Expertise in teaching and coaching: A qualitative study of physical educators and athletic coaches

Brent Hardin Florida State University, USA Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify, compare, and contrast the teaching attributes of expert coaches in their dual roles of physical education teacher and coach. The subjects had (a) a minimum of five years coaching experience, (b) a 70 or greater won!lost record or a record of two or more post season playoff titles (i.e., city, district, region, or state championships), (c) awards for outstanding coaching (e.g., coach of the year, divisional coach of the year), (d) leadership roles in establishing coaching training or sports clinics, and (e) accessibility to the researcher. The results of the study were derived using the constant comparative method to develop themes and categories from the data. "ata sources included# (a) field observations, (b) structured and semi$structured interviews with the teacher!coaches, and (c) document analysis. The major findings led to the development of five categories describing distinct differences between teaching and coaching. The five categories describing differences were# (a) planning, (b) instruction, (c) environment, (d) support, and (e) recognition. This project may provide a glimpse of an expert coach involved in the role of teaching and coaching.

Introduction The study of expertise in teaching and coaching is a relatively young research endeavour. Research on experts in music, math, chess, and physics reveals some interesting consistencies regarding the constitution of experts. ne of the most prominent efforts in this realm is that !y Berliner "#$%&, #$%%, #$$'(, )hose )or* resulted in the identification of five distinct developmental stages of pedagogical expertise. Those stages include+ "#( novice, ",( advanced !eginner, "-( competent, "'( proficient and ".( expert. Berliner also identified several elements of expertise )hich may prove applica!le to teacher/coaches. Some of the characteristics noted in experts include pro!lem solving techni0ues, evaluation of self performance, and teaching flexi!ility. 1ach of these elements and stages, along )ith Berliner2s theory of pedagogical expertise, )ill !e discussed in depth in su!se0uent chapters. Research in physical education has focused on the characteristics of expert and novice teachers. Housner and 3riffey "#$%.( descri!ed the decision ma*ing processes of experienced and inexperienced physical education teachers. They found that experienced teachers made more decisions concerning the execution of instructional strategies than did inexperienced teachers. They also noted that during classes experienced teachers )ere concerned )ith student s*ill development )hile novice teachers focused on ensuring that the students )ere active, content, and o!edient. Siedentop and 1ldar "#$%$( studied the relationship !et)een expertise and experience in physical education and )hat emerged is the development of a !ehavioural interpretation of expertise+ 4 4 4 4 4 1xperts 1xperts 1xperts 1xperts 1xperts see things )hich non5experts do not see. respond more rapidly than non5experts. have larger response repertoires. have more control of complex principles in their field. plan differently than non5experts.

4 1xperts explain their performance differently than non5experts. 6n an analysis of expert and novice !as*et!all coaches2 practice planning, 7ones, Housner, and 8ornspan "#$$.( compared #9 expert high school and #9 novice middle school !as*et!all coaches as they planned for a -9 minute practice session. The purpose of this study )as to provide a profile of ho) expert coaches plan. The results indicated that experts and novices exhi!ited 0ualitatively different planning !ehaviour. 1xperts focused more attention on information cues a!ut the s*ill levels, a!ilities, and characteristics of players than did novice coaches. :lanning characteristics noted are as follo)s+ 4 1xperts spend more time planning. "&9; more time than novices( 4 1xperts are more linguistic planners. 4 1xperts dra) more heavily on past experience during planning. :ieron and 3onclaves "#$%<( o!served the feed!ac* of teacher/coaches across !oth settings. Six male teacher/coaches )ere o!served six times+ three times in a physical education class setting and three times during coaching practice sessions in !as*et!all. The findings indicated that feed!ac* )as used more fre0uently in coaching episodes than in teaching. The researchers also found that positive prescriptive feed!ac* )as used more fre0uently in coaching, )hereas negative prescriptive feed!ac* )as more prevalent in teaching. 6n general it )as noted that the student2s motor engagement time )as also much higher and seemed more s*ill specific in coaching than in teaching. The dual career pattern of physical education teacher/coaches has fostered 0uestions a!out role priorities, resulting in teacher/coach role conflict. =oc* and >assengale2s "#$<%( seminal study on teacher/coach role conflict appraised the extent and intensity of the conflict and suggested that role conflict is predicta!le. They noted that the responsi!ilities attached to each position may lead the individual to ma*e a larger commitment to one role over another. 3enerally, )hen the teacher/coach must ma*e a choice, the area of teaching suffers most. This is understanda!le as teacher/coaches are seldom fired for teaching inade0uacy !ut are recurrently terminated for losing in athletics. nly a handful of studies have compared teaching and coaching across !oth settings. The ?ustification for more research along these lines is 0uite strong )hen one considers the num!er of high school coaches )ho are also teachers. The usefulness of research attempting to !ridge the gap or even esta!lish a lin* !et)een the roles of teacher and coach expertise could !e significant. The purpose of this study )as to extend the research on teacher expertise to expertise in the dual role of teacher/coach. 6n particular this study )as designed to identify, compare, and contrast the pedagogical attri!utes of five teacher/coaches. Through the study of expert teacher/coaches in their natural environment )e can learn more a!out the essentials of relia!le sport instruction. This study explored the differences and similarities in ho) expert high school coaches taught and in ho) they coached. These findings can !e used to enhance others2 teaching and coaching. Methodology A multiple case study design using ethnographic techni0ues )as the primary approach used in this investigation. This study utilised the 0ualitative paradigm )hich allo)ed for relevant meaning to emerge from the data collected. Since this )as not a study of the social !ehaviour of a particular group of culture5!earing entities it cannot !e properly called an ethnography. Ho)ever, ethnographic techni0ues provided an avenue for exploration and understanding of the !ehaviours of the selected expert coaches. These techni0ues included formal and informal intervie)s, field o!servation, and document analysis. 6ntervie) data and field notes )ere transcri!ed. These transcriptions )ere examined to determine the

existence of relia!le and profound themes and categories. The constant comparative method "3laser @ Strauss, #$&<( aided in the identification of themes and categories, )hich )ere compared to the findings of other research on pedagogical expertise. 3laser @ Strauss "#$&<( stated that comparing many differences and similarities in data tends to force the researcher to generate theories, their properties, and their interrelations as he or she tries to understand the data. >ultiple sources of 0ualitative data )ere triangulated for the purpose of esta!lishing data trust)orthiness. Subject Selection Aue to the a!undance of distinct )ays in )hich people conceptualise the construct of expertise, the identification of expert coaches posed a significant o!stacle. Ho)ever, previous studies on expert coaches provided guidelines for participant selection "7ones, Housner, and 8ornspan #$$.B =acy @ Aarst, #$%.B Claxton, #$%%(. The criteria employed to select expert coaches included "a( a minimum of five years coaching experience, "!( a <9; or greater )on/lost record or a record of t)o or more post season playoff titles "i.e., city, district, region, or State championships(, "c( recognition for outstanding coaching "e.g., coach of the year, divisional coach of the year(, "d( leadership roles in esta!lishing coaching training or sports clinics, and "e( accessi!ility to the researcher. Data Collection Dualitative data gathering techni0ues )ere used in this study. The particular methods selected for this research included formal and informal intervie)s, field o!servations, and document analysis. 1ach teacher/coach )as intervie)ed formally prior to the completion of the study for the purpose of o!taining !ac*ground information a!out their experience. A second formal intervie) )as conducted after o!servation of the participant in !oth a teaching and coaching setting. 6nformal intervie)s )ith the teacher/coaches and all the participants )ere conducted during o!servations and visitations throughout the study. Appointments for intervie)s )ere made at the participant2s convenience. All intervie)s )ere audio taped. 6ntervie)s )ere guided !y practices outlined !y Bogden @ Bi*len "#$$,(. 6ntervie) 0uestions )ere !ased on information dra)n from+ "a( field o!servations, "!( the research 0uestions for this study, "c( Berliner2s propositions of pedagogical expertise, "d( the literature revie) conducted for this study and "e( the researcher2s o)n *no)ledge and experience as a teacher/coach. Eotes )ere ta*en during field o!servations throughout the course of this study. These notes )ere transcri!ed and used to generate 0uestions for the intervie)s. Three o!servations in !oth the teaching and coaching setting for each teacher/coach )ere completed. The o!servations lasted approximately t)o hours each. A separate researcher2s ?ournal )as *ept to monitor the potential emergence of researcher !ias "Bogdan @ Bi*len, #$$,(. Aocuments )ere used as a secondary data source. This data provided information !eyond the intervie) and clarified or corro!orated data collected from those sources. 1xamples of documents that )ere analysed include+ practice plans, !ulletin !oards, and letters to parents. This supplementary data provided a clearer understanding of the dual role of teacher/coach. Aata collection )as conducted over an #, )ee* period during the Finter and Spring of #$$%. Formal intervie)s )ere follo)ed !y field o!servations, and follo) up intervie)s. 1ach intervie) lasted approximately -9 minutes to one hour and each o!servation lasted approximately t)o hours. ne formal intervie) and three o!servations in each setting )ere completed for every teacher/coach. Data Analysis Ra) data )ere generated !y multiple sources including+ "a( field o!servations, "!( structured and semi5structured intervie)s )ith the teacher/coaches, and "c( document analysis.

6ntervie) data and field notes )ere transcri!ed. The transcripts )ere analysed to determine the existence of themes and categories. The constant comparative method )as used to assist in the assessment and classification of the themes and categories "3laser @ Strauss, #$&<(. The constant comparison method is a process )here categories are derived !y constantly comparing one incident or unit of information )ith another ">erriam, #$%%(. This data analysis )as an ongoing process. 3oetG and =eCompte "#$%'( suggest the analysis strategy proceed !y developing a system of classifications !y discovering regularities )ithin the data. H:atterns and regularities then are transformed into categories into )hich su!se0uent items are sortedH. The purpose of this analysis )as to construct comprehensive profiles of each teacher/coach. nce constructed, the individual profiles )ere compared and contrasted. 6t )as also !e noted )hat characteristics, if any, are present in !oth roles of the teacher/coach. The many sources of 0ualitative data )ere coded and continuously cross5chec*ed "triangulated( for the purpose of esta!lishing relia!ility. indings For the purposes of this report five distinct differences )ill !e discussed )hen comparing the physical education setting to the coaching setting. The five categories descri!ing these differences )ere+ "a( planning, "!( instruction, "c( environment, "d( support, and "e( recognition. !lanning :lanning is defined as organisational strategy used to accomplish teaching or coaching goals. All five of the teacher/coaches planned more extensively for their athletic practices than for their physical education classes. Aan, for example estimated that he spent at least t)o hours planning each athletic practice. Conversely he pulled a lesson index card out of a stac* he has Hused for yearsH at the !eginning of his physical education classes " !servation, Aan, '/#./$%(. His practice plans )ere scheduled to the exact minute and even included )ater !rea*s. The class index cards )ere not time specific and listed only ma?or headings of topics to !e covered. Fhen as*ed to explain this difference Aan remar*ed+ The lessons in the %.&. class are not as explicit and detailed because the material that ' cover with the %.&. students is not as complicated. ' am teaching the basic principles in %.&. and ' only need the cards as reminders of what ' need to cover ('nterview, "an, ((!)*!+,). Sam used t)o page practice plans for his foot!all practice !ut did not have any )ritten planning documents for his )eight training class " !servation, Sam, ./%/$%(. Sam indicated that he planned from -9 minutes to # hour for each foot!all practice, !ut that he did not need to spend a lot of time in planning his physical education class. He explained it this )ay+ -fter about the first two wee.s in weight training my role is more of a supervisor than anything else. ' have already explained to the .ids the safety rules, given them their wor.out plans and showed them how to use the e/uipment. -fter about the first two wee.s, they show up, do their wor., write it in the boo. and then leave. 0ost of my planning is done after that point in the class ('nterview, 1am, (!)2!+,). Instruction 6nstruction is defined as imparting specific sport s*ill *no)ledge to students and athletes. The teacher/coaches spend a large percentage of their time instructing athletes in practice on topics such as sport specific s*ills, sport strategy, and fitness development. Conversely, most of the physical education classes o!served involved a greater percentage of game play than did the athletic practices. Tommy spent a large amount of time during his !ase!all practices instructing his players. Sometimes this instruction involved a short lecture and demonstration to introduce a drill or practice segment. 6nstruction )as also given constantly throughout the practice drills. nly one practice o!served involved an organised scrimmage and this )as the last #. minutes of a t)o hour practice " !servation, Tommy, ./&/$%(.

A large amount of the class period in Tommy2s physical education classes )as spent playing )hiffle !all games. He estimated that approximately $9; of his practices )ere devoted to drills and instruction and may!e #9; to actual scrimmage or game play. 6n his physical education classes Tommy estimates that $9; of the class is game play, depending upon the su!?ect. His explanation of the difference )as+ 'n baseball we get our game play in on game day. &specially after the season starts we may play two games a wee. sometimes. ' have to use practices to teach or we just won3t get any better. ' try to ma.e sure we spend most of the practices wor.ing on s.ills and when we do scrimmage it3s controlled and we are wor.ing on game situations. 'n %.&., ' get (0 minutes. 4y the time they change and get in the gym that is cut down to about 50. ' try s.ills and rules teaching at the beginning of the lesson and get into game play as /uic.ly as possible. 'f ' didn3t do it that way, we just wouldn3t get play ('nterview, Tommy, (!)2!+,). 7immy estimated he spent a!out -9; of his practices on game play !efore the season and a!out .; after the season starts. His rationale )as+ 6e3re not going to get better by playing every day in practice. -t the beginning we have to play a little to help get them in the flow of the game and in game li.e situations. -fter the season starts though, we wor. on fundamentals everyday ('nterview, 7immy, (!*+!+,). 7immy estimated that he spent %9; to $9; of his physical education class on game play. He explained+ 6e3re doing bowling now. 6e went over the rules the first few days and after that we play. 0y main thing is to get them exposed to the game. %lus, this in an elective and they have to pay 80 dollars. 4y the time we get over here, get our lanes and they get their shoes we only have about a half hour left to bowl their games ('nterview, 7immy, (!*+!+,). Environ"ent 1nvironment is defined as the surroundings, circumstances, and atmosphere the teacher/coach )or*s in. The teaching environments in the classrooms )ere different from those in the athletic practices. All of the teacher/coaches had short infre0uent physical education classes compared to long fre0uent practices. Sam, for example, held foot!all practice every day for t)o hours during the season. 6n the spring he had practice for t)o hours each day for t)o )ee*s. 6n the summer, his players )ere re0uired to attend off season )eight training classes for one hour each day. Eear the end of the summer he held a three )ee* foot!all camp )ith practices t)ice a day. Sam often held his team overtime if he felt they had not grasped a teaching point or did not complete a drill correctly. Conversely, Sam2s physical education )eight training class met three times each )ee* for .9 minutes each time. Since Sam must give the students time to change !efore and after class, the actual class time )as generally only -9 minutes. Aan conducted soccer practice t)o hours each )ee* day and one hour on Saturday. He had each physical education class three times each )ee* for .. minutes each class. Aan tal*ed a!out his short physical education classes+ They are supposed to be getting (( minutes three times a wee., but the truth is they really only get about 8( minutes three times a wee.. They usually are released late from their other classes. 6hen they show it ta.es five minutes to get them settled down and ready go. 'f ' don3t get them bac. on time then we get a memo about it, so we have to come bac. early to allow the .ids time to clean up and change. 'ts not much time. That is why ' try to get them involved in game play as /uic.ly as possible ('nterview, "an, (!)*!+,). Student # $eacher %atio All of the su!?ects had large physical education classes )hich they taught !y themselves. The average student to teacher ratio for the five teacher/coaches )as -9 to #. All of the teacher/coaches had fe)er participants in athletic practice and all had least t)o assistant coaches. The average athlete to coach ratio )as ' to #.

Holly, for example, had approximately -9 students in each physical education class, )hich she taught !y herself, )hile she had three assistant coaches to help )ith #, varsity players at soccer practice. She discussed the large physical education classes+ The big classes are one thing ' would change. ' mean sometimes it is hard regulate order with 80 hyper .ids, much less teach anything. ' .now we could do a better job if we had smaller classes ('nterview, 9olly, (!)*!+,). Sam had seven assistant coaches in foot!all for approximately '. players )hile he taught his )eight training class of -. students !y himself. He reflected on his physical education class siGe+ 't3s really not that bad. The class si:e is dictated by the capacity of our weight room and the weight room was designed for (0 football players. 1o the %.&. students are not ever really bac.ed up in here when they are wor.ing out in class ('nterview, 1am (!)2!+,). Support Support is defined as the assistance, encouragement, and !ac*ing of the teacher/coaches !y colleagues, administrators, parents and the community. All of the teacher/coaches !elieved that they received more support for coaching than for teaching. Aan spo*e a!out the lac* of support for physical education !y other teachers in his school+ They can3t get the .ids to my class on time. They are always at least five minutes late. 'f ' get those students bac. to them late one time then ' hear about it. ;ast wee. ' get a note from the &nglish teacher that five .ids will be missing %.&. for the next few wee.s because they need practice for the play. ' hit the roof< ' went to the principal and said, well ' guess this means if ' pull my students out of &nglish to practice corner .ic.s because we have intramural games coming up that is going to be o.ay with her, right= 't3s li.e that all the time. >ou have to fight for respect, and it has been that way at every school ' have been at ('nterview, "an, (!)*!+,). 7immy ac*no)ledged that it is much easier to procure parents2 support for his athletic team than it is for his physical education classes. He tal*ed a!out parental support for his !ase!all team+ ' have .ind of a wish list ready for baseball, because the parents are there ready and willing to help. -t the beginning of the season this year ' had a gang of them out here painting our press box and dug outs. Those practice pitching mounds were also put in by a parent who wor.s in construction. They bring us food and drin.s for our road trips, buy us T$shirts and practice hats. &ven though it is a low profile sport we get a lot of support from the parents in baseball at this school ('nterview, 7immy, (!*+!+,). 7immy descri!ed the parental support in his physical education classes+ To be perfectly honest, they don3t really care. &very year we have open house at the school where the parents can come and tal. to the teachers about how their children are doing in class. "o you .now how many parents ' have had come and tal. me the last three years during open house about %.&.= ?one. ' have several stop by to tal. about baseball, but /uite fran.ly, they could care less about my bowling class ('nterview, 7immy, (!*+!+,). Sam en?oyed a great deal of community support for his foot!all team. He had five paid coaches and t)o volunteers from the community. >ost of his practice

e0uipment )as purchased from proceeds from the concession stand )hich is operated !y volunteers. Sam spo*e a!out community support+ 6e got it pretty good here man. ' mean, the football team is a big part of the town identity. ' thin. people really li.e being involved. 6e get free gathered and water for the players after practice because the store owner up there is a booster. 6e can pic. from restaurants up on the strip for free meals on game day for the team. %eople are standing in line to help. ' swear ' can3t buy a meal in this town ('nterview, 1am, (!)2!+,). Tommy sa) a lac* of support from school administrators for physical education classes. He gave the follo)ing example+ ' have to give a grade in %.&., but it3s really a jo.e. 4ecause the grade does not count toward the student3s official grade point average. This is an academic school and they are very conscious about getting all the .ids into colleges. ' thin. what happened is an over:ealous %.&. teacher must have been giving out @s and "s and some parents complained. 1o now we really don3t have any teeth in our grading procedures. Ance, the .ids figured out the grades didn3t count toward their grade point average it was over ('nterview, Tommy, (!)+!+,). %ecognition Recognition is defined as demonstrated appreciation, gratitude and respect. The teacher/coaches received a lot more recognition for their coaching than for their teaching. They felt there )as not a great deal of external recognition given for !eing a good physical education teacher. All of the participants had !een honoured individually for their coaching achievements. As a group they had received ,$ coach of the year a)ards. Eone of the participants had ever received an a)ard for teaching physical education. Holly commented on this+ 'n %.&. you really don3t get the per.s that you get when you coach a sport. ?obody, except for maybe your department head, and your colleagues, .nows if you are doing a good job or not. 6hen you are a coach, you have a crowd there watching your team perform every game and you can read about it in the paper the next day. 1o if you are a good physical education teacher you learn to do it without a lot of recognition and per.s ('nterview, 9olly, (!)*!+,). Aan thought it )as more difficult to !e a good physical education teacher !ecause of the lac* of external recognition and stimulus+ 'n %.&. you don3t have the external stimulus of people watching you and judging you on a daily basis. 't3s just you and the .ids every day. >ou decide how you are going to measure success. >ou could roll out the ball every day and the .ids most li.ely would be happy as clams. @oach is great< 9e lets us play .ic.ball every day< 4ut, three or four years down the road they don3t have movement or fitness s.ills. That is not being a good physical education teacher in my estimation, but you could easily get away with it if you are a good coach ('nterview, "an, (!)*!+,). 7immy commented a!out the difference in recognition !et)een teaching and coaching+ 't3s li.e this. 'f ' do a good job getting the guys prepared in practice the wee. leading up to a game and we come out and do well, then everybody is there to pat me on the bac. and tell me what a good job ' did. 'f ' had a .ic. butt action plan and did a great job teaching a badminton unit nobody would really care. 9owever, if ' coasted in practice one wee. and we get smo.ed on game day, then ' am going hear about it ('nterview, 7immy, (!)*!+,). Discussion The findings of this study indicate that expert coaches do not generally exhi!it the same pedagogical characteristics in their teaching role as in their coaching role.

The five participants in this research pro?ect exhi!ited different !ehaviour in the coaching setting than in the teaching setting. Aistinct differences )ere noted )hen the su!?ects taught physical education as compared to )hen they coached a practice. The participants )ere not extensive planners )hen they taught physical education, and allo)ed the students to play more in physical education. The teacher/coaches made detailed plans for athletic practices !ut did not do so for physical education classes. Fhile all of the participants used )ritten plans in their coaching duties, only one used a )ritten plan in teaching physical education. Aan estimated that he spent one to t)o hours on each practice plan )hile he pulled a pre5 )ritten lesson plan from a stac* of index cards for physical education class. Holly admitted to sometimes deciding )hat to teach in physical education class the period !efore, !ut al)ays had detailed typed practice plans for her coaches at soccer practice. The teacher/coaches placed greater emphasis on instruction in their practices than they did in their physical education classrooms. 7immy estimated that he spent approximately #9; of his physical education class teaching s*ills and $9; of his !ase!all practice on instruction, drilling and s*ill )or*. A large percentage of each physical education class )as spent on game play. Sam indicated that after the first )ee* of his physical education class he !asically !ecame a HsupervisorH, )hile he spent the ma?ority of his foot!all practice instructing. This study highlights the reality that the athletic practice environment and physical education class environment are different. 6n the athletic practice the teacher/coach en?oys more support and recognition. The teacher/coach also perceives more pressure to succeed in the coaching environment and *no)s that ?o! security may depend on )inning games. 6n contrast, the teacher/coach faces an adverse environment for teaching physical education. This conclusion is consistent )ith =oc* and >assengale2s "#$<%( identification of role conflict for teacher/coaches. Based on the findings of this pro?ect, the follo)ing ideas for research in teaching and coaching are recommended+ #. 6mplement studies designed to determine the role of planning in expert teaching and coaching. ne possi!ility might !e to study the planning of expert teachers and the planning of expert coaches. ,. 6nvestigate physical education teachers )ho have !een recognised for their expert teaching in the physical education classroom. Aetermine if these teachers are also coaches and if they exhi!it similar or different teaching characteristics in their coaching roles. -. 1xpand the research on teacher/coach role conflict !y conducting a 0ualitative study on the t)o different environments of the teacher/coach. Conduct extensive intervie)s )ith the teacher/coaches, parents, administrators, and local supporters concerning the factors influencing the teacher/coaches2 pedagogical !ehaviour. '. Conduct a study to determine teacher/coaches2 perceptions of expert teachers and coaches. Aistri!ute a 0uestionnaire to teacher/coaches as*ing them to identify the characteristics of expert coaches and the characteristics of expert physical education teachers. .. Compare coaches )ho teach physical education )ith coaches that teach other su!?ects. Ao the teacher/coaches handle their teaching responsi!ilities similarly or differentlyI Ao teachers of su!?ects other than physical education receive compara!le support and recognition in teaching as in coachingI

This investigation extends the existing research on teaching and coaching expertise !y examining teachers and coaches across !oth the teaching and coaching setting. The ?ustification for more research along these lines is 0uite strong )hen one considers the num!er of high school coaches )ho are also teachers. The usefulness of research attempting to !ridge the gap or even esta!lish a lin* !et)een the roles of teacher and coach expertise could !e significant. %eferences Berliner, A.C. "#$%&(. 6n pursuit of the expert pedagogue. 1ducational Researcher, #."<(, .5#-. Berliner, A.C. "#$$'(. 1xpertise+ The )onder of exemplary performances. 6n 7. >angieri, @ C. Bloc* "1ds.(. Creating po)erful thin*ing in teachers and students+ Aiverse perspectives "pp. #'#5#%&(. Fort Forth, TJ+ Harcourt Brace. Bogdan, R. C.,@ Bi*len, S. 8. "#$$,(. Dualitative research for education+ An introduction to theory and methods ",nd.(. Boston+ Allyn @ Bacon. Carter, 8., Cushing, 8., Sa!ers, A., Stein, :., @ Berliner, A. C. "#$%%(. 1xpert5 novice differences in perceiving and processing visual information. 7ournal of teacher 1ducation, -$"-(, ,.5-#. Claxton, :. "#$%%(. A systematic o!servation of more and less successful high school tennis coaches. 7ournal of Teaching in :hysical 1ducation, <, -9,5-#9. Cote, 7., Salmela, 7., Trudel, :., @ Russell, S. "#$$.(. The coaching model+ A grounded assessment of expert gymnastic coaches2 *no)ledge. 7ournal of Sport and 1xercise Sport :sychology, #<"#(, #5#<. Aodds, :. "#$$'(. Cognitive and !ehavioral components of expertise in teaching physical education. DU1ST, '&, #.-5#&-. 3laser, B., @ Strauss, A. "#$&<(. The discovery of grounded theory+ Strategies for 0ualitative research. Chicago, 6=+ Aldine. 3oetG, 7.:., @ =eCompte, >.A. "#$%'(. 1thnography and 0ualitative design in educational research. rlando, F=+ Academic :ress. 3raham, 3., Hopple, C., >anross, >., @ SitGman, T. "#$$-(. Eovice and experienced children2s physical education teachers+ 6nsights into their situational decision ma*ing. 7ournal of Teaching in :hysical 1ducation, #,, #$<5,#'. 3riffey, A., @ Housner, =. "#$$#(. Aifferences !et)een experienced and inexperienced teachers2 planning decisions, interactions, student engagement and instructional climate. Research Duarterly for 1xercise and Sport, &,",9(, #$&5,9'. Housner, =. A., @ 3riffey, d. C. "#$%.(. Teacher cognition+ Aifferences in planning and interactive decision ma*ing !et)een experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research Duarterly for 1xercise and Sport, .&, '.5.-. 7ones, A. F., Housner, =. A., @ 8ornspan, A. S. "#$$., >arch(. A comparative analysis of expert and novice !as*et!all coaches2 practice planning. Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics Annual, ,9#5,,<. >erriam, S.B. "#$%%(. Case study research in education+ A 0ualitative approach. San Francisco+ 7osey5Bass.

=acy, A.C., @ Aarst, :. F. "#$%.(. Systematic o!servation of !ehaviors of )inning high school head foot!all coaches. 7ournal of Teaching in :hysical 1ducation, ', ,.&5,<9. =incoln, K., @ 3u!a, 1. "#$%.(. Eaturalistic 6n0uiry. =ondon+ Sage :u!lications. =ivingston, C., @ Bor*o, H. "#$%$(. 1xpert5novice differences in teaching+ A cognitive analysis and implications for teacher education. 7ournal of Teacher 1ducation, '9"'(, -&5',. =oc*e, =. F., @ >assengale, 7. A. "#$<%(. Role conflict in teacher/coaches. Research Duarterly, '$",(, #&,5#<'. :ieron, >., @ 3oncalves, C. "#$%<(. :articipation engagement and teacher2s feed!ac* in physical education teaching and coaching. 6n >yths, models, and methods in sport pedagogy "pp. ,'$5,.'(. Champaign, 6=+ Human 8inetics. Rupert, T., @ Buschner, C. "#$%$(. Teaching and coaching+ A comparison of instructional !ehaviors. 7ournal of Teaching in :hysical 1ducation, $, '$5.<. Siedentop, A., @ 1ldar, 1. "#$%$(. 1xpertise, experience and effectiveness. 7ournal of Teaching in :hysical 1ducation, %, ,.'5,&9.

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