EDDY CURRENT TESTINGS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1. History and Develo !ent

Eddy current testing is one of the oldest nondestructive testing (NDT) Methods. However, it wasnt until the last few decades of the twentieth century that the eddy current method started to reach its true otential in the mar!et lace. "ne reason for this is that general ur ose, user # friendly eddy current instruments are a relatively recent henomenon. $hereas orta%le ultrasonic instruments offering considera%le versatility have %een availa%le since the &'()s *n addition, it is only recently that eddy current theory %ecame widely understood %y NDT rofessionals. The early &'+)s, in articular, roduced e,cellent e, lanatory material that made eddy current theory understanda%le to ersons without advanced technical %ac!grounds. Modern micro rocessor # %ased instruments, lus the availa%ility of high -uality o erator training, ensure the continued growth of this versatile, high # erformance NDT method.

". Si#ni$i%ant Dis%overies a&o't Ele%tro!a#netis!

Develo ment of the eddy current method was %ased on certain discoveries made during the early nineteenth century a%out the relationshi %etween electricity and magnetism. *n fact, the relevant electromagnetic rinci les were discovered in the same se-uence in which they occur during an eddy current test. *n &+.), Hans /hristian "ersted, a Dane, discovered electromagnetism # the fact that an electrical current flowing through a conductor causes a magnetic field to develo around that conductor. "ersted discovered electromagnetism accidentally. $hile demonstrating that heat is develo ed when the electric current asses through a wire, "ersted o%served that the needle of a magnetic com ass deflected er endicular to the wire while the current was assing through it.

Electromagnetism is the rinci le on which eddy current coils o erate. $hereas "ersted was using direct correct develo ed from a %attery voltage when he discovered electromagnetism, an eddy current instrument em loys alternating electric current flowing through the test coil in order to develo an alternating magnetic field around the coil. *n &+0&, an Englishman, Michael 1araday, discovered electromagnetic induction # the fact that relative motion %etween a magnetic field and a conductor induces a voltage in that conductor, causing an electric current to flow. /onse-uently, when the alternating magnetic field of an eddy current instruments coil is %rought in contact with a conducting test o%2ect, a voltage is develo ed, causing a current to flow in the test o%2ect. Thus, electromagnetic induction is considered to %e the o erating rinci le of eddy current testing. 3ose h Henry also inde endently discovered electromagnetic induction in the 4nited 5tates at a%out the same time. *n fact, the unit of measure for induction is named after him. *n &+06, Heinrich 7en8 stated the rinci le that defines how the ro erties of the test o%2ect are communicated %ac! to the test system. 7en8s law stats that the direction of current flow in the test o%2ect will %e such that its magnetic field will o ose the magnetic field that caused the current flow in the test o%2ect. This means that, in ractice, the eddy currents communicate with the test coil %y develo ing a secondary flu, that cancels a ortion of the coils flu, e-uivalent to the magnitude and hase of the flu, develo ed %y the eddy currents. The theory descri%ing the chain of events of an eddy current test may thus %e fully descri%ed %y the discoveries of "ersted, 1araday, Henry, and 7en8. The e,istence of eddy currents themselves, however, was not discovered until &+(6. They were discovered %y 3ames Ma,well, who is famous for stating the defining e-uations of electromagnetic theory. The first use of eddy currents for nondestructive testing occurred in &+9' when D.E. Hughes used these rinci les to conduct metallurgical sorting tests.

(. )odern Eddy C'rrent Testin#

The develo ment of the eddy current method rogressed slowly until the late &'6)s, when Dr. 1riedreich 1oerster found the *nstitute Dr. 2

1oerster, which made great strides in develo ing and mar!eting ractical eddy current test instruments. :y the late &'()s the *nstitute had develo ed a roduct line covering virtually every a lication of the eddy current test method and wor!ed with ;merican manufacturers to firmly esta%lish the method in the 4nited 5tates. Two ma2or contri%utions of 1oerster were the develo ment of im edance lane dis lay, which greatly aided in communication of test information to the ractitioner, and formulation of the 7aw of 5imilarity, which ena%les the ractitioner to du licate the same eddy current erformance under a variety of test situations. The ne,t ma2or contri%ution to the advancement of the method, multi fre-uency testing, was also develo ed of an e-ui ment manufacturer, intercontrolle of 1rance, in &'96. Driving the test coil at multi le fre-uencies hel s to overcome what has traditionally %een the ma2or limitation of the eddy current method, the fact that the various conditions to which the method is sensitive can vector into a single dis layed signal that is difficult to inter ret. "riginally develo ed to su ress the dis lay of undesired test varia%les, multi # fre-uency testing can also o timi8e an eddy current test for normally conflicting erformance varia%les such a sensitivity and enetration as well as aid in identifying nature of a articular test res onse. Multifre-uency testing is a very significant innovation that has mar!edly advanced the state of the art. The develo ment micro rocessor # %ased eddy current instruments since the mid # &'+)s has also enhanced the otential and user # friendliness of the method. *t has im roved recording ca a%ility, rovided so histicated ost ins ection signal analysis, and has allowed automatic mi,ing of multifre-uency signals. Models micro rocessor # %ased eddy current instruments offer a %readth of useful features virtually unimagina%le in the days of analog e-ui ment. Manufacturers such a <etec!, Hoc!ing, 1oerster, Nortec, ET/ and Magnetic ;nalysis have %een im ortant contri%utors. *n addition to mainstream eddy current testing, more s eciali8ed techni-ues are em loyed for certain a lications. These include flu, lea!age, remote field eddy current, and modulation analysis ins ection. *n classifying nondestructive test methods for the ur ose of -ualifying and certifying test ersonnel, the ;merican 5ociety for Nondestructive Testing

(;5NT) classifies all of these techni-ues under the um%rella if the Electromagnetic Testing method (ET).

*. )aterial +aria&les Dete%ta&le &y Eddy C'rrents

During more than a century of develo ment as a test method, eddy current testing has found a lication due to its sensitivity to the following varia%les= /onductivity variations Detection of discontinuities 5 acing %etween test coil and test material (lift # off distance) Material thic!ness Thic!ness of lating or cladding on a %ase metal >ermea%ility variations

Eddy current testing is suita%le for ins ection of the surface and 2ust %eneath the surface of conductive materials, volumetric ins ection of thin conductive materials, and lift # off measurements to determine thic!ness of nonconductive materials adhering to or resting on the surface of conductive materials. The versatility of the eddy current method has resulted in %road a lication usage. However, the ma2or a lication areas include the following= *n # service ins ection of tu%ing at nuclear and fossil ower utilities, at chemical and etrochemical lants, on nuclear su%marines, and in air conditioning systems *ns ection of aeros ace structures and engines >roduction testing of tu%ing, i e, wire, rod, and %ar stoc!

,. GENERAThe /om le,ity and limited rocurement on N;5; >rograms and ro2ects dictates a total relia%ility a roach to the tas! of designing, develo ing, testing, and roducing s ace vehicle and associated ground e-ui ment. The techni-ues of non # destructive testing (NDT) are a significant factor in achieving the o%2ective of ma,imum relia%ility.

.. PURPOSE
This hand%oo! rovides a fundamental !nowledge of eddy current rinci les. The information contained herein will ena%le NDT -uality assurance and test techni-ues or com%inations of techni-ue are %eing used to assure the -uality of the articles and materials under test= inter ret the results of eddy current test= and recogni8e those areas of test results that re-uire either retest or further evaluation.

/. DESCRIPTION O0 CONTENTS a. ARRANGE)ENT

&. /ha ter &= *ntroduction, advantages and limitation, testing , ersonnel, and safety considerations .. /ha ter .= Eddy current rinci les and %asic electrical conce ts related to eddy current testing 0. /ha ter 0= Eddy current e-ui ment, coils (a%solute differential), ty es of resentations # meter, cathode ray tu%e , stri recorder. 6. /ha ter 6= Eddy current techni-ues, conductivity, discontinuity, and coating thic!ness testing? a lications. hase and modulation analysis = and

@. /ha ter @= Method control, low conduction materials, conductive li-uids and gases. (. /ha ter (= 5 ecial a lications, dimensions and conductivity measurements, edge discontinuity detection. 9. /ha ter 9= /om arison and selection of NDT rocesses as related to the detection of various discontinuities.

&. -OCATORS
The 1irst age of each cha ter consists of a ta%le of contents for the cha ter. Ma2or aragra hs, figures and ta%les are listed in each ta%le of contents.

1. INDUSTRIA- APP-ICATIONS O0 EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Eddy current testing can %e a lied to cylinders, tu%ing, sheets and coatings, and rovides a means for measuring conductivity, detecting discontinuities, and determining the thic!ness of coatings or lating on articles. 5ince a continuous indication is art of the %asic testing system, automatic roduction testing is articularly feasi%le Test and indication are for all ractical ur ose, simultaneous.

2. 3ASIC EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Eddy current testing is the rocess of inducing small electrical currents into a conductive article and o%serving the interaction %etween the articles and the currents. ; num%er of factors within the article will effect the flow of these eddy currents and means e,ist for relating test indications to these factors.

AD+ANTAGES AND -I)ITATIONS O0 EDDY CURRENT TESTING a. AD+ANTAGES

a. ;ccurate measurement of conductivity %. *mmediate indication c. High s eed testing inches) e. Non contracting. d. Detection of small discontinuity areas (e.g., ).))))( s-uare

&. -I)ITATIONS
a. 5 ecific nature of discontinuities are not clearly identified %. De th of -uarter c. Testing of ferro # magnetic metals is sometimes difficult d. ; ermanent record of discontinuity is often not availa%le. enetration restricts testing to de th of less than one

14. DESTRUCTI+E AND NONDESTRUCTI+E TESTING a. DESTRUCTI+E TESTING

Destructive testing as com ared to nondestructive testing re-uires that the test article %e loaded and A or sectioned to destruction so as to verify and A or esta%lished engineering design re-uirements. "ften such a rocedure is used to correlate various NDT discontinuities (si8e and location) to structural or service life of an article.

&. NON DESTRUCTI+E TESTING

1ive methods of Nondestructive Testing are currently in common use= Magnetic >article, 7i-uid >enetrant, Eddy /urrent, 4ltrasonic, and ;nd Badiogra hic. Each method has eculiar ca a%ilities and limitations -ualifying it for s ecific uses. *t is necessary to analy8e each test article and determine which test method or NDT rocess will %est o%tained the desired results. *n many instances more than one method may %e re-uired. 1or each article re-uiring, testing, the determination of the ro er test method, or methods, is made %y -ualified NDT ersonnel.

11. TESTING PHI-OSOPHY

The %asic reason for nondestructive testing is the a%ility to test. $ithout damage, all com onents in roduction and there%y assure ma,imum relia%ility. 5 ecifically, the s ace vehicle, with its thousands of s-uare feet of thin metal sheet, thousands of feet of large and small diameter tu%ing, and many small articles must %e chec!ed for com lete relia%ility. $ith -ualified ersonnel and test e-ui ment, the relia%ility of all com onents can %e assured. Test standards are high and the e-ui ment and ersonnel must %e ca a%le of roducing results that measure u to these standards

1". PERSONNE*t is im erative that ersonnel res onsi%le for eddy current testing %e trained and highly -ualified with a technical understanding of the test e-ui ment, the item under test (article) and the test rocedures. To ma!e

o timum use of eddy current testing, NDT ersonnel conducting tests must !ee a%reast of new develo ments.

1(. TESTING CRITERIA

Eddy current testing should %e erformed using a roved written rocedures authori8ed %y the using agency. Test and -uality assurance ersonnel should %e governed %y the using agency with s ecific instructions and a roved test data.

1*. TEST PROCEDURES

; roved rocedures for eddy current testing are formulated from analysis of the test article, review of ast history, e, erience on li!e or similar articles and information availa%le concerning similar article discontinuities. *t is the res onsi%ility of ersonnel conducting or chec!ing a test to ensure that test rocedures are ade-uately erformed and that the test o%2ective is accom lished.

1,. TEST O35ECTI+E

The o%2ective of eddy current testing is to= a. Ensure roduct relia%ility %. >rovide test data that can %e evaluated against an acce ta%le reference standard. c. *dentify and re2ect unacce ta%le articles discontinuities. e. Bevaluate test standard and im rovement. rocedures for continued roduct d. Evaluate test results to determine the source and cause of article

1.. SA0ETY CONSIDERATIONS

Eddy current testing uses alternating current sources= therefore, normal electrical recautions should %e o%served. Eddy current testing does not resent uni-ue safety ha8ards to ersonnel.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
-E+E- II 6 7UESTIONNAIRE
1. 89en a !a#neti% $l': near a %ond'%tor is %a'sed to %9an#e ;as <9en a !a#net is !oved ast a %oil= t9e res'lt is a) an increased resistance in the coil wire %) and induced voltage c) deCmagneti8ation of the magnet d) hase reversal ". A%%ordin# to O9!s -a<> in any ele%tri%al %ir%'it> t9e volta#e divided &y t9e %ir%'it i! edan%e is e?'al to a) magnetic flu, density %) ca acitance c) current flow d) hase angle (. 89en an alternatin# volta#e ind'%es an E)0> t9e ind'%ed E)0 in o osition to t9e %9an#e %a'sin# it. T9is is a state!ent o$ a) 1aradays 7aw %) 7en8s 7aw c) 5nells 7aw d) Eddys 7aw of Doltage *. A devi%e <9i%9 stores ele%tri%al ener#y <it9in a s e%i$ied vol'!e is a;n= a) inductor %) ca acitor c) conductor d) resistor ,. T9e $ield t9at %o' les an eddy %'rrent %a'ses eddy %'rrents to $lo< &y a) resonance %) induction c) friction d) the :ernoulli effect ro&e and a test ie%e

.. T9e re#ion aro'nd a !a#net <9ere its !a#neti% e$$e%ts %an &e dete%ted is %alled t9e a) near 8one %) induction 8one c) magnetic field of force d) electroCmagnetic region of influence 9

/. T9e lo%ation <9ere !a#neti% lines o$ $l': are %onsidered to leave a !a#net is a) the north ole of that magnet %) the south ole of that magnet c) de endent on the osition of the earths magnetic ole d) called Domain /entre 1. T9e lo%ation <9ere !a#neti% lines o$ $l': are %onsidered to enter a !a#net is a) the north ole of the magnet %) the south ole of the magnet c) de endent on the osition of the sun d) called domain centre 2. Dire%t %'rrent %an &e 'sed to ind'%e eddy %'rrents i$ a) the test iece is moved cyclically near the current carrying conductor %) the current carrying conductor is moved cyclically near the test iece c) either a or % d) the diameter of the conductor is less than &A&) the thic!ness of the test iece 14. Ele%tri% %'rrent %an &e ind'%ed in a se%ondary %ir%'it &y a) moving a magnet ast it %) moving current carrying inductor ast it c) moving the secondary circuit ast a magnet or current carrying conductor d) all of the a%ove 11. T9e rate o$ $lo< o$ ele%tri% %9ar#e de$ines a) voltage %) coulom% c) electric current d) im edance 1". 1 !A %an also &e <ritten as a) ).)& ; %) ).))& ; c) &)) ; d) &))) M; 1(. A sa! le <9i%9 9as a very lo< resistan%e <ill also 9ave very 9i#9 a) resistivity %) conductivity c) conductance d) im edance

10

1*. Co! ared to %ond'%tive <ires> ins'lators are %onsidered to 9ave a) very high resistance %) very low resistance c) a%out the same resistance d) high conductance 1,. I$ a len#t9 o$ a <ire 9as a resistan%e o$ " o9!s and is t9en %'t in 9al$> t9e resistan%e o$ one o$ t9e 9alves <o'ld &e a) & ohm %) . ohms c) 6 ohms d) im ossi%le to estimate 1.. Resistan%e o$ a %ond'%tor is 's'ally #iven at a s e%i$ied te! erat're. Corre%tion $or resistan%e at ot9er te! erat'res is o&tained &y 'sin# a) li-uid nitrogen %) the tem erature coefficient of resistance c) vacuum or %ell cham%ers d) matching circuits 1/. In%reasin# t9e te! erat're o$ an al'!ini'! test s e%i!en $or! "4@C. to *4@C. <ill res'lt in AAAAAAAAAAAA s e%i!en resistivity. a) no change to %) dou%ling c) halving d) a slight increase in 11. T9e eddy %'rrents ind'%ed in a s e%i!en &y an eddy %'rrent ro&e set ' a !a#neti% $ield <9i%9 t9e ind'%in# $ield. a) o oses %) augments c) e-uals d) sto s 12. Eddy %'rrents are nor!ally ind'%ed in a sa! le s'%9 t9at t9ey are a) arallel to the coil windings %) arallel to the sam le surface c) limited to the area of inducing field d) all of the a%ove "4. De%rease in eddy %'rrent $lo< <it9 in%reasin# de t9 $ro! t9e s'r$a%e is Bno<n as a) a%sor tion %) the Hall effect c) the s!in effect d) the edge effect 11

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
-E+E- II ANS8ERS
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ANS
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