Conversia fotovoltaica a energiei solare

1. Radiatia solara
Intr-o prima aproximare se poate cansidera ca soarele actioneaza ca un emitator perfect de radiatie (corp
negru). Astfel, rezulta ca fluxul energiei medii incidente pe o unitate de suprafata perpendicular ape directia
radiatiei, cunosuta ca constanta solara:
1
]
1

2
1367
m
W
S
In general, puterea totala care provine de la o sursa de radiatie si care este receptionata pe o unitate de
suprafata, este denumita iradianta. Temperatura corpului negru al radiatiei solare cu suprafata S poate fi
dedusa din legea lui Stefan-Boltzmann si un factor geometric simplu ce reprezinta distanta de la pamant la
soare si raza soarelui:
soarele subantinde care solid unghiul : unde
R
R
f : unde T f S
s
s
p s
s
s

,
_

2
4
onceptual de radiatie a corpului negru face posi!ila utilizarea legii de radiatie a lui "lanc# referitor la fluxul
de fotoni receptionati de unitatea de arie a unei suprafete plane intr-un interval de + :

'

Boltzmann lui ta tan cons k

vid in ii min lu viteza c
Planck lui ta tan cons h
: unde e f
c
e
f
c
B
T k
h
T k
h
s B
s
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
$a incidenta radiatiei solare cu atmosfera terestra o parte este indepartata prin imprastiere difuza sau
a!sor!tie de catre moleculele de aer, nouri si particule de materie aflate in mod o!isnuit in aerosoli. %adiatia
care nu este reflectata sau imprastiata parazit si care intalneste suprafata direct de la dicul solar, numit
radiatie directa sau T&e radiation t&at is not reflected or scattered and reac&es t&e surface directl' in line
from t&e solara sau fascicol. %adiatia parazita care intalneste pamantul se numeste radiatie difuza. (ricare
radiatie poate a)unge la un receptor dupa reflectarea de la pamant, si care este denumita Al!edo. %adiatia
totala care consta din aceste * componente este denumita glo!ala. antitatea de radiatie care atinge
pamantul este, desigur una extrem de varia!ila. In plus, variatia anticipata zilnica si anuala datorita deplasarii
aparente a soarelui, precum si variatiile intamplatoare cauzate de conditiile climatice (cer acoperit cu nori)
precum si prin componentele generale ale atmosferei. +in aceasta cauza, proiectul unui sistem fotovoltaic
!azat pe ac&izitia datelor masurate in imediata apropiere a locului de amplasare instalatiei. ,n concept care
caracterizeaza efectul unei atmosfere curate asupra luminii solare este masa aerului, egala cu lungimea
relativa a parcursului direct al fascicolului prin atmosfera. ( zi de vara senina la nivelul marii, radiatia de la
soare in pozitia corespunzatoare zenitului si masa aerului - (A.-)/ in alte circumstante, masa de aer este
-0cos 1 , in care 1 reprezinta ung&iul de zenit. 2fectul atmosferei (dependenta de masa aerului) asupra
spectrului solar este reprezentat in figura de mai )os:
Spectrul extra terestru, notat cu A.3, este important in aplicatii cu satelit al celulelor solare. A.-.4
reprezinta un spectru solar tip la suprafata pamantului intr-o zi senina, care cu iradianta totala de - #50m
6
,
este utilizata la cali!rarea celulelor si modulelor solare. In locul iradiantei proiectarea sistemului fotovoltaic
(in principal a celor autonome) in mod o!isnuit se !azeaza pe radianta solara zilnica: energia receptionata
de o suprafata unitara intr-o zi. 7luxul de energie totale incidente pe pamant este egala cu S inmultita cu aria
discului care reprezinta radiatia soarelui pe pamant. 7luxul mediu incident pe unitatea de suprafata se o!tine
atunci prin impartirea acestui numar la suprafata totala a pamantului. Avand in vedere ca *38 din radiatia
incidenta imprastiata si reflectata in spatiu, radiatia medie solara zilnica 9 pe pamant este
[ ] pamantului raza R : unde kWh , S , S
R
R
, G
P
P
P



74 5
4
1
7 0 24
4
7 0 24
2
2
Acest numar va fi comparat cu valorile o!servate. In figura de mai )os se reprezinta radiatia solara zilnica pe
un plan orizontal pentru : locatii reprezentative, de la padurile tropicale la tarile din nordul 2uropei. %adiatia
solara este cea mai mare in aria desertului continental in )urul latitudinii de 64
3
; si 64
3
S, si scade spre
ecuator din cauza norilor, precum si spre poli din cauza elevatiei solare scazute. %egiunile ecuatoriale sufera
mici variatii sezoniere, in contrast cu latitudinile mai ridicate acolo unde rapoartele vara0iarna sunt mari.
2. Convertor cu 2 nivele cuantice de energie
onsideram un model simplificat al procesului de conversie a energiei care reprezinta principiile, si anume
!alanta ec&ili!rata intre energia luminii a!sor!ite si energia li!era furnizata utilizatorului. "artea principala a
sistemului de conversie este un a!sor!ator de lumina cu 6 stari cuantice, acolo unde a!sor!tia unui foton a
radiatiei luminoase stimuleaza ca un electron sa treaca din starea normala intr-o stare excitata. <iteza de
excitatie reprezinta o com!inatie a 6 procese, iluminarea (inclusiv tranzitiile cu viteza g) si excitatia termica,
cu viteza go. +urata de viata a starii excitate cu considerarea tranzitiilor la starea normala va fi notata cu .
7ie (--=) si p pro!a!ilitatile ca a!sor!atorul sa fie intr-o stare normala si respectiv excitata. antitatea =
poate fi interpretata ca pro!a!ilitatea de ocuparea unui gol din starea normala. <itezele de excitare si de
dezexcitare sunt:
( ) ( ) ( )

'

q p g g G
q p R
1 1
1
0
$a ec&ili!rul termic atunci cand g>3, viteza de generare termica este egala cu viteza de excitare, iar go se
poate exprima in functie de valorile de ec&ili!ru a lui po si =o la temperatura am!ianta T:
T k

B
e
q
q
p
p
g

1 1
1 1
1
0
0
0
0
0
eea ce reprezinta o alta cale de a scrie faimoasa relatie a lui 2instein intre coeficientii A si B. "rocesele de
conversie este modelat prin adaugarea altor 6 stari: un rezervor de electroni (care accepta un electron de la
starea excitata) si un rezervor de goluri (care accepta un ?gol? de la starea normala sau, cu alte cuvinte,
doneaza un electron starii normale). In regim sta!ilizat, viteza de extragere a energiei (notata @) este egala
cu viteza de transfer a electronilor si a golurilor la rezervoare, care pe rand, tre!uie sa fie egale cu viteza
neta de excitatie.
( ) ( ) ( ) q p q p g g R G !

+
1
1 1
0
In unele aplicatii, viteza @ poate fi viteza unei reactii fotoc&imice de oxidare si reducere care actioneaza
printr-un transfer de electroni de la cupla)ul de oxidare si reducere - (notat +-0+, unde sim!olizeaza
electronul donator) catre cupla)ul 6 (A-0A, unde A reprezinta electronul acceptor):

+ + " # " #
Termenii 9 si % corespund reactiei directe si inverse. Intr-o celula solara, viteza @ este in legatura cu
curentul in circuitul extern I, astfel:
! q $
unde = (A3) reprezinta sarcina electrica a electronului. 2nergia li!era pe electron in cele 6 rezervoare (cu alte
cuvinte, potentiale c&imice) notate cu Be si B&. la ec&ili!rul termic Be > B& desi in general, Be si B& nu vor fi
egale, si poate extrasa o cantitate de lucru mecanic extern egal cu CB > Be - B& prin transferul unui electron
de la rezervorul de electroni la cel cu goluri. Acest transfer de electroni modeleaza o reactie c&imica de
oxidare si de reducere, sau asa cum vom vedea mai tarziu, curentul electric printr-un circuit extern.
+aca tranzitia intre cele 6 nivele cuantice si rezervoare sunt reversi!ile pentru extragerea energiei maxime,
energia li!era a electronului in starile normale si excitate sunt egale cu Be si B&, and iar populatiile p si --=
urmeaza distri!utia 7ermi-+irac:
( ) ( )
g e%c
T k
T k

T k

T k

: unde
e
e g p q !
e
q
e
p
B
B
B
h g
B
e e%c

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

'

+

+

1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
"rimii 6 factori pot devenii relevanti in cazul iluminarii foarte puternice dar in cazul unei excitatii modeste,
care in acest caz conduce la p,= DD - fapt ce conduce la:

'

,
_

T k
l
T k
l
B
B
e
!
g !
: unde
e
! ! !
1 1
1
1
0
0
Su! considerente termodinamice, atunci cand viteza de reactie este nula (@>3), diferenta intre potentialelor
termice devin:
( )

,
_

+

g ln T k
!
!
ln T k
B
l
B k
0
0
1
+aca celula este iluminata de radiatia unui corp negru la temperatura Ts, viteza de excitatie poate fi o!tinuta
in mod analog, inlocuid in ecuatiile de mai sus temperatura am!ianta T cu temperatura de radiatie Ts.

,
_

,
_

s
b
s
k
T k
ln T k
T
T

e
f
g
s B
1
1
0
u alte cuvinte, energia maxima generata este egala cu !anda de energie C2 inmultita cu eficienta arnot,
diminuata prin radiatia solara ce provine de la discul solar su! ung&iul solid Es. T&e model t&at Fe &ave )ust
descri!ed can !e generalised to include t&e situation F&ere t&e electron transfer from t&e &ole to electron
reservoir ta#es place in an electric field Fit& electrostatic potential G F&ic& &as t&e value Ge in t&e electron
reservoir and G& in t&e &ole reservoir. T&e conversion e=uation (-6) t&en remains in force !ut t&e c&emical
potential difference CB >Be - B& must !e replaced !' t&e difference CH of electroc&emical potentials He > Be -
=Ge and H& > B& - =G&.. T&is Fill !e particularl' relevant in t&e case of solar cell F&ic& Fill !e discussed in
Sec. :. 5e s&all see t&at if t&e rates @ are replaced !' t&e appropriate electrical currents and CH !' =< >
=(Ge - G&) > CG, F&ere < is t&e voltage at t&e terminals of t&e cell, 2=. (-6) !ecomes t&e S&oc#le'?s ideal
solar cell e=uation. In addition to semiconductor solar cells, t&e tFo level converter serves as a model for a
num!er of ot&er =uantum solar energ' conversion s'stems. TFo of t&ese are !riefl' discussed !eloF.
The primary photochemical reaction in photosynthesis
T&e fundamental p&otos'nt&etic reaction can !e represented !' electron transport across t&e p&otos'nt&etic
mem!rane. T&e reaction is responsi!le for t&e formation of &ig&energ' c&emical products and, in some
organisms, electrostatic potential can also form across t&e mem!rane. T&e electron transport ta#es place in
t&e p&otos'nt&etic reaction centre - a protein complex F&ic& !inds components of t&e electron transport
c&ain s&oFn in 7ig. *.*. T&e primar' electron donor (usuall' denoted !' ") is a c&lorop&'ll (or
!acterioc&lorop&'ll) dimer. T&e electron transport t&en proceeds t&roug& a num!er of intermediaries to a
=uinone molecule I. 2lectron excitation !' lig&t from t&e ground state of " to an excited state "J is folloFed
!' electron transfer to I, creating t&e reduced form I-. T&e reduced =uinone I- is su!se=uentl' oxidised to
I !' an extraneous electron acceptor, t&e ground state of t&e primar' donor is replenis&ed !' an electron,
and t&e electron transfer c'cle can start again. T&e lin# to t&e tFo level =uantum energ' converter is
apparent from 7ig. *.* ! F&ic& can !e used to estimate t&ermod'namic limits on t&e conversion efficienc'
(%oss and alvin, -KLM).
7ig. *.* A sc&ematic diagram of t&e p&otos'nt&etic reaction centre in purple !acteria (a). T&e electron
transport can !e modelled in a simplified manner !' a sc&eme s&oFn in (!). In realit', t&e primar' donor " is
rarel' excited directl' !' t&e incident lig&t !ut t&e excitation proceeds via an NantennaO of accessor'
!acterioc&lorop&'ll molecules F&ic& transfer t&e excitation energ' to " !' resonant energ' transfer.
Dye sensitised solar cells. Invented !' .ic&ael 9rPtzel and &is group at t&e 2cole "ol'tec&ni=ue 7QdQrale
de $ausanne in t&e earl' -KK3s, t&ese cells Fere argua!l' t&e first p&otoc&emical solar cells t&at operate on
a similar principle as t&e p&otos'nt&etic conversion s'stem. .olecules of %u-!ased d'e, deposited on ver'
small (Nnanocr'stallineO) particles of titanium dioxide act as t&e a!sor!er in t&e =uantum energ' converter
(7ig. *.:). 2lectrons, supplied to t&e ground state of t&e d'e from a li=uid redox iodine0 iodide electrol'te are
transferred, upon p&otoexcitation, from t&e excited state of t&e d'e to t&e conduction !and of Ti(6 (7ig. *.4).
In effect, t&e mono-molecular d'e la'er NpumpsO electrons from one electrode (li=uid electrol'te) to t&e ot&er
(solid titanium dioxide). T&e use of nanocr'stalline Ti(6 particles coated !' t&e d'e ensures &ig& optical
a!sorption, resulting in almost all lig&t Fit&in t&e spectral range of t&e d'e !eing a!sor!ed !' a coating not
more t&an feF angstroms t&in.
7ig. *.4 T&e energ' diagram of t&e electron floF in t&e d'e sensitised cell. T&e ground, excited and oxidised
states of t&e d'e molecule are denoted !' S, SJ and SR, respectivel'. After A. .c 2vo', 2lectroc&emical
p&otovoltaics, p. 6:M in: T. .ar#vart, Solar 2lectricit' (see !i!liograp&').
4. Celule solare cu semiconductori
a. Functionarea celulei solare
7unctionarea celulei solare cu semiconductori poate fi ilustrata prin exemplificarea unei )onctiuni p-n supusa
iluminarii. Sonctiunea p-n reprezinta in mod efectiv interfata intre semiconductori de tip n si p: cu alte cuvinte,
semiconductori dopati cu electroni si goluri in exces introduse prin adaus de impuritati. aracteristica
fundamentala a )onctiunii este data de prezenta unui camp electric puternic, indicate prin panta laturilor de
conductie si !anda de valenta in regiunea de )onctiune:
$a ec&ili!ru, potentialele electroc&imice pe cele 6 laturi ale )onctiunii, sunt egale si nu exista un curent
electric. Supus radiatiei solare, sunt generate perec&i de electron-goluri prin semiconductor, si separate
ulterior de campul electric al )onctiunii. "rintr-o )udecata rapida se vede ca )onctiunea p-n devine un
convertor cuantic, cu zona de energie interzisa a semiconductorului 2g )ucand rolul de energie de excitare
C2. Inlocuid CB cu =< si vitezele @ prin curentii electrici I

,
_

1
1
0
T k
& q l
B
e
$ $ $
7otocurentul generat IT este egal cu curentul produs prin celula la scurcircuit (<>3). Tensiunea la mers in gol
<oc (cand I>3) se poate o!tine usor intr-un mod similar cu CB@>3:

,
_

0
1
$
$
ln
q
T k
&
l B
oc
az in care nu este generata putere. "uterea maxima " produsa de dispozitive de conversie se o!tine intr-
un punct de pe caracteristica in care produsul I< este unul maxim (aria cea mai mare a dreptung&iului).
+efinim factorul de umplere:

'

ime ma% puterii punctul in curentul $

ime ma% puterii punctul in tensiunea &
: unde
$ &
$ &
$ &
P
f
m
m
l oc
m m
l oc
ma%
u
+iferenta principala intre o celula solara cu semiconductori si convertorul cu 6 nivele este de natura
a!sor!tiei optice al semiconductorului care apare intr-un domeniu spectral mai corect intr-o linie spectrala
ingusta. .ai mult decat atat, o placa suficient de su!tire poate a!sor!ii toti fotonii cu energie in exces din
!anda interzisa a semiconductorului 2g. ;egli)ind reflexia si presupunand ca toti electronii si golurile
fotogenerati sunt colectati pentru a genera putere, curentul fotogenerat fiind:

'

negru corpului a fotoni de flu%ul

celulei aria "
: unde
e
d
c
f q " q " $
h

v
T k
h
l
g
g
s
1
2
2
2
(!servam ca curentul scade cu cresterea !enzii interzise pornind de la faptul ca pentru !enzile interzise mai
largi ;ote t&at t&e current (63) decreases Fit& increasing !andgap since for larger !andgaps, feFer p&otons
&ave energies in excess of 2g and can !e a!sor!ed !' t&e semiconductor. T&e open circuit voltage of an
ideal solar cell can !e o!tained in a similar manner as in t&e t&ermod'namic argument used to o!tain CB@>3
in 2=. (-L). Since a!sorption ta#es place over a !roader energ' range t&an t&e room-temperature p&oton
emission, a term
,
_

T
T
ln T k
s
B
can !e added to improve t&e accurac', giving

,
_

,
_

,
_

T
T
ln
q
T k
ln
q
T k
T
T
q

&
s B
s
B
s
g
oc
1
7igures :.* and :.: compare t&e t&eoretical predictions Fit& t&e open circuit voltage and s&ort circuit of t&e
!est cells made from different materials. It is seen t&at t&e o!served values of s&ort circuit current for several
materials almost reac& t&e t&eoretical maximum. T&is corresponds to a virtuall' -338 =uantum 'ield U in
ot&er Fords, almost ever' p&oton gives rise to an electron in t&e external circuit. T&e open circuit voltage is
more sensitive to nonradiative recom!ination (to !e discussed !eloF) and t&e o!served values are slig&tl'
loFer, alt&oug& t&e difference in t&e case of cr'stalline materials is still less t&an 638.
7ig. :.* T&e measured s&ort circuit current for various materials compared Fit& t&e maximum t&eoretical
value (full line). 7ull and empt' s'm!ols correspond to cr'stalline and t&in film materials, respectivel'.
7ig. :.: T&e measured open circuit voltage for various materials compared Fit& t&e maximum t&eoretical
value. 7ull and empt' s'm!ols correspond to cr'stalline and t&in film materials, respectivel'. T&e =uantit' of
greatest interest is t&e efficienc' F&ic& can !e o!tained from (-V) and (63) Fit& t&e use of t&e fill factor (-K)
F&ic& can !e determined numericall' as t&e solution of
( ) 1 +
m oc m
& ln & &
F&ere voc><oc0#T and vm><m0#T. T&e maximum t&eoretical efficienc' is s&oFn as a function of t&e
!andgap in 7ig. :.4 (S&oc#le' and Iueisser, -KL-). T&e !andgaps of t&e principal p&otovoltaic materials (to
!e discussed !eloF) are also s&oFn. T&e curve mar#ed None sunO corresponds to t&e usual terrestrial
conditions, approximating t&e solar radiation !' t&e !lac# !od' spectrum Fit& temperature Ts > L333@. To a
good accurac', t&is curve can !e o!tained Fit& t&e use of t&e open circuit voltage given !' 2=. (6-). T&e
curve mar#ed Nconcentrated sunlig&tO is plotted under conditions F&en solar radiation is focused Fit& lenses
or mirrors, en&ancing t&e efficienc'. T&is can !e seen from t&e voltage e=uation (6-) F&ere, under maximum
concentration, t&e second term effectivel' drops out.
Practical devices
Solar cells are noF manufactured from a num!er of different semiconductors F&ic& are summarised !eloF.
In addition, t&ere is considera!le activit' to manufacture commerciall' t&e d'e sensitised solar cells F&ic&
Fere discussed !riefl' in Sec. *.
W Crystalline silicon cells dominate t&e p&otovoltaic mar#et. To reduce t&e cost, t&ese cells are noF often
made from multicr'stalline material, rat&er t&an from t&e more expensive single cr'stals. r'stalline silicon
cell tec&nolog' is Fell esta!lis&ed. T&e modules &ave long lifetime (63 'ears or more) and t&eir !est
production efficienc' is approac&ing -V8.
W Amorphous silicon solar cells are c&eaper (!ut also less efficient) t'pe of silicon cells, made in t&e form
of amorp&ous t&in films F&ic& are used to poFer a variet' of consumer products !ut larger amorp&ous
silicon solar modules are also !ecoming availa!le.
W Cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide t&in-film modules are noF !eginning to appear on t&e
mar#et and &old t&e promise of com!ining loF cost Fit& accepta!le conversion efficiencies.
W igh!efficiency solar cells from gallium arsenide, indium p&osp&ide or t&eir derivatives are used in
specialised applications, for example, to poFer satellites or in s'stems F&ic& operate under &ig&-intensit'
concentrated sunlig&t. T&e structure of a t'pical silicon solar cell is illustrated in 7ig. :.L. T&e electrical
current generated in t&e semiconductor is extracted !' contacts to t&e front and rear of t&e cell. T&e top
contact structure F&ic& must alloF lig&t to pass t&roug& is made in t&e form of Fidel'spaced t&in metal strips
(usuall' called fingers) t&at suppl' current to a larger !us !ar (Transparent conducting oxide is also used on
a num!er of t&in film devices). T&e cell is covered Fit& a t&in la'er of dielectric material - t&e antireflection
coating, A% U to minimise lig&t reflection from t&e top surface.
T&e energ' conversion process in solar cells is ver' different from t&e operation of t&e classical &eat engine,
and it is instructive to consider t&e limitations and losses t&at occur in more detail. T&e fundamental
mec&anisms responsi!le for losses in solar cells are apparent from t&e discussion of solar cell operation
earlier in t&is section: &eat is produced on carrier generation in t&e semiconductor !' p&otons Fit& energ' in
excess of t&e !andgap, and a considera!le part of t&e solar spectrum is not utilised !ecause of t&e ina!ilit'
of a semiconductor to a!sor! t&e !eloF-!andgap lig&t. T&ese losses can !e reduced, !ut onl' going over to
more complex structures !ased on several semiconductors Fit& different !andgaps. A device called tandem
cell, for example, represents effectivel' a stac# of several cells eac& operating according to t&e principles
t&at Fe &ave )ust descri!ed. T&e top cell is made of a &ig&-!andgap semiconductor, and converts t&e s&ort-
Favelengt& radiation. T&e transmitted lig&t is t&en converted !' t&e !ottom cell. T&is arrangement increases
considera!l' t&e ac&ieva!le efficienc': &ig& efficienc' space cells operating at close to *38 are noF
commerciall' availa!le. T&ere are also amorp&ous silicon cells F&ere a dou!le or triple stac# is used to
!oost t&e loF efficiencies of single-)unction devices and reduce t&e degradation F&ic& is o!served in t&ese
materials.
(t&er losses reduce t&e t'pical efficienc' of commercial devices to roug&l' 438 of t&e ac&ieva!le maximum
(7ig. :.M), someF&at less in t&in-film devices. A u!i=uitous loss mec&anisms present in all practical devices
is non-radiative recom!ination of t&e p&otogenerated electron-&ole pairs. Suc& recom!ination is most
common at impurities and defects of t&e cr'stal structure, or at t&e surface of t&e semiconductor F&ere
energ' levels ma' !e introduced inside t&e energ' gap. T&ese levels act as stepping stones for t&e electrons
to fall !ac# into t&e valence !and and recom!ine Fit& &oles. An important site of recom!ination are also t&e
o&mic metal contacts to t&e semiconductor. .easures ta#en to minimise t&e recom!ination losses include
careful processing to maintain long minorit'-carrier lifetime, and protecting t&e external surfaces of t&e
semiconductor !' a la'er of passivating oxide to reduce surface recom!ination. T&e contacts can !e
surrounded !' &eavil'-doped regions acting as Xminorit'-carrier mirrorsX F&ic& impede t&e minorit' carriers
from reac&ing t&e contacts and recom!ining. T&e losses to current !' recom!ination are usuall' grouped
under t&e term of collection efficienc': t&e ratio !etFeen t&e num!er of carrier generated !' lig&t and t&e
num!er t&at reac&es t&e )unction. onsiderations of t&e collection efficienc' affect t&e design of t&e solar
cell. In cr'stalline materials, t&e transport properties are usuall' good, and carrier transport !' simple
diffusion is sufficientl' effective. In amorp&ous and pol'cr'stalline t&in films, &oFever, electric fields are
needed to pull t&e carriers. T&e )unction region is t&en made Fider to a!sor! t&e main part of t&e p&oton flux.
(t&er losses to t&e current produced !' t&e cell arise from lig&t reflection from t&e top surface, s&ading of t&e
cell !' t&e top contacts, and incomplete a!sorption of lig&t. T&e last feature can !e particularl' significant for
cr'stalline silicon cells since silicon U !eing an indirect-gap semiconductor - &as poor lig&t a!sorption
properties. .easures F&ic& can !e ta#en to reduce t&ese losses include t&e use of multi-la'er antireflection
coatings, surface texturing to form small p'ramids, and ma#ing t&e !ac# contact opticall' reflecting. 5&en
com!ined Fit& a textured top surface, t&is geometr' results in effective lig&t trapping F&ic& provides an good
countermeasure for t&e loF a!sorptivit' of silicon. Top-contact s&ading is reduced in some cells !' forming
t&ese contacts in narroF laser grooves, or all t&e contacts can !e moved to t&e rear of t&e cell. Anot&er
common loss in commercial cells involves o&mic losses in t&e transmission of electric current produced !'
t&e solar cell, usuall' grouped toget&er as a series resistance, F&ic& reduce t&e fill factor of t&e cell. T&e
principal c&aracteristics of different t'pes of cell in or near commercial production are summarised in Ta!le
5e &ave alread' seen earlier in t&is section t&at, in addition to cr'stalline silicon, muc& effort is focused on
t&e manufacture of t&in-film devices F&ic& &ave loFer material re=uirements. 5e &ave also seen, on t&e
example of d'e sensitised solar cell, t&at p&otovoltaic materials are no longer restricted to semiconductors.
7urt&ermore, t&ere is considera!le researc& activit' into purel' molecular materials. A num!er of researc&
groups &ave demonstrated solar cells !ased on conducting pol'mers, often in com!ination Fit& fulerene
derivatives as electron acceptors to create t&e p-n )unction. T&ere is muc& to loo# forFard to if t&eir success
matc&es t&e ac&ievements of t&e $2+ tec&nolog'.
". #$$%&$ #' $($T&) D&$#*'
7or practical use, solar cells are laminated and encapsulated to form p&otovoltaic modules. T&ese are t&en
com!ined into arra's, and interconnected Fit& ot&er electrical and electronic components U for example,
!atteries, c&arge regulators and inverters U to create a p&otovoltaic s'stem. A num!er of issues need to !e
resolved !efore an optimum s'stem design is ac&ieved. T&ese issues include t&e c&oice !etFeen a flat plate
or concentrating s'stem, and F&et&er fixed tilt Fill !e used or t&e modules Fill Ntrac#O t&e sun. AnsFers to
t&ese =uestions Fill var' depending on t&e solar radiation at t&e site of t&e installation and its variation during
t&e 'ear (see 7ig. 6.-). Specific issues also relate to F&et&er t&e s'stem is to !e connected to t&e utilit'
suppl' (t&e NgridO) or is intended for stand-alone operation. .ost p&otovoltaic arra's are installed at fixes tilt
and, F&erever possi!le, oriented toFards t&e e=uator. T&e optimum tilt angle is usuall' determined !' t&e
nature of t&e application. Arra's F&ic& are to provide maximum generation over t&e 'ear (for example, some
grid-connected s'stems) s&ould !e inclined at an angle e=ual to t&e latitude of t&e site. Stand-alone s'stems
F&ic& are to operate during t&e Finter mont&s &ave arra's inclined at a steeper angle of latitude R -4o. If
poFer is re=uired mainl' in summer (for example, for Fater pumping and irrigation), t&e guide inclination is
latitude U -4o. T&e amount of solar energ' captured can !e increased if t&e modules trac# t&e sun. 7ull tFo-
axis trac#ing, for example, Fill increase t&e energ' availa!le !' almost :38 over a non-trac#ing arra' fixed
at t&e angle of latitude - at t&e expense, &oFever, of increased complexit'. Single axis trac#ing is simpler !ut
'ields a smaller gain. Trac#ing is particularl' important in s'stems F&ic& use concentrated sunlig&t. T&ese
s'stems can partiall' offset t&e (&ig&) cost of solar cells !' t&e use of inexpensive optical elements (mirrors
or lenses). T&e cells, &oFever, t&en usuall' need to !e cooled and it s&ould also !e !orne in mind t&at onl'
t&e direct (!eam) solar radiation can !e concentrated to a significant degree, t&us reducing t&e availa!le
energ' input. T&is effectivel' restricts t&e application of concentrator s'stems to regions Fit& &ig& amounts of
solar radiation and clear s#ies. T&ere is a considera!le difference !etFeen t&e design of stand alone and
grid connected s'stems. .uc& of t&e difference stems from t&e fact t&at t&e design of stand-alone s'stems
endeavours to ma#e t&e most of t&e availa!le solar radiation. T&is consideration is less important F&en utilit'
suppl' is availa!le, !ut t&e grid connection imposes its oFn particular issues F&ic& must !e alloFed for in t&e
s'stem design.
4.1 $tand!alone systems
"< s'stems are ideall' suited for applications in isolated locations. An important parameter in t&ese
application is t&e re=uired securit' of suppl'. Telecommunication and s'stems used for marine signals, for
example, need to operate at a ver' &ig& level of relia!ilit'. In ot&er applications, t&e user ma' !e a!le to
tolerate loFer relia!ilit' in return for a loFer s'stem cost. T&ese considerations &ave an important !earing on
&oF large "< arra' and &oF large energ' storage (!atter') s&ould !e installed, in ot&er Fords, on s'stem
sizing. Among t&e variet' of sizing tec&ni=ues, sizing !ased on energ' !alance provides a simple and
popular tec&ni=ue F&ic& is often used in practice. It gives a simple estimate of t&e "< arra' necessar' to
suppl' a re=uired load, !ased on an average dail' solar irradiation at t&e site of t&e installation, availa!le
noF for man' locations in t&e Forld. &oosing t&e mont& Fit& t&e loFest irradiation (usuall' +ecem!er in
nort&erl' latitudes), one can determine t&e solar radiation incident on t&e inclined panel, and t&e arra' size
can !e found from t&e energ' !alance e=uation:
[ ]
ica ln zi solara Radiatie
energie de ic ln zi 'onsum
W panou Putere
p

F&ere t&e +ail' solar radiation s&ould !e e=uated to t&e "ea# Solar Yours in 7ig. 6.- 2=uation (6*) specifies
&oF man' "< modules need to !e installed to suppl' t&e load under average conditions of solar irradiation.
T&e !atter' size is t&en estimated Nfrom experienceO U a Nrule of t&um!O recommends, for example, installing *
da's of storage in tropical locations, 4 da's in sout&ern 2urope and -3 da's or more in t&e ,@. (t&er sizing
met&ods include t&e elegant random Fal# met&od (Bucciarelli,-KV:) F&ic& treats t&e possi!le states of
c&arge of t&e !atter' as discrete num!ers F&ic& are t&en identified as sites for a random Fal#. 2ac& da', t&e
s'stem ma#es a step in t&e ransom Fal# depending on solar radiation: one step up if it is Nsunn'O and one
step doFn if it is Ncloud'O. Bucciarelli (-KVL) su!se=uentl' extended t&is met&od to alloF for correlation
!etFeen solar radiation on different da's. T&ese and ot&er more complex sizing tec&ni=ues &ave !een
summarised !' 9ordon (9ordon, -KVM).
4.2 *rid!connected systems
9rid connected s'stems &ave groFn considera!l' in num!er since t&e earl' -KK3s spurred !' 9overnment
support programmes for Np&otovoltaics in !uildingsO in a num!er of countries, led initiall' !' SFitzerland and
folloFed !' more su!stantial programmes in 9erman' and Sapan. (ne feature t&at affects t&e s'stem
design is t&e need for compliance Fit& t&e relevant tec&nical guidelines to ensure t&at t&e grid connection is
safe/ t&e exported poFer must also !e of sufficient =ualit' and Fit&out adverse effects on ot&er users of t&e
netFor#. .an' of t&e grid connection issues are not uni=ue to p&otovoltaics. T&e' arise from t&e difficulties
tr'ing to accommodate Nem!eddedO or distri!uted generators in an electricit' suppl' s'stem designed around
large central poFer stations. It is li#el' t&at man' of t&ese features of grid connection Fill undergo a revieF
as electricit' distri!ution netFor#s evolve to a!sor! a &ig&er proportion of distri!uted generators: Find farms,
co-generation (or Y") units, or ot&er local energ' sources. T&e electricit' suppl' s'stem in tFent' or t&irt'
'ears time mig&t !e =uite different from noF, and neF and innovative integration sc&emes Fill !e needed to
ensure optimum integration. "&otovoltaic generators are li#el' to !enefit from t&ese c&anges, particularl'
from t&e recent advances in t&e tec&nolog' of small domestic size co-generation units (micro-Y") F&ic&
&ave a good seasonal s'nerg' Fit& t&e energ' suppl' from solar sources, and can s&are t&e cost of t&e grid
interface. An example of &oF elegant arc&itecture can !e com!ined Fit& forFard loo#ing engineering is
offered !' t&e .ont-enis 2nerg' Academ' at Yerne-Sodingen (7ig. 4.-). T&is solar-cell clad glass envelope
at t&e site of a former coal mine provides a controlled .editerranean microclimate F&ic& is poFered partl' !'
- .5p p&otovoltaic arra' and partl' !' tFo co-generation units fuelled !' met&ane released from t&e
disused mine. To ensure a good integration into t&e local electricit' suppl', t&e generators are
complemented !' a -.6.5& !atter' !an#. In addition to t&e Academ', t&e sc&eme also export electricit' and
&eat to 643 units in a near!' &ousing estate and a local &ospital. T&e .ont-enis Academ' is a fine flag-
carrier for p&otovoltaics and neF energ' engineering UFit&out a dou!t, similar sc&emes Fill !ecome more
prolific as p&otovoltaics and energ' efficient solutions !ecome t&e accepted norm over t&e next feF decades.
Theoretical limits of photovoltaic solar energy conversion
1. C%RR&'T!+,-TA*& CARACT&R#$T#C$
In 7ig. -(a) ($ands!erg, -KK4) a positive applied voltage moves t&e current carriers so as to produce a
conventional current densit' (current divided !' t&e cross-sectional area, A sa') F&ic& floFs to t&e rig&t-&and
side. T&is means electron vacancies (Z&oles[) move to t&e rig&t as t&e' are positivel' c&arged, and electrons
to t&e left as t&e' carr' a negative c&arge. 7urt&er, Fe see t&at a positive applied voltage 'ields an eas'
current floF, i.e. a !igger current densit', F&ile t&e same voltage applied in t&e opposite direction produces a
smaller current densit'. (ur structure &as t&erefore a rectif'ing propert' for t&e current, F&ic& is not
displa'ed !' a simple resistance, sa'. T&e tFo directions are referred to as ?forFard? and ?reverse?, and t&e
structure is a rectifier, F&ic& is in t&is case a p-n )unction. In t&e figure J0 is t&e saturation current densit',
F&ic& is found for reasona!l' large reverse voltages. 7or even larger voltages (not s&oFn) t&e current groFs
again and t&e s'stem suffers eventuall' an electrical !rea#doFn.
7ig. -. Sc&ematic current-voltage c&aracteristics of a p-n )unction: (a) in t&e dar#, (!) under illumination.
In t&e presence of lig&t, sunlig&t in t&e case of a solar cell, t&e F&ole c&aracteristic is displaced rigidl' (in t&e
simplest picture) !' an amount e=ual to t&e lig&t-induced current densit' JL, as s&oFn in curve (!). TFo neF
c&aracteristic =uantities occur noF: t&e ?open-circuit? voltage Voc, produced in t&e a!sence of a current, and
t&e ?s&ort-circuit? current densit' Jx. S&ort-circuit means of course t&at t&ere is t&en no voltage across t&e
cell. T&e current AJSC multiplied !' a voltage gives an electrical poFer as in (&m?s laF. In fact, 3.4 A Jsc
Voc is a rudimentar' measure of t&e poFer output of F&ic& t&e cell is capa!le. It is favoured !' (i) a small
reverse current densit' and (ii) a good carrier generation. So far Fe &ave considered a unit to F&ic& a
voltage is applied. In a solar cell, &oFever, t&e voltage F&ic& is developed is generated inside t&e cell !' t&e
electrons and &oles F&ic& are no longer in e=uili!rium F&en t&e radiation falls on t&e cell.
2. T&,R&T#CA- &FF#C#&'C#&$
To o!tain p&otovoltaic efficiencies Fe &ave to introduce t&e energ' gap Eg across F&ic& incident
p&otons can excite t&e electrons of a semiconductor. T&e' leave !e&ind &oles, as alread' discussed.
T&e electrons and &oles are separated in space !' t&e internal electric field of t&e p-n )unction. T&is
'ields a p&oto-voltage and a p&oto-current.
5&at is t&e !est value of Eg\ If it is zero, all p&otons can contri!ute to t&e p&oto-current F&ic&
!ecomes maximal. T&e p&oto-voltage is &oFever zero. A !igger gap stops some p&otons from
producing electron-&ole pairs and t&e p&oto-current is t&ere!' reduced, F&ile t&e p&oto-voltage is
increased. BetFeen t&e limits for t&e conversion efficienc' ( > 3 for Eg > 3 and > 3 as Eg tends to
infinit') t&ere must lie a value of Eg for F&ic& is maximal - see 7ig. 6. T&is curve assumes a normal
solar temperature of a!out L333 @ and maximum concentration (:L433 suns) of t&e radiation and
assuming t&at t&e sun surrounds t&e cell &emisp&ericall'. It gives a (t&eoretical) optimum efficienc'
of ::8 F&ic& corresponds to a !and-gap of 6.6 kTp, F&ere Tp is t&e temperature of t&e sun (Zp[ stands
for Zpump[). T&is efficienc' reduces to a!out *38 for one sun. Actual efficiencies are of course
smaller. T&e' lie near or !eloF *38, and an improvement !' eac& fraction of one percent results from
a real struggle] (de <os -KK6, Sieniut'cz and de <os 6333, 5^rfel 6333, @a!elac -KK:).
7ig. 6. 2nerg' conversion efficienc' as a function of !and gap, assuming t&e pump (i.e. t&e sun)
at L333 @ surrounds t&e converter.
.. $,)& /A($ ,F #'CR&A$#'* &FF#C#&'C#&$
T&e (t&eoretical) overestimate of t&e efficiencies is in part due to t&e neglect of t&e natural
recom!ination of electrons and &oles F&ic& ta#es place an'Fa' in t&e presence of a current. It leads
to t&e loss of some electron-&ole pairs F&ic& can t&en, not contri!ute to t&e current. T&us energ',
F&ic& s&ould aid t&e current, is given to t&e lattice !' electron-p&onon collisions and to ot&er
electrons !' t&e Auger effect (electron-electron collisions). YoFever, t&e good neFs is t&at &ig&er
efficiencies can !e o!tained !' &aving several materials Fit& decreasing energ' gaps in series. T&ese
s'stems are called tandem cells. 2xperimentall' one can &ave so far at most four or five in series.
"&otons F&ic& pass t&roug& t&e first cell (!ecause its energ' gap is too !ig to excite an electron-&ole
pair), are in t&is arrangement a!le to create a pair in t&e next cell, F&ic& &as a smaller gap. T&is is in
principle continued doFn a series of cells to smaller and smaller gaps. T&e t&eor' can !e For#ed out
for an infinite num!er of tandem cells. T&is procedure clearl' ma#es !etter use of t&e &ig&er energ'
p&otons, for if t&e' merel' gave up t&e gap energ' to create (;2 electron-&ole pair, t&en t&e
remaining energ' Fould go to &eat up t&e lattice, instead of adding to t&e solar current.
Anot&er Fa' of imagining a use for t&e &ig&er energ' p&otons is to trace t&e result if t&e' produce
more t&an one electron-&ole pair. T&is process is called impact ionization, and it ta#es place in a cell
in an' case. Instead of producing an electron-&ole pair Fit& t&e energ' F&ic& is left over !eing
eventuall' dissipated as &eat, it leads to a second electron-&ole pair !eing produced, t&us increasing
t&e solar current instead of &eating up t&e sample. T&is leads to a modification of t&e t&eor', and a
maximum efficienc' can !e estimated if t&is p&enomenon is full' exploited. Again one ma' alloF an
infinite num!er of impact ionizations.
Additional electron-&ole pairs can also !e produced !' t&e re-a!sorption of emitted p&otons (Zp&oton
rec'cling[). T&is is, anot&er process F&ic& ta#es place automaticall' in a cell. T&ese tFo extreme
cases, t&e infinite tandem cell and unlimited impact ionizations, lead, remar#a!l', to similar values of
t&e t&eoretical maximum efficienc'. 7or one sun illumination it is of t&e order of L-8-LV8, and it is
a!out VL8-VV8 for maximal solar concentration, depending on t&e met&od of calculation. T&e result
is &ig&er t&an t&e value of ::8 of section 6, reflecting t&e improvements resulting from t&e tandem
connection and0or t&e impact ionizations. ;ot&ing li#e t&ese values &ave !een o!tained
experimentall', of course, !ut t&e' give an indication of F&at can still !e aimed at/ for a revieF, and
for a list of a!out -33 t&eoretical and experimental efficiencies, see $and!erg and Badescu (-KKV).
T&e experimental results are t&e loFer ones in t&is list. 2ven for monoc&romatic irradiation t&e
efficienc' drops alread' to :48. T&is is a favoura!le case, since to design a cell for F&at is in effect
)ust one narroF fre=uenc' range is so muc& more straig&tforFard t&an to cater for t&e F&ole of t&e
solar spectrum.
7or a tFo-stage 9aAs09aS! tandem cell Fit& a concentration ratio of C > 43 suns one can ac&ieve t&e
ver' respecta!le efficienc' of *:8. T&e value for an In"09aInAs cell &as !een reported at *68. 7or
small area 9aAs09aInAs" tandem cells at C >*K.4 one &as found *38. 7or unconcentrated radiation
one can reac& 648 for a 9aIn"09aAs09e cell. So one can give man' values for t&e efficienc'
($ands!erg and Badescu, -KKV). ;ote t&at t&e maximum concentration is a!out :L433 suns. In
satellites solar cells represent a small fraction of t&e total expense, so t&at expensive cells can &ere !e
used. But among additional considerations: one needs in t&ese cases a long life and good radiation
resistance. A ma)or mar#et s&are &as !een secured !' 9aAs-9e mono)unctions, and one is loo#ing
forFard to 648 efficient triple )unctions?, :38 cells are envisaged in t&e more distant future. In t&ese
space cells one can tolerate a medium !eginning-of-life efficiencies provided t&e' deteriorate onl'
marginall' to end-of-life efficiencies !' virtue of good irradiation sta!ilit'.
4. T& &T&R,0%'CT#,' /#T A%*&R &FF&CT$
%ecall t&at in radiative studies one s&ould include Fit& radiative emission also a!sorption of
radiation, since one cannot occur Fit&out t&e ot&er. In fact, t&e' are related !' t&e important principle
of detailed !alance. lf one applies t&is idea to impact ionization one tends an analogous s'mmetr'.
(ne Fould expect electron-&ole recom!ination Fit& t&e energ' set free !eing given to, sa', a
conduction !and electron. T&is removes particles F&ic& mig&t contri!ute to t&e solar current and, li#e
radiative recom!ination, it is detrimental. T&is recom!ination, named after "ierre Auger, is t&e
detailed !alance analogue of impact ionization, and s&ould t&erefore !e included in a t&eor' F&ic&
ta#es account of impact ionization, t&oug& t&is &as not alFa's !een done. In our For# in t&is area Fe
&ave alFa's insisted on using a pro!a!ilit' P(E) t&at an electron F&ic& &as t&e energ' E to impact
ionise Fill actuall' do so. T&is introduces unfortunatel' anot&er parameter, !ut a simple t&eor' serves
as a guide to its value. In a simple model Fe find t&eoreticall' t&at for P > - t&e efficienc' of a cell is
loFered !' 48 if Auger recom!ination is included, !ut onl' !' *8 if !ot& Auger recom!ination and
impact ionization are covered. T&e t&eor' introduces =uite a feF parameters, apart from t&e o!vious
ones li#e diffusion coefficients, effective densities of states, lifetimes of electrons and &oles, etc. 7or
t&ere are t&res&old parameters for Auger recom!ination since a partner electron, ma#ing a transition
!etFeen !ands, cannot do so from t&e !ottom of t&e !and oFing to constraints of energ' and
momentum conservation.
A !road conclusion is t&at !and-!and Auger effects s&ift t&e optimum energ' gaps of !ot&
&etero)unction materials to &ig&er values, !ut t&is is opposed !' impact ionization. 7avoura!le solar
cell efficiencies ma' !e expected for good impact ionization, loF radiative and Auger recom!ination
and t&in active la'ers. Specific designs of cascaded cells ma' get furt&er improved results (Andreev,
-KKK, and Aroutiounian et al., 633-).
". T&R),P,T,+,-TA#C$
T&e average energ' of a!sor!ed sold p&otons is normall' of t&e order of -.K e<, F&ereas t&e
semiconductor !and gap is t'picall' - e<. T&is leaves an average of 3.K e< per incident p&oton to !e
a!sor!ed !' t&e lattice as &eat, and t&erefore essentiall' Fasted. T&is Faste is decreased if t&e solar
radiation is first ta#en up !' an intermediate a!sor!er F&ose temperature is less t&an t&e solar
temperature and F&ic& acts noF as a ZloF-temperature sun[. T&e 3.K e< average energ' loss is noF
decreased and t&e overall conversion is increased. In t&is so-called t&ermop&otovoltaic conversion t&e
average energ' of t&e p&otons emitted !' t&e a!sor!er, and t&en of course a!sor!ed !' t&e cell, is less
t&an -.K e< and implies a smaller &eat loss !' t&ermalisation. T&is leads to improved efficiencies.
1. C,'C-%D#'* R&)AR2$
It is Fort& noting t&at it &as !een estimated t&at t&e energ' pa'!ac# time of a solar cell is of t&e order
* to : 'ears and in its lifetime a cell ma' produce somet&ing in t&e order of -3 times its cost of
production (@napp and Sester, 633-). T&is s&oFs t&at it can !e a satisfactor' device on purel'
economic grounds.