urban lilc that is lavorcd by !slam,
bccausc thc town contains sanctuarics and it is
in its midst that doctrinal knowlcdgc and thc
141. Tuarcg camp in Nigcr
Dynasties and Ethnic Groups 111
142. Summcr camp ol thc Qashqi nomads, Pcrsia
144. Yurt in Turkcstan
143. Zntc 8crbcrs, Grand rg ccidcntal, Algcria
145. Shiror Madrasah, Samarqand, Uzbckistan, 16191636
Te Art of the Carpet 113
lor thcir vandalism and holds up urban lilc as
thc solc guarantcc ol thc arts and scicnccs and
thcn, on thc othcr hand, impugns citydwcll
crs lor thcir lcanings towards vulgarity and
vicc, contrasting thcsc with thc manlincss and
natural nobility ol thc 8cdouins. Thc idcal is
to livc in a statc ol cquilibrium bctwccn thcsc
two human clcmcnts. !n this wc havc a lar morc
prolound conccpt than that ol thc univcrsal ci-
vitas, thc guiding imagc inhcritcd lrom thc Ro
mans, which gavc birth to thc uropcan civi
lizcd idcal, with its cxclusivcly civic proclivitics
which arc hostilc to naturc.
2 The Art of the Carpet
Thc vcry lact that scdcntarism and nomadism
comc togcthcr in thc spirit ol !slam makcs it
dillicult to assign to cach its part in thcir inllu
cncc upon art. Thcrc arc art lorms which arc
scdcntary by dclinition, such as all thosc which
arc associatcd with architccturc. Thcrc is, nonc
thclcss, a vcry widcsprcad usagc in !slamic
usagcs or customs ol thc Prophct arc handcd
down, in anothcr scnsc, it makcs thc most ol
thc positivc qualitics ol thc nomad, which arc
combativcncss, dignity, and hospitality, to mcn
tion only thc thrcc lundamcntal virtucs. !l thc
scdcntary knows thc valuc ol things, thc no
mad, lor his part, is acutcly conscious ol thcir
lragility, with an awarcncss that opcns out onto
thc immcdiatc prcscnt. Pushcd to its limit, thc
prcscnt transccnds thc llow ol timc in such a
way that thcrc is a kind ol contcmplativity ol
thc hcrcandnow in this spiritual attitudc ol
thc nomad, and this agrccs vcry wcll, should thc
occasion arisc, with thc discriminatory rolc ol
thc sword in thc holy war.
Thc synthcsis ol nomadism and scdcntarism
is, morcovcr, prcligurcd in thc rolc ol Mccca as
an urban ccntcr cncompasscd by thc lluctuat
ing Arab tribcs. Thc cxistcncc ol thc sanctuary,
togcthcr with thc trucc ol God obscrvcd in
its tcrritory sincc pagan timcs, summarizcs thc
truc lunction ol a city, which is to bc an im
mutablc and sccurc ccntcr, whilc pilgrimagc
towards this samc ccntcr transposcs nomadism
into thc spiritual ordcr.
Thc normal rclationship bctwccn nomad
ism and scdcntarism rcscmblcs thc Chincsc
yin-yang symbol in which thc black scction
includcs a whitc point, and thc whitc scction a
black point. !l thc scdcntary wcrc, so to spcak,
scllcontaincd, hc would stillc unlcss hc lclt a
door opcn to nomadic lilc, and that is what,
in lact, occurrcd in ccrtain countrics and civi
lizations as, lor cxamplc, in scvcntccnth and
cightccnthccntury uropc, with all thc wcll
known cxplosivc rcactions. !nvcrscly, nomadism
dcprivcd ol cvcry clcmcnt ol spiritual stability
linishcs by dcstroying itscll.
!l wc rclatc what wc arc saying to alchcmy
as thc scicncc ol thc animic world, thcn nomad
ism corrcsponds to solve and scdcntarism to co-
agula, thc two phascs or movcmcnts must not
prccludc, but complctc, cach othcr.
!t is in this scnsc that thc sccmingly con
tradictory asscssmcnts ol !bn Khaldn arc to
bc undcrstood, whcn hc condcmns thc nomads
146. Carpct wcavcr lrom thc Shhsavan tribc, Pcrsia

114 Te Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art

lands, which is to construct buildings rough
and unadorncd and altcrwards to clothc thcm,
in wholc or in part, with a surlacc dccoration ol
tilcmosaics, pancling, or stucco as il onc wcrc
draping thc walls with hangings, in a way, this
comcs quitc closc to nomad tastc and, in any
casc, lacilitatcs cxchangcs bctwccn thc art ol
thc city and that ol thc tcnt.
!t is only right to mcntion, among thc no
mad arts, that ol lcathcrwork, charactcrizcd by
ornamcntation in braidcd thongs, it is admit
tcdly a vcry modcst art, but it has its impor
tancc as thc vchiclc ol ccrtain motils which rc
appcar in linc art, wc havc in mind gcomctrical
intcrlaccmcnts in particular.
Thc art ol mctalwork cannot bc purcly
nomadic, sincc its practicc rcquircs a ccrtain
stability, but it is oltcn at thc scrvicc ol thc
nomads and thcrclorc bcars thc stamp ol thcir
tastc and gcnius. Thc nomad nccds wcapons,
containcrs in mctal, jcwcls lor his womcn, and
itcms ol harncss lor his horsc. From timc out
ol mcmory, gold and silvcr mincs havc bccn
lound in nomad tcrritory. 8ut thc most typi
cally nomad art is without qucstion that ol thc
carpct and, abovc all, thc knottcd carpct, which
wc shall now discuss.
Lct us lirst makc clcar that thcrc cxist two
nomadic culturcs, both ol which havc a simi
lar placc in thc !slamic sphcrc. Thcsc arc thc
nomadic Turks and Mongols whosc dwclling is
thc yurt, a round tcnt ol wickcr structurc cov
crcd with lclt, and thc Arab, !ranian, and 8cr
bcr nomads who livc in thc 8cdouin tcnt that is
madc ol wovcn goats hair strctchcd on a kind
ol woodcn yokc. Thc arca ol thc yurt cxtcnds
ovcr thc wholc ol Ccntral Asia, whcrcas thc
black tcnt ol thc 8cdouins is lound lrom thc
Atlantic coast ol North Alrica to thc Hindu
Kush, whcrc thc two nomadic culturcs mcct but
do not blcnd.
Thc culturc ol thc yurt is indisputably
richcr in artistic cxprcssion than thc culturc ol
thc 8cdouin tcnt, and this has lcd to a will
ingncss to attributc to it thc invcntion ol thc
knottcd carpct, which is thc nomadic art par
excellence. 8ut thc knottcd carpct is also lound
among thc Saharan 8cdouins, and it is not
known whcrc its tcchniquc, which sccms to bc
an imitation ol animal lur, originatcd. !t was as
surcdly not invcntcd by thc Scljuks, although it
sccms to havc bccn with thcm, and morc gcncr
ally with thc Turkish pcoplcs, that thc knottcd
carpct madc its cntry into thc world ol !slam
and thc Mcditcrrancan basin. Thc lilctimc ol
carpcts is not vcry long, and thc originals havc
not survivcd but thc rcprcscntation ol knottcd
carpcts in Pcrsian miniaturcs and uropcan
paintings ol thc lourtccnth and liltccnth ccn
turics bcars witncss to thcir dillusion. An in
dispcnsablc itcm in thc lilc ol thc nomads, it
bccamc thc lurnishing par excellence in Muslim
houscholds, and nothing could bcttcr illustratc
thc lundamcntal inllucncc ol nomadism upon
!slamic civilization in its cntircty.
ncc adoptcd into urban surroundings,
thc normal carpct undcrwcnt a swilt trans
lormation in stylc, so that wc havc a copious
rangc ol schools cxtcnding lrom thc Turco
man carpct, which is thc purcly nomad carpct
ol Ccntral Asia, to thc most cxquisitc products
ol thc royal lactorics ol !ran, Turkcy, and Mu
ghal !ndia. 8ut lct us notc that thc Turcoman
carpcts wc know today go back no lurthcr than
thc bcginning ol thc ninctccnth ccntury, no
mads do not kccp thcir carpcts, thcy usc thcm
and occasionally rcplacc thcm with ncw oncs,
whilc rcmaining laithlul to thcir cmincntly
archaic dcsigns, and this lidclity allows us to
havc somc notion ol what thc original Turk
ish carpct was likc. Lct us say that its stylc is
primitivc without bcing primary, and that thc
vcry sobricty ol its mcans ol cxprcssion, uscd
with a high dcgrcc ol conccntration, conlcrs
much nobility upon it.
Thcsc samc qualitics arc also lound in thc
carpctmaking ol thc Saharan 8cdouins. Thc
basic artistic vocabulary is thc samcpurcly
gcomctrical motils, rcpcatcd according to a
symmctry that is both axial and diagonal. Vhat
complicatcs mattcrs in thc casc ol thc 8cdouin
carpct lrom Alrica is that it has absorbcd ccr
Te Art of the Carpet 115
tain inllucnccs lrom urban astcrn and Ana
tolian carpcts, which arrivcd in North Alrica
by thc maritimc tradc routc. Gcncrally spcak
ing, nomadic or 8cdouin art happily assimilatcs
shapcs or dcsigns lrom urban art by transpos
ing thcm into its own archaic languagc. Thus
a dual movcmcnt is involvcd, it is attractcd on
thc onc hand by thc richcr and morc sumptu
ous art ol thc towns and, on thc othcr, rcstorcs
this samc richncss to its gcomctric and rhyth
mical clcmcnts, thus acting in thc lashion ol an
alchcmical rcduction.
147. Carpct wcavcrs insidc a yurt in Kyrgyzstan
148. Carpct wcavcr ol thc Qashqi nomads, Pcrsia
116 Te Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art
Nothing in this domain is morc unjust
than to award all thc laurcls ol art to Pcrsian
carpcts lrom thc grcat urban workshops and to
trcat thc Turkish carpcts ol Anatolia and thc
Caucasus as thc products ol somcwhat rctardcd
provincial schools. !n rcality, thc most bcauti
lul Salavid carpctsand wc arc not spcaking ol
thc latcr Pcrsian carpcts madc lor thc uropcan
markctarc alrcady bordcring on thc dccadcnt
to thc cxtcnt that thcy borrow thcir mcans ol
cxprcssion, not lrom clcmcnts csscntially and
naturally inhcrcnt in thc art ol thc carpct, but
lrom painting. !t is pcrhaps a truism to say that
a carpct is not a piccc ol sccncry but a lloor
covcring, but this docs noncthclcss cxprcss thc
situation, namcly that dccora tion must match
thc naturc ol thc objcct it cn livcns, a carpct is a
horizontal surlacc to bc troddcn undcrloot and
149. Turcoman Saryk rug
Te Art of the Carpet 117
day, but rathcr ccrtain rclativcly modcst carpcts
lrom Anatolia and thc Caucasus, which oltcn
rcprcscnt a pcrlcct synthcsis ol nomad and scd
cntary art.
Nomadic art has about it somcthing in
dclinitc and unvaricd likc thc stcppc, it prclcrs
to cxprcss itscll in simplc or altcrnating rcpcti
tions ol analogous dcsign motils, whcrcas scd
cntary art likcs to crcatc a collatcd and, in a way
touchcd with thc hands, a simplc division into
liclds ol color scrvcs to bring it joyously to lilc,
whcrcas imagcry wovcn out ol thrccdimcn
sional appcaranccs dispcls its im mcdiacy. !l onc
acccpts thc critcrion ol thc goldcn rulc which
rcquircs thc artist to usc thc minimum mcans
to achicvc thc maximum acsthctic cllcct, thcn it
is ccrtainly not thcsc Pcrsian carpcts, and cvcn
lcss thc ttoman court carpcts, that carry thc
150. Carpct with gardcn dcsign lrom Pcrsia, 17th ccntury
118 Te Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art
architcc tural, ordcr, it is happy to lramc and
mark oll a ccntral spacc occasionally cnhanccd
by a mcdal lion. Thc thcmc par excellence ol thc
scdcntary carpct is thc gardcn, whosc llowcring
plants arc rcndcrcd with various dcgrccs ol styl
ization. This gardcn is quitc naturally an imagc
ol thc Koranic paradisc, which is dcscribcd as
a gardcn travcrscd by rivcrs. !n ccrtain cascs,
thcsc rivcrs arc rcprc scntcd on thc carpct itscll,
which is thcn an imagc both ol paradisc and
ol a gardcn with a pool or watcrcoursc, as oc
curs in Pcrsian architccturc. !n anothcr scnsc,
all Pcrsian carpcts sccm to bc dcrivcd lrom thc
lcgcndary carpct ol springtimc which cov
crcd thc lloor ol thc immcnsc throncroom
at Ctcsiphon, rcsidcncc ol thc Sasanid Kings,
and which thc Prophcts companions dividcd
among thcmsclvcs by thc sword and by virtuc
ol thc rights ol war, this was pcrhaps vandalism,
but it has nonc thc lcss a prolound signilicancc,
bcaring in mind that this carpct was csscntially
an imagc ol thc carthly paradisc.
Praycrrugs arc common to nomad and
scdcntary art. Thcy can bc rccognizcd by thcir
rclativcly small sizc and by thcir dcsign, which
rcprcscnts thc nichc ol thc mirb bclorc which
thcrc oltcn hangs a lamp, thc mirb bcing thus
idcntilicd with thc nichc ol lights ol which
thc Koran spcaks (scc also Chaptcr \, 2).
8ut thc most pcrlcct carpcts rcprcscnt
nothing in particular, thcy rcllcct thc cosmos
on thcir own lcvcl. Vc havc bclorc our cycs a
carpct lrom Usak in Anatolia. !t has two main
colors, wincrcd and azurc bluc, and thc cn
tirc play ol art is unloldcd bctwccn thcsc two
polcsthc rcd, which is an activc color bcing
uscd as thc back ground, and thc azurc, which
is a passivc and lugitivc color, lor thc roscttcs,
this consolidatcs thc background and lorccs
thc roscttcs back into it. Thc rcst arc sccondary
colorsgoldcn ycllow to track thc dclicatc ara
bcsqucs and whitc to cncirclc thc largc roscttcs,
which makcs thc cntirc cxpansc radiant. Thcsc
roscttcs grow out ol stars with cight points, likc
most ol thc dccorations that typily thc Turk
ish carpct, and at thc samc timc thcy arc clon
151. Vcst Anatolian rug, 19th ccntury
152. ast Anatolian rug, 19th ccntury
Te Art of the Carpet 119
gatcd in lincs that lollow thc dircctions ol thc
compass and in wavcs that llow back on thcm
sclvcs, thcy actualizc thc cxtcnsion ol spacc in
thc most complctc manncr possiblc, and thcir
diadcm contours arc likc a crystallization ol
this complcx movcmcnt. Thc roscttcs lorm an
unbrokcn nct work, but cach onc ariscs lrom a
ccntcrlrom thc ccntcr itscll, thc ubiquity ol
thc ccntcr bcing onc ol thc lundamcntal thcmcs
ol !slamic art.
Thcrc arc somc scdcntary carpcts in purcly
gcomctrical stylc, such as thc Mamluk carpcts
in turquoisc grccn. Thcir ornamcntations rccall
snowllakcs or diamonds.
Thc carpcts ol Muslim Spain arc ol an
analogous naturc, thcy rcllcct thc gcomctric
dccoration ol Moorish architccturc.
Thc Caucasian carpct holds a spccial posi
tion, it is vcry varicd and vcry spontancous, but
draws upon a lormal inhcritancc ol grcat antiq
uity. Thc lamous dragon carpcts in parti cular,
which arc most thoroughgoingly Caucasian,
rccall thc animal stylc ol thc Scythians and Sar
matians. Grcat mountain rangcs likc thosc ol
thc Caucasus, Kurdistan, or thc Atlas, play thc
rolc ol cultural storchouscs, thcir inhabitants
arc conscrvativc likc nomads, albcit in a dillcr
cnt way, to rcmain thcmsclvcs, nomads nccd to
bc in constant movcmcnt, thus, thcy arc obligcd
to rcducc thcir artistic impcdimcnta to what is
csscntial. Moun tain dwcllcrs, on thc othcr hand,
lind thcmsclvcs in a somcwhat insular situation,
thcy gathcr trcasurcs around thcm. Thcir souls
arc as il chargcd with a magical potcncy that
makcs ancicnt mclodics cvcr ncw.
Lct us concludc by mcntioning thc sig
nilicancc ol thc carpct in thc csotcric symbolism
ol !slam. !t is thc imagc ol a statc ol cxistcncc or
simply ol cxistcncc as such, all lorms or happcn
ings arc wovcn into it and appcar unilicd in onc
and thc samc continuity. Mcanwhilc, what rc
ally unilics thc carpct, namcly thc warp, appcars
only on thc bordcrs. Thc thrcads ol thc warp
arc likc thc ivinc Qualitics undcrlying all cx
istcncc, to pull thcm out lrom thc carpct would
mcan thc dissolution ol all its lorms.
153. Caucasian rug, 19th ccntury
154. 8aluchi praycr rug, Khorasan, Pcrsia, c. 1875
155. Knottcd woolcn pilc rug, Turkcy, 16th ccntury
122 Te Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art
3 Knightly Art
Thcrc is an allinity bctwccn nomadism and
knighthood, an allinity ol lunction in thc lirst
placc, sincc thc nomad conqucrors gcncral
ly lorm thc warrior aristocracy ol thc subjcct
pcoplcs, and thcn, as it wcrc, a dccpcr allinity
ol castc, bccausc a truc knight always has no
madic tcndcncics and a nomad apprcciatcs thc
knightly virtucs.
Lct us makc clcar, cvcn so, that thcrc is no
institution ol castcs in !slam, unlcss thc rank
hcld by thc Prophcts dcsccndants in thc social
ordcr bc so considcrcd. 8ut thcsc dcsccndants
arc not privilcgcd with any tcmporal or spiritual
lunction, thcy simply rcprcscnt a virtual litc.
!l castcs do not cxist as institutions thcy do,
ncvcrthclcss, cxist as natural dispositions, and
collcctivc cquilibrium can bc rcalizcd only to
thc cxtcnt that thcsc dispositions coincidc with
thc actual lunctions ol individuals. Now dispo
sitions arc ncccssarily rclatcd to hcrcdity. This
law is onc which !slamic thought has ncvcr
lailcd to acknowlcdgc. Thc lactual aristocracy
has thcrclorc always bccn rccognizcd as such.
From anothcr vicwpoint, mcdiacval !slam
rccognizcd ordcrs ol knighthood, it did so cvcn
bclorc analogous ordcrs had bccn cstablishcd in
thc world ol Christianity, sincc thc Koranic law
ol holy war providcs a lramcwork lor spiritual
activity which puts thc strcss on hcroism, no
bility ol soul, and sclldcnial, and thc tcrm fu-
tuwwah, which dcscribcs thcsc knightly ordcrs,
covcrs all thcsc signilicant qualitics.
Thc ordcrs ol brothcrhoods practicing fu-
tuwwah wcrc rccruitcd not only lrom among
mcmbcrs ol thc dominant aristocracy but vcry
oltcn lrom craltsmcns or artists guilds.
Hcrc, thcn, wc havc a wholc host ol rcla
tionships, to which must bc addcd thc lact that
knighthood, insolar as it is practiccd by thc
dominant aristocracy, has links with lilc at thc
princcly courts. Nomadism, knighthood, cralt
guilds, and thc court: thcrc cannot but bc ccr
tain aspccts ol !slamic art that arc placcd within
this constcllation, and wc will mcntion onc that
156. Rclicl dccoration rcprcscnting two intcrlaccd dragons at thc cntrancc
gatc ol Alcppo Citadcl, Syria, 13th ccntury
157. ctail ol rclicl dccoration on thc wcst laadc ol thc Grcat
Mosquc and Hospital ol ivrii, Anatolia, Turkcy, 13th ccntury,
thc twohcadcd caglc was thc cmblcm ol thc Scljuk dynasty
Knightly Art 123
has its cxtcnsion in thc Christian Vcst. Vc
arc rclcrring to hcraldry, which is manilcstly
a knightly art and includcs, at thc samc timc,
ccrtain nomadic clcmcnts, namcly, animal sym
bolismthc twohcadcd caglc, lor cxamplc,
appcarcd lor thc lirst timc in Scljuk artand
also allusions to hcr mcticism, which is onc ol
thc bascs ol thc tradi tional cosmology taught in
thc futuwwah ordcrs.
Thc mccting bctwccn nomadism and
knighthood is cspccially apparcnt in Scljuk
artwhich is not at all surprisingand to a
lcsscr dcgrcc in Mamluk art. Thc Scljuks no lcss
than thc Mamluks had, morcovcr, contacts with
thc Cru sadcrsoltcn hostilc but occasionally
lricndlyand it was in this way that many clc
mcnts ol Muslim knighthood wcrc transmittcd
to thc Christian pcoplcs ol thc Vcst. Knight
161. Part ol a standard ol picrccd stccl carrying a srah lrom thc
Koran, Pcrsia, c. 17th ccntury
162. A silvcr kumia daggcr,
Morocco, 19th ccntury
163. Stccl axc with gold inlay, madc in gypt or
Syria, latc 15th ccntury
Left to Right: 158. Sword with a stccl bladc, cloisonn cnamcl dccoration,
and a hilt ol silvcr gilt, Spain, Nasrid pcriod, 15th ccntury, 159. Sword
with a singlccdgcd curvcd bladc ol watcrcd stccl with gold inlaid dccora
tion and latcr gold damasccning, gypt, c. 1270 (bladc) and ttoman
Turkcy, c. 1520 (additional dccoration), 160. Sword with a singlccdgcd
curvcd bladc ol watcrcd stccl with gold damasccning, and a hilt madc ol
horn, ttoman Turkcy, 17th ccntury
124 Te Art of Sedentaries and Nomadic Art
inlaw ol thc Prophct and thc prototypc in !s
lam ol thc pcrlcct knight (fat).
Thc bladcs ol Muslim swords oltcn bcar
bricl inscriptions lrom thc Koran, thc most
lavorcd bcing thc lormula l ilha illa Llh
(Thcrc is no divinity cxccpt God), a saying
which itscll rcprcscnts thc intcllcctual and spir
itual sword which parts thc cphcmcral lrom thc
ctcrnal or strikcs down thc crror ol conlusing
thc rclativc with thc absolutc.
Notc to Chaptcr \!
1. See Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, Historia del gran Tamerlan, Sevilla, 1582.
hood as a spiritual path is organically inhcrcnt
in !slam, it cmcrgcs lrom Christianity only in
dircctly.
Thc high point ol knightly art is, it nccd
hardly bc said, wcaponry. !t is hcrc that vigor
and prccision, boldncss and clcgancc, mcct on
thc lcvcl ol artistic cxprcssion. Thc bcst ol this
art is thc lashioning ol swords, thc lcgcndary
modcl lor which is thc cclcbratcd twocdgcd
sword, dhu l-f iqr, ol Al, thc cousin and son
164. Turkish cmbroidcrcd wickcr shicld ol Mongolian stylc,
15th16th ccntury
Left: 165. Turkish sword with inscription, stccl bladc, inlaid gold, and a hilt ol
wood, c. 1500, Right: 166. ttoman hclmct containing Koranic inscriptions
around thc rim and on thc noscguard, 16th ccntury
1 Variety in Unity
!
slamic art cmbraccs a wholc rangc ol stylcs,
cach ol which is clcarly distinguishablc and
corrcsponds to a spccilic cthnic cnvironmcnt,
although no spccilic stylc could bc dcscribcd as
bcing morc or lcss !slamic than any othcr, this
is an cxamplc ol thc phcnomcnon ol divcrsity
in unity, or ol unity in divcrsity, and provcs in
dircctly that !slam is not a synthcsis invcntcd
by man.
!t is clcar, morcovcr, that varicty in stylcs
cxprcsscs itscll much morc in thc dircction ol
brcadth, or thc cocxistcncc ol various cthnic
milicux, than in that ol historical dcvclopmcnt.
Thcrc is, lor instancc, lcss dillcrcncc bctwccn
Pcrsian art ol thc thirtccnth and sixtccnth ccn
turics, or bctwccn Maghrib art ol thc twcllth
and thc cightccnth ccnturics than thcrc is bc
twccn Maghrib and Pcrsian art throughout thc
agcs. This lcads to thc conclusion that thc art
ol !slam has grcat intcgrativc powcr but is, at
thc samc timc, ol a static charactcr, as is litting
in an art whosc contcnt is not thc cxpcricncc ol
phcnomcna but awarcncss ol thc timclcss.
A sacrcd arts powcr ol intcgration dc
rivcs lrom thc incxhaustiblc naturc ol its ob
jcct or idcal, in lact, thcrc is no possiblc lorm
that could cxprcss thc spiritual idcal ol !slam
cxhaustivcly. vcn so, thcrc must cxist in any
cthnic cnvironmcnt or at any lcvcl ol lorms a
bcst possiblc way ol cxprcssing this idcal. ncc
this has bccn loundand thc artist who hits
upon it is likc thc Zcn archcr who hits thc mark
blindloldcdthcrc is no nccd to look any lur
thcr, hcncclorward, thc mastcry ol thc art will
rcst upon thc cxact and imaginativc application
ol thc lormula to cach particular casc.
Thc lovc ol lormulac, that is, ol lormal
synthcscs which arc both concisc and rich in
possibilitics, is charactcristic ol cvcry sacrcd art.
8uddhist iconography is madc up ol typc imagcs
ol this kind, and thc samc is truc ol Hindu and
Taoist art, as wcll as ol thc icons ol thc astcrn
Church, whosc coloring and composition arc
lixcd by tradition. !n cach casc thc imagination
ol thc individual artist is subordinatcd to thc
traditional modcl, his imagination is lrcc only
in an inward scnsc in that hc cndcavors to attain
to thc spiritual kcrncl ol his modcl and to rc
makc thc imagc lrom that. !n thc casc ol !slam,
it is in architccturc and ornamcntation that onc
must look lor thc lormulac or prototypcs which
thc artist ccasclcssly rcproduccs and varics ac
cording to circumstancc. Thcsc prototypcs arc
incxhaustiblc bccausc thcy arc truc.
This lidclity to modcls, which rcligion docs
not actually prcscribc but which thc conscnsus
ol bclicvcrs has in a scnsc consccratcd, has
carncd lor !slamic art thc stigma ol bcing thc
victim ol stagnation, as il its stability ovcr thc
ccnturics had bccn thc rcsult ol incrtia or lack ol
awarcncss. !n rcality, thc altcrnativcs ol crcativity
or stagnation arc highly inapplicablc to sacrcd
art, which is cithcr laithlul to its principlcs, and
hcncc activc and awarc, or lorgctlul ol thcm,
thus cntailing dccadcncc and collapsc.
Thc prism which causcs thc singlc bcam ol
!slamic art to bc multilariously colorcd and rc
lractcd can bc tcrmcd thc collcctivc soul. This
is dclincd by a wholc gamut ol racial, linguistic,
gcographical, and historical lactors which havc,
noncthclcss, no qualitativc cllcct upon art whcn
cach is takcn singly and apart. !t is simply as cl
cmcnts ol a synthcsis or on a lcvcl bclonging to
thc soul that such lactors as racc and languagc,
or cvcn topography and craltsmanship, comc to
gcthcr to lorm a particular stylc.
Chaptcr \!!
Synthesis
126 Synthesis
Left: 167. Sidi Halaoui minarct in Tlcmccn, Morocco, Center: 168. Minarct ol thc Mutawakkil Mosquc, Smrra, !raq, Right: 169. Minarct ol alSibiyya
Madrasah, amascus, Syria
Left: 170. Yivli (llutcd) minarct, Antalya, Turkcy, 12191238, Center: 171. Minarcts ol thc Sultan asan and Rilai Mosqucs, Cairo, gypt, Right: 172. Minarct ol
Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy, 15201556
Variety in Unity 127
Left: 173. Minarct ol thc Mosquc ol Arw bint Amad, Jiblah, Ycmcn, 10881089, Center left: 174. Sarbn minarct, !lahn, Pcrsia, 14th ccntury,
Center right: 175. nc ol thc twin minarcts ol thc Shh Mosquc ol !lahn, Pcrsia, Right: 176. Minarct ol thc Madrasah ol !slam Khodja, Khva, Uzbckistan
Left: 177. Minarct ol thc Jahngr shrinc, Lahorc, Pakistan, 17th ccntury, Center: 178. Thc Quub Minr, clhi, !ndia, 12th ccntury, Right: 179. Minarct
ol thc Tomb ol !timd adaula, Agra, !ndia, 17th ccntury
128 Synthesis
!t is not possiblc, within thc lramcwork ol
this study, to dcscribc thc cntirc licld ol !slamic
art with its various ramilications, and ccrtainly
not to lollow its llowcring stcp by stcp. Vc shall
limit oursclvcs to dcscribing somc comparativc
cx amplcs ol architccturc, cach ol which may bc
considcrcd as thc synthcsis ol a dillcrcnt stylc.
2 The Great Mosque of Kairouan
Thc loundation ol thc grcat mosquc ol Kairouan
gocs back to Uqbah ibn Nli, a Companion ol
thc Prophct and thc conqucror ol North Alrica,
and it is thcrclorc onc ol thc oldcst mosqucs
in cxistcncc and thc lirst ol all thc mosqucs in
thc Maghrib, thc Muslim Vcst. Scvcral timcs
rcbuilt, its prcscnt lorm is no carlicr than 836
A.., but thc vcry sobricty ol its stylc, linkcd to
a mastcrly usc ol spacc, is cvocativc ol thc lirst
lightning cxpan sion ol !slam. Thc vcry cxtcn
sivc praycrhall, with a llat rool supportcd by
arcadcs, opcns out on to a vast courtyard as il to
wclcomc an cntirc host ol lightcrs lor thc laith.
This courtyard cxtcnds lcngthwisc along thc
axis ol thc mirb, and this axis is strongly cm
phasizcd on onc sidc by thc ccntral navc ol thc
oratory, which is constructcd at a highcr lcvcl
and adorncd with a domc at cach cnd, and on
thc othcr sidc by thc imposing minarct, a kind
ol thrccstcppcd donjon, which is pcrhaps thc
most ancicnt ol all surviving minarcts.
Thc arcadcs ol thc praycrhall arc arraycd
in dcpth and not parallcl to thc wall ol thc
qiblah as thcy arc in thc Umayyad mosquc ol
amascus. 8ut thcir progrcss is intcrruptcd at
various points by arcadcs which cut lrontally
across thcm. How cvcr, onc span which is
broadcr than thc othcrs along thc wall ol thc
qiblah comcs togcthcr with thc ccntral navc
in thc shapc ol a lcttcr T, and this was to bc
typical ol mosqucs ol this lamily, and answcrs,
morcovcr, to thc rcquircmcnts ol thc liturgy.
Sccn lrom abovc, an asscmbly ol wor shippcrs
at praycr in an opcn spacc has thc shapc ol a
bird with outsprcad wings, thc birds hcad is thc
Figurc 40: Plan ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan, Tunisia
180. Acrial vicw ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan
Te Great Mosque of Kairouan 129
181. Northcrn sidc ol thc courtyard with thc minarct ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan
130 Synthesis
imm who lcads thc praycrs, and thc lirst ranks
bchind him, which cxtcnd most broadlythcrc
bcing a ccrtain mcrit in praying dircctly bchind
thc immarc thc quilllcathcrs ol its wings,
whosc contours thcn rctract gradually in thc
dircction ol thc tail lormcd by thc latc arrivals,
who group thcmsclvcs along thc axis ol thc
mirb. This shapc lits casily into thc plan ol
thc oratory.
Kairouan is situatcd in a grcat plain, and
thc vast courtyard ol thc mosquc rcllccts thc
natural surroundings. Thc oratorys llat rools
and thc porticos surrounding thc courtyard,
as wcll as thc domcs and thc hcavy cnclosing
walls, arc whitcncd with limc, and this itscll, al
though it is only on thc surlacc and is not vcry
durablc, docs contributc grcatly to thc appcar
ancc ol thc sanctuary which thc whitc light lall
ing lrom thc sky cnvclops with a pcacc that is
both scpulchral and scrcnc.
!nsidc thc mosquc, thc whitcncss ol thc
walls is madc mcllow by thc sprcading ol hon
cycolorcd mats. Largc, conicallyticrcd chan
dclicrs arc hung bctwccn thc arcadcs. Thcsc
arc rcminisccnt ol thc Umayyad Mosquc ol
amascus and, bcyond that, ol 8yzantinc ar
chitccturc, but alrcady suggcst typical Maghrib
art, lar rcmovcd lrom Romc in thcir supplc
outlincs.
Thc mirb ol thc grcat Mosquc ol Kair
ouan is onc ol thc most ancicnt known. !t datcs
lrom 862863 A.. and has thc shapc ol a pcr
lcctly concavc nichc, llankcd by two columns,
which support a projccting arch. This arch and
thc surrounding wall arc libcrally adorncd in
ccramic tilcs cmbcllishcd with mctallic glazc.
Thc walls ol thc nichc arc covcrcd with sculp
turcd marblc pancls lorming a trcllis bcyond
which thc prcscncc ol thc background wall can
bc lclt, lor pilgrims visiting this lamous mosquc,
this dccoration conccals thc original mirb
bclorc which Uqbah ibn Nli, thc vcncratcd
Companion ol thc Prophct, uscd to pray.
Thc vault ol thc mirb is ornamcntcd
with a stylizcd vinc, paintcd in gold on a black
ground. !t rccalls thc lamous laadc ol Mshatt
182. Thc mirb ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan, 9th ccntury
Facing Page: 184. Partial vicw ol thc praycr hall ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan, 9th ccntury
183. Kl inscription on a column ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan
Te Great Mosque of Kairouan 131
132 Synthesis
and is linkcd, likc thc lattcr, with thc ancicnt
symbolism ol thc vinc as thc imagc ol thc Lo
gos and as thc worldtrcc.
3 The Great Mosque of Crdoba
Thc grcat mosquc ol Crdoba rcprcscnts pcr
haps thc most purcly Arab ol all architccturc,
and this is clcarly duc to thc rclativc isolation
ol Muslim Spain and to thc intcntion ol its
loundcr Abd arRamn ! who took pridc in
proclaiming thc Arab and Quraishitc origin ol
his housc. Him scll an Umayyad princc, hc was
ablc to survivc thc massacrc ol his lamily by thc
Abbasids and to cstablish his kingdom in Spain.
For thcsc vcry rcasons, thc mosquc hc built in
785 A.. is a kind ol countcrpart to thc Grcat
Mosquc ol amascus and thc logical outcomc
ol its main architcctural thcmcs.
n thc modcl ol thc amascus mosquc, that
ol Crdoba includcs a courtyard and a praycr
hall whosc long rools with a doublc slopc arc
sup portcd by arcadcs on two lcvcls, with thc
dil lcrcncc, howcvcr, that thc uppcr arcadcs no
longcr suggcst, as thcy do at amascus, thc walls
ol a basilical navc with skylights. At Crdoba,
thc lowcr and uppcr arcadcs arc no longcr
part ol a wall, but arc rcduccd to thcir pillars
and archcs without any intcrmcdiatc masonry.
Thc uppcr archcs, which support thc rool, rcst
upon thc samc pillars as thc lowcr archcs or
thc transom archcs. Lct us say, to givc a bcttcr
picturc ol thc imagc cvokcd by this architccturc,
that thc curvcs ol both scrics ol archcs soar likc
palmlronds lrom thc samc trunk or pillar,
which, lor its own part, rcsts upon a rclativcly
slcndcr column, with no lccling, cvcn so, ol
bcing too hcavy lor it, sincc thc archcs with
thcir manycolorcd and lanshapcd wcdgc
stoncs havc such cxpansivc strcngth that thcy
dispcl any suggcstion ol wcight.
Thc sccrct ol this illusionalthough it is
no illusion in lact, but thc cxprcssion in static
tcrms ol a rcality which gocs bcyond thc matc
rial plancis that not all thc archcs havc thc
samc out linc. Thc lowcr oncs arc drawn out
bcyond thc shapc ol a purc scmicirclc, whcrcas
thc uppcr oncs arc morc opcn and purcly scmi
circular. Thus it is that spacc itscll sccms to bc
brcathing and to cx pand outwards lrom an om
niprcscnt ccntcr.
Thc catcgorics ol uropcan acsthctics rc
tirc discomlitcd in thc lacc ol such architccturc,
is not architcctural spacc conditioncd by its
boun darics: !s it not simply a containcr whosc
lorm, whcthcr largc or conlincd, or cxtcndcd in
onc dircction or anothcr, dctcrmincs thc con
tcnt: !n thc mosquc ol Crdoba thc limits ol
spacc play no rolc at all, thc walls ol thc praycr
hall disappcar bcyond a lorcst ol arcadcs. Thcir
shccr rcpctitionthcrc wcrc 110 in thc primi
tivc mosquc and morc than 400 altcr it was cn
largcd in thc cighth, ninth, and tcnth ccnturics
A..givcs an imprcssion ol cndlcss cxtcn
sion. Spacc is qualilicd hcrc not by its bound Figurc 41: Plan ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba, Spain
185. !ntcrior ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba. Arca in lront ol thc mirb
134 Synthesis
Te Great Mosque of Crdoba 135
arics but by thc movcmcnt ol thc arcadcs, il
onc may dcscribc as movcmcnt this cxpansion
which is both powcrlul and immobilc.
Thc samc considcrations apply in thc static
ordcr. According to thc rulcs ol classical uro
pcan architccturc, a buildings supports must bc
proportionatc to thc wcight thcy bcar, thc dc
linitivc critcrion bcing our own organic lccling
lor things, in othcr words, architcctural statics
must imitatc thosc ol thc human body. For Cr
doban architccturcand, morc gcncrally lor all
!slamic architccturcthis rulc docs not work,
this is a logical art, objcctivcly static but ncvcr
anthropomorphic.
Thc practical problcm laccd by thc un
known architcct ol thc Crdoba mosquc was
thc lollowing: to raisc thc rool ol thc oratory
to a hcight proportionatc to thc cxtcnt ol thc
building, thc antiquc columns, or thc building
spoils which wcrc availablc, wcrc insullicicnt.
!t was thcrclorc ncccssary to supplcmcnt thcm,
and thc cxamplc ol amascus suggcstcd ar
cadcs on two lcvcls. Thcsc wcrc thcn rcduccd
to thcir inncr lramcs lcst thcy should crush thc
columns. Such arc probably thc purcly tcchnical
data which thc architcct had somchow to makc
187. ctail ol thc cxtcrior ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba
Opposite: 186. !ntcrior ol thc praycr hall ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba
136 Synthesis
thc bcst ol. Thc solution hc prcscnts is a victory
ovcr thc wcight and incrtia ol stonc.
Thc mosquc at Crdoba was stcadily cn
largcd ovcr thrcc ccnturics without its architcc
tural schcmc bcing altcrcd. To corrcct thc
imprcssion madc by its prcscnt statc, onc must
discount in thc minds cyc not only thc sombcr,
hallGothic, hall8aroquc church built in thc
vcry midst ol thc lorcst ol arcadcs but also thc
vaults which havc rcplaccd, in practically all thc
transoms, thc cciling ol bcams adorncd with
paintings. Thc polychromc ol thc archcs, thc
wcdgcstoncs ol which altcrnatc bctwccn whitc
stonc and rcd brick, was brought out by thc
gilding ol thc capitals. Pcrloratcd mctal lamps
wcrc hung in all thc navcs and thc lloor was
doubtlcss covcrcd with carpcts.
Lct us point out that thc structurc ol this
mosquc dcpcnds, in sum, on lorms that can bc
dclincatcd without pcrspcctivc, it is, in a way,
composcd ol arabcsqucs. This twodimcnsional
charactcr ol thc lorms is cvcn morc acccntuatcd
in thosc parts ol thc building which alakam
!! built bctwccn thc ycars 961 and 966 A..,
taking particular pains with thc dccoration. !t
is to him that wc owc thc marvclous mirb,
as wcll as thc various vaults or cupolas which
stand bclorc it, including thcir substructurcs,
which consist ol intcrlacing arcadcs.
Thcsc cupolas, thc construction ol which
has no known prcccdcnt, on thc onc hand antici
patc Gothic vaulting, sincc thcy arc ribticrcd,
and, on thc othcr hand, prcligurc Pcrsian vault
ing by thc lact that thc ribs do not join up at thc
188. omc on intcrlacing ribs in lront ol thc mirb in thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba
189. Mirb ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba, crowncd by horscshoc arch
138 Synthesis
cupolas summit but cross ovcr in thc shapc ol a
starshapcd polygon, lcaving thc ccntral crown
uncovcrcd.
To support thc cupolas, thc rcgular ordcr ol
thc columns was split, and thc rcsulting archcs
wcrc intcrlaccd in dcsigns as rich as thcy arc
un cxpcctcd. Thcrc is pcrhaps no morc striking
instancc in Muslim architccturc ol that mar
riagc ol static and rhythmic lorms which is so
pro loundly congcnial to thc !slamic spirit.
8ut thc mastcrpiccc ol Crdoban art is thc
mirb, its composition camc to bc onc ol thc
lormulac to which thc artists ol thc Maghrib rc
turncd without ccasc, not to copy thcm in scr
vilc or mcchanical lashion but to intcrprct thcm
in thc bcst possiblc way and to adapt thcm to
circum stanccs.
Thc nichc ol this mirb, which is vcry
dccp and on a polygonal planc, is surroundcd
in its uppcr part by a horscshoc arch, vcry largc
and radiating outwards with wcdgcstoncs dcc
oratcd in ycllow, grccn, and rustrcd mosaics,
this, in its turn, is containcd within a rcctan
gular lramc work on which arc traccd lcttcrs in
scvcrc Kl script ol gold on an azurc ground.
This arch and its lramcwork wcrc to bccomc
hcncclorward in scparablc, lor thcy lullill onc
anothcr and providc a mutual cquilibrium likc
joylul cxpansivcncss tcmpcrcd by thc scnsc ol
ctcrnity, or likc lcrvor and justicc, or lovc and
wisdom.
4 The Mosque of Ibn ln at
Cairo
Thc mosquc built bctwccn 876 and 879 A..
by !bn ln, a Turkish govcrnor in thc scr
vicc ol thc Abbasids, bclongs to a world cth
nically and gcographically vcry dillcrcnt lrom
thc Maghrib. !t is thc dcsccndant ol thc grcat
mosqucs, now dcstroycd, built by thc Caliphs in
Mcsopotamia whcrc thc art ol building dcrivcd
not lrom thc 8yzantincs but lrom Pcrsia, and
whcrc thc working matcrial ol thc mason was
not stonc but clay lormcd into raw or bakcd
brick. !nstcad ol stonc columns, as uscd by
Syrian and Maghrib architccts, and most ol
tcn acquircd lrom dcspoilcd Roman buildings,
brick pillars wcrc crcctcd to support pcristylc
mosquc rools. !t is not only thc building tcch
niquc that is dillcrcnt, thc acsthctic scnsibility
is cqually at variancc. Ncvcrthclcss, wc shall scc
that thc conccpt ol spacc is csscntially thc samc
in both.
Thc Mosquc ol !bn ln has a vcry largc
courtyard which is practically squarc and which
can bc said to bc built all thc way round it, sincc
thc porticos which cnviron it arc two gallcrics
dccp and thc praycrhall is no morc than livc.
Vhat is morc, thc arcadcs which support thc
llat rools all lacc towards thc courtyard, which
is to say that thcy stand parallcl to thc court
yards lour walls. Vhat makcs this arrangcmcnt
imposing is, morcovcr, thc lact that thc arcadcs
with thcir massivc pillars prcscnt thcmsclvcs as
a continuous wall into which doors with ogival
archcs havc bccn cut, morc cxactly spcaking, it
is a scrics ol pillars and a scrics ol doors, thc
volumc ol thc walls and thc spacc thcy circum
scribc bcing in pcrlcct balancc and mutually
Figurc 42: Plan ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln, Cairo, gypt
Te Mosque of Ibn ln at Cairo 139
190. Acrial vicw ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln
191. Courtyard ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln, with thc domc ovcr thc ablution lountain and thc minarct on thc northwcst sidc
192. Southcast arcadc ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln
193. Thc minarct ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln sccn through thc southcastcrn arcadcs
142 Synthesis
Te Mosque of Ibn ln at Cairo 143
complcmcntary, and this is acccntuatcd by thc
windows sct bctwccn thc archcs and along thc
axis ol cach pillar, thcy makc thc arcadcs into
a scrccn in which positivc and ncgativc, lillcd
spacc and cmptincss, arc all brought into play.
cspitc this, thc pillars havc a ccrtain lull
bodicd quality which is lurthcr cmphasizcd
by thc columns locking into thcir lour anglcs.
rnamcntal lriczcs in carvcd plastcr cnclosc
thc prolilcs ol archcs and windows, thcsc arc
no morc than dclicatc chasing along thc cdgcs
ol thc constructcd mass, but thcy arc cnough to
bcstow upon it thc quality ol a prccious matc
rial.
!n thc middlc ol thc court thcrc riscs a cubi
cal cdilicc with lour doors which is surmountcd
by a domc. This construction, which is lar morc
rcccnt than thc mosquc and datcs only lrom thc
cnd ol thc thirtccnth ccntury, shcltcrs thc ablu
tion lountain. Thc lountain was originally cov
crcd with a pavilion, thc gildcd domc ol which
was hcld up by columns.
Thc Mosquc ol !bn ln has a wallcd
outcr sanctuary holding it apart lrom thc ncigh
boring buildings. !t is in this sanctuary, on thc
sidc oppositc to that ol thc mirb, that thc
minarct stands, composcd ol scvcral storcys or
lcvcls, squarc at thc basc and round on top, with
an outcr staircasc asccnding in spirals towards
thc Mamluk watchtowcr which crowns thc an
cicnt structurc, rccalling thc cntwincd mina
rcts (malwiyyah) ol 8aghdad and, ultimatcly,
thc ziggurats ol Mcsopotamia.
Thc outcr walls ol thc mosquc havc a vcry
particular kind ol crcncllation lorming a skylinc
and taking up, in a continuous arabcsquc, thc
thcmc ol thc scrccn with complcmcntary cmpty
and lillcd spaccs. !t is impossiblc to tcll whcthcr
this skylinc imposcs itscll upon thc hcavcns or
whcthcr it is hcavcn that transpicrccs and cn
lolds it with its tongucs ol lirc.
196. Main mirb ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln
197. Stucco mirb ol alAlal in thc Mosquc ol !bn ln, 1094 Opposite and Above: 194-195. ctail ol thc arcadcs ol thc Mosquc ol
!bn ln
198. Thc minarct ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln
Te Mosque of Ibn ln at Cairo 145
199. omc abovc thc ablution lountain ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln
200. Thc crcncllatcd walls ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln
146 Synthesis
5 The College Mosque of Sultan
asan in Cairo
!n all thc countrics ol !slam and at all pcriods,
but particularly altcr thc advcnt ol thc Turkish
pcoplcs, monarchs havc built architcc tural com
plcxcs, callcd kulliyt, which always in cludcd a
mosquc, oltcn a collcgc or madrasah, occasion
ally a hospital or mristn, and morc rarcly a
dcrvish lodgc or khnaqh. Thc loundcr ol thc
complcx was happy to add to it a mausolcum
lor himscll, in lull conlidcncc that thc bcncli
ciarics ol his work would show thcir gratitudc
by praying lor his soul.
!n Ccntral Asia, thcsc complcxcs lrc qucntly
assumc thc aspcct ol citadcls ol thc laith
dominating thc vast spaccs ol thc stcppcs. Thc
Mamluk sultans imitatcd thcm by bringing thc
various componcnts ol a complcx into a singlc
building comparablc to a lortrcss, lrom which
thcrc cmcrgc thc minarcts ol thc mosquc and thc
domc which shcltcrs thc tomb ol thc lounding
princc. Thc Collcgc Mosquc ol Sultan asan
in Cairo, loundcd in 1361 A.., is a classic
cxamplc ol this. !t compriscs lour grcat vaultcd
rooms, which, opcning out onto an inncr court, scrvc both as oratorics and auditoriums, a likc
numbcr ol collcgcs and thcir dwclling quartcrs
and, linally, thc sultans mausolcum.
To givc somc idca ol thc colossal pro
portions ol this building, thc principal dimcn
sions arc 150 mctcrs in lcngth and 68 mctcrs
at its broadcst point. !t is a rcctangular block
with its longitudinal axis corrcsponding to thc
qiblah. Thc intcrior arrangcmcnt ol thc build
ing shows this alignmcnt distinctly, whcrcas thc
outcr contours arc somcwhat irrcgular, pcrhaps
bccausc ol thc position ol old buildings in thc
vicinity, and thcrc is in particular a vccring away
lrom thc dircctional axis at thc northcrn cor
ncr ol thc complcx. Thc artist was ablc to takc
advantagc ol this to join up with thc grcat cast
crn laadc which guidcs visitors or pilgrims to
thc gatcway. At thc cnd ol this laadc, which
is cnlivcncd by no morc than narrow, upright
groovcs, whcrc thc windows arc insct, thc wall
Figurc 43: Plan ol thc Sultan asan Mosquc, Cairo, gypt
Opposite: 202. Thc stalactitc portal ol thc northcastcrn
laadc ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
201. Thc southcastcrn sidc ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
Te Great Mosque of Kairouan 147
148 Synthesis
lolds back at a modcratc anglc and prcscnts a
tall gatcway in thc shapc ol a nichc hollowcd in
thc stonc. This nichc, which is broad at its basc
as lar as thc lcvcl ol thc lintcl and thcn bccomcs
incrcasingly narrow towards thc top, discloscs
a wholc cavcrn ol muqarnas, as il thc buildings
intcriorits llcsh and boncwcrc madc ol
crystal. n both sidcs ol thc gatcway, immc
diatcly rcminisccnt ol ccrtain Scljuk gatcways
ol Asia Minor, arc bands ol dclicatcly carvcd
ornamcntation and rcctangular arcas in basrc
licl lorming a lramcwork which, hallway up thc
wall, is intcrruptcd by thc vcry uncxpcctcd mo
til ol an intcrlaccmcnt in thc lorm ol a swirling
swastika. This motil is lound not only on Scljuk
gatcways but also on analogous Timurid and
Salavid monumcnts, and onc wondcrs whcthcr
it may not wcll pcrpctuatc a vcry ancicnt sun
symbol linkcd to thc idca ol thc solsticc as thc
gatcway ol hcavcn
n stcpping across thc thrcshold, onc rcal
izcs that thc gatcway nichc is no morc than a
lrontispiccc to a sort ol antcchambcr or atri
um roolcd by a lolty, conical vault composcd
ol muqarnas honcycombs and illuminatcd by a
lantcrntowcr.
Two high and lairly narrow corridors lcad
lrom this atrium by an angular path to thc grcat
inncr court. Thcrc would bc somc tcmptation
to comparc thcsc corridors to thosc lound in
ccrtain luncrary monumcnts ol ancicnt gypt
il thcrc did not cxist a closcr modcl in thc Arab
housc with its staggcrcd lobby which shiclds
thc inncr court lrom thc gazc ol thc curious.
Thc contrast bctwccn thc dark cntrancc pas
sagc and thc brightly lit point whcrc it opcns
onto thc court is hcrc, as in thc Arab housc,
vcry grcat, particularly as in this casc thc court
yard ol thc Sultan asan mosquc lorms a grcat,
cubic wcll ol light surroundcd by thc dccp and
shadowcd rcccsscs ol thc lour oratorics. Thcsc
arc disposcd in thc lorm ol a Latin cross and
thcir simplc vaults cmcrgc onto thc lour sidcs
ol thc court in largc and vigorous ogival archcs.
This arrangcmcnt lcads idcally to a varia
tion on thc thcmc ol thc cubc: il a cubc is
203. \cstibulc ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
204. Corridor lrom vcstibulc to thc intcrior ol thc Sultan asan
Collcgc Mosquc
205. Partial vicw ol thc courtyard and thc ablution lountain ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc, sccn lrom thc southcastcrn wn
206. Thc ablution lountain ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
Te College Mosque of Sultan asan in Cairo 151
dividcd symmctrically (2:2:2) it bccomcs cight
lcsscr cubcs which, whcn thcy arc arrangcd in a
squarc, mark oll a ninth at thc ccntcr which is
cmpty, this, thcn, is thc courtyard, and thc lour
cubcs which lorm a cross arc thc halls opcning
out onto thc courtyard, whilc thc lour cubcs at
thc corncrs shcltcr thc collcgcs, with thcir liv
ingquartcrs on scvcral storcys and thcir own
inncr courts.
Lct us makc clcar that thc schcmc wc
havc just dcscribcd is thc undcrlying onc, thc
proportions ol thc various spaccs lit into it only
approximatcly. !l thc lour oratorics wcrc ol
thc samc brcadth as thc courtyard, thcir cdgcs
would coincidc and thc sidcs ol this ccntral
cubc which is thc courtyard would bc obscurcd.
!t is this lattcr which is thc rcal architcctural
thcmca cubc madc ol light and cmpty spacc
207. Thc southcastcrn wn ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
152 Synthesis
Te College Mosque of Sultan asan in Cairo 153
which, by invcrsc analogy, cvokcs thc mcmory
ol thc Kaba.
Thc lour oratorics, which arc also audi
toriums, corrcspond to thc lour traditional
schools ol canonical law, and thc samc applics
to thc lour collcgcs placcd in thc corncrs ol thc
building. Thc oratory situatcd on thc qiblah
sidc, which is vastcr than thc rcst, corrcsponds
to thc anal school which is prcdominant
in gypt, thc oppositc hall is rcscrvcd lor thc
Mlik school, whilc thc two halls to thc right
and lclt ol thc qiblah bclong to thc anbal and
Shali schools rcspcctivcly. Thc partitioning ol
thc lour schools into lour halls arrangcd in thc
shapc ol a cross round a ccntral court is a classical
onc and gocs back to such lamous modcls as
thc Nimiyyah madrasah at Nishapur and thc
Mustaniriyyah madrasah at 8aghdad, ol thc
twcllth and thirtccnth ccnturics rcspcctivcly. !t
was apparcntly thc Scljuks who lirst sprcad thc
alrcady cxisting institution ol thc madrasah, a
school lor !slamic scicnccs which had prcviously
bccn taught in thc mosqucs.
Thc cocxistcncc ol lour schools ol canon
law within thc lramcwork ol Sunn !slam calls
lor somc cxplanation. Thc historical lounda
tion ol thcsc schools occurrcd at thc cnd ol a
pcriod charactcrizcd, in thc contcxt ol branchcs
ol knowlcdgc, by thc collcction ol all thc oral
and writtcn traditions conccrning thc words
and dccds ol thc Prophct and his Companions.
!t was on thc basis ol this collcction, which, by
rcason ol thc progrcssivc rcmotcncss ol thcir or
igins, could not havc bccn pushcd lurthcr, that
cach ol thc lounding imms ol thc lour schools
madc a particular sclcction lrom among thc oc
casionally divcrgcnt matcrial. sscntially, thcrc
is no contradiction bctwccn thc lour schools,
whosc dillcrcnccs conccrn only sccondary as
pccts ol law or ritual. According to a saying ol
thc Prophct, thc divcrgcnccs ol scholars arc an
cxprcssion ol (ivinc) Mcrcy.
Thc lact that thc numbcr ol schools rccog
nizcd by Sunn !slam should bc limitcd to
lourShism has its own systcmcorrc
sponds to what might bc tcrmcd onc ol !slams
Opposite: 208. Thc main mirb and minbar in thc southcastcrn wn ol
thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
154 Synthesis
structural laws. At all lcvcls ol !slam, thcrc arc
to bc lound, in lact, groups ol lour principlcs
or lour clcmcnts which, gcncrally spcaking, rc
latc to a lilth point ol rclcrcncc which is thcir
loundation or ccntcr. Thus, lor cxamplc, thcrc
arc lour rightly guidcd caliphs rcprcscnt
ing thc Prophct, and lour pillars ol rcligion,
namcly, praycr, lasting, charity, and pilgrimagc,
all linkcd to a lilth which is thc attcstation ol
laith, in thc samc way, a Muslim may marry up
to lour wivcs. And this lcads us back to archi
tccturc and to thc plan ol thc Arab or !ranian
housc with its lour scctions opcning onto a
ccntral court, which is pcrhaps at thc root ol
thc lourscctional madrasah.
Lct us turn now to thc main oratory ol
thc Sultan asan mosquc, which contains
thc mirb and thc minbar as wcll as a kind ol
stagc lor rccitcrs ol thc Koran. Two doors, to
209. Cupola ol thc atrium ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
210. Marblc pancl in thc vcstibulc ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
Te College Mosque of Sultan asan in Cairo 155
thc right and lclt ol thc mirb, lcad towards
thc mausolcum ol thc Sultan, which is placcd
in thc dircction ol thc qiblah, contrary to thc
rulc which lorbids cvcn thc appcarancc ol any
cult ol thc dcad.
Thc oratory is as high as thc navc ol a
Gothic cathcdral, but its shapc is cxtrcmcly
simplc. !ts vcry amplc ogival vault covcrs thc
spacc in a singlc curvc. Thcrc is no suggcstion
ol hcavincss, lor thc indircct light rcllcctcd lrom
thc courtyard lloods ovcr it. At night, lamps ol
colorcd glass wcrc hung lrom chains suspcndcd
in largc numbcrs lrom thc cciling.
Thc dccoration ol this oratory is vcry rc
straincd. Thc walls arc barc cxccpt round thc
mirb, whcrc thcy arc panclcd in marblc ol
various shadcs lrom ivory to cornclian rcd.
Thc most bcautilul piccc ol ornamcntation
is, howcvcr, thc lriczc ol Kl script which
runs along thc walls whcrc thcy join thc vault
and which is cxtcndcd towards thc court,
vcry probably, it uscd to cxtcnd round all lour
oratorics. Thc lcttcrs, which arc vcry largc, risc
up against an unbrokcn surgc ol stylizcd scroll
pattcrns, whosc cddying motion cmphasizcs,
by shccr contrast, thc hicratic progrcss ol thc
lcttcring. Nowhcrc, pcrhaps, is thcrc a morc
pcrlcct visual ccho than this ol thc psalmody
ol thc Koran.
!n thc middlc ol thc court thcrc riscs a
covcrcd lountain, which probably did not
always havc thc composition it rcvcals today,
but which, in its ovcrall shapc ol an octagon
passing into a hcmisphcrc, scrvcs vcry wcll to
complctc thc csscntially cubic architccturc ol
thc madrasah mosquc.
211. ctail ol thc stucco lriczc in Kl script running around thc southcastcrn wn ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc
156 Synthesis
6 Ottoman Mosques
Thcrc is a ccrtain modcrn acsthctic which, in
a not unrcasonablc rcaction against thc scpara
tion ol art and tcchniquc in uropcan
architcc turc at thc bcginning ol thc twcnticth
ccntury, proclaims that architccturc and con
struction arc onc and thc samc thing and that
a building is bcautilul to thc cxtcnt that it is
lunctional. !n lact, architccturc which linds it
ncccssary to dissimulatc its struc turc is simply
bad architccturc, but a lunctionally constructcd
building is not ncccssarily bcautilul, il art is to
bc typilicd by bcauty. !t must not bc lorgottcn
that a lunction may bc, to a grcatcr or lcsscr
cxtcnt, marginal in rclation to thc position oc
cupicd in thc world by man in his normal statc,
and that ccrtain lunctions owc thcir cxistcncc
to mans dccadcncc or to his lorgctting thc in
ward sourccs ol happincss and bcauty. Thc only
bcauti lul work ol art is onc which, in somc way,
rcllccts intcgral human naturc whatcvcr its in
cidcntal lunction. A sacrcd architccturc is bcau
tilul prc ciscly bccausc it corrcsponds to mans
most ccntral lunction, which is to bc an intcr
mcdiary bctwccn Hcavcn and arth.
!n sacrcd art thcrc is no scparation bctwccn
art and tcchniquc or bctwccn thc scarch lor
bcauty and thc mcthod ol construction. Thcrc
arc, assurcdly, problcms ol statics that arisc in
thc coursc ol construction, but thcir dclinitivc
solu tion lics in thc qualitativc gcomctry which
rcgu latcs all sacrcd architccturc and which ncv
cr lacks a symbolic contcnt bccausc it cxprcsscs,
in its own lashion, thc link that joins multiplic
ity to unity.
A particularly striking cxamplc ol this or
dcr ol things is thc thcmc ol thc mosquc with
a ccntral domc and a rcctangular basc, which,
with all its variations, was dcvclopcd by Turkish
tto man architccturc. Mosqucs with a ccntral
cupola alrcady cxistcd, as a typc, in thc Turk
ish sultanatcs ol Anatolia cvcn bclorc thc t
tomans had con qucrcd Constantinoplc and
takcn a closc look at thc grcat architccturc ol
thc 8yzantincs. !t is a mattcr ol lairly simplc
but wclldclincd struc turcs: a cubical building
surmountcd by a hcmi sphcric crown, in which
thc transitional zonc bctwccn thc sphcrc and
thc cubc is composcd, in thc intcrior, ol tri
angular laccts asscmblcd in morc or lcss opcn
lanshapcs, and this systcm is both rational and
dccorativc and acccntuatcs thc mono lithic as
pcct ol this architccturc.
Thc cubical building wc havc just dc scribcd
constitutcs thc oratory propcr, which may wcll
bc prcccdcd by othcr structurcs, notably a kind
ol atrium, also cubic and crowncd with a cupola,
whcrc thcrc is a lountain lor ablutions, and this
takcs ovcr thc rolc playcd in lcss harsh climatcs
by thc mosquc courtyard. Such is thc lay out, lor
cxamplc, ol thc Grccn Mosquc, thc Ycil Cami,
at 8ursa, built in 1405 A..
Figurc 45: Plan ol Saint Sophia
Opposite: 212. !ntcrior ol thc Hagia Sophia
Figurc 44: Scction ol Saint (Hagia) Sophia, !stanbul, Turkcy
158 Synthesis
Vhcn thc Turks conqucrcd thc 8yzan
tinc capital, thcy lound thcmsclvcs conlrontcd
with thc architcctural marvcl ol thc Cathcdral
ol Saint Sophia, with its immcnsc domc sus
pcndcd lrom thc sky. Not only did this sanctu
ary surpass in grandcur anything that Muslim
architccts had bccn ablc to buildit is only in
Muslim !ndia that much largcr domcd build
ings saw thc light ol dayit was also lascinat
ing as shccr spacc, which camc vcry closc to
that ol !slam by its contcmplativc quality and
yct dillcrcd lrom it by its liturgical rcvcrbcra
tions. !t was translormcd into a mosquc immc
diatcly altcr thc sicgc ol thc city by Mcmcd
!!, without changing its appcarancc, it was only
vcry much latcr that thc mosaics abovc thc
gatcway dcpicting thc Holy \irgin and thosc ol
thc Chcrubim on thc pcndcntivcs ol thc cupola
wcrc plastcrcd ovcr, only thc Pantocrator at thc
ccntcr ol thc domc was rcplaccd by a Koranic
inscription, it was a highly appropriatc onc,
namcly, thc vcrsc ol light which wc quotcd in
conncction with thc praycrnichc (mirb) (p.
93). Pcrhaps it was lclt that this sanctuary, prc
dating !slams historical manilcstation, was in
somc way a prcliguration ol it. !n lact it bclongs
to it, in thc namc ol Visdom (Sophia), which
is univcrsal, and by virtuc ol a victory that could
only bc providcntial.
Thc spccial constructional lcaturc ol thc
Hagia Sophia, thc happy invcntion ol its crcator,
is thc usc hc makcs ol hallcupolas as countcr
buttrcsscs to thc pull ol thc immcnsc domc.
214. omc ol Saint Sophia with thc Koranic inscription ol thc \crsc
ol Light, 24:35
213. Gcncral vicw ol thc Hagia Sophia
215. Gcncral vicw ol thc Sultan Ahmcd Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy
160 Synthesis
This domc rcsts on lour archcs, two ol which
coincidc with thc prolilcs ol thc hallcupolas,
which havc thc samc diamctcr as thc ccntral
domc. Thc othcr two archcs cach soar around a
vcrtical wall picrccd with windows which arc cx
tcndcd bcncath by scrccns ol arcadcs, thcsc lat
tcr scparatc thc latcral navcs with thcir gallcrics
lrom thc main navc. Thcsc navcs arc powcrlully
structurcd to takc thc latcral pull ol thc cupolas.
Thc combination ol a ccntral cupola with two
hallcupolas, which arc cxtcndcd, in thcir turn,
by scvcral apscs, scrvcs not only thc purposc ol
static cquilibrium, it acccntuatcs thc castwcst
axis ol thc sanctuary at thc samc timc, in accor
dancc with Christian liturgy. This mcans that
thc inncr spacc is conccntratcd by thc sphcrc
ol thc domc and, at thc samc timc, dcploycd
dircctionally by thc axial cxtcnsion ol thc vaults,
which makcs it unccrtain and, as it wcrc, lluctu
ating, and this shilting quality is hcightcncd by
thc apparcnt cmcrgcncc ol thc various cupolas
onc out ol thc othcr without thc cyc bcing ablc
to gaugc thcir contours or cxtcnt.
Thc cathcdral ol Justinian was a modcl
which thc ttoman architccts could hardly ig
norc, but which impcllcd thcm to thc twolold
cxploration ol a mcthod ol building on that
samc scalc and ol a mcans ol adapting spacc to
thc liturgical rcquircmcnts ol !slam. Thc two
lold cxploration can bc lollowcd in its cntircty
in thc work ol Sinn, thc grcat Turkish archi
tcct born about thc ycar 1490 A.. and dying
in 1583 A..
Architccts in Christian landswrotc
Sinn in his mcmoirscould account thcm
sclvcs supcrior to thc Muslims in tcchnical
216. Courtyard ol thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy
Ottoman Mosques 161
knowlcdgc, bccausc Muslims havc not succccd
cd in crcating anything comparablc to thc domc
ol thc Hagia Sophia. To bc thus conlrontcd
with an apparcntly insurmountablc dilliculty
has woundcd thc writcr ol thcsc lincs to thc
hcart. Yct, with Gods hclp and by thc lavor ol
thc Sovcrcign, ! havc succccdcd in constructing
lor thc mosquc ol Sultan Sclm a domc that cx
cccds that ol thc Hagia Sophia by lour cubits in
brcadth and six in hcight. Thcsc words sccm to
show that Sinn was prcoccupicd abovc all with
thc quantitativc aspcct ol thc construction ol
thc Hagia Sophia domc. Howcvcr, quitc apart
lrom thc lact that building on such a colossal
scalc, and with thc manual rathcr than machinc
mcthods ol thc timc, makcs physical grandcur a
sign ol thc intrinsic quality ol an cdilicc, thcrc
can bc no mistaking thc lact that Sinns work,
or thc progrcssivc rcalization ol his aims, docs
itscll provc that thc scarch lor a kind ol spacc
morc suitcd to thc spirit ol !slam obscsscd him
quitc as much as thc nccd to achicvc a tcchnical
victory ovcr thc 8yzantinc mastcrbuildcrs.
Facilc comparisons arc too oltcn madc
bctwccn Sinn and thc grcat architccts ol thc
uropcan Rcnaissancc, whosc contcmporary
hc roughly was, but hc is lar lrom thcir artis
tic Promcthcanism. !l hc appcars to vccr away
lrom tradition, it is only to rcturn to it stcp by
stcp. Thc grcat mosquc ol Sultan Sclm at d
irnc, which hc himscll calls his mastcrpiccc, is
no morc than an cxpandcd vcrsion ol thc domc
on an octagon crowning a cubic cdilicc. To win
through to this classical solution, Sinn passcd
through various phascs, thc chronological ordcr
ol which docs not ncccssarily corrcspond to
217. Acrial vicw ol thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc complcx
162 Synthesis
218. Thc big ccntral cupola with thc two scmicupolas in thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc
219. Pcndcntivc dccoratcd with stalactitcs in thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc
Ottoman Mosques 163
thcir logical ordcr, sincc an architcct may havc
an idca without immcdiatcly having an oppor
tunity to put it into practicc.
Thus thc lirst two mosqucs ol thc scrics,
thc Shchzadch and thc Mihrimah in !stan
bul, arc lurthcr rcmovcd lrom thcir cclcbratcd
8yzantinc modcl than thc third, thc mosquc ol
Sultan Sulcymn, built bctwccn 1550 and 1561
A.., whosc plan is a dircct rcllcction ol that ol
thc Hagia Sophia, as il thc mastcr had wishcd
to cxhaust this thcmc bclorc sctting out pur
posclully on a lrcsh path.
Thc mosquc ol Sultan Sulcymn, situatcd
on onc ol thc hills which dominatc thc Goldcn
Horn, achicvcs almost thc samc proportions as
thc cathcdral ol Saint Sophia. Likc thc lattcr,
it is surmountcd by a grcat ccntral domc with
two hallcupolas ol thc samc diamctcr scrv
ing it as countcrwcights. Thcsc, in thcir turn,
arc prolongcd by apscs. Thc latcral pull ol thc
cupolas is likcwisc compcnsatcd by two lcsscr
navcs which, in this casc, opcn out broadly onto
thc ccntral spacc and arc lloodcd with light, so
that thc squarc basc ol thc building is cvcry
whcrc pcrccptiblc. This is onc trait which dis
tinguishcs thc intcrior ol this mosquc lrom its
8yzantinc prototypc, in Justinians cathcdral
thc latcral navcs arc conccalcd bchind a scrccn
ol arcadcs, thcy arc plungcd into shadow, and
onc is hardly awarc ol thc buildings outcrmost
boundarics. 8yzantinc spacc rcmains indclinitc,
whcrcas TurcoMuslim art lovcs thc crystallinc
dclinition ol lorms. For this samc rcason, Sinn
madc all thc articulations ol spacc, such as thc
pillars and thc archcs which support thc vaults,
sharp and wclldclincd. Finally, hc madc usc ol
radiating apscs to bring back thc contour ol thc
two grcat hallcupolas into thc rcctangular plan
ol thc building. !t is in this dctail, thc skillcd
220. \icw ol thc twin madrasahs on thc southwcst sidc ol thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc
221. !ntcrior ol thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc
Ottoman Mosques 165
Figurc 46: Plan and main scctions ol thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc
Figurc 47: Plan ol thc Shchzadch Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy
166 Synthesis
combination ol concavc and rcctilincar surlaccs,
that is manilcstcd Sinns particular gcnius.
Lct us rcturn now to thc lirst ol thc mosqucs
wc mcntioncd, that ol Shchzadch, whosc domc,
buttrcsscd by lour hallcupolas, rcprcscnts a
lirst attcmpt to translorm thc structural systcm
ol thc Hagia Sophia in thc dircction ol conccn
tric symmctry. To lcad thc contours ol thc hall
cupolas back to thc rcctanglc ol thc basc, Sinn
rcsorts also to radial apscs, and hc complctcs
thc calix ol thc vaults by lour small cupolas sct
in thc corncrs ol thc squarc. This systcm has
thc advantagcor disadvantagc, dcpcnding on
how onc looks at itol discngaging thc lour
main pillars, supporting thc domc, lrom thc
outcr walls, and this arrangcmcnt lcts in thc
light lrom all sidcs. 8ut Sinn appcars not to
havc takcn account ol this possibility, what hc
was sccking was inncr spacc pcrlcctly unilicd.
222. Gcncral vicw ol thc Shchzadch Mosquc
223. Thc main cupola in thc Shchzadch Mosquc
224. !ntcrior ol thc Shchzadch Mosquc
168 Synthesis
So it was that hc built, as a sccond approach
to his idcal, thc mosquc ol Princcss Mihrimah,
thc static structurc ol which is cxtrcmcly skillcd,
whilc its inncr spacc is ol crystallinc limpidity.
This timc, Sinn dispcnscs with hallcupo
las and apscs and allows thc lour grcat archcs,
which sup port thc domc and arc lillcd in with
a scrccn ol windows, to appcar on thc outsidc.
Thc latcral prcssurc ol thc domc is sustaincd
cntircly on thc pcndcntivcs which arc buttrcsscd
by lour pillars in thc lorm ol small towcrs. Thc
intcrior ol thc mosquc is lrcc ol any rcinlorc
ing structurcs, it is as il surroundcd by a singlc
labric which is both wcightlcss and diaphanous.
Sinn thus achicvcd, by vcry dillcrcnt mcans,
thc idcal ol thc architccts ol thc Gothic cathc
dralsa spacc markcd out by luminous walls.
Figurc 48: Plan and scction ol thc Mihrimah Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy
225. Thc cupola sccn lrom insidc thc Mihrimah Mosquc
226. !ntcrior ol thc Mihrimah Mosquc
170 Synthesis
Thc outcr aspcct ol mosqucs with a ccntral
cupola cvolvcd in thc samc dircction as thcir
intcrnal arrangcmcnt, that is, towards a morc
lucid and gcomctrical articulation ol lorms.
Vhcrcas thc cathcdral ol Saint Sophia has thc
cxtcrior appcarancc ol a mountain, with vaults
and countcrwcight pilcd up against onc anothcr,
thc mosquc ol Shchzadch now rcvcals a ncatly
ordcrcd hicrarchy ol cupolas and hallcupolas.
Thc ccntral domc was now to cmcrgc with in
crcasing authority lrom its surroundings.
Lct us notc in this contcxt that ttoman
mosqucs arc truc to tradition in bcing gcncrally
approachcd by way ol a courtyard surroundcd
by porticos on top ol which is a scrics ol small
cupolas. Finally, royal mosqucs arc gcncrally
surroundcd by anncxcs ol indclinitc cxtcnsion,
schools, hospitals, and rcsthouscs, thc cntirc
complcx bcing dcsignatcd by thc cxprcssion
kulliyyah, mcaning totality or univcrsity.
Thc rclativcly small mosquc ol Sokullu Pa
sha, which Sinn built bctwccn thc ycars 1570
and 1571 A.., has to bc considcrcd in rcla
tion to its grcat courtyard, thc ccntcr ol which is
markcd by a covcrcd lountain and which givcs
acccss to thc buildings ol a madrasah attachcd to
thc mosquc. Thc mosquc itscll has a rcctangular
basc, onc ol thc longcr sidcs ol which laccs thc
courtyard, with thc othcr corrcsponding to thc
qiblah. Thc domc rcsts upon six archcs whosc
supporting points lorm a hcxagon sct into thc
rcctanglc ol thc building. Two ol thcsc archcs
227. Cupola at thc cntrancc ol thc Sokullu Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy 228. Courtyard ol thc Sokullu Mosquc
229. Mirb and minbar ol thc Sokullu Mosquc
230. ctail ol thc intcrior ol thc Sokullu Mosquc
Ottoman Mosques 173
arc dcsigncd on thc walls ol thc cntrancc and ol
thc qiblah. Thc othcr lour opcn out onto hall
cupolas whosc bascs link up, by way ol lriczcs
in muqarnas, with thc anglcs ol thc straight
walls. !n this plan, which dcrivcs lrom ancicnt
Anatolian modcls, all thc supports arc built into
thc buildings lour walls or arc joincd to thcm
by thc intcrmcdiation ol muqarnas, stalac titcs
that arc likc a suddcn crystallization ol thc ro
tary movcmcnt ol thc vaults. Thc oratory is as
il hcwn out ol icc or rockcrystal. Mcanwhilc,
thc wall ol thc qiblah or, morc prcciscly, that
part ol thc wall that is dclimitcd by onc ol thc
six archcs and surrounds thc mirb, is covcrcd
in ccramic tilcs with a joylul coloringlloral
motivcs in which azurc bluc, milky whitc, and
pomcgranatc rcd prcdominatc, altcrnating with
231. Thc cupolas lrom insidc thc Sokullu Mosquc
Figurc 49: Plan ol thc Sokullu Mosquc
232. Thc ccntral cupola lrom insidc thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc, dirnc, Turkcy
Ottoman Mosques 175
roscttcs ol intcr laccd lcttcrs and inscribcd pancls
in majcstic Thuluth script. Thc rcmcmbrancc
ol God brings thc soul pcacc as snow covcrs all
thc carths wounds and impuritics, at thc samc
timc it is happincss and springtimc.
Vhcn Sinn linishcd thc mosquc ol Sokul
lu, that ol Sultan Sclm had alrcady bccn startcd
upon, sincc it was constructcd bctwccn 1569
and 1575 A.. To support its colossal domc, hc
chosc thc octagon, which lits quitc naturally into
a squarc and is closc cnough to a circlc lor thc
junction bctwccn it and thc basc ol thc domc to
bc rcalizablc by a dclicatc muqarnas rclicl. Sinn
thcrclorc rcstcd thc vcry domc, mcasuring ninc
tysix lcct across, on cight ogival archcs, whosc
cight supporting pillars arc joincd to thc outcr
walls. Four hallcupolas, much lcss amplc than
thc domc, slip into thc buildings lour corncr
anglcs, thcy play an analogous rolc to that ol
thc corncr squinchcs in morc primitivc domcd
buildings. Thc altcrnation ol rcctilincar and
233. Thc intcrior ol thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc
Figurc 50: Scction ol thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc
176 Synthesis
concavc walls, which rcsults lrom this plan, is
partly compcnsatcd lor by thc mirbs bcing
shcltcrcd in an apsc, whcrcas thc corncr walls,
which arc ovcrhung by thc hallcupolas, allirm
thc practically squarc basc ol thc building, wc
say practically bccausc thcrc is a slight dillcr
cncc bctwccn thc buildings lcngth and brcadth,
which takcs into considcration thc distribution
ol thc gallcrics and ol lighting.
Vhcrcvcr thcrc is a transition bctwccn a
planc and a curvcd surlacc, Sinn uscs muqar-
nas. This clcmcnt, togcthcr with thc prccision
with which cach outlinc is traccd, mcans that
nothing in this architccturc is lclt undclincd.
!t docs not, howcvcr, rccall thc obscssion with
linish which typilics thc classic and aspiringly
classical stylcs ol postmcdiacval uropc. Thc
adamantinc pcrlcction ol thc mosquc ol Sultan
Sclm has somcthing timclcss about it, it cvokcs
thc vision ol things in purc simultancity, timc
stands still, sphcrc bccomcs cubc, thc instant
bccomcs spacc. That is thc lundamcntal thcmc
ol !slamic architccturc.
Thc cxtcrior ol thc mosquc ol Sultan Sclm
matchcs its intcrior, which indircctly provcs thc
quality ol its structurc: bctwccn thc cclcstial
sphcrc ol thc domc and thc carthly immobil
ity ol thc squarc basc, thcrc is an incrcasingly
gcncrous and statcly rotation ol laccts that arc
altcrnatcly convcx and planc.
Thc clcmcnts ol 8yzantinc architccturc arc
still prcscnt, yct intcgratcd into a ncw ordcr. Thc
uniquc and unlorgcttablc crcation ol ttoman
architccturc is, howcvcr, thc combination ol a
building with a ccntral domc and nccdlclikc
minarcts, by its undillcrcntiatcd plcnitudc, thc
domc bctokcns pcacc and submission (islm),
whilc thc vcrtical movcmcnt ol thc minarcts,
lcaping audaciously towards thc sky lrom thc
corncrs ol thcir basc, is shccr vigilancc, an activc
attcstation (shahdah) to ivinc Unity.
235. Fountain in thc courtyard ol thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc
234. ctail ol thc arcadcs in thc courtyard ol thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc
Partial cxtcrnal vicw ol thc Sultan Sclim Mosquc, dirnc, Turkcy
236. Gcncral vicw ol thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc
178 Synthesis
7 The Shh Mosque at Ifahn
Thc distinctivc stylc ol Pcrsian mosqucs is
largcly cxplicablc in tcrms ol an architcctural in
hcritancc ol grcat antiquity which is bound up
with a ccrtain tcchniquc ol construction using
only brick and, in conscqucncc, rcplacing bcam
rools by vaults and domcs. For monumcntal
architcc turc it is plain or colorcd hard brick
that is uscd, and whcn wc think ol Pcrsian
art, it is this tcch niquc with all its rclincmcnts
that comcs to mind. 8ut this tcchniquc dcrivcs
lrom anothcr which is both morc ancicnt and
morc cphcmcral and which can bc dcscribcd
as lolkart, although it implics a considcrablc
knowlcdgc ol statics. Vc arc rclcrring to thc
art ol building in raw brick, dricd in thc sun
and jointcd with clay. Mastcrs ol this art arc
capablc ol crccting vaults and domcs without
rc coursc to woodcn scallolding, by lashioning
thcir crowns on simplc rccd moldswhcncc
dcrivc Pcrsian vaults with ribs on thc outsidc
and by taking advantagc ol thc tcnsion inhcrcnt
Figurc 51: Plan ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn, Pcrsia
238. Acrial vicw ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
Opposite: 237. Southwcstcrn wn in thc courtyard ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
180 Synthesis
Main cntrancc to thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
Opposite: Thc twin minatcrs ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
Te Shh Mosque at Ifahn 181
in curvcd surlaccs to hold thc work in placc.
Fragilc in appcarancc, this architccturc ol mud
or clay is astonishingly durablc, providcd it is
wcll maintaincd, and cxtrcmcly bcautilul by
rcason ol its bcing, in a way, modclcd by hand.
Among thc pcoplcs who practicc itand it is
lound in Pcrsia, Alghanistan, !raq, and Uppcr
gyptit quitc naturally dcvclops a grcat
plastic scnsibility, akin to that ol thc pottcr,
and it is this scnsibility which appcars to makc
its mark on monumcntal Pcrsian architccturc,
whcrc dclicacy ol modcling is combincd with
gcomctrical prccision.
Thc charactcristic lorms ol Pcrsian archi
tccturc includc thc wn, a lolty scmicircular
vault, gcncrally closcd on onc sidc and opcn on
thc othcr. Thc largcst vault ol this kind surmounts
thc throncroom at Ctcsiphon, lormcr rcsidcncc
ol thc Sasanid kings. !t is constructcd in bakcd
brick, but its outlinc, with thc curvc starting out
lrom thc lloor, is in complctc conlormity with
architccturc in raw brick, sincc it is analogous
invcrscly to thc cclcbratcd catcnary curvc,
thc parabola dcscribcd by a chain hung looscly
bctwccn two lixcd points, it shows thc optimal
dcgrcc ol tcnsion lor thc contours ol a vault.
Opposite: Thc twin minatcrs ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
Opposite: 239. Thc twin minarcts ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
240. Main cntrancc to thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
Te Shh Mosque at Ifahn 183
Thc Pcrsian art ol !slam kcpt this lorm ol vault,
but improvcd on it lrom thc acsthctic point ol
vicw by assimilating it to thc kcclarch.
Thc wn is capablc ol various uscs and it
may, accordingly, assumc thc lorm ol a vault, a
gatcway, or a nichc. Thcsc arc thc lundamcntal
lorms ol Pcrsian architccturc, to which should
bc addcd thc domc or cupola which plays a
synthcsizing rolc.
8riclly, thc classical typc ol Pcrsian mosquc
consists ol a high gatcway giving acccss to a
courtyard surroundcd by vaultcd gallcrics, op
positc thc gatcway and on thc axis ol thc mirb
thcrc opcns out a grcat wn which communi
catcs with a room shcltcring thc mirb and
crowncd with a domc. Thcrc arc lrcqucntly
smallcr wns opcning out onto thc sidcwalls
ol thc courtyard.
!l wc considcr no morc than thc plan ol thc
wholc, it is not dillicult to dctcct thc lamiliar
clcmcnts ol thc traditional pcristylc mosquc
with particular cmphasis on thc axis ol thc
mirb. !t is in thc mattcr ol clcvation that thc
shapcs changc thcir aspcct and quality, with thc
horizontal rools giving placc to vaults and cu
polas. Thus it is that thc gradual passagc lrom
thc high gatcway to thc courtyard, widc opcn
to thc sky, and thcncc to thc dccp vault ol thc
wn, and linally to thc pcrlcctly scllcontaincd
intcrior ol thc domc involvcs a wholc scrics ol
contrasts as wcll as a progrcss towards incrcas
ingly intcriorizcd lorms ol spacc.
Thc gatc, nichc, and domc, bcing lorms al
ways chargcd with a ccrtain quality ol thc sa
crcd, assumc a dominant rolc. Thc gatcway to
thc mosquc is, morcovcr, ncarly always llankcd
by two minarcts rcscmbling tall columns, which
rccalls thc primordial symbol ol thc gatc ol
hcavcn placcd bctwccn two opposing and com
plcmcntary manilcstations ol thc onc and only
worldaxis. Thc gatcway ol thc Tcmplc at Jcru
salcm, with its two columns callcd Yakin and
8oaz, cxprcsscs thc samc idca. !n thc !slamic
contcxt, this can only bc a rcminisccncc which
ncvcrthclcss has its analogy in spccch, lor thc
Pcrsian and Turkish cxprcssion lor high gatc
way is synonymous with majcsty and authority.
nc spcaks also ol thc gatc ol ivinc Mcrcy,
and thc titlc ol gatc is givcn to pcrsonalitics
who, in thc traditional ordcr, play thc rolc ol
intcrccssors or intcrmcdiarics, as in thc wcll
known saying ol thc Prophct, ! am thc city ol
knowlcdgc and Al is its gatc.
For thc Shis, whosc scparatism is justilicd
by thc spiritual and tcmporal authority allcgcd
ly handcd down by thc Prophct to Al and his
dcsccndants, this saying takcs on a quitc spccial
importancc. Although Muslim thcology docs
not gcncrally insist upon thc principlc ol mc
diation, lor lcar that thc cult ol thc divinc man
should ovcrshadow thc unicity and omnipo
tcncc ol God, Shism has madc an cxccption
to this rulc and in this rcspcct comcs somcwhat
closc to Christianity.
!t is not surprising that onc ol thc major
works ol thc Salavid pcriodmarkcd by thc
victory ol Shism in Pcrsiashould bc a
variation on thc thcmc ol thc gatcway, wc arc
rclcrring to thc Shh Mosquc (Masjid-i-Shh)
in !lahan.
!t was built in 16281629 in thc rcign ol
Shh Abbs !, and its plan must havc bccn thc
work ol 8ah adn almil who was thcn
Shaykh al!slm in !lahn, that is, thc suprcmc
rcligious authority, as wcll as ministcr ol thc
awqf, or rcligious loundations. Hc combincd
in his pcrson thc lolticst aspccts ol Salavid
culturc, a mathcmatician and architcct, hc is
cclcbratcd lor thc dam hc crcctcd on thc rivcr
Zayndch Rd, which was thcn ablc to irrigatc
thc cntirc arca, and cvcn morc lor his mystic
poctry which is sung cvcn today in thc inns
ol !lahn.
Thc Shh Mosquc is part ol thc grcat
townplanning schcmc ol Abbs !, thc ccn
tcr ol which is thc pologround, thc Maydn,
a vast rcctangular spacc surroundcd by a gal
lcry ol wn nichcs and lcading via its northcrn
gatcway to thc grcat bzr, thc towns commcr
cial artcry. Thc mosquc stands oppositc to this
gatcway at thc othcr cnd ol thc Maydn. n its
wcst sidc, thc Maydn touchcs thc prccinct ol
Opposite: 241. Thc big outcr portal ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
184 Synthesis
thc royal rcsidcncc, which cncroachcs on it in
thc lorm ol a porchway, thc Al Qp (High
Gatc) toppcd by a lookout in thc shapc ol a
pavilion with slcndcr woodcn columns. Fac
ing it on thc castcrn sidc ol thc Maydn thcrc
riscs thc mosquc ol Shaykh LulAllh with its
domc ol grccn and goldcnycllow tilcs.
Thc gatcway ol thc Shh Mosquc is con
taincd within thc cnclosurc ol thc Maydn
which is pushcd back at this point to lorm a
sort ol cxcdra as il to hcightcn thc wclcoming
aspcct ol thc gatcway whosc opcning sinks into
thc shadow cast by a tall rcccss with muqarnas.
Two minarcts stand watch ovcr thc cntrancc.
ncc onc stcps ovcr thc thrcshold and
crosscs thc atrium, which is a prolongation
ol thc gatcway, thcrc occurs a suddcn but im
pcrccptiblc changc ol dircction. Thc Maydn
is oricntatcd according to thc lour cardinal
points, whcrcas Mccca lics to thc southwcst ol
!lahn, so that thc axis ol thc mosquc, which
is thc qiblah, divcrgcs lrom that ol thc gatcway
by somc 45 dcgrccs. Thc architcct, laccd by this
changc ol dircction imposcd by circumstanccs,
kncw how to makc thc most ol it, hc uscd it
to cxprcss thc transition lrom thc outward to
thc inward world, a swilt rcoricntation ol thc
soul. Altcr thc atrium thcrc comcs into vicw thc
grcat wn which opcns out, bcyond thc court
yard, onto thc chambcr ol thc mirb and which
has itscll thc shapc ol a vcry largc praycrnichc:
it prcligurcs thc mirb, without any doubt, but
242. wn opcning onto thc courtyard ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
Te Shh Mosque at Ifahn 185
it docs cqually rcprcscnt, in thc most majcstic
lashion, thc thcmc ol thc triumphal gatcway. !ts
vault, which cxpands likc a largc sail lastcncd
by stringlikc ribs, cmcrgcs onto a vcry broad
lramcwork, llankcd by minarcts, and lorming
a scrccn in lront ol thc grcat turquoisc cupola
which it gradually conccals as onc approachcs
it, as il it wcrc somcthing too sacrcd to bc di
rcctly acccssiblc.
!n a ccrtain scnsc, thc mirb is thc gatcway
onto thc unsccn, and thc wn which stands
bclorc it is its lacc, whilc thc gatcway to thc
mosquc summarizcs thc cntirc sanctuary, sincc
thc lunction ol thc sanctuary is prcciscly to bc a
gatcway to thc hcrcaltcr.
Thc rcctangular courtyard ol thc Shh
Mosquc is surroundcd by arcadcs on two lcvcls
in thc lorm ol wns. !n thc middlc ol cach sidc
ol thc courtyard thcrc is onc largc wn, thc
two that lic on thc axis ol thc qiblah corrcspond
rcspcctivcly to thc cntrancc and thc mirb
hall, and thc two which lic on thc transvcrsc
axis givc acccss to smallcr oratorics. All thcsc
nichcs, grcat and small, rcpcat thc kcclarch
inscribcd with subtlc prccision in a rcctangular
lramcwork. Thc cxtrcmc sobricty ol thcsc
lorms is ollsct by thc iridcsccnt brilliancc ol
thc ccramics which covcr all thc visiblc surlaccs
ol thc building. !n thc total sctting, it is no
mcrc mosaic lormcd lrom picccs ol handcut
laicncc in thc tcchniquc which givcs such lilc
to Timurid monumcnts, it is a casc ol paintcd
ccramic tilcs, which pcrmits a grcat prolusion ol
ornamcntation but rcjccts contrasts in lavor ol a
243. Looking lrom thc inncr courtyard into thc sidc courts ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
186 Synthesis
composcd color schcmc which movcs bctwccn
bluc, grccn, and goldcn ycllow.
Thc grcat domc ovcr thc hall ol thc mirb
riscs abovc a round drum supportcd by a polygon
with multiplc surlaccs on a squarc basc. Thc
roundncss ol thc domc is madc tangiblc by thc
joylul scrolls ol arabcsquc adorning it, in contrast
to thc hicratic inscriptions in Thuluth and Kl
script around thc wholc ol thc drum. Thc drum
itscll is not apparcnt lrom thc intcrior, sincc thc
domc is constructcd with a doublc crown in
such a way that thc inncr vault docs not cxtcnd
to thc vcry top ol thc domc. This inncr vault
rcsts upon cight kccl archcs which it cmbraccs
by a simplc dcvicc ol sphcrical laccts. !n this
mirb hall, as in thc two wintcr oratorics
244. omc ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
Te Shh Mosque at Ifahn 187
Top and Bottom: 245-246. ctails ol tilc dccoration in thc cupolas ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
247. Mirb ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
Te Shh Mosque at Ifahn 189
which lorm its wings and which arc crowncd
by cupolas on pillars, thc Pcrsian art ol lacctcd
vaulting achicvcs its most simplc and clcgant
cxprcssion.
Thc total complcx ol thc cdilicc, with its
unilicd contours, includcs not only thc various
oratoricsthc domc chambcr, thc two wintcr
oratorics, and thosc which match thc smallcr
wnsbut also two collcgcs (madris) with
thcir own courtyards. All thcsc dillcrcnt parts
ol thc complcx arc linkcd with onc anothcr by
widcopcn bays, lrom a covcrcd, scllcontaincd
spacc, onc passcs dircctly to a spacc opcn to thc
sky, onc is ncvcr shut in, and cvcrywhcrc onc
is surroundcd by a pcrlcct architcctural sctting.
!t is this kind ol spacc which distinguishcs a
mosquc ol thc typc wc havc just dcscribcd lrom
any Christian sanctuary, whatcvcr othcr inci
dcntal rcscmblanccs thcy may havc.
248. ctail ol tilc dccoration lrom thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
249. Praycr hall in thc south corncr ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn with thc mirb sccn bcyond to thc right
190 Synthesis
8 The Taj Mahal
Thc Taj Mahal, which is thc mastcrpiccc ol
Mughal art, apparcntly lics somcwhcrc out
sidc thc art ol !slam, or at lcast at its cxtrcmc
limit, by rcason ol thc motivcs undcrlying its
construction, lor it is a mausolcum shcltcring
thc tomb ol a woman whosc glorilication dc
pcnds ncithcr upon hcr sanctity nor upon hcr
bcing ol thc lincagc ol thc Prophct, but on thc
simplc lact that shc was grcatly lovcd by hcr
husband, thc mpcror Shh Jahn. 8ut thcrc
arc various coincidcnccs which makc ol this
work somcthing morc than an itcm outsidc thc
mainstrcam ol !slamic art and a mcrc cxtrava
gancc. Thc lovc ol woman, or ol womanhood
as such in all thc most prolound aspccts ol hcr
bcing, was bound to manilcst itscll somcwhcrc
in thc art ol !slam. Sincc shc could not bc por
traycd by an imagcand only a sacrcd imagc
would bc ablc to incarnatc thc quality in qucs
tionshc lound hcr cxprcssion by way ol ar
chitccturc, in a work that could bc rcalizcd only
in an !ndian sctting and whosc purity and gracc
indisputably convcy an aspcct ol lcmininity in
thc lolticst scnsc ol thc tcrm. Morcovcr, it is no
mcrc chancc that thc ovcrall disposition ol this
mausolcum, and thc domc in particular, should
rccall thc typically Hindu motil ol thc lotus bud
cmcrging lrom thc watcra motil, or symbol,
which is linkcd with thc notion ol lcmininity or
primordial rcccptivity.
A lurthcr and, as it wcrc, providcntial co
incidcncc is thc lact that a mausolcum has a
ccrtain allinity as an architcctural typcnot
by thc cllcct ol somc cxtcrnal inllucncc but by
its inncr logicwith thc lundamcntal thcmc
ol Hindu architccturc, which is that ol thc sa
crcd mountain covcring thc cavcrn in which
thcrc lics conccalcd thc spark ol divinc light.
!n thc samc way, a mausolcum shcltcrs a crypt,
and this conccals a sccd ol ctcrnity. A Mus
250. Gcncral vicw ol thc Taj Mahal, Agra, !ndia
251. Thc Taj Mahal
192 Synthesis
trast to thc Taj Mahal, which is laccd in whitc
marblc, thc mausolcum ol thc husband was to
bc panclcd in black marblc. Fatc dccrccd that
thc sccond mausolcum should ncvcr bc built
and that thc cmpcror should lind his last rcst
ingplacc by his wilcs sidc.
Thc namcs ol scvcral architccts who workcd
lor Shh Jahn arc known, including a ccrtain
Mull Murshd ol Shrz, but it has ncvcr bccn
possiblc to discovcr who drcw up thc plans ol
thc Taj Mahal. Thc cmpcror himscll was lasci
natcd by architccturc and occasionally dcsigncd
plans lor his own buildings, hc has, in any cvcnt,
thc mcrit ol having sclcctcd thc bcst projcct.
This had a scrics ol prcccdcnts, including
thc mausolcum ol Humyn, thc sccond ol thc
lim mausolcum could not possibly bc conluscd
with a Hindu tcmplc, but thc parallcl wc havc
just touchcd upon not only cvokcs a ccrtain
spiritual dimcnsion but also makcs possiblc thc
transposition ol a particular tcchniquc ol build
ing lrom Hindu to !slamic art, and wc shall
spcak ol this latcr.
First ol all, to givc this mausolcum its placc
in history, MumtziMaal, thc bclovcd wilc
ol Shh Jahn, dicd in thc ycar 1630, and hcr
mausolcum was constructcd bctwccn 1632 and
1654. Thc cmpcror chosc a sitc on thc banks ol
thc rivcr Jumna, with thc intcntion ol building
his own mausolcum on thc oppositc bank and
ol joining thc two by a bridgc to portray a link
that wcnt bcyond thc llow ol timc. !n con
252. Main cntrancc to thc Taj Mahal
Te Taj Mahal 193
253. Thc Taj Mahal and its gardcns
254. ctail ol thc main cntrancc to thc shrinc ol thc Taj Mahal
Te Taj Mahal 195
Thc lirst ol thcsc contrasts is bctwccn thc
polygonal scction ol thc building, with its cor
ncrs acccntuatcd by watchtowcr columns with
thcir gracclul summits, and thc grcat domc in
luscd with cxpansivc lorcc.
This cupola is shapcd likc a bulb or, morc
cxactly, likc thc bud ol a llowcr, whosc outlinc
riscs abovc, and cnhanccs, thc asccndant movc
mcnt ol thc wns, or nichcs distributcd ovcr
thc cight laccs ol thc building. !n ordcr to makc
it clcarly visiblc abovc thc triumphal door
ways, thc cupola is supportcd on a high drum,
whosc mas sivc appcarancc is balanccd out by
thc wcightlcss and cthcrcal shapc ol thc lour
small satcllitc cupolas. Thcy arc, morc strictly
spcaking, domcd pavilions, inspircd byand
not copicd lromHindu modcls.
8ut thc richcst and most lorcclul contrast
cnlivcning this piccc ol architccturc is that bc
twccn thc plastic rotundity ol thc domc and
thc cavitics ol thc wns on thc laadcs. Thcsc
rcccsscs arc likc vast cavcs ol dccp and hcavy
Mughal cmpcrors, who had bccn lorccd to ac
ccpt cxilc to Pcrsia and on his rcturn, brought
with him a numbcr ol Pcrsian artists. !t is not
vcry sur prising thcn that thc Taj Mahal should
dcrivc lrom Pcrsian modcls at thc samc timc as
drawing closc to thc lcgacy ol Hindu architcc
turc, as a synthcsis, it is without pccr.
Thc tcchniquc ol construction, which is
massivc, doubtlcss owcs much to Hindu usagc.
!t is clcar that thc cxtcrior ol thc Taj Mahal
docs not dcpcnd upon thc organization ol inncr
spacc but is somchow lashioncd likc sculpturc.
This is brought out in particular by thc polygo
nal lorm ol thc building, thc plan ol which is
a squarc with trun catcd corncrsan irrcgular
octagonso that cach ol thc lour broadcr sidcs
ol thc cdilicc assumcs thc aspcct ol a laadc and
at thc samc timc invitcs thc cyc, by its rcccd
ing corncrs, to cxplorc what is bcyond. This is
not thc lcast ol all thc contrasts this architcc
turc involvcs and ol which it is thc miraculous
synthcsis.
Figurc 52: Plan ol thc Taj Mahal
Figurc 53: Gcomctrical analysis ol thc plan ol thc Taj Mahal
196 Synthesis
shadow, whilst thc domc draws down upon itscll
thc lull light ol day. Vithout thcsc shadowcd
nichcs, thc lullbodicd mass ol thc domc would
bc ovcrpowcring, thcsc concavc lorms givc it a
kind ol lilt and rccoil that makc it as intangiblc,
distant, and incorporcal as thc stars.
!n thc rcccsscs thcmsclvcs, thc hcavy shad
ows arc mcllowcd by thc play ol lacctcd sur
laccs which partition thc vaults in a subtlc and
original dcsign likc that madc on thc surlacc ol
a pool by a suddcn brcath ol wind.
!n thc cvcning, whcn thc contrasts bctwccn
light and shadow arc soltcncd, and thc convcx
and concavc shapcs ladc into onc anothcr and
thc ivorywhitc marblc, with which thc mau
solcum is laccd, glows with its own light, thc
Taj Mahal shcds all matcrial hcavincss, it thcn
sccms to bc madc ol thc samc substancc as thc
lull moon.
Thc discrcct and cxtrcmcly dclicatc dc
corationsincrustations in marblc ol subtly
dillcrcnt shadcs, llowcrs carvcd in rclicl, and a
vcry clcgant and scllconlidcnt inscription ol
vcrscs lrom thc Koran on thc lramcwork ol thc
doorsdo no morc than hcightcn this imprcs
sion ol a uniquc substancc ol a cclcstial naturc.
Vc shall rcturn latcr to this aspcct ol thc work
and its link with thc traditional symbol ol a cc
lcstial domc ol whitc pcarl.
Thc intcrior ol thc building consists ol a
ccntral luncral chambcr, which shcltcrs thc
ccnotaphs ol thc illustrious pair, togcthcr with
lour sidcchambcrs linkcd to cach othcr and
to thc ccntral chambcr by corridors. !n thc
cntirc cnscmblc, thcsc spaccs hollowcd out ol
thc compact mass ol thc cdilicc lorm a lairly
complcx schcmc, comparablc to snowllakcs
pilcd togcthcr and cxplicablc only in tcrms ol
thc undcrlying gcomctrical arrangcmcnt ol thc
wholc building. This schcmc consists ol livc
cqually sizcd octagons, all touching, and groupcd
in thc shapc ol a roscttc. !ts dctcrminativc rolc
rcminds onc ol thc mandalas which constitutc
thc basic plans ol Hindu tcmplcs, but thc choicc
ol octagons as thc basic dcsign and thc lact
that thcy arc arrangcd in a group ol livc makc
it pcrlcctly concordant with Muslim tradition.
Thc cxistcncc ol this schcmc would bc hardly
suspcctcd lrom thc cxtcrior ol thc building. !t
255. Funcral chambcr ol thc Taj Mahal
256. ctail ol inlaid dccoration in thc Taj Mahal
Te Taj Mahal 197
bctrays itscll howcvcr in thc truncatcd outcr
corncrs, which match thc cnd walls ol thc lour
pcriphcral octagons, and in thc position ol thc
lour satcllitc cupolas cach supportcd by cight
pillars. Thc ccntral domc marks out thc guiding
circlc in which thc ccntral octagon is sct.
Vc havc not so lar pointcd out that thc Taj
Mahal is situatcd in a vast gardcn cxtcnding lrom
thc lolty rivcrbank, dominatcd by thc mauso
lcum, to a monumcntal gatcway. Vc shall not
dcscribc this gatcway or thc othcr buildingsa
mosquc and a gucstpalaccwhich bordcr this
gardcn, but wc shall conccntratc our attcntion
on thc watcrcourscs which mark thc two
cardinal axcs ol thc gardcn. !n a ccrtain scnsc,
thc Taj Mahal, whosc namc signilics thc crown
ol thc locality (tj-i-maall), should havc bccn
crcctcd whcrc thc watcrcourscs radiatc out
towards thc lour dircctions. !n placing itlor
somc incxorablc rcasonncxt to thc rivcr
Jumna and at thc cxtrcmc cnd ol thc gardcn, two
thcmcs wcrc discardcd which, in thc mind ol
thc mpcror or thc architcct ol thc mausolcum,
wcrc doubtlcss onc and thc samc. This thcmc
dcrivcs lrom a cclcbratcd adth, onc ol thc
dcscriptions ol Paradisc givcn by thc Prophct. !t
cvokcs thc imagc ol an immcnsc domc madc ol
whitc pcarl and supportcd by lour corncrpillars
on which arc inscribcd thc lour lcttcrs ol thc
ivinc Namc thc AllMcrcilul (ar-Ramn):
R, , M, N. From cach ol thcsc lcttcrs thcrc
llows a rivcr ol gracc.
!n conlormity with othcr traditions ol thc
Prophct, thc whitc pcarl is thc symbol ol thc
substancc lrom which thc world was crcatcd.
This is nonc othcr than thc Univcrsal Spirit
or thc First !ntcllcct in its aspcct ol inlinitcly
mallcablc or rcccptivc substancc, and that is in
rcality thc suprcmc prototypc ol thc naturc ol
woman.
257. ctail ol marblc dccoration in thc Taj Mahal
198 Synthesis
1 Muslim Town-planning
T
hc subjcct ol this chaptcr gocs, in a scnsc,
bcyond thc domain ol art, sincc thc city
imagcs thc wholc lilc ol thc community, but
this vcry lact will cnablc us to givc thc arts
thcir rolc in thc contcxt ol social lilc. Morcovcr,
townplanning is an art in itscll, whcthcr as cx
prcssing thc will ol a singlc individualnotably
thc sovcrcign who is a buildcr ol citicsor ol
a group ol individuals, vcry oltcn anonymous,
acting in pragmatic lashion but always in thc
lramcwork ol traditionand this allows us to
spcak ol Muslim townplanningthis tradi
tion bcing no morc than an application ol thc
Sunnah, thc custom ol thc Prophct, to thc con
ditions ol thc locality and thc pcriod. Rathcr
than govcrnmcntal or royal townplanning, it is
that ol thc group that will rcvcal thc architcc
tural constants in thc citics ol !slam. Vc shall
start, ncvcrthclcss, with a bricl survcy ol town
planning by sovcrcigns, thc mcrits and dcmcrits
ol which arc highly instructivc in thc contcxt ol
our subjcct.
Thc two most ancicnt cxamplcs ol roy
al townplanning in !slam arc Anjar in thc
Lcbanon, built at thc bcginning ol thc cighth
ccntury A.. by an Umayyad princc, and thc
lirst 8aghdad, constructcd in thc sccond hall
ol thc samc ccntury by thc Abbasid Caliph al
Manr, thcy rcprcscnt two cntircly dillcrcnt,
not to say opposing, typcs ol city. Anjar is an
cxamplc ol thc rcctangular city surroundcd by a
lortilicd cnclosurc with lour gatcs corrcspond
ing to cach ol thc cardinal points, north, south,
cast and wcst, and giving acccss to two main
thoroughlarcs which cross at thc townccntcr
according to thc wcllknown schcmc ol Roman
citics with thcir two axcs, thc cardo and thc de-
cumanus, lrom which thc cntirc townplan dc
rivcs by simplc lourlold division. !n thc ruins
ol this townit did not long survivcthcrc
can bc rccognizcd thc loundations ol a mosquc
ncar thc intcrscction ol thc main thorough
larcs and ncxt to it, a littlc larthcr back, thosc
ol thc govcrnors palacc, thc dr al-imrah. Thc
two main avcnucs wcrc llankcd by colonnadcs,
which cmphasizcs thc GrccoRoman charactcr
ol thc wholc, but bchind thc colonnadcs wcrc
rows ol shops whosc stonc bascs still rcmain
to suggcst thc markctstrccts (sq or bzr) ol
latcr Muslim citics.
Thc carlicst city ol 8aghdad, which has
complctcly disappcarcd but ol which wc havc
lairly cxact dcscriptions, was a pcrlcctly circular
city, cncloscd in a doublc wall, with thc rcsidcn
tial quartcrs laid out in thc lorm ol a ring and
thc strccts lanning out lrom thc ccntcr. !n thc
middlc ol this ring and in thc ccntcr ol a grccn
spacc wcrc situatcd thc Caliphs palacc and thc
grcat mosquc. Four lortilicd gatcs, giving acccss
Chaptcr \!!!
The City
Figurc 54: Plan ol thc round city ol alManr, 8aghdad
Opposite: 258. \icw ol thc city ol Fcz, Morocco, and thc Qarawiyyn Mosquc
200 Te City
Figurc 55: Plan ol Anjar
Muslim Town-planning 201
to lour main artcrics, laccd southcast, south
wcst, northcast and northwcst.
Thc squarc and thc circular city not only
rcllcct dillcrcnt lilcstylcs but arc implicitly as
sociatcd with two divcrsc conccptions ol thc
univcrsc, lor townplanning ncvcr lails to in
volvc cosmology. Thc city is always an imagc ol
totality, its lorm shows thc way man intcgratcs
himscll into thc univcrsc. Thc squarc city, laid
out along thc cardinal axcs, is an cxprcssion ol
scdcntary lilc and also ol a static imagc ol thc
univcrsc, whcrcas thc circular city, which dc
rivcs lrom a dynamic conccption ol thc world,
is a kind ol rcllcction ol nomadism on thc planc
ol urban lilc which, as such, is scdcntary. Circu
lar citics cxistcd, morcovcr, among thc Mcdcs
and Parthians, !ranian pcoplc who had passcd
lrom nomadism to scdcntarism, and thcir pro
totypcs wcrc quitc clcarly nomad camps with
thcir circlc ol tcnts and thc chicltains tcnt in
thc ccntcr.
Ncithcr ol thcsc two typcs ol city was rcad
ily acccptablc to thc Muslim community. !n thc
long run, thc plan ol thc Roman city, which
lics bclow thc surlacc ol many Muslim towns
in thc Ncar ast, was always modilicd by rc
taining no morc than a part ol thc loursquarc
alignmcnt ol strccts, particularly as commcrcial
quartcrs, whilc ordinary dwclling placcs camc
to bc groupcd quitc dillcrcntly by somchow
avoiding thc trallicroutcs, according to a law
which wc shall cxplain bclow. Thc circular city
ol alManr had in lact to bc abandoncd as thc
rcsult ol tcnsions cngcndcrcd by its cxccssivcly
ccntralizcd and totalitarian lorm. Friction bc
twccn thc towns pcoplc and thc Turkish body
guard obligcd thc Abbasid Caliphs to abandon
8aghdad and to lound Smarr as a royal city
dctachcd lrom thc civil and commcrcial town.
Altcr this, it bccamc almost thc rulc in thc !s
lamic world to kccp thc two catcgorics apart.
Vhcn a sovcrcign took posscssion ol a capital,
hc sct up his rcsidcncc outsidc thc walls in ordcr
to maintain his lrccdom ol action and to intcr
lcrc as littlc as possiblc in thc collcctivc lilc ol
thc town. Thus, thc Umayyads ol Spain lound
cd thc royal city ol Madnat azZahr outsidc
Crdoba, thc Marinids on bccoming mastcrs ol
Morocco in thc midthirtccnth ccntury A..
built thc royal city ol Fs alJadd (Ncw Fcz)
ncxt to thc ancicnt capital, and thc Mughal cm
pcror Akbar had Fatchpur Sikri crcctcd somc
distancc lrom Agrato mcntion only a lcw cx
amplcs still much in cvidcncc today, lor in most
cascs thc royal city linishcd by bccoming thc
nuclcus ol a ncw commcrcial town.
!n itscll, thc royal city cmcrgcs as an cxtcn
sion ol thc sovcrcigns palacc. !t compriscs liv
ingquartcrs, gardcns, barracks, and cvcn artists
workshops and markcts, all laid out according to
plans drawn up by thc court architccts, whcrcas
thc commcrcial townwhich may bc a univcr
sity town at thc samc timc, and contain a royal
castlc without bcing thc sovcrcigns pcrmancnt
rcsidcnccdcvclops in a somcwhat pragmatic
lashion but hardly cvcr with any intcrlcrcncc in
thc way ol townplanning by thc sovcrcign.
Thc basic shapc ol thc palacc is no dillcrcnt
lrom that ol a housc which, in Arab and Pcrsian
lands, is a rcctangular structurc around an inncr
court. This rcctanglc may wcll consist cntircly
ol dwcllings opcning out onto thc court, it may
cqually bc two blocks ol livingquartcrs lac
ing onc anothcr and joincd by cnclosing walls.
!n thc lattcr casc, thc courtyard is lrcqucntly
lcngthcncd to bccomc an cncloscd gardcn or is
translormcd into a rcccption court bctwccn onc
porchhousc and anothcr containing an audi
cnccroom.
!t will bc sccn that thcsc clcmcnts lcnd
thcmsclvcs to thc dcvclopmcnt ol symmctri
cal spaccs dominatcd by largc axcs. !n prac
ticc, howcvcr, axial oricntation was rcscrvcd lor
courtyards and rcccptionhalls alonc, lor thc
rcst, sovcrcigns had no objcction to brcaking up
axial and symmctrical alignmcnts in ordcr to
crcatc thcir own privatc rcsidcntial quartcrs. A
vcry typical cxamplc ol this is providcd by thc
littlc royal city ol thc Alhambra at Granada, thc
various complcxcs ol which it is composcd, thc
Mashwar, thc Court ol Myrtlcs, and thc Lion
Court, lit vcry wcll into thc symmctrical plans
202 Te City
260. Fatchpur Sikri, Agra, !ndia
259. Thc Alhambra, Granada, Spain
Muslim Town-planning 203
wc havc just dcscribcd, but bctwccn thcsc clcar
ly dcsigncd spaccs thcrc arc brcaks ol continuity,
changcs ol axis, and indircct approachcs, which
can only bc intcntional and doubtlcss mark oll
dcgrccs ol privacy.

@

!

Thcrc arc ccrtain ancicnt towns which wcrc !s
lamicizcd by implanting ncw ccntcrs ol rcligious
and social lilc insidc thcm, such as mosqucs and
covcrcd markcts or thc architcctural complcxcs
known as kulliyt, which constitutc littlc cit
ics in thcmsclvcs which would quitc naturally
gathcr around thcm lrcsh cclls ol urban growth.
Thc most striking cxamplc ol !slamicization ol
this kind is without doubt !stanbul, thc layout
ol which rccalls thc ancicnt 8yzantinc capital
whilc thc citys unlorgcttablc skylinc is domi
natcd by thc domcs and minarcts ol thc grcat
mosqucs which, surroundcd by thcir kulliyt,
crown thc hcights.
!t happcns lar morc rarcly that a Muslim
city, having grown up, as it wcrc, ol itscll and in
answcr to its inhabitants immcdiatc nccds,
should thcn bc littcd out by a monarch as his
capital and placc ol rcsidcncc, and its plan
modilicd by thc crcation ol ncw avcnucs punc
tuatcd by monumcntal cdiliccs. nc cxamplc ol
this is thc Samarqand ol thc Timurids and an
othcr is Salavid !lahn. Sincc thcsc arc con
tcmporary with thc grcat townplanning proj
ccts ol 8aroquc art, thcrc is somc tcmptation to
scc a parallcl hcrc, or cvcn uropcan inllucncc.
8ut Muslim townplanning rcmains alicn to
thc sort ol sccncsctting that charactcrizcs 8a
roquc absolutism with its pcrspcctivcs dcsigncd
to givc thc lccling ol cxtcndcd vistas ovcr which
a progrcssivc conqucst has bccn achicvcd. lo
qucnt tcstimony to thc dillcrcncc bctwccn thcm
is providcd by thc Shh Mosquc (Masjid-i-
Shh) at !lahn, which unlolds its lolty gatc
way ovcr thc arcna, or Maydn, but whosc ora
tory can bc rcachcd only at thc cnd ol a corridor
261. Gcncral vicw ol thc Sultan Ahmcd Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy
204 Te City
262. Acrial vicw ol thc Shh Mosquc in !lahn
263. Thc Rcgistan Squarc, Samarqand, Uzbckistan
Muslim Town-planning 205
which shiclds it lrom thc axial pcrspcctivc ol
thc grcat monumcntal squarc.
@

!

Thc lirst mcasurc ol townplanning which
dcvolvcs upon a kingly buildcr ol citics is thc
choicc ol a sitc. This sitc is dctcrmincd csscn
tially by thc availability ol watcr. Thc hydrau
lic works rcalizcd by loundcrs ol Muslim citics
arc lcgion: aqucducts bringing watcr lrom alar,
catchmcnts into which watcr scttlcs, undcr
ground canals lor watcr pcrcolation (qarah,
qanh), rainwatcr cistcrns, and cvcn thc dis
tribution ol watcr lrom a wholc rivcr to a town
on a slopc. !t is watcr, morc than any othcr lac
tor, which dctcrmincs Muslim townplanning,
sincc it is both thc salcguard ol lilc and thc in
dispcnsablc clcmcnt in ritual ablutions. !t is not
thcrclorc surprising that !slamic architccturc
should lovc ornamcntal watcrjcts, lountains,
and rcllccting surlaccs ol watcr, which givc
pcacc to both thc mind and thc scnscs.
A sccond mcasurc ol townplanning was
to cnsurc thc sccurity ol roads communicating
with othcr urban ccntcrs. To this cnd, ccrtain sov
crcigns, likc thc Scljuks ol Asia Minor and thc
Salavid Shh Abbs ! ol Pcrsia, built halting
placcs in thc lorm ol lortilicd caravanscrais.
A third mcasurc, which could only dcpcnd
upon thc king, was to lortily thc city.
Finally, it was cxpcctcd ol monarchs to
cndow a city with such public buildings as
mosqucs, collcgcs, hospitals, caravanscrais,
and bathhouscs. This was a duty ol princcs
and thcir duc, but not thcir privilcgc, lor citi
zcns with sullicicnt wcalth could do thc samc,
thc coordination ol townplanning initiativcs
lrom abovc and bclow bcing assurcd by thc
traditional institution ol awqf or ubus, rcli
gious loundations which cnablc any kind ol
privatc propcrtybuildings, land, or wcllsto
bc constitutcd as inalicnablc public cstatc, ci
thcr by assigning thcm dircctly to thc usc ol thc
public as in thc casc ol a mosquc or hospital
or by rcscrving thcir rcvcnucs lor thc upkccp
ol a sanctuary, collcgc, or any othcr institution
ol social utility. Thc works ol townplanning
rcalizcd by monarchs such as, lor cxamplc, thc
construction ol an aqucduct or a univcrsity, and
thc charitablc loundations ol an cvcrincrcasing
numbcr ol citizcns all combinc to lorm a pat
rimony bclonging to cvcryonc and at thc samc
timc shicldcd lrom thc whims ol individuals il
not lrom occurrcnccs ol force majeure. !t thus
comcs about that a considcrablc scction, a quar
tcr or cvcn hall ol a city, can bc translormcd
into common propcrty.
This institution gocs back to thc advicc
givcn by thc Prophct to Umar whcn hc wishcd
to givc up onc ol his lands in thc lorm ol char
ity, thc Prophct said, Makc this licld inalicn
ablc, and bcstow its crops upon thc poor. !t is
incontcstably thc most dircct cxprcssion, on thc
urban lcvcl, ol thc community spirit ol !slam. !t
makcs a powcrlul contribution to thc histori
cal continuity ol a town, to thc maintcnancc ol
public works ol bcnclit to all and somctimcs,
paradoxically cnough, to thc immunity ol ruins
in thc ccntcr ol thc town.


@

!

!n towns not madc to any plan but simply as thc
rcsult ol spontancous growth, thc unity ol thc
wholc is guarantccd by thc pcrlcct homogcncity
ol lorm ol its constitucnt clcmcnts, and this
givcs thcsc towns an aspcct as ol crystals swcpt
togcthcrrcgular shapcs in various sizcs and
combinations. This homogcncity is nonc othcr
than thc architcctural cxprcssion ol tradition,
that is, ol thc Sunnah ol thc Prophct adaptcd to
rcgional conditions. !t is by dctcrmining thc most
simplc and most ordinary ol human activitics,
such as how to wash, to sit on thc ground, to
cat togcthcr around a singlc plattcr, to bchavc
in thc lamily and towards thc strangcr, that thc
Sunnah indircctly lashions clothing, thc homc,
and thc town. !t includcs in particular thc rulcs
ol ncighborlincss, to which wc shall rcturn,
and which rclatc, likc all cxamplcs givcn by
thc Prophct, to concrctc and prccisc situations.
206 Te City
264. Thc city ol Mulay !drs, Morocco
265. Thc city ol an, Ycmcn
Muslim Town-planning 207
Vhat is ordaincd by thc Sunnah appcars to
conccrn only outward activitics but thcsc im
plicitly ncvcr lail to dcvolvc upon thc wholc
man, who is at oncc body, soul, and spirit.
!t is this which givcs Muslim townplan
ning in its most gcncral lorm its both rcalist
and spiritual charactcr, it rcsponds to matcrial
rcquircmcnts but ncvcr trcats thcm apart lrom
cxigcncics ol a highcr ordcr, and this distin
guishcs it csscntially lrom modcrn townplan
ning, which tcnds to dissociatc mans bodily,
psychic, and spiritual nccds and cannot, morc
ovcr, do othcrwisc, sincc it has no guiding prin
ciplc to which to rclcr to bring thcsc dillcrcnt
domains togcthcr.
A particularly striking cxamplc ol what wc
mcan is thc rolc playcd by watcr in what wc
might tcrm thc cconomy, both matcrial and
spiritual, ol thc Muslim city, watcr bcing, morc
ovcr, a kind ol imagc ol thc soul in its lluidity
and purity.
A gcncral and cnduring charactcristic ol !s
lamic townplanning, and onc which dcrivcs di
rcctly lrom thc Sunnah, is that thc commcrcial 266. Thc city ol Ghardaa, Algcria
267. Thc 8b 8ardain, Mckncs, Morocco
208 Te City
and rcsidcntial arcas arc kcpt strictly apart. Thc
vital artcry ol a Muslim town is its markct (sq
or bzr), which sprcads out along thc road or
roads joining thc town to othcr ccntcrs ol com
mcrcc. This artcry attracts almost cvcry kind
ol gainlul activity, cralts as wcll as commcrcc,
sincc thc two arc oltcn onc, most craltsmcn scll
thcir products on thc spot. 8ut dwcllings arc,
lor prclcrcncc, situatcd wcll out ol rcach ol thc
markct and trallic roads, and arc acccssiblc lor
thc most part only through narrow, winding
allcyways, thc lunction ol which is in no way
comparablc to thc strccts ol uropcan towns,
cvcn mcdiacval oncs, bccausc Muslim houscs
takc thcir light and air lrom thcir own inncr
courts and not lrom thc strcct outsidc.
!l onc looks at thc plan ol a Muslim town,
onc linds, ncxt to thc avcnucs cutting through
thc city, a scrics ol culdcsacs ol labyrinthinc
complcxity, thcsc arc thc allcyways or corri
dors giving acccss to cach ol thc dwcllings pilcd
togcthcr in a compact mass. Houscs lcan onc
against thc othcr at thc samc timc as bcing in
sulatcd lrom thcir ncighbors, scllcontaincd,
and opcn to thc sky.
This typc ol urban tcxturc is lound in par
ticular in such placcs as North Alrica, gypt,
Syria, and !ran, whcrc thc grcat dillcrcnccs
bctwccn thc daytimc and nighttimc tcmpcra
turcs allow coldcr air to accumulatc as it lalls,
quitc naturally, into thc wclllikc intcrior ol thc
inncr courts. Thcsc lrcqucntly havc an arcadcd
cloistcr, thc tcrracc ol which lcads to thc up
pcr rooms. !n such countrics as Southcrn Ara
bia and in ccrtain districts ol !ndia, whcrc it is
a qucstion ol lcaving houscs opcn to thc cool
brcczcs which blow in rcgularly lrom thc sca,
domcstic architccturc is dillcrcnt, and thc samc
is truc ol Turkcy whcrc thc climatc is harsh
cr. Howcvcr, thc isolation ol cach dwclling is
maintaincd, thc windcoolcd housc is provid
cd with scrccns madc ol rods ol turncd wood,
which soltcn thc glarc and allow thc inhabi
tants to look out without bcing sccn. Thc tradi
tional Turkish housc is lrcqucntly articulatcd
in a Ushapc, with onc scction built back lrom
268. Hospital loundcd by Nr adn in amascus, 1160
269. Thc Royal 8aths, Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain, 14th ccntury
Muslim Town-planning 209
thc rcst, and its windows opcning out onto an
cncloscd spacc. !l possiblc, it is surroundcd by
a gardcn, itscll cncloscd within walls, which arc
bordcrcd by thc samc narrow, closcd allcys as
in Arab towns. ld !stanbul rcscmblcd a clus
tcr ol villagcs with woodcn houscs, ovcr which
towcrcd thc grcat mosqucs and thcir kulliyt in
drcsscd stonc.
!n cvcry casc, thc dwcllinghousc is a vcri
tablc sacratum (aram) which may not bc vio
latcd, it is thc domain ol woman, whom !slam
tcnds to insulatc lrom public and communal
270. Thc Khju 8ridgc ovcr thc Zayndch rivcr, !lahn, Pcrsia
271. An old strcct in Mcdina, Saudi Arabia
272. A strcct in Chclchaoucn, Morocco
273. Courtyard ol 8ayt alSuaymi, an ttoman housc in Cairo, 16481796
274. Courtyard ol a traditional housc in Shrz, Pcrsia
Muslim Town-planning 211
lilc, thus protccting hcr lrom hcr own curios
ity and that ol othcrs. Voman is thc imagc ol
thc soul (nafs) in thc doublc aspcct ol hcr pas
sionatc naturc and hcr nobility ol substancc,
rcccptivc to xhalations ol thc ivinc. Thc
prcdominancc in woman ol thc polc ol thc
soul ovcr that ol thc intcllcct mcans that
hcr vcry body is in somc way an intcgral part ol
thc soul, this soul is closcr to thc body than is
thc rclativcly morc intcllcctual soul ol thc malc.
!n rcturn, womans body is morc subtlc, morc
dclicatc, morc lluid, and noblcr than mans. !t
is not by rcason ol hcr purcly physical, scxual
charactcristicsin this rcspcct impcrsonal and
collcctivcthat thc Muslim woman vcils hcr
scll, although this docs corrcspond to a ccrtain
social opportuncncss, it is bccausc hcr physical
appcarancc in somc way scts lorth hcr soul. Thc
bridc unvciling hcr bcauty to thc bridcgroom
is, lor thc scnsibility ol thc Muslim, an imagc
which cvokcs not only incbricty ol thc scnscs
but cvcry intoxication whosc surgc abandons
thc hardcncd shorcs ol thc outcr world to llow
towards inward limitlcssncss, lor thc mystic, it
is thc imagc par excellence ol thc contcmplation
ol God. !n thc spiritual cconomy ol Muslim
lilc, woman rcprcscnts thc inward sidc (bin)
whcrcas thc public lilc ol a man, his prolcs
sion, travcls, and warlarc, rcprcscnt his out
ward sidc (hir). A Muslim will ncvcr spcak
ol his wilc in thc socicty ol mcn not rclatcd to
him and, whcn in thc company ol his wilc, will
ncvcr spcak ol his busincss allairs unlcss it bc
somc mattcr which conccrns hcr pcrsonally.
!t is truc that thcsc rulcs and customs arc not
obscrvcd with thc samc rigor in all cthnic and
social milicux. Vc arc cxpounding thcm hcrc in
thcir most unqualilicd aspcct in ordcr to cxplain
what a Muslims privatc abodc mcans to him. !l
his housc has no windows onto thc strcct and
is normally built around an inncr court lrom
which thc rooms rcccivc light and air, this is
not simply in rcsponsc to thc lrcqucntly torrid
climatc ol Muslim lands, it is clcarly symbolic.
!n conlormity with this symbolism, thc inncr
court ol a housc is an imagc ol paradisc, whcn
it contains a lountain and watcrcourscs which
gush lorth to watcr trccs and llowcrs, it docs in
cllcct rccall thc dcscriptions in thc Koran ol thc
abodc ol thc blcsscd.
275. Usa yard, Tctun, Morocco
212 Te City
!t is said that thc loursquarc arrangcmcnt
ol rooms around a ccntral courtyard rcllccts thc
lact that a Muslim may marry as many as lour
wivcs. !n this casc, cach wing ol thc housc must
constitutc a scparatc dwclling, lor cach ol his
wivcs is cntitlcd to cqual trcatmcnt, shc must bc
ablc to rcccivc hcr husband in hcr own homc,
and hc must bc thc gucst in turn ol cach ol his
scvcral wivcs according to strictly lormulatcd
rulcs or, morc cxactly, according to thc Proph
cts cxamplc whosc lairncss and gcncrosity to
his wivcs is thc modcl to bc cmulatcd. Noth
ing is morc lalsc than thc picturc ol promiscu
ity and scxual laxncss cvokcd in thc mind ol
thc avcragc uropcan by thc tcrm harem. 8c
causc Christianity prcscribcs monogamy, not
in virtuc ol a law ol naturcthc contours
ol which arc in rcality quitc dillcrcntbut lor
thc sakc ol a ccrtain asccticism and bccausc ol
thc symbolical valuc ol a singlcmindcd lovc,
thc Christian casily concludcs, by a kind ol
protcctivc instinct, that it is impossiblc actual
ly to lovc scvcral wivcs and that polygamy can
not work unlcss lovc bc brought down to thc
purcly animal lcvcl. Thc truth is that il lovc is
not to lall into dcclinc and il it is to surpass
in principlc thc passions ol thc cgo, it rcquircs
a sacrcd ordinancc, and this must ncccssarily
vary according to thc various rcligions, in ac
cordancc with thcir dillcrcnt spiritual ccono
mics and by rcason ol thc natural prcdisposi
tions lor which thcy catcr.
Lct us also notc that cvcry marricd man is
thc imm ol his lamily, which amounts to say
ing that thc lamily is a rclativcly autonomous
unit, both social and rcligious. This is rcllcctcd
dircctly in architccturc. Sccn lrom thc outsidc,
individual houscs arc hard to distinguish lrom
onc anothcr within thc builtup mass, thcy ol
tcn disappcar almost cntircly sincc most ol thcir
outcr walls arc sharcd with othcr houscs. Sccn
lrom thc insidc, howcvcr, thcy arc practically
autonomous cclls.
According to thc words ol thc Prophct, no
onc should prcvcnt his ncighbor lrom lixing a
bcam into thc outcr wall ol his housc, but nci
276. ld houscs in Mcdina, Saudi Arabia
Muslim Town-planning 213
280. Allcy in thc mcdina quartcr ol Rabat, Morocco
278. Faadc ol 8ayt Amad Katkhud alRazzz, a Mamluk housc in Cairo 277. ld strcct in Asilah, Morocco
279. !nncr courtyard ol thc 8ahia Palacc, Marrakcsh, Morocco
214 Te City
thcr should anyonc build in such a way as to
ovcrlook his ncighbors courtyard. Ncighbors
rights thus covcr both intcrdcpcndcncc and
privacy.
!n a Muslim town, thcrc arc no rcsidcntial
arcas rcscrvcd lor thc uppcr classcs. !n any
casc it is not casy to distinguish a poor lamily
lrom a rich onc by thc cxtcriors ol thcir houscs.
n thc othcr hand, quartcrs oltcn comc into
bcing as thc rcsult ol tribal groupings. !n thc
ttoman cmpirc, thcy coincidc with military
contingcnts.
281. !ntcrior ol alGhr Madrasah, Cairo, gypt, an cxamplc ol a living madrasah
Muslim Town-planning 215
Thc organic unity ol a rcsidcntial arca is
cxprcsscd by thc cxistcncc ol a mosquc, a Koran
school, and hcatcd baths ol thc Roman bath
housc typc, which arc vcry important lrom
thc vicwpoint ol both hygicnc and rcligion. !n
many citics, thc various quartcrs had thcir own
walls and gatcs.
!t is at thc arca lcvcl that thcrc gcncrally cx
istcd a sort ol community organization, a council
ol notablcs dcaling with highways and watcr
282. Vkala alGhr, a Mamluk caravanscrai, Cairo, gypt
283. Courtyard ol thc Qarawiyyn Mosquc, Fcz, Morocco
Muslim Town-planning 217
supplics. Thc city morc or lcss administcrcd it
scll through what might bc callcd natural groups
ol scllintcrcst, and nccdcd only a strong guiding
hand lrom abovc to bc rcally wcll govcrncd.

@

!

An asscmbly ol honcycombs, scparatc yct uni
licd, would dcscribc thc static aspcct ol a city,
its dynamic aspcct is thc commcrcial lilc which
llows through it likc a rivcr and draws to itscll
all prolcssional activitics.
!n principlc, and on thc modcl ol Mccca, a
Muslim town comcs into bcing in thc lorm ol
a markct placcd in thc shadow ol a sanctuary.
Thc living quartcrs clustcr around this mar
kct, in distinct tribcs or clans, with thc houscs
ol oldcstablishcd lamilics or chicltains lac
ing towards thc sanctuary. Subscqucntly, and
with thc cxtcnsion ol thc city, ncw markcts arc
284. \icw ol thc city ol Marrakcsh, Morocco
285. Acrial vicw ol thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) ol !lahn, Pcrsia
218 Te City
286. Markct in Fcz, Morocco
289. Markct in Harar, thiopia
287. Markct in Marrakcsh, Morocco
288. Turcoman markct in 8ukhara, Uzbckistan
Muslim Town-planning 219
Figurc 56: Plan ol thc bzr ol !lahn
290. An allcy in thc bzr ol !lahn, Pcrsia
220 Te City
cstablishcd along thc roads lcading towards thc
ccntral sq which continucs to bc rcscrvcd lor
morc prccious commoditics such as silks and
jcwcls. Surroundcd by walls, with doors which
can bc closcd at night, this qaysariyyah plays thc
rolc ol a kind ol lorum, and its namc could wcll
havc an impcrial or Cacsarian origin.
!n any cvcnt, ncithcr thc qaysariyyah nor
thc rcst ol thc city havc in gcncral any grcat
opcn squarcsit is thc mosqucs with thcir
courtyards which scrvc as points ol asscmbly
lor thc citizcnsand thc trallic in goods and
pcoplc, which llows lrom thc citygatc to thc
ccntcr and back, bccomcs gradually slowcr as
it approachcs thc hcart ol thc city. Thc nct
work ol commcrcial and artisan roadways bc
comcs incrcasingly dcnsc, oltcn covcrcd with
rccd trclliscs or archways in rough brick, thcy
arc not madc to lacilitatc transport but to pro
lilcratc points ol contact bctwccn mcrchants,
craltsmcn, and clicnts. Thc principlc ol thc sq
or bzr is to climinatc cvcry supcrlluous intcr
mcdiary.
Thc convcyancc and distribution ol pri
mary cralt matcrials and basic producc arc as
surcd by thc systcm ol caravanscrais (khn or
funduq) which mark oll thc main highways and
scrvc both as hotcls and cxchangcs ol mcrchan
disc. Thcy usually takc thc lorm ol vast court
yards surroundcd by porticos, whcrc mounts
and bcasts ol burdcn can bc madc rcady, with
gucstrooms on thc uppcr storcy.
Craltsmcn wcrc organizcd in corporations,
as thcy still arc in ccrtain countrics. For this
rcason, thcrc arc wholc strccts and quartcrs rc
scrvcd lor particular callings, as in thc towns ol
mcdiacval uropc. rganization into corpora
tions lacilitatcs thc supply ol basic matcrials and
prccludcs dishoncst compctition. And sincc pro
lcssional rivalry is by no mcans lorbiddcn but,
on thc contrary, stimulatcd by a scnsc ol honor,
thc systcm cnsurcs a good balancc bctwccn in
dividual initiativc and thc solidarity ol thc oc
cupational group. vcry corporation posscsscd,
or still posscsscs, its amn, or trustcc, whosc ar
bitration was ncvcr disputcd in cascs ol litiga
tion bctwccn mcmbcrs ol thc samc prolcssion.
Thc priccs and quality ol all mcrchandisc wcrc,
morcovcr, subjcct to thc control ol thc inspcctor
ol markcts, thc mutasib.
Thc cralt corporations arc a typically ur
ban institution, which has no analogy among
thc 8cdouins. Among all thc social groups, it is
indubitably thc corporations who bcst dclcnd
thc spccilic intcrcsts ol thc city, whilc thc mili
tary aristocracy, which is gcncrally ol 8cdouin
origin, gravitatcs round thc Palacc. 8ut contrary
to what occurrcd in uropc at thc cnd ol thc
Middlc Agcs, thc corporations ncvcr aspircd
to political powcr. !t was inconccivablc lor
thcm to ovcrrcach thc authority ol thc body ol
ulam, doctors ol thc Koranic scicnccs, who
normally rcprcscnt thc community ol bclicvcrs
in thc pact ol allcgiancc which cach ncw sovcr
cign must concludc with his pcoplc. Now thc
community is at oncc thc city and somcthing
morc than thc city, which thus rcmains without
any wclldclincd individuality, bcing an imagc,
incvitably provisional, ol thc city par excellence,
which is nonc othcr than thc Dr al-Islm, thc
Abodc ol !slam, a tcrm which dcsignatcs thc
cntirc tcrritory ol !slam as a havcn ol ordcr and
pcacc.
2 Art and Contemplation
Thc divorcc bctwccn art and craltsmanship
is a rclativcly rcccnt uropcan phcnomcnon
which parallcls thc scission bctwccn art and
scicncc. Formcrly, cvcry artist who produccd
an objcct was callcd a craltsman, and cvcry
disciplinc which dcmandcd not only thcorctical
knowlcdgc but also practical ability was an art.
This rcmains truc ol thc !slamic world whcrcv
crand such placcs arc bccoming incrcasingly
rarcthcrc has bccn no Vcstcrn inllucncc. Art
(fann) always involvcs tcchniquc (anah) and
scicncc (ilm), and it is hardly ncccssary to add
that this tcchniquc is a manual onc and not that
Art and Contemplation 221
ol a machinc, and that thc scicncc ol usc to thc
artist has nothing in common with thc scicnccs
as taught in univcrsitics. Thc scicncc nccdcd by
a mastcrmason, lor cxamplc, is ccrtainly gcom
ctry, but onc that has a morc practical charactcr
than that taught in schoolsa mastcrmason
must know how to tracc an ogival arc by mcans
ol a simplc cordand which, on thc othcr hand,
is contcmplativc in its csscncc. Not only docs it
cnablc thc parts ol a task to bc intcgratcd into
a harmonious wholc, thc schcmcs or kcypat
tcrns which it providcs arc likc thc mirror ol thc
unsccn unity which lics in thc vcry scat ol hu
man intclligcncc. This is to say that thc scicncc
transmittcd with art always involvcs, at lcast
implicitly, an aspcct ol wisdom (ikmah) which
links its rational data with univcrsal principlcs.
!t should bc cmphasizcd that cxpcr tisc, in a tra
ditional art, conccrns both thc tcchni cal and thc
acsthctic solutions to a givcn problcm. Thus
to takc up thc cxamplc just mcntioncdthc
proccdurc which cnablcs thc outlinc ol an arc
to bc traccd guarantccs its stability as wcll as its
clcgancc. Usc and bcauty go hand in hand in
traditional art, thcy arc two inscparablc aspccts
ol pcrlcction, as it is undcrstood in this saying
ol thc Prophct: God has prcscribcd pcrlcction
lor all things (inna-Llha kataba l-ina al
kulli shay), in which thc tcrm isn, which wc
havc translatcd pcrlcction, includcs cqually
thc scnsc ol bcauty and virtuc.
!n thc !slamic world, this maxim rcprc scnts
thc moral and spiritual basis not only ol thc arts
in thc narrow scnsc ol thc tcrm but ol cvcry
manual skill, no mattcr how modcst. !nsolar as
it may bc pcrlormcd with morc or lcss pcrlcc
tion, it carrics a valuc in itscll, indcpcndcnt ol
its cco nomic opportuncncss. An cxccption has
to bc madc, according to a lairly widcsprcad
conviction, lor skills cmploying impurc matcri
als or having an clcmcnt ol artiliciality about
thcm, such as thc work ol thc dycr, or ol thc
goldsmith who lalsilics mctals by covcring
thcm with an amalgam ol gold or silvcr.
!t could bc said, on thc wholc, that thc
Muslim craltsman has ncvcr takcn pains to pcr
lcct his instrumcnts, though applying himscll
with much zcal and dcxtcrity to thc pcrlcction
ol his work. This attitudc is at lcast partly cx
plicablc by thc vcry acutc awarcncss a Muslim
has ol thc cphcmcrality ol things, art has al
ways somcthing provisional about itVc
shall surcly makc all that is upon it |thc carth|
barrcn dust (Koran 18:8)and thc craltsmans
291. Largc slippaintcd bowl with calligraphic inscription,
Samarqand or Transoxiana, 10th ccntury
292. Mosquc lamp in glass and cnamcl madc in Syria, c. 1337
222 Te City
grcatcst achicvcmcnt is thc mastcry hc gains
ovcr himscll. !t is hcrc that art convcrgcs into a
spiritual disciplinc, thc poorncss ol thc instru
mcnt is nonc othcr than that ol thc scrvitor
(abd), whilc thc bcauty ol thc work can only bc
a rcllcction ol thc quality ol thc Lord (rabb).
Art or craltsmanship has, in all, two as
pccts which prcdisposc it to bc thc bcarcr ol
a mcthod ol spiritual rcalization. Art consists
on thc onc hand in thc lrcqucntly laborious
translormation ol a rclativcly shapclcss ma
tcrial into an objcct shapcd according to an
idcal modcl. Now this shaping is indisputably
an imagc ol thc work which a man aspiring
to contcmplation ol divinc rcalitics must ac
complish in himscll and upon his own soul,
which thcn plays thc part ol a rough matc
rial, conluscd and amorphous but potcntially
noblc. n thc othcr hand, thc vcry objcct ol
contcmplation is prcligurcd in thc bcauty that
is apprchcndcd by thc scnscs, lor it is in its
dcpth nonc othcr than 8cauty itscll, uniquc
and illimitablc in its naturc.
Not cvcry artist is a born contcmplativc, but
thc allinity bctwccn art and contcmplation is
strong cnough, in many !slamic citics, lor cntry
into a cralt corporation to coincidc with attach
mcnt to a spiritual alliliation which gocs back to
thc Prophct through Al, who is also thc modcl
ol thc pcrlcct knight (fat). Thc spiritual idcals
ol artistic skill and knighthood comc togcthcr
in a ccrtain way sincc thc onc, likc thc othcr,
lays strcss on thc pcrlccting ol human naturc.
Morcovcr, it must not bc lorgottcn that thc
cralt corporations lrcqucntly providcd military
contingcnts lor thc dclcnsc ol citics.
A ccrtain catcgory ol skills, typilicd by thc
usc thcy makc ol lirc to translorm or cnnoblc
such matcrial as mctal or mincrals into glass or
cnamcls, scrvcs as thc basc lor a spiritual tradi
tion which is linkcd to Hcrmcs Trismcgistus,
whosc gyptian namc is Thoth, and whom
many Muslims includc in thc numbcr ol thc
ancicnt prophcts. Thc Hcrmctic art par excel-
lence, and thc most commonly misundcrstood,
is alchcmy, bccausc thc transmutation at which
293. ctail lrom thc intcrior ol thc Muammad Ghaus Mausolcum,
Gwalior, !ndia, c. 1565, showing thc pcrloratcd pancls on thc vcrandah
294. Voodcn scrccn lrom thc Mausolcum ol Shh Rukni Alam in
Muln, Pakistan, 13th ccntury
Art and Contemplation 223
it aims, and which it transmits in cralt tcrms,
is situatcd in rcality on thc lcvcl ol thc soul.
Thcrc is no rcason to doubt that alchcmy was
practiccd by many craltsmcn who workcd with
lirc, its cmblcm, a pair ol intcr laccd dragonsa
mcdiacval vcrsion ol thc cadu ccusappcars on
many rcccptaclcs in mctal or ccramics.
Many craltsmcn or artists bclongcd, or
still bclong, to particular Suli ordcrs, whcthcr
thcy rcccivcd initiation simultancously with
thcir join ing a corporation ol craltsmcn or not.
Sulism is simply thc csotcrism ol !slam, or its
inward di mcnsion. !l thc outcr lacc ol !slam
is thc rcvcalcd law and its practicc, thc inncr
lacc is undcrstanding and thc dccpcning ol
undcrstanding. !t is not wrong to call Sulism
thc mysticism ol !slam, providcd always that
thcrc is no rclativization ol thc aspcct ol it
that is wisdom, which is csscntial bccausc it
rcsponds inwardly to thc vcry lirst ordinancc ol
!slam, which is to witncss, or to bcar witncss
to, ivinc Unity.
Left: 295. \asc lrom thc Alhambra, Granada, Spain,
Nasrid pcriod, 14th or 15th ccntury
Center: 296. Coppcr and silvcr top ol a cupboard that
houscs thc Koran, gypt, Mamluk pcriod
Right: 297. Koran stand, Scljuk pcriod, 13th ccntury
298. Voodcn pcnbox with mothcrolpcarl inlay, Mughal pcriod, in thc stylc ol Gujarat, mid 17th ccntury. Thc lid is inscribcd with thc basmalah
224 Te City
nc can likcwisc say that Sulism lics whcrc
lovc and knowlcdgc mcct, now thc ultimatc and
common objcct ol both lovc and knowlcdgc is
nonc othcr than thc ivinc 8cauty. !t will thcn
bc sccn that art, in a thcoccntric civilization likc
!slam, is linkcd to csotcrism, thc most inward
dimcnsion ol tradition.
Art and contcmplation: thc objcct ol art is
bcauty ol lorm, whcrcas thc objcct ol contcmpla
tion is bcauty bcyond lorm, which unlolds thc
lormal ordcr qualitativcly whilst inlinitcly sur
passing it. To thc cxtcnt that art is akin to con
tcmplation it is knowlcdgc, sincc 8cauty is an
aspcct ol Rcality in thc absolutc mcaning ol thc
word. Nor is it thc lcast ol its aspccts, lor it rc
vcals thc unity and inlinity that arc immancnt
in things.
This brings us back to thc lirst ol our ob
scrvations, thc phcnomcnon ol thc scission bc
twccn art and craltsmanship on thc onc hand
and bctwccn art and scicncc on thc othcr, which
has laid its mark proloundly on modcrn uro
pcan civilization. !l art is no longcr considcrcd
a scicnccthat is, a part ol knowlcdgcit is
bccausc 8cauty, thc objcct ol contcmplation
at various lcvcls, is no longcr rccognizcd as an
aspcct ol thc Rcal. Thc normal ordcr ol things
has, indccd, bccn so lar ovcrturncd that ugli
ncss is rcadily idcntilicd with rcality, bcauty
bcing no morc than thc objcct ol an acsthcti
cism whosc outlincs arc uttcrly subjcctivc and
shilting.
Thc conscqucnccs ol this dichotomy in thc
cxpcricncing ol thc Rcal arc cxtrcmcly scrious,
lor it is linally bcautysubtly linkcd to thc vcry
sourcc ol thingsthat will pass judgmcnt on
thc worth or lutility ol a world. As thc Prophct
said,
299. Tilc dccoration in thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) ol !lahn, Pcrsia
God is bcautilul and Hc lovcs bcauty
300. omc ol thc Shaykh LulAllh Mosquc, !lahn, Pcrsia
aba, a typc ol simplc, cut garmcnt.
Abbs !, Salavid rulcr ol !ran, 15881629,
rcsponsiblc lor thc rcbuilding ol !lahn.
Abbasids, caliphal dynasty, 7491258.
Abd arRamn !, rulcr ol Umayyad Spain, 756
788, and loundcr ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol
Crdoba.
Ab Rayn al8rn, grcat Muslim scholar, born
973 at Khva.
Agra, somctimc capital ol thc Mughal mpirc in
!ndia.
adth, traditional sayings (pl. ol adth).
Akbar, Mughal cmpcror, 15561605, rcsponsiblc
lor thc building ol thc tomb ol Salm Chishti at
Fatchpur Sikri.
Alhambra, palacc at Granada.
Al, thc lourth caliph, 65661, soninlaw and
ncphcw ol thc Prophct.
alif, rst lcttcr ol thc Arabic alphabct.
Al Qp, a royal rcsidcncc on thc Maydn in
!lahn (lit. high gatc).
Almohads, al-muwaidn, 11301269, rulcrs ol
North Alrica and Spain, originating in thc
High Atlas.
Almoravids, al-murbin, rulcrs ol North Alrica
and Spain, 10561147, ol nomadic origin in thc
Sahara.
amn, trustcc ol a cralt corporation.
anbiy, prophcts (pl. ol nab).
Anjar, royal city ol rcctangular lorm in thc
Lcbanon, built at thc bcginning ol thc cighth
ccntury.
alAq, namc ol an important mosquc in
Jcrusalcm.
awliy, saints (pl. ol wal).
awqf, rcligious cndowmcnts (pl. ol waqf).
al-ayn ath-thbitah, thc immutablc csscnccs ol
things, archctypcs.
b, sccond lcttcr ol thc Arabic alphabct.
8aghdad School, namc givcn to a particular group
ol Mcsopotamian miniaturcs.
bin, inward, csotcric, hiddcn.
bzr, markct arca.
8ukhr, important ccntcr ol !slamic culturc, now
in Uzbckistan.
calamus, rccd pcn trimmcd to a doublc point, uscd
in !slamic calligraphy.
Chingiz Khn (Gcnghis Khan), grcat Mongol
conqucror and lcadcr, dicd 1227.
Crdoba, important city ol Muslim Spain, sitc
ol thc lamous Grcat Mosquc bcgun 785.
Court ol Lions, part ol thc Alhambra palacc in
Granada.
Ctcsiphon, Mcsopotamian rcsidcncc ol thc
Sasanid kings.
dr al-imrah, thc govcrnors palacc ol Abbasid
8aghdad.
amascus, Syrian town and sitc ol thc Grcat
Mosquc, 706715.
dhul-qr, thc cclcbratcd twocdgcd sword ol Al.
dhul-qarnayn, thc twohorncd (or ol two agcs),
an cpithct ol Alcxandcr thc Grcat.
omc ol thc aglc, thc tall cupola on an octagonal
drum in thc Grcat Mosquc ol amascus.
al-fann, art.
Fs alJaddah, thc royal city ol Ncw Fcz, Morocco,
built by thc Marinids in thc midtwcllth
ccntury.
fat, thc pcrlcct knight.
Fatchpur Sikri, royal city built by Akbar somc
distancc lrom Agra.
Fulani (Fulbc), nomads on thc southcrn lringc ol
thc Sahara who cstablishcd a thcocratic cmpirc
during thc ninctccnth ccntury.
funduq, typc ol caravanscrai.
futwwah, tcrm uscd to dcscribc a knightly ordcr.
Grccn Mosquc, Ycil Cami, a mosquc at
8ursa, Turkcy, built 1405.
adth (pl. adth), traditional saying.
Hagia Sophia, thc cathcdral ol Justinian in
!stanbul, latcr convcrtcd to a mosquc by thc
ttomans.
ik, scamlcss garmcnt covcring thc hcad and
shouldcrs.
alakam !!, rulcr ol Umayyad Spain, rcsponsiblc
lor additions to thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba,
961966.
Glossary
anal, traditional school ol canonical law
prcdominating in gypt.
anbal, traditional school ol canonical law.
aqqah, lormlcss csscncc (ol thc Koran), rcality.
aram, sacratum, outcr prccinct ol thc Kaba,
lorming part ol thc sanctuary or inviolablc arca.
arm, inviolablc.
arr, 10541122, thc author ol Sessions.
Hcgira, thc Muslim lunar calcndar dating lrom
622, thc timc ol thc Prophcts cmigration lrom
Mccca to Mcdina.
Hcrat, important !slamic ccntcr, now in wcstcrn
Alghanistan.
ikmah, wisdom.
ubus, rcligious cndowmcnt.
Hulagu, Mongol rulcr ol !ran and conqucror ol
8aghdad in 1258.
Humyn, sccond Mughal cmpcror whosc tomb
was a prcccdcnt lor thc Taj Mahal, dicd 1556.
!bn Khaldn, Maghrib historian ol thc lourtccnth
ccntury.
!bn ln, govcrnor ol gypt lrom 868 and
buildcr ol thc grcat Mosquc ol !bn ln,
nishcd in 879.
!bn azZubayr, carly rival to thc Umayyad caliphs,
dicd 692.
irm, thc consccratcd statc ol a pilgrim
approaching thc Kaba.
lKhns, Mongol rulcrs ol !ran, 12561336.
ilm, scicncc, knowlcdgc.
al-ilm al-bin, thc inward scicncc, csotcrism.
imm, lcadcr ol thc communal praycrs who stands
in lront ol thc laithlul.
!mm Mlik, c. 71595, loundcr ol onc ol thc
schools ol canonical law.
islm, submission or abandonmcnt to thc ivinc
Purposc.
wn, lolty scmicircular vault, gcncrally closcd on
onc sidc and opcn on thc othcr, charactcristic
ol Pcrsian architccturc.
al-jmi, mosquc whcrc thc Friday praycrs arc
cclcbratcd, somctimcs callcd a cathcdral
mosquc (lit. what brings togcthcr).
Kaba, thc cdicc situatcd in Mccca which is thc
liturgical ccntcr ol !slam and towards which
Muslims pray (lit. cubc).
Kairouan (Qayrawn), important !slamic city now in
Tunisia, sitc ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan.
al-kathrah l-wadah, multiplicity in unity.
khn, caravanscrai.
khnaqh, dcrvish lodgc.
Khirbat alMa(ar, Umayyad country mansion.
Khwrizm, arca around thc dclta ol thc Amu arya
(xus).
kiswah, vcsturc, traditionally ol black cloth, which
covcrs thc Kaba.
Kl, stylc ol calligraphy, namcd altcr thc town ol
Klah in !raq.
kulliyt, an architcctural complcx usually
comprising mosquc, hospital, school, ctc.
l ilha ill Llh, lundamcntal tcstimony ol !slam
(lit. thcrc is no divinity savc God).
lm, namc ol a lcttcr ol thc Arabic alphabct.
litham, hallvcil.
Madnat azZahr, royal city ol Crdoba built by
thc Umayyads ol Spain.
madrasah, collcgc or school.
Maghrib, wcstcrn part ol thc !slamic world, i.c.,
northwcst Alrica and Spain (lit. wcst).
Mamd ol Ghazna, loundcr ol an cmpirc in
astcrn !slam and conqucror ol Northcrn
!ndia, rcg. 9981030.
Mlik, traditional school ol canonical law.
malwiyyah, a typc ol minarct in Mcsopotamia (lit.
cntwincd).
mamlk, slavc.
Mamluks, rulcrs ol gypt 12501517, a military
castc ol lormcr slavcs.
alManr, Abbasid caliph, 75475, loundcr ol
8aghdad.
Marinids, rulcrs ol Morocco in thc thirtccnth
ccntury, buildcrs ol Ncw Fcz.
mristn, hospital.
mashhid (pl. ol mashhad), burial placcs ol thosc
who sacriccd thcir livcs lor God.
Masjidi Shh, Mosquc ol thc King, !lahn, !ran.
Maydn, pologround, !lahn.
mahar, placc ol appcarancc (ol thc ivinity).
Mccca, homc ol thc Prophct and thc sitc ol thc
Kaba, now in Saudi Arabia.
Mcccan Rcvclations, al-Futt al-makkiyah, thc
most lamous work ol !bn alArab.
Mcdina, thc most important city ol !slam altcr
Mccca, now in Saudi Arabia.
mirb, praycrnichc indicating thc dircction ol
Mccca.
Mihrimah, mosquc in !stanbul namcd altcr a princcss.
Glossary 227
minarct, placc lor thc call to praycr.
minbar, pulpit in thc lorm ol a stcppcd thronc.
Minya, sitc ol an Umayyad palacc on Lakc Tibcrias
dating lrom 705.
mirj, thc asccnsion ol thc Prophct through thc
hcavcns.
mishkh, nichc (lor a lamp).
mosquc, Muslim placc ol praycr, masjid (lit. placc
ol prostration).
Mshatt, wintcr rcsidcncc ol thc Umayyads, built
about 750 and ncvcr complctcd.
Mughals, branch ol thc Timurids and loundcrs ol
an cmpirc in Northcrn !ndia.
Muammad !!, also know as Mcmcd !!, ttoman
rulcr and conqucror ol !stanbul in 1453.
Muaqqaq, stylc ol calligraphy.
mutasib, markct inspcctor controlling priccs and
quality.
Muydn !bn alArab, 11651240, onc ol thc
grcatcst mastcrs ol Muslim csotcrism.
Mull Murshd ol Shrz, onc ol thc architccts ol
thc Taj Mahal.
Mumtzi Maal, wilc ol Shh Jahn and lor
whom thc Taj Mahal was built, dicd 1630.
muqarnas, clcmcnt ol !slamic architccturc
approximatcly dcscribcd as stalactitcs or
honcycombs.
Mustaniriyyah, a madrasah in thirtccnth ccntury
8aghdad which scrvcd as a modcl lor othcrs.
Naskh, uid stylc ol calligraphy.
Nimiyyah, namc ol a madrasah, particularly at
Nshpr in thc twcllth ccntury, whosc lorm
scrvcd as a modcl lor othcrs.
ttomans, 12811924, rulcrs ol an cmpirc bascd on
Turkcy and adjaccnt arcas.
qanh, undcrground canal.
Qar alayr, an Umayyad country mansion.
qarah, undcrground canal.
qiblah, thc dircction ol Mccca, towards which
Muslims turn in praycr.
qariyyah, bzr, markct arca.
Qubbat aakhrah, omc ol thc Rock mosquc
in Jcrusalcm, built 68892, inaccuratcly callcd
thc Mosquc ol Umar.
Quayr Amra, Umayyad country mansion.
qub, polc, axis.
rajaz, lorm ol Arabic vcrsc.
Raqqa, placc in Syria, sitc ol thc carlicst cxamplc
known ol muqarnas.
arRshidn, tcrm uscd to dcscribc thc rst lour
caliphs (lit. wcllguidcd).
riwq (pl. ol rawq), typical arcadc lound in !slamic
buildings.
ar-R, thc Spirit or sscncc.
rusul (pl. ol rasl), (divinc) mcsscngcrs.
Salavids, ruling dynasty ol !ran, 15011732.
Salm Chishti, important sagc buricd at Fatchpur
Sikri.
Samarqand, important !slamic city, now in
Uzbckistan.
Smarr, city loundcd by thc Abbasids on thc
banks ol thc Tigris.
anah, tcchniquc, manulacturc.
Sasanids, ruling dynasty ol !ran prior to thc
Muslim conqucsts.
Scljuks, ruling dynasty ol !ran and adjaccnt arcas,
10381194.
Scljuks ol Rm, branch ol thc Scljuks who rulcd
Anatolia, 10771307.
Sh, traditional school ol canonical law.
Shhi Zindah, namc ol an architcctural group at
Samarqand.
Shh Jahn, Mughal cmpcror, 162857, buildcr ol
thc Taj Mahal.
Shaykh LulAllh, namc ol a mosquc on thc
Maydn in !lahn.
Shchzadc, namc ol a mosquc in !stanbul.
Shism, branch ol !slam which holds that thc
Prophcts spiritual authority was bcstowcd upon
Al and his dcsccndcnts.
Sinn, Turkish architcct, c. 14901583.
Sokollu Pasha, ttoman ocial who gavc his namc
to a mosquc built by Sinn in 157071.
uh, kind ol gallcry originally along a mosquc
wall lacing thc praycr arca.
Susm, csotcric aspcct ol !slam, thc practitioncrs
arc callcd Sls.
Sultan asan, rulcr ol gypt, loundcr ol thc
collcgc mosquc, 1361.
Sultan Sclm, ttoman rulcr, 156674, lor whom
thc mosquc at dirnc was constructcd and thc
mosquc ol Sultan Sclm, 156975.
Sultan Sulcymn, ttoman rulcr lor whom thc
mosquc ol thc samc namc was built, 155061.
Sunnah, customary usagc (ol thc Prophct).
228 Art of Islam
Sunnism, thc major branch ol !slam whcrc thc
spiritual authority is bascd on thc communitys
conscnsus.
sq, markct arca.
Taj Mahal, tj-i maall (lit. thc crown ol thc
locality), thc mastcrpiccc ol Mughal art, built
163254.
awf, thc ritc ol circumambulation about thc Kaba.
tawd, thc bcaring ol witncss, or thc awarcncss,
that thcrc is no divinity savc God, thc
consciousncss or doctrinc ol ivinc Unity.
Tuluth, stylc ol Arabic calligraphy.
Tmri Lang, Tambcrlanc, thc grcat conqucror
and loundcr ol thc Timurids.
Timurids, dynasty ruling astcrn !slam, 13871502.
ulam, doctors ol thc Koranic scicnccs (sing. lim).
Umar, thc sccond caliph, 63444, and Companion
ol thc Prophct.
Umar !!, an Umayyad caliph, notcd lor his picty,
71720.
Umayyads, dynasty ol caliphs, 661750.
ummah, thc rcligious collcctivity or community.
Uqbah ibn N, Companion ol thc Prophct and
conqucror ol North Alrica.
Uthmn, thc third caliph, 64456, and Companion
ol thc Prophct.
wadat al-wujd, thc unity ol Rcal xistcncc.
al-wadah l-kathrah, unity in multiplicity.
alVald, Umayyad caliph, 70515, buildcr ol thc
Grcat Mosquc ol amascus.
hir, outward, cxotcric, manilcst.
List of Illustrations
Pi~:vs
Frontispiece. Tilcwork on thc Ulugh 8cg Madrasah, Samarqand,
Uzbckistan.
1. Turkish miniaturc lrom thc manuscript Le Livre des Rois
rcprcscnting thc Kaba in Mccca, 16th ccntury. !stanbul,
Univcrsity Library.
2. Thc Kaba at Mccca, c. 1907.
3. ctail ol cmbroidcry with lcttcring lrom a kiswah (vcsturc
ol thc Kaba), Cairo, gypt.
4. Thc omc ol thc Rock vicwcd lrom thc southwcst, with
thc Mount ol livcs in thc background.
5. !ntcrior ol thc omc ol thc Rock.
6. omc ol thc Rock. \icw ol thc Sacrcd Rock, takcn lrom
thc castcrn sidc ol thc gallcry at thc basc ol thc omc.
7. Scction lrom thc laadc ol thc castlc ol Mshatt, in thc
Staatlichc Musccn, 8crlin.
8. Triangular ornamcnt lrom Tuarcg lcathcrwork.
9. astcrn part ol thc praycr hall ol thc Grcat Umayyad
Mosquc at amascus, thc shrinc on thc lclt sidc ol thc
picturc contains St. John thc 8aptists hcad. Thc uppcr
arcadcs havc bccn rcconstructcd altcr a lirc.
10. Gcncral vicw ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus.
11. Courtyard and porticos ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at
amascus, takcn lrom thc southwcst corncr.
12. \icw ol thc 8ridc (al-Arous) minarct lrom thc courtyard ol
thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus.
13. Thc omc ol thc aglc abovc thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc
at amascus.
14. Mosaic on thc walls ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at amascus.
15. Archcs on thc northcrn sidc ol thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at
amascus.
16. xamplc ol a horscshoc arch: courtyard ol thc 8cn Ysul
Madrasah, Marrakcsh, Morocco.
17. xamplc ol a kccl arch: cntrancc to thc Shaykh LulAllh
Mosquc, !lahn, Pcrsia.
18. Courtyard ol thc Sahrj Madrasah ncar alAndals Mosquc,
Fcz, Morocco, 1322. \icw lrom thc courtyard into thc
praycr hall.
19. Stucco dccoration lrom thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada,
Spain. Arabcsquc with stylizcd jasminc llowcrs.
20. Brbad, the Concealed Musician, lrom Shh ahmsps
Shhnmeh, lol. 731a, attributcd to Mrz Al, c. 1535.
Thc Nasscr Khalili Collcction ol !slamic Art, MSS 1030.9.
21. Sleeping Rustam, lrom a Shhnmeh ol Firdawsi, attributablc
to Sultan Muammad, c. 15121522. London, Thc 8ritish
Muscum, no. 1948, 1211023.
22. Ysuf Gives a Royal Banquet in Honor of his Marriage, lrom
Sultan !brhm Mrzs Haft Awrang, lol. 123a, 16th
ccntury. Vashington .C., Thc Frccr Gallcry ol Art.
23. Khusraw sees Shrn Bathing in a Spring, lrom Nims
Khamsah, composcd lor Shh ahmsp, Tabrz, c. 1535.
London, Thc 8ritish Library, r. 2265, lol. 53b.
24. Thc asccnsion (mirj) ol thc Prophct through thc hcavcns,
lrom a manuscript ol Nims Khamsah, 15291543.
London, Thc 8ritish Library, r. 2265, l. 195a.
25. A Young Lady Beneath a Tree. Pagc lrom thc ara Shikoh
Album, Mughal pcriod, c. 1613. London, Thc 8ritish
Library (!ndia llicc Library and Rccords), Ms. Add. r.
3129, lol. 34.
26. Ysuf Tends his Flocks (dctail), lrom Sultan !brhm Mrzs
Haft Awrang, lol. 110b, 16th ccntury. Vashington .C.,
Thc Frccr Gallcry ol Art.
27. Maghrib Koran 68: 4969: 9, writtcn lor thc Sharli
List of Illustrations 229
Sultan Abd Allh ibn Muammad, Morocco, 1568.
London, Thc 8ritish Library.
28. Subn Allh al-Am wa bi-amdih (Glory and praisc to
God Suprcmc) and Subn Allh wal amdu li-Llh wa
l ilha ill Llh waLlhu Akbar (Glory to God, praisc
to God, thcrc is no divinity savc God, God is most
grcat). Kl calligraphy in a combination ol glazcd and
unglazcd bricks, shrinc ol Khwjah AbdAllh Anr,
GzarGh, Hcrat, Alghanistan, 1428.
29. Carvcd inscription ol thc namc ol Muammad,
Mausolcum ol Sultan Uljaytu, Sultaniyah, Pcrsia.
30. ctail lrom thc woodcn minbar ol thc Kutbiyyah Mosquc,
Marrakcsh, Morocco, Almoravid pcriod, 11251130.
31. ctail lrom thc minbar ol thc Mausolcum ol Qytby, Cairo,
gypt, 14721474.
32. Stucco window grillc lrom thc anbal Mosquc in
amascus, Syria, 1297.
33. Stonc window grillc lrom thc Grcat Umayyad Mosquc at
amascus, Syria.
34. Tilcwork dctail lrom a window in thc domc ol thc Shaykh
LulAllh Mosquc, !lahn, Pcrsia.
35. omc ol thc arbi!mm Mausolcum, !lahn, Pcrsia.
36. ctail ol thc laadc ol thc mausolcum built by Mastcr Al
ol Nasal, ShhiZindah, Samarqand, Uzbckistan.
37. !nscription in tilcwork: !n thc Namc ol God, thc Mcrcilul,
thc Compassionatc, in thc sanctuary ol Khwjah Abd
Allh Anr, GzarGh, Hcrat, Alghanistan, 15th
ccntury.
38. Koran, 1: 14, calligraphy in Muaqqaq stylc with srah
hcadings in ornamcntal astcrn Kl, writtcn by Mubrak
Shh, 13201330. Cairo, National Library ol gypt.
39. Pagc lrom thc Hannya Shinky Stra, Nara, Japan, latc Hcian
pcriod.
40. Koran, 43: 36, calligraphy in Muaqqaq stylc, writtcn by
Amad ibn ashShaykh asSuhraward, 8aghdad, 1304.
Tchran, !ran 8astan Muscum.
41. Platc with Kl inscription, Nishapur or Samarqand, 10th
ccntury.
42. Koran in Kl script copicd in Kairouan, 9th10th ccntury.
Tunis, 8ardo Muscum.
43. xamplc ol intcrlaccd Kl script lrom thc Alhambra
Palacc, Granada, Spain.
44. Koran 113: 15, calligraphy in Muaqqaq stylc with srah
hcadings in ornamcntal astcrn Kl, Cairo, gypt, 1368.
Cairo, National Library ol gypt.
45. !nscription in monumcntal Kl script combincd with
arabcsquc, lrom thc Sultan asan Madrasah, Cairo,
gypt.
46. !lluminatcd pagc ol a mirror script in thc lorm ol a knot,
takcn lrom a poctry anthology by Jm, Turkcy, 15th
ccntury. Konya, Mcvlana Muscum.
47. An inscribcd opcnwork stccl plaquc, Pcrsia, Salavid pcriod,
latc 17th ccntury. Publishcd in avid Jamcs, ct al.,
Islamic Calligraphy, Gcncva 1988, no. 106.
48. Two inscriptions in contrasting stylcs: uid Naskh and
rcctangular Kl, at thc cntrancc ol thc khnaqh in
Natanz, Pcrsia, 14th ccntury.
49. Tilcwork inscription in rcctangular Kl lrom thc domc ol
thc Shaykh LulAllh Mosquc, !lahn, Pcrsia.
50. Kl and Naskh inscription lrom a woodcn minbar in thc
rclolu Mosquc, 8cychir, Turkcy, 13th ccntury.
51. !nscription in Tuluth and Kl scripts combincd with
arabcsquc dccoration, lrom thc Friday Mosquc ol Kcrman,
Pcrsia.
52. Tilcwork inscription lrom thc Vazr Khn Mosquc, Lahorc,
Pakistan, 17th ccntury.
53. !nscription in thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) in !lahn,
Pcrsia. Tc spiral background motils tcrminatc in loliatcd
scrolls.
54. A lcact ol a Kl Koran with gold lcttcring on bluc
parchmcnt, Kairouan, Tunisia, mid 10th ccntury. Paris,
Musc dc l!nstitut du mondc arabc.
55. Koran 87: 1315, astcrn Kl script, !raq or Pcrsia, carly
11th ccntury. Qom, Shrinc Muscum.
56. Koran 39: 7540: 2, Maghrib script on vcllum, Spain, 13th
ccntury. !stanbul, Muscum ol Turkish and !slamic Arts.
57. Koran 1, Naskh script with srah hcadings in ornamcntal
Tuluth, !raq or Pcrsia, 15th ccntury. London, Tc 8ritish
Library.
58. Stucco mcdallion adorning thc southcrn wn vault ol thc
Mristn alQaymar, amascus, Syria.
59. Ccramic pancl lrom thc Mausolcum ol ShdiMulk Aqa,
ShhiZindah, thc lamous cnscmblc ol ccmctcrics in
Samarqand, Uzbckistan, 14th ccntury.
60. Carvcd stonc domc ol thc Mausolcum ol Qytby, Cairo,
gypt, 1472. Thc ornamcnt, madc up ol gcomctrical
intcrlacing and lloral arabcsqucs, covcrs thc cupola likc a nct.
61. ctail ol arabcsquc in thc Palacc ol Raja 8irbal at Fatchpur
Sikri, Agra, !ndia.
62. Tilcd dccoration on thc tomb ol mir Zadch, ShhiZindah,
Samarqand, Uzbckistan.
63. Animal intcrlacing lrom thc 8ook ol urrow, lol. 192v.
ublin, Trinity Collcgc Library, 57.
6465. Stucco dccorations lrom Smarr, !raq.
66. ctail lrom a glazcd tilcd pancl in thc TashHavli Palacc,
Khva, Uzbckistan, 18311841.
67. Valltilc lrom thc Ycil Cami (Grccn Mosquc), 8ursa, Turkcy,
1420.
68. oorknockcr lrom thc Pucrta dcl Pcrdn, Scvilla, Spain, an
cxamplc ol purc arabcsquc with rhythmical altcrnation ol
solid and void lorms, 12th ccntury.
69. ctail ol cut tilcwork lrom thc Mosquc ol Gawhar Shd,
Mashhad, Pcrsia, 15th ccntury. Floral arabcsquc.
70. Tilc dccoration lrom thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
Pattcrn bascd on octagon.
71. Tilc dccoration lrom thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
Pattcrn bascd on hcxagon.
72. ctail ol tilcwork lrom thc main cntrancc to thc Friday
Mosquc in Yazd, Pcrsia, mid 14th ccntury.
73. Tilcwork on thc domc ol thc Shh Nimatullh tomb in
Mahan, Pcrsia, 15th ccntury (Salavid rcconstruction).
74. Picrccd marblc scrccn lrom thc tomb ol Salm Chishti at
Fatchpur Sikri, Agra, !ndia, latc 16th ccntury.
75. ctail ol dccoration in thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada,
Spain.
76. ctail ol tilcwork in thc mirb ol rclolu Mosquc,
8cychir, Turkcy, 13th ccntury.
77. ctail ol thc ccramic covcring thc principal laadc ol thc
Mausolcum ol Zang Ata in Tashkcnt, Uzbckistan, latc
14th ccntury.
78. ctail ol a grillc with a pattcrn ol stars and hcxagons lrom
thc Mosquc ol thc ld Fort, clhi, !ndia, 1541.
79. Ccramic pancl lrom thc Grcat Mosquc ol Yazd, Pcrsia, 14th
ccntury. Pattcrn bascd on a twclvclold division ol thc circlc.
80. Tilc dccoration lrom thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
Pattcrn bascd on octagon.
81. Tilc dccoration lrom Fcz, Morocco. Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom
a livc and tcnlold division ol thc circlc.
230 Art of Islam
82. Tilc dccoration lrom Scvilla, Spain. Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom
a livc and tcnlold division ol thc circlc.
83. Vall pancl lrom Akbars tomb, Agra, !ndia.
84. 8rickwork on thc laadc ol thc Mustaniriyyah Madrasah,
8aghdad, !raq, pattcrn bascd on a twclvclold division ol
thc circlc.
85. Vindow grillc with hcxagonal hollowcdout ccramic tilcs
lrom thc Mausolcum ol Shamsi Tabrzi in Muln,
Pakistan.
86. Muqarnas at thc Sibiyya Madrasah, amascus, Syria, 16th
ccntury.
87. Muqarnas at thc Mausolcum ol alGulshn, Cairo, gypt,
15th ccntury.
88. Muqarnas at rclolu Mosquc, 8cychir, Turkcy, 13th
ccntury.
89. Muqarnas with tcrracotta pancls, Abbasid Palacc, 8aghdad,
!raq, c. 1230.
90. Muqarnas abovc thc main cntrancc ol alAzhar Mosquc,
Cairo, gypt.
91. Muqarnas at thc cntrancc ol thc Shh Mosquc in !lahn,
Pcrsia.
92. Muqarnas in thc southwcst wn ol thc MasjidiJmi
(Friday Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia.
93. Stalactitcs in thc cciling ol thc Sala dc los Abcnccrrajcs in
thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
94. Muqarnas in thc castcrn wn ol thc MasjidiJmi (Friday
Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia.
95. Court ol Lions in thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
96. Thc Mirador ol Lindaraja in thc Alhambra Palacc, Granada.
9798. ctails ol stucco dccoration in thc Court ol Lions, Alhambra
Palacc, Granada, Spain.
99. wn in thc courtyard ol alGhr Mosquc, Cairo, gypt.
100. Praycr hall ol thc Qarawiyyn Mosquc, Fcz, Morocco.
101. Thc wintcr praycr hall ol thc MasjidiJmi (Friday
Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia, 1575.
102. Praycr hall ol alAzhar Mosquc, Cairo, gypt.
103. Fatimid mirb ol alAzhar Mosquc, Cairo, gypt.
104. Mirb ol Uljaytu in thc MasjidiJmi(Friday Mosquc) in
!lahn, Pcrsia, 1310.
105. Mirb ol thc Taybars Madrasah, Cairo, gypt, Mamluk pcriod.
106. Tilcd mirb ol thc Madrasah !mmi, !lahn, Pcrsia, 1325.
107. Voodcn mirb ol Tashun Pasha Mosquc, ncar Urgub, Turkcy,
13th ccntury.
108. Tilcd mirb ol thc Rustcm Pasha Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy,
1560.
109. Mirb ol thc Mausolcum ol Sultan 8aybars, Cairo, 13th
ccntury.
110. Mirb ol thc 8cn Ysul Madrasah in Marrakcsh, Morocco.
111. Mirb and minbar ol thc Grcat Mosquc at amascus, Syria.
112. Marblc minbar ol thc Sclimiyc Mosquc in Konya, Turkcy,
16th ccntury.
113. Voodcn minbar in thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan, Tunisia.
114. Minbar ol thc Mosquc ol alMuayyad, Cairo, gypt.
115. Minbar in thc sidc praycr hall in thc wcstcrn arcadc ol thc
MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) in !lahn, Pcrsia.
116. Mausolcum ol Fakhr adn Rz, Kunya Urgcnch,
Turkmcnistan, 12th ccntury.
117. \icw ol thc Mamluk nccropolis, Cairo, gypt.
118. ShhiZindah cnscmblc ol ccmctcrics in Samarqand, Uzbckistan.
119. Tomb ol Humyn, clhi, !ndia, Mughal pcriod, 16th ccntury.
120. Tomb ol !timd adaula in Agra, !ndia, Mughal pcriod,
17th ccntury.
121. GuriAmir Mausolcum, Samarqand, Uzbckistan.
122. Mausolcum ol Al adn Khilji, Quub Minr, clhi, !ndia.
123. Tomb ol a marabout (vcncratcd saint) in Morocco.
124. AlQarla ccmctcry, Cairo, gypt.
125. Shaykh al adn Mausolcum, Arbcdil, Pcrsia.
126. Mausolcum ol thc Samanids, 8ukhara, Uzbckistan.
127. Tomb ol Salm Chishti at Fatchpur Sikri, Agra, !ndia.
128. Tuarcg lrom Nigcr.
129. Vomcn lrom Talilalct, Morocco.
130. !raqi bcdouin.
131. Arabian shaykh.
132. Mcn wcaring thc burnous, Rabat, Morocco.
133. Tuarcg womcn lrom thc Sahara dcscrt.
134. Vomcn lrom Ramallah, Palcstinc.
135. Turcoman or Tirgiz woman in lront ol hcr yurt, Turkcstan.
136. ill Kr Madrasah and Mosquc, Rcgistan, Samarqand,
Uzbckistan.
137. 8rick and tilcwork dccoration in thc ill Kr Madrasah
and Mosquc, Rcgistan, Samarqand, Uzbckistan.
138. Thc minarct ol thc Kutbiyyah Mosquc in Marrakcsh,
Morocco, built towards thc cnd ol thc 12th ccntury by
thc Almohads, a conqucring mountain tribc.
139. Thc minarct ol Jam, Alghanistan, built towards thc cnd ol thc
12th ccntury by thc Ghorids, a conqucring mountain tribc.
140. Minarct ol thc Grcat Mosquc in Agadcz, Nigcr.
141. Tuarcg camp in Nigcr.
142. Summcr camp ol thc Qashqi nomads, Pcrsia.
143. Zntc 8crbcrs, Grand rg ccidcntal, Algcria.
144. Yurt in Turkcstan.
145. Shiror Madrasah, Samarqand, Uzbckistan, 16191636.
146. Carpct wcavcr lrom thc Shhsavan tribc, Pcrsia.
147. Carpct wcavcrs insidc a yurt in Kyrgyzstan.
148. Carpct wcavcr ol thc Qashqi nomads, Pcrsia.
149. Turcoman Saryk rug. Vashington, .C., Tcxtilc Muscum
Collcction.
150. Carpct with gardcn dcsign lrom Pcrsia, 17th ccntury.
London, \ictoria & Albcrt Muscum.
151. Vcst Anatolian rug, 19th ccntury.
152. ast Anatolian rug, 19th ccntury.
153. Caucasian rug, 19th ccntury.
154. 8aluchi praycr rug, Khorasan, Pcrsia, c. 1875.
155. Knottcd woolcn pilc rug, Turkcy, 16th ccntury. London,
\ictoria & Albcrt Muscum.
156. Rclicl dccoration rcprcscnting two intcrlaccd dragons at thc
cntrancc gatc ol Alcppo Citadcl, Syria, 13th ccntury.
157. ctail ol rclicl dccoration on thc wcst laadc ol thc Grcat
Mosquc and Hospital ol ivrii, Anatolia, Turkcy, 13th
ccntury, thc twohcadcd caglc was thc cmblcm ol thc
Scljuk dynasty.
158. Sword with a stccl bladc, cloisonn cnamcl dccoration, and a hilt
ol silvcr gilt, Spain, Nasrid pcriod, 15th ccntury. Madrid,
Musco dcl jrcito.
159. Sword with a singlccdgcd curvcd bladc ol watcrcd stccl with
goldinlaid dccoration and latcr gold damasccning, gypt,
c. 1270 (bladc) and ttoman Turkcy, c. 1520 (additional
dccoration).
160. Sword with a singlccdgcd curvcd bladc ol watcrcd stccl with
gold damasccning, and a hilt madc ol horn, ttoman Turkcy,
17th ccntury. Thc Khalili Collcction.
161. Part ol a standard ol picrccd stccl carrying a srah lrom thc
Koran, Pcrsia, c. 17th ccntury.
162. A silvcr kumia daggcr, Morocco, 19th ccntury.
163. Stccl axc with gold inlay, madc in gypt or Syria, latc 15th
ccntury.
164. Turkish cmbroidcrcd wickcr shicld ol Mongolian stylc,
15th16th ccntury.
List of Illustrations 231
165. Turkish sword with inscription, stccl bladc, inlaid gold, and a
hilt ol wood, c. 1500. oha, Muscum ol !slamic Art.
166. ttoman hclmct containing Koranic inscriptions around thc
rim and on thc noscguard, 16th ccntury. !stanbul, Topkapi
Saray Muscum.
167. Sidi Halaoui minarct in Tlcmccn, Morocco.
168. Minarct ol thc Mutawakkil Mosquc, Smrra, !raq.
169. Minarct ol alSibiyya Madrasah, amascus, Syria.
170. Yivli (llutcd) minarct, Antalya, Turkcy, 12191238.
171. Minarcts ol thc Sultan asan and Rilai Mosqucs, Cairo,
gypt.
172. Minarct ol Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc, !stanbul, 15201556.
173. Minarct ol thc Mosquc ol Arw bint Amad, Jiblah, Ycmcn,
10881089.
174. Sarbn minarct, !lahn, Pcrsia, 14th ccntury.
175. nc ol thc twin minarcts ol thc Shh Mosquc ol !lahn.
176. Minarct ol thc Madrasah ol !slam Khodja, Khva, Uzbckistan.
177. Minarct ol thc Jahngr shrinc, Lahorc, Pakistan, 17th
ccntury.
178. Thc Quub Minr, clhi, !ndia, 12th ccntury.
179. Minarct ol thc Tomb ol !timd adaula in Agra, !ndia,
17th ccntury.
180. Acrial vicw ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan, Tunisia.
181. Northcrn sidc ol thc courtyard with thc minarct ol thc
Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan.
182. Thc mirb ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan, 9th ccntury.
183. Kl inscription on a column ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol
Kairouan.
184. Partial vicw ol thc praycr hall ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol
Kairouan, 9th ccntury.
185. !ntcrior ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba, Spain. Arca in
lront ol thc mirb.
186. !ntcrior ol thc praycr hall ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba.
187. ctail ol thc cxtcrior ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba.
188. omc on intcrlacing ribs in lront ol thc mirb in thc Grcat
Mosquc ol Crdoba.
189. Thc mirb laadc ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba.
190. Acrial vicw ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln, Cairo, gypt.
191. Courtyard ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln, with thc domc ovcr
thc ablution lountain and thc minarct on thc northwcst
sidc.
192. Southcast arcadc ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln.
193. Thc minarct ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln sccn through thc
southcasthcrn arcadcs.
194195. ctail ol thc arcadcs ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln.
196. Main mirb ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln.
197. Stucco mirb ol alAlal in thc Mosquc ol !bn ln, 1094.
198. Thc minarct ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln.
199. omc abovc thc ablution lountain ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln.
200. Thc crcncllatcd walls ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln.
201. Thc southcastcrn sidc ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc,
Cairo, gypt.
202. Thc stalactitc portal ol thc northcastcrn laadc ol thc
Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc.
203. \cstibulc ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc.
204. Corridor lrom vcstibulc to thc intcrior ol thc Sultan asan
Collcgc Mosquc.
205. Partial vicw ol thc courtyard and thc ablution lountain ol thc
Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc, sccn lrom thc southcastcrn
wn.
206. Thc ablution lountain ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc.
207. Thc southcastcrn wn ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc
Mosquc.
208. Thc main mirb and minbar in thc southcastcrn wn ol
thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc.
209. Cupola ol thc atrium ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc.
210. Marblc pancl in thc vcstibulc ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc
Mosquc.
211. ctail ol thc stucco lriczc in Kl script running around thc
southcastcrn wn ol thc Sultan asan Collcgc Mosquc.
212. !ntcrior ol thc Hagia Sophia, !stanbul, Turkcy.
213. Gcncral vicw ol thc Hagia Sophia.
214. omc ol Saint Sophia with thc Koranic inscription ol
thc \crsc ol Light.
215 . Gcncral vicw ol thc Sultan Ahmcd Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy.
216. Courtyard ol thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy.
217. Acrial vicw ol thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc complcx.
218. Thc big ccntral cupola with thc two scmicupolas in thc
Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc.
219. Pcndcntivc dccoratcd with stalactitcs in thc Sultan
Sulcymn Mosquc.
220. \icw ol thc twin madrasahs on thc southwcst sidc ol thc
Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc.
221. !ntcrior ol thc Sultan Sulcymn Mosquc.
222. Gcncral vicw ol thc Shchzadch Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy.
223. Thc main cupola in thc Shchzadch Mosquc.
224. !ntcrior ol thc Shchzadch Mosquc.
225. Thc cupola sccn lrom insidc thc Mihrimah Mosquc,
!stanbul, Turkcy.
226. !ntcrior ol thc Mihrimah Mosquc.
227. Cupola at thc cntracc ol thc Sokullu Mosquc, !stanbul,
Turkcy.
228. Courtyard ol thc Sokullu Mosquc.
229. Mirb and minbar ol thc Sokullu Mosquc.
230. ctail ol thc intcrior ol thc Sokullu Mosquc.
231. Thc cupolas lrom insidc thc Sokullu Mosquc.
232. Thc ccntral cupola lrom insidc thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc,
dirnc, Turkcy.
233. Thc intcrior ol Sultan Sclm Mosquc.
234. ctail ol thc arcadcs in thc courtyard ol thc Sultan Sclm
Mosquc.
235. Fountain in thc courtyard ol thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc.
236. Gcncral vicw ol thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc.
237. Southwcstcrn wn in thc courtyard ol thc Shh Mosquc
at !lahn, Pcrsia.
238. Acrial vicw ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn.
239. Thc twin minarcts ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn.
240. Main cntrancc to thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn.
241. Thc big outcr portal ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn.
242. wn opcning onto thc courtyard ol thc Shh Mosquc at
!lahn.
243. Looking lrom thc inncr courtyard into thc sidc courts ol thc
Shh Mosquc at !lahn.
244. omc ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn.
245246. ctails ol tilc dccoration in thc cupolas ol thc Shh
Mosquc at !lahn.
247. Mirb ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn.
248. ctail ol tilc dccoration lrom thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn.
249. Praycr hall in thc south corncr ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn
with thc mirb sccn bcyond to thc right.
250. Gcncral vicw ol thc Taj Mahal, Agra, !ndia.
251. Thc Taj Mahal.
252. Main cntrancc to thc Taj Mahal.
253. Thc Taj Mahal and its gardcns.
254. ctail ol thc main cntrancc to thc shrinc ol thc Taj Mahal.
255. Funcral chambcr ol thc Taj Mahal.
256. ctail ol inlaid dccoration in thc Taj Mahal.
257. ctail ol marblc dccoration in thc Taj Mahal.
232 Art of Islam
List of Illustrations 233
258. \icw ol thc city ol Fcz, Morocco, and thc Qarawiyyn Mosquc.
259. \icw ol thc Alhambra, Granada, Spain.
260. Fatchpur Sikri, Agra, !ndia.
261. Gcncral vicw ol thc Sultan Ahmcd Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy.
262. Acrial vicw ol thc Shh Mosquc in !lahn.
263. Thc Rcgistan Squarc, Samarqand, Uzbckistan.
264. Thc city ol Mulay !drs, Morocco.
265. Thc city ol an, Ycmcn.
266. Thc city ol Ghardaa, Algcria.
267. Thc 8b 8ardain, Mckncs, Morocco.
268. Hospital loundcd by Nradn in amascus, 1160.
269. Thc Royal 8aths, Alhambra Palacc, Granada, Spain.
270. Thc Khju 8ridgc ovcr thc Zayndch rivcr, !lahn, Pcrsia.
271. An old strcct in Mcdina, Saudi Arabia.
272. A strcct in Chclchaoucn, Morocco.
273. Courtyard ol 8ayt alSuaymi, a Mamluk housc in Cairo,
16481796.
274. Courtyard ol a traditional housc in Shrz, Pcrsia.
275. Usa yard, Tctun, Morocco.
276. ld houscs in Mcdina, Saudi Arabia.
277. ld strcct in Asilah, Morocco.
278. Faadc ol Amad Katkhud alRazzz, a Mamluk housc in
Cairo.
279. !nncr courtyard ol thc 8ahia Palacc, Marrakcsh, Morocco.
280. Allcy in thc mcdina quartcr ol Rabat, Morocco.
281. !ntcrior ol alGhr Madrasah, Cairo, gypt, an cxamplc ol a
living madrasah.
282. Vkala alGhr, a Mamluk caravanscrai, Cairo, gypt.
283. Courtyard ol thc Qarawiyyn Mosquc, Fcz, Morocco.
284. \icw ol thc city ol Marrakcsh, Morocco.
285. Acrial vicw ol thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) ol
!lahn, Pcrsia.
286. Markct in Fcz, Morocco.
287. Markct in Marrakcsh, Morocco.
288. Turcoman markct in 8ukhara, Uzbckistan.
289. Markct in Harar, thiopia.
290. An allcy in thc bzr ol !lahn, Pcrsia.
291. Largc slippaintcd bowl with calligraphic inscription,
Samarqand or Transoxiana, 10th ccntury.
292. Mosquc lamp in glass and cnamcl madc in Syria,
c. 1337.
293. ctail lrom thc intcrior ol thc Muammad Ghaus
Mausolcum, Gwalior, !ndia, c. 1565, showing thc
pcrloratcd pancls on thc vcrandah.
294. Voodcn scrccn lrom thc Mausolcum ol Shh Rukni
Alam in Muln, Pakistan, 13th ccntury.
295. \asc lrom thc Alhambra, Granada, Spain, Nasrid pcriod,
14th or 15th ccntury. Granada, Musco Nacional dc Artc
Hispanomusulmn.
296. Coppcr and silvcr top ol a cupboard that houscs thc Koran,
gypt, Mamluk pcriod.
297. Koran stand, Scljuk pcriod, 13th ccntury.
298. Voodcn pcnbox with mothcrolpcarl inlay, Mughal
pcriod, in thc stylc ol Gujarat, mid 17th ccntury. Thc lid
is inscribcd with thc basmalah.
299. Tilc dccoration in thc MasjidiJmi (Friday Mosquc) ol
!lahn, Pcrsia.
300. omc ol thc Shaykh LulAllh Mosquc, !lahn, Pcrsia.
Ficuvvs
Figurc 1. Scction ol Santa Constanza in Romc.
Figurc 2. Plan ol Saint \italis in Ravcnna.
Figurc 3. Plan ol thc Church ol thc Asccnsion in Jcrusalcm.
Figurc 4. Pcrspcctivc ol thc omc ol thc Rock.
Figurc 5. Plan ol thc omc ol thc Rock.
Figurc 6. Gcomctrical schcmc ol thc omc ol thc Rock.
Figurc 7. mblcms and jcwcls in thc mosaics ol thc omc
ol thc Rock.
Figurc 8. Vingcd horsc lrom KhirbatalMaljar.
Figurc 9. Plan ol Mshatt.
Figurc 10. Schcmc ol a Christian basilica sccn lrom insidc.
Figurc 11. Schcmc ol oricntation ol a church.
Figurc 12. Plan ol thc Mosquc ol thc Prophct in Mcdina.
Figurc 13. Plan ol thc Grcat Mosquc at amascus.
Figurc 14. Scction ol thc Grcat Mosquc at amascus.
Figurc 15. Scction ol thc Grcat Mosquc at amascus.
Figurc 16. Horscshoc arch and kccl arch.
Figurc 17. Arabic script: inscription lrom Karbala, datcd 74 A. H.
(693 A..).
Figurc 18. Mcasurc ol lcttcrs in dots.
Figurc 19. xamplc ol Scythian zoomorphic art.
Figurc 20. ctail lrom an ornamcntal pagc ol thc Lindislarnc
Gospcls.
Figurcs 2122. xamplcs ol Scythian zoomorphic art.
Figurc 23. !ntcrlaccmcnt lrom a Roman pavcmcnt.
Figurc 24. Vindow grillc lrom Khirbat alMaljar and its
gcomctrical schcmc.
Figurc 25. Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom a twclvclold division ol thc
circlc.
Figurc 26. Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom an cightlold division ol
thc circlc.
Figurc 27. Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom an cightlold division ol
thc circlc.
Figurc 28. Pattcrn dcvclopcd lrom a livc and tcnlold division
ol thc circlc.
Figurc 29. Roman pcndcntivc, a gcomctrical analysis.
Figurc 30. Muqarnas as squinch ol a cupola.
Figurc 31. Sasanid corncr squinch.
Figurc 32. Corncr squinch in thc lorm ol a nichc.
Figurc 33. Muqarnas lorming a transition lrom squarc to
octagon.
Figurc 34. Muqarnas lorming a transition lrom squarc to circlc.
Figurc 35. Muqarnas lorming stalactitcs.
Figurcs 3637. Rcctilincar and curvilincar muqarnas.
Figurc 38. Muqarnas: nichc.
Figurc 39. Pcrsian vault.
Figurc 40. Plan ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan, Tunisia.
Figurc 41. Plan ol thc Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba, Spain.
Figurc 42. Plan ol thc Mosquc ol !bn ln, Cairo, gypt.
Figurc 43. Plan ol thc Sultan asan Mosquc, Cairo, gypt.
Figurc 44. Scction ol Saint (Hagia) Sophia, !stanbul, Turkcy.
Figurc 45. Plan ol Saint Sophia.
Figurc 46. Plan and main scctions ol thc Sultan Sulcymn
Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy.
Figurc 47. Plan ol thc Shchzadch Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy.
Figurc 48. Plan and scction ol thc Mihrimah Mosquc,
!stanbul, Turkcy.
Figurc 49. Plan ol thc Sokullu Mosquc, !stanbul, Turkcy.
Figurc 50. Scction ol thc Sultan Sclm Mosquc, dirnc, Turkcy.
Figurc 51. Plan ol thc Shh Mosquc at !lahn, Pcrsia.
Figurc 52. Plan ol thc Taj Mahal.
Figurc 53. Gcomctrical analysis ol thc plan ol thc Taj Mahal.
Figurc 54. Plan ol thc round city ol alManr, 8aghdad.
Figurc 55. Plan ol Anjar.
Figurc 56. Plan ol thc bzr ol !lahn.
Index
aba, 102
Abbasids, 2, 64, 107, 108, 199, 199, 132,
138, court, 64
Abd alMalik, 8
Abd arRamn !, 132
Abraham, 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 29
Ab 8akr, 28, 96
Ab Rayn al8rn, 85
Ab Sulyn, 28
acculturation, 104
Act, ivinc, 57
Adam, 2, 29, 41, 85, 88
Alghanistan, 75, 181
Alrican Sahil, 57
Agra, 201
adth, pl. ol adth, q.v.
ishah, 28
Akbar, 101
alchcmy, 113, 222
Alcxandcr thc Grcat, 7, 18
Algcria, 109
Alhambra, Granada, 84, 201
Al, 14, 38, 124, 183, 221
Al Qp (High Gatc), 184
Alids, 14
alif, 57
Almohads, 109
Almoravids, 109
alphabct, Scmitic, 44, 85, Syriac or
Nabatcan, 54
amn (trustcc), 220
Anatolia, 118, Turkish sultanatcs ol, 156
anbiy, 29
aniconism, 5, 26, 29, 32, 41
Anjar, 199
apsaras, 38
apsc, 25, 90
alAq mosquc, 9
Arab gcnius, 44, 48, 49, housc, 148,
intcrlaccmcnt, 67
arabcsquc, 32, 48, 51, 57, 62, 64, 66, 67,
143, 186
Arabia, 7, 43, 85
Arabic, calligraphy, 37, 52, languagc, 43,
script, 52, 54, 57, vcrsc, 50, writing, 52,
54
Arabism, 43
arcadc, 50, 84, 132, intcrlacing, 136
arch, Maghrib, 26, Pcrsian, 26
Archaism, 44
architccturc, 8yzantinc, 10, 130, Hindu,
190, 195, Moorish, 119, ttoman, 156,
176, pcristylc, 26, Pcrsian, 50, 118,
Umayyad, 26
arkn (pillars), 2
Ark ol thc Covcnant, 2
art, barbarian, 62, 63, 8aroquc, 38, 203,
8uddhist, 7, 43, 8yzantinc, 8, 13, 17,
25, Christian, 8, 17, Christian ol thc
Vcst, 43, Coptic, 17, uropcan
(modcrn), 38, Gothic, 43, Hindu, 125,
Maghrib, 55, 125, 130, Mamluk, 124,
Mongol, 57, Mughal, 40, 190, nomadic,
45, 114, 117, ornamcntal (ol !slam), 64,
Pcrsian, 40, 49, 125, 179, Sarmatians,
62, Scythians, 62, Scljuk, 18, 123,
Taoist, 125, zoomorphic, 62
Asccnsion ol thc Prophct, 8, 38
Asia Minor, 108, 110, 148
Atlas, 109, 119
auditivc intuition, 45, 47, 48
awliy, 29
awqf, 183
axis, liturgical, 18
al-wadah l-kathrah, 73
al-ayn ath-thbitah, 37, 80
alAzraq, 6
b, 57
8acchic poctry, 17
8aghdad, 32, 37, 108, 143, 199,
School, 32
8ah adn almil, 183
barakah, 99
8arbarian art, 62, 63
8aroquc art, 38, 203
basilicas, Roman, 90
bath, hcatcd, 215, housc, Roman, 215,
houscs, 205
bin (inward), 211
baytu Llh, 2
bzr, 183, 199, 208, 220
8cdouin, carpct, 114, Saharan, 114, tcnt,
114, tcnt culturc, 114
8cdouins, 109, 113, 219, tribcs, 14
8crbcrs, 107, 109, 110
black calamus, 40
black stonc, 2
8oaz, 183
8ook ol Tcryak, 37
book ol thc world, 57
8ritish !slcs, 64
8uddhism, 13, 38, 96
8uddhist art, 7, 43, iconography, 125
8yzantinc Church, 31, ol thc Asccnsion,
28
8yzantincs, 31, 108, 138, architccturc, 130,
156, 176, art, 13, 17, capital, see
Constantinoplc, 158, 203, civilization, 4
Cairo, 8, 101
Calamus (Suprcmc Pcn), 37, 52, 57, black,
40
caliph, 25, 138, 199, rst lour, 14, 154
Caliphatc, 14, 38
calligraphy, 57, Arabic, 37, 52, Chincsc,
57, Turkish, 57
canals, undcrground, 205
Capclla Palatina, 75
caravanscrai, 205, 220, lorticd, 205
cardo, 199
carpct, Anatolia, 118, 8cdouin, 114,
Caucasian, 119, dragon, 119, Mamluk,
119, Muslim Spain, 119, ttoman
court, 117, Pcrsian, 116, 117, Salavid,
116, Sasanid, 15, symbolism ol, 119,
Turcoman, 114, Turkish, 114, 116
Catacomb paintings, 8
catcnary (curvc), 181
cathedra, 94
cathcdral ol Justinian, 160
cathcdrals, Gothic, 168
Caucasian carpct, 119
Caucasus, 116, 117, 119
Ccntral Asia, 48, 62, 108, 109, 114, 146
chcrubim, 158
Chincsc, 49, calligraphy, 57, painting, 37,
40, script, 49, 52
Chingiz Khn (Gcnghis Khan), 108, 110
Christ, 4, 17, 20, 31
Christian art ol thc Vcst, 43
Church, ol thc Asccnsion (8yzantinc), 28,
8yzantinc, 31, astcrn, 125, Fathcrs, 87,
Grcck rthodox, 31, 93, Grcck
rthodox, liturgy ol, 93, Latin, 20, ol
thc Holy Scpulchcr, 28
churchcs, Coptic, 90
circumambulation, 2, 4
cistcrns, 205
coagula, 113
Codc ol Hammurabi, 44
Collcgc Mosquc ol Sultan asan in Cairo,
146, 154
Constantinc, 8, 14
Constantinoplc, 108, 156, 158
contcmplation, 20, 211, 220, 222
Coptic art, 17, churchcs, 90
Crdoba, xv, 132, 136, Grcat Mosquc ol,
8, 132
corncr pillars, 2
corporations, 220
court, 122
Court ol Lions, 84, 201, ol Myrtlcs, 201
courts, inncr, 151, 208, Umayyad, 15
craltguilds, 122
craltsmanship, 220, 222, 224
Crusadcrs, 123
Ctcsiphon, 118
curtain ol ivinc Mcrcy, 2
amascus, 21, 25, 132, 135, Grcat Mosquc
ol, 8, 18, 25, 62, 67, 85, 128, 130, 132
antc, 37
dr al-imrah, 199
Dr al-Islm, 220
debir, 2
dccaloguc, 29
Index 235
decumanus, 199
dcrvish lodgc, 146, scc khnaqh
devas, 41
dhu l-qr, 124
dhul-qarnayn, 18
ivinc Act, 57, Mcrcy, 183, curtain ol, 2,
Mcsscngcr, 96, Namcs, 41, Prcscncc, 93,
99, Qualitics, 119, Spirit, 57, Unity, 7,
31, 51, 57, 73, 84, 176, 223, Vill, 90,
Vord, 5, 94
omc ol thc aglc, 23
omc ol thc Rock, 8, 13, 15, 28, 62, 68, 90
dragon carpct, 119
caglc, twohcadcd, 123
carthly paradisc, 37, 118
astcr, 4, 20
astcrn Pcrsia, 107
dirnc, 161
gypt, 107, 151, 153, 208, Uppcr, 181
csotcrism, 8, 94
uropcan art, modcrn, 38
utychius, 28
cxcdra, 90, 184, impcrial, 25
fann (art), 220
al-fardaniyyah, 31
Fs alJadd (Ncw Fcz), 201
fat, 124
Fatchpur Sikri, 101, 201
Fulani (Fulbc), 109
funduq, 220
al-futt al-makkiyyah, 31
futuwwah, 123
gcomctrical intcrlaccmcnt, 73, 114
gcomctry, qualitativc, 156
gharbagriha, 6
Gods Tronc, 2, 29
Goldcn Horn, 163
Goldcn Rulc, 68
Gothic, 49, art, 43, cathcdrals, 168, vault,
75, 76, 80, 136
Grcat Mosquc ol Crdoba, 8, 132
Grcat Mosquc ol amascus, 8, 18, 21, 25,
67, 132
Grcat Mosquc ol Kairouan (Qayrawn), 62,
128
Grcat Mosquc ol Sultan Sclm at dirnc,
161, 175, 176
Grcco!ranian cmpirc, 18
Grcck rthodox Church, 31, 93
Grccn Mosquc, see Ycil Cami, 156
Guardcd Tablct, 57
guards, Turcoman, 64
Gujarat, 107
adth, 88, 197
Hagar, 1
Hagia Sophia, 93, 158, 161, 163, 166, 170
ik, 103
alakam !!, 136
Hammourabi (Hammurabi), 85, Codc ol,
44
anal school, 153
anbal school, 153
aram, 2, 209
arm, 102
harem, 212
arr, 32
Hcavcnly Jcrusalcm, 6
Hcllcnic naturalism, 64
Hcllcnistic philosophy, 15
hcraldry, 123
Hcrat, 108
High Atlas, 109
high gatcway, 183
ikmah, 221
Himyaritc, 2
Hindu art, 40, 125, iconography, 105,
schools ol miniaturc painting, 40
Hindu Kush, 114
Hindustan, 107
Hinduism, 6, 13, 41
Holy \irgin, 5, 6, 31, 93, 158
hospital, 203, scc also mristn
housc, Arab, 148, 154, 201, ol God, 2, 4,
Muslim, 208, windcoolcd, 208
ubus, 205
Hulagu, 108
Humyn, 192
hydraulic works, 205
!bn alArab, 85, see also Muydn
!bn alArab
!bn Khaldn, 104, 107, 113
!bn ln, xv, 8, 107, 138, Mosquc ol,
138
!bn azZubayr, 9
iconoclasm, 5, 8, 41
iconography, 8uddhist, 125
iconography, Hindu, 105
irm, 4
lKhns, 37, 40
ilm, 220
al-ilm al-bin, 31, 94
imaginativc intuition, 45
imm, 18, 85, 96, 102, 130, 212
!mm Mlik, 102
immology, 38
immutablc csscnccs, 37, 54, 80
impcrial cxcdra, 25
!mpcrial Roman symbolism, 23
!ndia, Mughal, 114, Muslim, 158
inncr courts, 151, 208
intcrlaccmcnt, 48, 64, 67, 68, 73, Arab, 48,
67, 68, gcomctrical, 68, 73, Roman, 67
inward scicncc, 31, see also scicncc ol thc
inward
!ran, 37, 108, 208
!raq, 37, 181
!rcland, 65
!lahn, 179, 183, 184, 203
!shmacl, 1
islm, 4, 102, 176
!slamic vault, 78
!sracl, 1
!stanbul, 202, see also Constantinoplc
wn, 181, 183, 184, 185, 189, 195
al-jmi, 94
Jcrusalcm, 1, 8, 9, 13, Hcavcnly, 6, tcmplc
at, 2, 93, 183
al-jihd al-akbar, 99
John thc 8aptist, St., 21
Kaba, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 13, 31, 153
Kairouan (Qayrawn), 128, Grcat Mosquc
at, 62, 128
al-kathrah l-wadah, 73
Khamsah, 38
khn, 220
khnaqh, 146
Khirbat alMa(ar, 15, 67, 85
Khva, 85
Khwrizm, 108
kiswah, 2
knighthood, 122, 123, 222
Koran, 1, 4, 7, 29, 49, 50, 52, 55, 57, 80,
85, 87, 88, 89, 93, 118, 124, 196, 211,
221, law, 123, paradisc, 26, 118,
psalmody, 155, rcvclation, 44, school,
214, stylc, 51
Krishna, 40
Kula, 55
Kl (script), 55, 90, 138, 155, 187, oriatc,
55, 57
kulliyt, 146, 170, 203, 209
Kurdistan, 119
l ilha illa Llh, 29, 124
laddcr ol thc worlds, 96
Lakc Tibcrias, 64
lm, 57
languagc, Arabic, 43, 44, Mongol, 49,
Pcrsian, 50
Latin Church, 20
Lcbanon, 199
Lindislarnc Gospcl, 64
litham, 103
liturgical axis, 18
liturgy, 87, 90, 94, 128, Grcck rthodox, 93
Logos, 96, 132
Madnat azZahr, 201
madrasah, 146, 153, 154, 170, 189, 205
Maghrib, 57, 128, 138, arch, 26, art, 55,
125, 130
Mamd ol Ghazna, 107
Mlik school, 153
malwiyyah, 143
mamlk, 108
Mamluks, 75, 107, 123, 146, art, 123,
carpcts, 119, tombs at Cairo, 101
manbir, 96, scc also minbar
mandala, 7, 196
alManr, 199, 201
mristn, 146, 170, 205
martyria, 99
Mary, 93, 105
mashhid, 99
Mashwar, 201
236 Art of Islam
masjid, 89
MasjidiShh, see Shh Mosquc
Maydn, 183, 184, 203
mahar, 90
Mca Shcarim, 105
Mccca, 1, 2, 4, 9, 18, 20, 85, 90, 101, 113,
184, 217
Mcccan Rcvclations, 31
Mcdcs, 201
Mcdina, 21, 25, 85, 101, Mosquc ol thc
Prophct at, or rst Mosquc at, 20, 21, 90,
94
Mcmcd !!, 158
Mcsopotamia, 108, 138, 143
Mcsscngcr, ivinc, 96
mcsscngcrs, 29
Middlc ast, 43
mirb, 18, 23, 25, 62, 90, 101, 105, 118,
128, 130, 133, 136, 138, 143, 155, 158,
173, 176, 183, 185, 186, 189, 232
Mihrimah Mosquc, 163, 168
milicu, Shitc, 38
minarct, 25
minbar, 25, 94, 96, 154
miniaturc, Hindu, 40, Pcrsian, 32, 37,
38, 40, 114, Turkish, 40
Minya, Umayyad palacc ol, 64
mishkh, 93
mirj, 38
Mongols, 32, 37, 43, 107, 108, 110, 114, art,
37, 57, languagc, 49
monothcism, 1, 2, 6, 29
monumcnts, Timurid, 148, 185, Umayyad,
67
Moorish architccturc, 119
Morocco, 109
Mosquc ol alAq, 9, ol !bn ln, 8, ol
thc King, see Shh Mosquc, ol
Mihrimah, 163, 168, ttoman, 156,
pcristylc, 20, 138, 183, Pcrsian, 179, 183,
ol thc Prophct at Mcdina, 21, 25, 90,
Salavid, 40, Shh, !lahn, 178, 183,
203, ol Shchzadch, 163, 166, 170,
Shaykh LulAllh, 184, 230, Sokullu
Pasha, 170, 175, Sultan Sclm, 161, 175,
176, Sultan Sulcymn, 163, ol Umar, 8
Mount Moriah, 9, 13
Mshatt, 15, 17, 18, 62, 130
Mughals, 109, 195, 201, art, 40, 190, !ndia,
114, painting, 40
Muammad, 9
Muammad !!, see Mcmcd !!
Muaqqaq, 57
mutasib (inspcctors ol markcts), 220
Muydn !bn alArab, 31, see also
!bn alArab
Mull Murshd ol Shrz, 192
multiplicity in unity, 73
MumtziMaal, 192
muqarnas, 73, 74, 75, 84, 148, 151, 173, 175,
176, 184
alMurbin, 109
Muslim civilization, 44, houscs, 208, !ndia,
158, Spain, 57, 132, Spain, carpcts, 119
Mustaniriyyah, 153
alMuwaidn, 109
Nabatcan alphabct, 54
nafs, 211, see also soul
Namcs, ivinc, 41
Naskh, 55, 57
naturalism, 4, 32, 41, Hcllcnic, 64
nccropolis, 101
Ncw Fcz, 201
nichc ol lights, 118
Nigcr, 109
night journcy (ol Muammad), 9
Nim, 38
Nimiyyah (Madrasah at Nishapur), 153
nomadic art, 45, 114, 118
nomadism, 44, 85, 113, 114, 122, 123, 201
North Alrica, 114, 128, 208
ornamcntal art ol !slam, 64
ttomans, 75, 108, 160, 214, architccturc,
176, court carpct, 118, mosqucs, 156,
170
painting, Arab, 32, Chincsc, 37, 40, Hindu
schools ol, 40, Mughal, 40
Pantocrator, 158
paradisc, 40, 197, 211, carthly, 37, Koranic,
26, 118
Parthians, 201
Patristic tradition, 93
pcndcntivc, 73, 158, 168
pcristylc architccturc, 26, mosqucs, 138, 183
pcrmutation (ol radical consonants), 85
Pcrsia, 7, 138, 181, astcrn, 107
Pcrsians, 32, arch, 50, architccturc, 49, 118,
181, 183, art, 40, 49, 125, brick
architccturc, 75, carpct, 115, 116, 117,
languagc, 49, 50, miniaturc, 32, 37, 38,
40, 114, mosquc, 179, 183, vault, 76, 78,
136, 179
pcrspcctivc, 32, 38
philosophy, Hcllcnistic, 15
pictography, 52
pilgrimagc, 1, 4, 6, 9, 154
placc ol appcarancc (mahar), 90
Platonic dimcnsion, 80
polygon, 80, 185, starshapcd, 11, 13, 68,
138
polythcism, 29, 41
praycrnichc, 18, 90, 93, 94, 158, 184
praycrrugs, 118
Prcscncc, ivinc, 6, 38, 93, 99
Prophct, 4, 8, 9, Asccnsion ol, 38
prophcts, 29
pulpit, 25, 94
Punjab, 107
Purgatory, 37
qanh, 205
Qar alayr, 15
qarah, 205
qaysariyyah, 217
qiblah, 18, 25, 89, 90, 128, 146, 153, 155,
170, 184
Qualitics, ivinc, 119
Qubbat aakhrah, 8, 90
Quraysh, 28, 85
Quayr Amra, 15
qub (polc), 38
ramah, 2
rajaz, 50
Raqqa, 75
ar-rshidn, 14
Ravcnna, 8
Rcnaissancc (uropcan), 6, 40, 161
rcvclation, Koranic, 44
ribvault, 75, 78
riwq, 26
Roman basilicas, 90, bathhousc, 215,
citics, 199, 201, intcrlaccmcnt, 67,
mosaics, 14, 67
ar-R, 80
rusul, 29
sacratum, 102, 209
Salavids, 38, 40, 183, carpcts, 116, mosqucs,
40
Sahara, 104, 107, 109, 8cdouin, 114
saints, 29
Saint Sophia, see Hagia Sophia
Salm Chishti, 101
Samarqand, 101, 108, 110, 203
Smarr, 64, 201
anah, 220
Sarmatians, 119, art, 62
Sasanid, 118, 181
Sayyidatn Maryam (ur Lady Mary), 93
school, anal, 153, Mlik, 153, Sha,
153
scicncc, 220, ol thc inward, 31, 94, see also
inward scicncc
script, Arabic, 52, 54, 57, Chincsc, 49, 52
Scythians, 119, art, 62
scdcntarism, 113, 201
Scljuks, 37, 75, 99, 108, 114, 124, 153, 205,
art, 18, 123
Scljuks ol Rm (Asia Minor), 108, 205
Scmitic alphabcts, 44, 85
Sessions (ol arr), 32
Scvcnth cumcnical Council, 31
Shh Abbs !, 183
Shh Jahn, 190, 192
Shh Mosquc in !lahn, 179, 183, 203
ShhiZindah (Tc Living King),
Samarqand, 101
shahdah, 176
Shaykh al!slm, 183
Shaykh LulAllh Mosquc, 184
Shchzadch Mosquc, 163, 166, 170
Shism, 38, 153, 183
Shitc milicu, 38
Sinn, 160, 161, 163, 166, 168, 170, 175,
176
Sinkiang, 57
SiyhQalam, 40
Sokullu Pasha Mosquc, 170, 175
Index 237
Solomon, 28, Tcmplc ol, 8, 9
solve, 113
soul, 209
Spain, 57, 75, 109, 132, 201
Spirit, 80, ivinc, 57, Univcrsal, 57, 197
squinchcs, 74
St. Pctcrs 8asilica, Romc, 28
stalactitcs, 73, 74, 75, 173
starshapcd polygon, 11, 13, 68, 138
uah, 20
Sus, 41
Susm, 99, 223
Sultan asan, Collcgc Mosquc, (Cairo),
146, 148, 154
Sultan Sclm, 161, 175, 176, Grcat Mosquc
ol, dirnc, 161
Sultan Sulcymn, 163
sultanatcs, Turkish (ol Anatolia), 156
Sunnah, 14, 43, 102, 199, 205, 207
Sunns, 29, 38, 153
Suprcmc Pcn, 57
sq, 199, 208, 220
swastika, 15, 64, 148
symbolism, !mpcrial Roman, 23, ol
wcaving, 52, ol writing, 52
synagogucs, 90
Syria, 7, 18, 25, 67, 108, 109, 208
Syriac alphabct, 54
Tagus, 109
Taj Mahal, 195, 196, 197
tj-i-maall, 190, 197
Talcs ol thc Tousand and nc Nights, 48
Taoist art, 125
Tathagata, 96
awf, 2, 4
tawd, 5, 7, 32, 51
tcchniquc, 220
tcmcnos, 25
tcnt, 8cdouin, 114, 8cdouin, culturc ol,
114
thcrc is no divinity savc God, 29
Tronc, Gods, 2, 29
Tuluth, 175, 186
Tigris, 64
Tmri Lang, 109
Timurids, 40, 109, 203, monumcnts, 148
townplanning, 183, 199
tradition, Patristic, 93
trcc ol lilc, 62
Turcoman, carpcts, 114, practorian guards,
64
Turkcy, 114
Turkish, 49, calligraphy, 57, carpcts, 114,
117, 118, ccramic tilcs, 11, gcnius, 49,
housc, 208, miniaturcs, 40
Turks, 49, 107, 110, 114, 158
ulam, 220
Umar, 8, 9, 14, 28, 96, 205, mosquc ol, 8
Umar !!, 14
Umayyads, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15, 18, 21, 23, 55,
64, 199, 201, courts, 15, monumcnts, 67
ummah, 14, 104
union, 51
unity, 51, ivinc, 57, 73, 80, 84, 176, 223,
in multiplicity, 54, ol cxistcncc, 80, 85
Univcrsal Spirit, 57, 197
Uppcr gypt, 181
Uqbah ibn N, 128, 130
Usak, 118
Uthmn, 14
vault, Gothic, 76, 136, !slamic, 78, Pcrsian,
76, 80, 136, 179
vcrsc, Arabic, 50, ol light (Koran), 93, 158
vcsturc, 2
\irgin, Holy, 5, 6, 31, 93, 158
al-wadah l-kathrah, 73
wadat al-wujd, 80, 85
wal, 99
wal-Allh (lricnd ol God), 99
alVald, 21, 25, 90
wcaponry, 124
wcaving, 52, 107
wcll guidcd (caliphs), 14
whitc pcarl, 94, 196, 197
Vill, ivinc, 90, 102
windcoolcd houscs, 208
wintcr oratorics, 189
wisdom, 221, scc also ikmah
Visdom (Sophia), 158
worldaxis, 183
worldtrcc, 57, 132
writing, Arabic, 52, 54
Yakin, 183
Yathrib, 85
Ycil Cami, 156
yin-yang, 63, 113
yurt, 99, 114, culturc ol, 114
Zacharias, 105
hir (outward), 211
Zayndch Rd, 183
Zcn, 125
ziggurats, 143
zoomorphic art, 62
Acknowledgments
Thc publishcr gratclully acknowlcdgcs thc lollowing sourccs lor illustrations:
Photographcrs: Mina Azizi, Titus 8urckhardt, Michacl . Fitzgcrald, Villiam Fitzgcrald, Susana Marn,
JcanLouis Michon, Mirza & Sons, Shahriar Piroozram, Lynn PollackFicldscapc Studio, Michacl Pollack,
Pushkin Rahman, Nicholas Stonc and Nazanin Shcikhi, Vikimcdia Commons.
Muscums and Librarics: 8ardo Muscum, Tunis, Tc 8ritish Library, London, Tc 8ritish Muscum, London, Tc
Frccr Gallcry ol Art, Vashington .C., Golcstan Palacc, Tchran, !ran 8astan Muscum, Tchran, Tc Library ol
Congrcss, Vashington .C., Mcvlana Muscum, Konya, Musc dc l!nstitut du mondc arabc, Paris, Musco dcl
jrcito, Madrid, Musco Nacional dc Artc HispanoMusulmn, Granada, Muscum ol !slamic Art, oha, Muscum
ol !slamic and Turkish Art, !stanbul, Thc Nasscr Khalili Collcction ol !slamic Art, National Library ol gypt,
Cairo, Shrinc Muscum, Qom, Staatlichc Musccn, 8crlin, Tcxtilc Muscum, Vashington .C., Trinity Collcgc
Library, ublin, Univcrsity Library ol !stanbul, \ictoria & Albcrt Muscum, London.
Platcs 76, 102, 204, 206, 207, 209, and 274 arc rcproduccd lrom thc !slamic Art Nctwork with thc kind pcrmission
ol thc Tcsaurus !slamicus Foundation. Tc rcproductions ol Koranic calligraphy on platcs 26, 38, 40, 44, 55, 56,
and 57, arc lrom Martin Lings Splendours of Quran Calligraphy & Illumination, publishcd by thc Tcsaurus !slamicus
Foundation.
Tc publishcr wishcs to thank Nicholas Stonc, Nazanin Shcikhi, Murad Khan Mumtaz, and Stcvcn Johnson lor thcir
willingncss to rcvicw thc prcscnt cdition and lor thcir valuablc suggcstions.
TITUS BURCKHARDT, a Gcrman Swiss, was born in Florcncc in 1908 and dicd in Lausannc in 1984. Hc
dcvotcd all his lilc to thc study and cxposition ol thc dicrcnt aspccts ol wisdom and tradition. !n thc agc
ol modcrn scicncc and tcchnocracy, Titus 8urckhardt was onc ol thc most rcmarkablc ol thc cxponcnts ol
univcrsal truth, in thc rcalm ol mctaphysics as wcll as in thc rcalm ol cosmology and ol traditional art. Hc
was a major voicc ol thc philosophia perennis, that wisdom uncrcatc that is cxprcsscd in Platonism, \cdanta,
Susm, Taoism, and othcr authcntic csotcric or sapicntial tcachings. !n litcrary and philosophic tcrms, hc
was an cmincnt mcmbcr ol thc Traditionalist or Pcrcnnialist school ol twcnticth ccntury thinkcrs and
writcrs. Titus 8urckhardt was also an cxpcrt on !slam, !slamic arts and cralts, and its spiritual dimcnsion,
Susm.
Although 8urckhardt was born in Florcncc, hc was thc scion ol a patrician lamily ol 8aslc, Switzcrland.
Hc was thc grcatncphcw ol thc lamous arthistorian Jacob 8urckhardt and thc son ol thc sculptor Carl
8urckhardt.
8urckhardt livcd lor many ycars in Fcz, Morocco and was an intcgral part ol thc Moroccan gov
crnmcnts succcsslul prcscrvation ol thc ancicnt mcdina ol Fcz as a UNSC Vorld Hcritagc Sitc in
1981. 8urckhardts work has also providcd a blucprint lor thc prcscrvation ol othcr !slamic citics ol grcat
historical intcrcst. !n 1999 thc Moroccan govcrnmcnt sponsorcd an intcrnational symposium in Mar
rakcch in honor ol 8urckhardts work cntitlcd, Sagcssc ct Splcndcur dcs Arts islamiqucsHommagc a
Titus 8urckhardt. Tc procccdings wcrc publishcd with thc nancial assistancc ol UNSC in 2000.
8urckhardt was also a scnior consultant lor ovcr a dccadc to Skidmorc, wings & Mcrrill (loundcd
in 1936), onc ol thc worlds lcading architccturc, urban dcsign, cnginccring, and intcrior architccturc rms,
with projccts in morc than lty countrics. !n that capacity hc was a major lactor in thc prcscrvation ol ar
chitcctural sitcs ol immcnsc historical importancc in many !slamic countrics.
Trcc ol 8urckhardts illustratcd books locus on !slamic art, culturc, and spirituality. 8urckhardts Art of
Islam: Language and Meaning, prcscntcd hcrc as a rcviscd commcmorativc cdition, is considcrcd by many to
bc thc dcnitivc study ol thc sacrcd art ol !slam. Moorish Culture in Spain prcscnts ccntral clcmcnts ol thc
!slamic culturc that rulcd Spain lor cightandahall ccnturics, whilc Fez: City of Islam prcscnts thc history
ol a pcoplc and thcir rcligion bascd upon 8urckhardts unrivalcd knowlcdgc ol thc city that hc tirclcssly
hclpcd to prcscrvc undcr thc auspiccs ol UNSC.
Anothcr thrcc ol his illustratcd books ccntcr on Christian art, culturc, and spirituality. !n addition to
Chartres and the Birth of Cathedral thcrc is Siena: City of the Virgin, which dcpicts, in his own words, thc
dcstiny ol a town in which thc spiritual dcvclopmcnt ol thc Christian Vcstcrn world lrom thc Middlc
Agcs up to thc prcscnt day is cxcmplicd. Tc awardwinning anthology, Foundations of Christian Art, is a
complcmcnt to thcsc works.
Tcsc six illustratcd books collcctivcly dcmonstratc 8urckhardts uniquc ability to communicatc thc
csscncc ol thc traditional !slamic and Christian worlds as il wc had actually livcd during thosc timcs.
A sclcction ol his othcr books on traditional art, scicncc, culturc, and spirituality is prcscntcd bclow.
8urckhardt was ucnt in Gcrman, Frcnch, Arabic, and nglish and wrotc scvcntccn books in Gcrman, cight
books in Frcnch, translatcd thrcc books lrom Arabic into Frcnch, and wrotc numcrous articlcs in various
languagcs. Filtccn ol his books havc bccn translatcd and publishcd in nglish. A sclcction ol his nglish
languagc writings is prcscntcd hcrc and a complctc bibliography is availablc on www.worldwisdom.com.
Biographical Notes
Te Best Summary of Burckhardts Life & Writings
Te Essential Titus Burckhardt: Reections on Sacred Art, Faiths, and Civilizations,
cditcd by Villiam Stoddart, Vorld Visdom, 2003
Burckhardts Books on Islamic Art, Culture & Spirituality
Fez: City of Islam, !slamic Tcxts Socicty, 1992
Moorish Culture in Spain, Fons \itac, 1999
Introduction to Su Doctrine, Vorld Visdom, 2008
Art of Islam: Language and Meaning, Vorld Visdom, 2009
Burckhardts Books on Christian Art, Culture & Spirituality
Te Foundations of Christian Art, cditcd by Michacl Fitzgcrald, Vorld Visdom, 2006
Gold Midwcst 8ook Award lor !ntcrior Layout
Silvcr 8cnjamin Franklin Award lor Arts
Siena: City of the Virgin, Vorld Visdom, 2008
Chartres and the Birth of the Cathedral, Vorld Visdom, 2009
Burckhardts Books on Traditional Science & Sacred Art
Mirror of the Intellect: Essays on Traditional Science and Sacred Art,
cditcd by Villiam Stoddart, SUNY Prcss, 1987
Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul, Fons \itac, 1997
Sacred Art in East and West, Vorld Visdom/Fons \itac, 2002
Foundations of Oriental Art and Symbolism, cditcd by Michacl Fitzgcrald,
Vorld Visdom, 2009
SEYYED HOSSEIN NASR is Univcrsity Prolcssor ol !slamic Studics at thc Gcorgc Vashington Univcrsity. Tc
author ol ovcr lty books and vc hundrcd articlcs, hc is onc ol thc worlds most rcspcctcd writcrs and
spcakcrs on !slam, its arts and scicnccs, and its traditional mystical path, Susm. His publications includc Su
Essays, Knowledge and the Sacred, Religion and the Order of Nature, A Young Muslims Guide to the Modern World,
Te Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, and Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization. A volumc
in thc prcstigious Library of Living Philosophers scrics has bccn dcdicatcd to his thought. Vorld Visdom
publishcd Te Essential Seyyed Hossein Nasr in 2007.
JEAN-LOUIS MICHON is a Frcnch traditionalist writcr, cditor, translator, Arabist, and artistic consultant who
spccializcs in !slam in North Alrica, !slamic art, and Susm. From 1972 to 1980, Michon was Chicl Tcchnical
Adviscr to a scrics ol joint programs by UNSC, thc UN cvclopmcnt Program, and thc Moroccan
govcrnmcnt aimcd at thc prcscrvation ol traditional arts and cralts. His mission coincidcd in timc with thc
onc cntrustcd to his lricnd Titus 8urckhardt lor thc prcscrvation ol thc old city ol Fcz. Michon is thc author
ol Autobiography (Fahrasa) of a Moroccan Su: Ahmad Ibn Ajiba and Introduction to Traditional Islam, Illustrated:
Foundations, Art, and Spirituality. Hc is also cocditor (with Rogcr Gactani) ol Susm: Love & Wisdom.
Biographical Notes 239
Titles on Islam by World Wisdom
Art of Islam, Language and Meaning: Commemorative Edition, by Titus 8urckhardt, 2009
Christianity/Islam: Perspectives on Esoteric Ecumenism,
by Frithjol Schuon, 2008
Introduction to Su Doctrine, by Titus 8urckhardt, 2008
Introduction to Traditional Islam, Illustrated: Foundations, Art, and Spirituality,
by JcanLouis Michon, 2008
Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars,
cditcd by Joscph .8. Lumbard, 2004
Te Mystics of Islam, by Rcynold A. Nicholson, 2002
Te Path of Muhammad: A Book on Islamic Morals and Ethics by Imam Birgivi,
intcrprctcd by Shaykh Tosun 8ayrak, 2005
Paths to the Heart: Susm and the Christian East,
cditcd by Jamcs S. Cutsingcr, 2003
Paths to Transcendence: According to Shankara, Ibn Arabi, and Meister Eckhart,
by Rcza ShhKazcmi, 2006
Te Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: Te Teachings of Ali ibn Abi Talib,
cditcd by M. Ali Lakhani, 2006
Te Spirit of Muhammad: From Hadith,
cditcd by Judith and Michacl rcn Fitzgcrald, 2010
A Spirit of Tolerance: Te Inspiring Life of Tierno Bokar,
by Amadou Hampat 8, 2008
Te Su Doctrine of Rumi: Illustrated Edition,
by Villiam C. Chittick, 2005
Susm: Love and Wisdom,
cditcd by JcanLouis Michon and Rogcr Gactani, 2006
Susm: Veil and Quintessence, by Frithjol Schuon, 2007
Understanding Islam, by Frithjol Schuon, 1998
Te Universal Spirit of Islam: From the Koran and Hadith,
cditcd by Judith and Michacl rcn Fitzgcrald, 2006
Unveiling the Garden of Love: Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun & Gita Govinda,
by Lalita Sinha, 2008
Te author of over 20 books on art, religion, and spirituality, Titus Burckhardt (1908-1984) worked
for many years as a UNESCO expert, helping to preserve the historic old city of Fez, Morocco. His
masterpiece, Art of Islam: Language and Meaning was originally published in London in 1976 and is
presented by World Wisdom in a fully revised edition with new illustrations.
Tis edition commemorates the 100th birthday of the author,
Titus Burckhardt;
Features over 350 color and black-and-white illustrations; and
Includes a new Introduction by Burckhardts friend and
collaborator, Jean-Louis Michon.
Tis work stands alone. Nothing of comparable importance has appeared before, and it is hard to
imagine that it will ever be surpassed. Titus Burckhardts book provides a spiritual key to the art
forms in which the religion of Islam has found a particularly striking and compelling expression. In
consequence, this book must be of profound concern not only to those who are interested in the specic
art forms of a particular culture, but to all who are interested in the religion of Islam and, ultimately, in
religion as such.
Charles Le Gai Eaton, author of Islam and the Destiny of Man
Titus Burckhardt looks at Islam with the eyes of a scholar who combines deep spiritual insight with
the love of eternal Truth.
Annemarie Schimmel, Harvard University, author of Mystical Dimensions of Islam
[Tis is] the denitive work on Islamic art as far as the meaning and spiritual signicance of this art are
concerned. Burckhardt brings together a lifetime of outward and inward experience to produce a peer-
less work, one in which Islamic art is at last revealed to be what it really is, namely the earthly crystalliza-
tion of the spirit of the Islamic revelation as well as a reection of the heavenly realities on earth.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Te George Washington University, author of Islamic Art and Spirituality
Tose who can do, and know why they do, will always hold positions of dignity and true knowledge in
the realm of the traditional arts. Titus Burckhardt is one such authority. My recollection of meeting with
him is unforgettable. For the newcomer to the Islamic arts, my assurance is that you could not be in better
hands than those of the great eternalist Titus Burckhardt: he will take you to the very core and heart, if
you are willing.
Keith Critchlow, Te Princes School of Traditional Arts, author of Islamic Patterns: An Analytical
and Cosmological Approach
Burckhardts last major work was his widely acclaimed and impressive monograph Art of Islam. Here
the intellectual principles and the spiritual role of artistic creativity in its Islamic forms are richly and
generously displayed before us.
William Stoddart, author of Susm: Te Mystical Doctrines and Methods of Islam
Islam / Art History
@!
World Wisdom
$ 32.95 US
Art
of Islam
Language and
Meaning
Commemorative Edition
Titus Burckhardt
Foreword by Seyyed Hossein Nasr Introduction by Jean-Louis Michon
T
i
t
u
s

B
u
r
c
k
h
a
r
d
t
A
r
t

o
f

I
s
l
a
m
World
Wisdom