.

ALLEN

AND GREENOUGH'S
'.

LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR

feelr anli

lEnlargelr

BY

JAMES BRADSTREET GREENOUGH

ASSISTED BY

GEORGE

L.

KITTREDGE

BOSTON, U.S. A., AND LONDON

GINN AND COMPAN

1900

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL

COPYRIGHT,
J. B.

1888,

BY

GREENOUGH

AND

J.

H.

ALLEN

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.

Publishers have again taken advantage of the opportunity this book to offered by the necessary recasting of the plates of to be made in it as the advance of gramcause such

THE

improvements

matical knowledge and the experience of the schoolroom have shown The revising editors have endeavored to simplify to be advisable. and make plain the statement of principles, so far as could be done but no concession has been scientific correctness without

made made

language.
in

; sacrificing to the prevalent mechanical method of treating the science of Many additional explanations and suggestions have been

the text

and

foot-notes,

for

the benefit of teachers and

advanced scholars.

The number and range of examples have been

and
it

very considerably increased;

is

hoped that scholars

will find

no grammatical usage

in their ordinary reading that is not provided

for in the statements laid

down.
;

The treatment of the formation of words has been much extended and new light, it is hoped, has been shed upon this difficult and everIn cases where comparative philoladvancing branch of the science. the sure is concerned, the editors have endeavored to set down ogy results of the so-called "New Grammar," but have been conservative doctrines which, though likely to be true, cannot about

accepting

are certainly not universally regarded as fully proved, and In conformity with the modern practice all naturally long natural quantity vowels, known to be such, including those whose have been marked throughout; but many is concealed
yet be

accepted.

by position,

left unmarked, where the evidence suspected to be long have been did not seem sufficiently convincing. Some new doctrines will be found in regard to the order of words,

are persuaded, which, though not generally accepted, will, the editors meet with more general approval, the better they are applied and This subject has only just begun to receive the conunderstood.

sideration

it

deserves.

No
In

made in the numbering of changes of any account have been

sections.
still more conclusion, the editors hope that they have made some of the devious ways of Latin grammar, and feel that if their new efforts meet with anything like the same favor that has been shown to the book heretofore, they shall be amply rewarded.

plain

PREFACE TO THE EDITION OF

THE
to

1877.

editors have taken advantage of the re-casting of the plates

make some improvements in the present edition, which have grown upon their hands, until in fact a thorough revision of the
book has been made.
I The matter of each principal changes are the following with sub-divisions cast in has been chapters, by numbered part 2. A considerable expansion has been given to several paragraphs.

The

portions, especially to those on Phonetic Changes and the Formation of Words ; inflectional forms have been more carefully exhibited,

and sections have been added on the Syntax of Pronouns and

cles. 3.

Parti-

Strictly philological matter, not

intended for class use, has

in the form of marginal notes. 4. The several topics of the Syntax are introduced by brief prefatory notes, suggesting what we consider to be the true theory of the constructions ; these are

been put

sections.

not designed for class use, and are not included in the numbered 5. Some important additions and illustrations have been

given in the Prosody. The substance of the book remains as beThe form of expression, however, has been carefully revised fore. and a few sections have been transferred to a different connection.
;

ers,

The proof-sheets have been submitted to several experienced teachwho have generously aided us by their criticism, and have conThe editors have tributed many valuable practical suggestions.
pleasure in acknowledging, also, their special indebtedness to Professor Caskie Harrison, of the University of the South, Sewanee,

Tenn., whose correspondence has made a very full running commentary extending over the greater portion of the book, including
all

the

topics.

Syntax, with copious discussion of numerous incidental His notes have been of the greatest service to them ; have
;

sometimes modified their views and constantly supplemented them have urged important points upon their attention, and have not seldom suggested valuable improvements through the very antagonism of opposing doctrine. Material less easy to specify in detail,
but not less valuable or welcome, has been received from Professor M. W. Humphreys, of Nashville, from the principals of the acade-

mies at Andover, Exeter, and Quincy, and from others, to whom cordial thanks are due for the interest they have testified in the work.
CAMBRIDGE, September
25, 1877.

NOTE.
FOR the convenience of those who may wish to follow up more in this book, a list of minutely the study of the subjects treated below. is given important works
ALLEN,

Remnants of Early Latin. F. D. AMERICAN Journal of Philology, Vols. I. to VIII. and continued. [Indo-European BOIT: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc.
:

lan-

guages.]

vols.

Later researches have The original London: 1862. corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor). Introductions and with Notes by Michel The best form is a French translation, 1866. Paris: Breal.

3d ed. Berlin: 1868-70. standard work on Comparative Forms.

BK//KNBERGER: Beitrage zur Kunde der Indo-Gtrmanischen Sprachen.

I-I3-

BRAMBACH:

Lateinitche Orthographie.

1868.

BRUGMANN: Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik. Vol.1.

1886; Vol.
II.,

Strassburg:

1889-92.

Greek Grammar.

See "Muller's Handbuch."

CORSSEN: Aussprackf, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache.

2d ed. Leipzig: 1868. the language in reference to greatest work on Latin alone, treating individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Lautlehre). Must with caution.
2 vols.

The

its

own

be used

CURTIUS, G.: Grundziigc der Griechischen Etymologic.

1869. Treats of Latin only by comparison, but the general subject.
is

3d ed.

Leipzig:

one of the most valuable works on

Erlauterungen zu meiner Griechischen Schul-grammatik.

Frag: 1870. Notes giving

2d ed.

English translation ( Elucidations*'). London: 1870. in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of the

doctrine of forms.

Das

Griechische Verbum.

DELBROcK: Das Conjunct

Halle: 1871.
Origin of the
in

iind Optativ,

im Sanskrit und Griechischen.

in connection with

Moods

treated scientifically.

Should be read
:

a notice

"North American Review," October. 1871, and "Analysis of the Latin 1870). Subjunctive,** by J. B. Greenough (Cambridge 1867. Ablativt Localis, Instrumental!! im Indischen, etc. Berlin
.

Origin of the various Ablative constructions.

vi

Note.
G5t-

FlCK: Vcrgleichendes WVrterbuch der Indo-Germanischen Sprochen.

tingen: 1870. A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo-European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various languages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book, however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and vowel changes.

HADLEY:
1873.

Essays, Philological

ana

Critical.

New York

(Holt

&

Williams):

HALE, W. G.

Cunt Constructions.

[Cornell Studies.]

The Sequence of Tenses. HOFFMAN: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln.

[Pamphlet.]

Vienna: 1860.

MARX:

Hilfsbuchlein

fur

die Aussprache, etc.

Berlin: 1883.

MEYER, G.:
:

Griechische

Grammatik.

2d

ed.

Leipzig: 1885.

MOLLER Handbuch derKlassischen Alterthums-wissenschaft. Vol. II. Griechische und Lateinische Sprachwissenschaft (by Brugmann, Stolz and Schmalz,
and others).
Stuttgart: 1875-92. Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late textual criticism. The standard work.

NEUE: Formenlekre der Lateinischen Sprache.

PAPILLON A Manual of Comparative Philology, as applied to the tion of Greek and Latin Inflections. Oxford: 1876. Behind the times, but a convenient synopsis of the doctrine of forms.
:

Illustra>

ROBY, H.

J.

Vol. I., 1871; Vol. II., 1873. Someerrorshavebeen pointed out in the " North American Review," January, 1872.

London and New York (Macmillan):

A Grammar of the

Latin Language, from Plautus

to

Suetonius.

SCHLEICHER:

Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-Ger4th ed.

1876.

manischen Sprachen.

Antiquated, but indispensable.

SEELMANN, E.

Die Aussprache

des Latein.

Heilbronn

1885.

SIEVERS, E.: Grundzilge der Phonetik.

3d ed.

Leipzig: 1885.

VANICEK, A.

Etymologisches Worterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache.

Leipzig :

1874Suggestive, but to be used with caution.

Metrik der Griechen. 2d ed. 1867. 2 vols. on the metrical systems of the ancients, with full literary and musical illustration. A convenient summary, with some modifications, will be found in SCHMIDT'S Rhythmik und Metrik, now translated by Prof. I. W. WHITE and
:

WESTPHAL

The great

authority

published by the publishers of

this

book.

WHEELER, B. I.: Analogy and its Scope in Language. [Cornell Studies.] WHITNEY: Sanskrit Grammar. Leipzig: 1879. The best grammar of the Sanskrit, without some knowledge of which language
<

it is

difficult to

pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage.

ZEITSCHRIFT fur vergleichende Sprachforschung. Edited by Dr. A. KUHN, Vol. I., etc. Berlin: 1851 and subsequent years.
Indispensable to correct theories of individual investigators.

CONTENTS.
PART
CHAPTER
I.
I.

ETYMOLOGY.
rAGB

Letters
;

and Sounds

.........

Alphabet

Classification, Phonetic Variations

;

.....

1-9

Pronunciation

Quantity and Accent

CHAPTER IL

........ ........... * The Speech ............. ...... Gender, Number, and Case ..... ........ of Nouns CHAPTER .......... Declension General Rules Declension .............. ............. Second Mute Stems ......... 25-27 Third ........ 27-29 Liquid Stems Vowel Stems ......... 33 Nouns ....... 34 Greek Forms ......... ....... Rules of Gender of Nouns ........ 3^-3 4Q .............. Fourth .............. Nouns .......... 42-46 and .... 4 ............ Names Proper ............ CHAPTER_IV. 47~49 Third Declension .............. Comparison ................ .............. Numerals
Inflection
;

Words and their Forms Root and Stem

'3- 18

Parts of

III.

Declension of

9 2C

First

Declension

Declension:

2 9~3 2

Irregular

32

>

33>

34> 35

Lists

Declension

39*

Fifth Declension

4<>,

4'

Defective

Variable

Adjective^

55~:>

viii

Contents.
PAGE

CHAPTER V.

Pronouns

63-72

Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative

Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs)

....

63-68
68-71

72

CHAPTER

VI.

Verbs

73-121
73,

Inflection

74

Signification

Voice, Mood, Tense

74-78
78,

Personal Endings Forms: Verb-Endings The Verb Sum The Three Stems Regular Verb The Four Conjugations Formation of the Three Stems Synopsis of the Verb Special Forms
:

79

79~8i

81-83

84

....

84, 85

86-90

90
91
92,

First Conjugation

93
93

Periphrastic Conjugations

Second Conjugation Third Conjugation

Fourth Conjugation Verbs Deponent Irregular Verbs
Defective Verbs

96-98

98-103 104-106 106-108

109-1 14

114-117 117,118
.
.

Impersonal Verbs

Note on the Origin and History of Verb-Forms

119-121

CHAPTER
~~

VII.
,

Particles

122-139

Adverbs

122-127
127-133
.

Prepositions

Conjunctions
Interjections

133-139
139

CHAPTER

VIII.

Formation of Words

140-162
140, 141

Roots and Stems

Suffixes
:

Primary

Significant

Endings

141-143

Derivation of

Nouns and Adjectives

143-156

Derivation of Verbs

Compound Words

156-160 160-162

Contents.

ix

PART
Introductory Note

II.

SYNTAX.
PACB
163, 164

CHAPTER

The Sentence
;

165-204
Modification.
.

Definitions: Subject and Predicate Agreement: the Four Concords

165-170
170

Nouxs: Apposition; Predicate Agreement ADJECTIVES; Rules of Agreement

Special Uses

170-172
172

i74-i?7
178-181

PRONOUNS.; Personal and Demonstrative

Reflexive

181-184

Possessive
Relative
Indefinite

184-186
186-191
191, 192
193, 194

Alius and Alter

VERBS:

Subject, Incomplete Sentences

.
.

194-196
.

PARTICLES: Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives QUESTIONS

199-201

201-204

CHAPTER

II.

Construction of Cases

205-273
205 206-2 1
1

Introductory Note GENITIVE With Nouns

:

Possessive

Material, Quality
Partitive
Objective

207 208

209,210
211

With Adjectives With Verbs

211-213
213-217
.

Remembering and Forgetting

Accusing, etc

213,214

214

214 Feeling Interest and Refert; other Verbs, 216, 217 . Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc. 218 .
.

DATIVE:

Indirect Object with Transitives Indirect Object with Intransitives

219-221

221-225

With Compounds Of Possession of Agency Of Purpose or End Dative with Adjectives Of Reference Ethical
; ;
;

225-227
.

227-229 229-233 233, 234

x
ACCUSATIVE
:

Contents.
PAGE

Direct Object Cognate Accusative

;

Two

Accusatives

....

235-237 238-242 242-244

244
244, 245

Idiomatic and Special Uses

VOCATIVE ABLATIVE its Several Uses 1. Of Separation and Privation

:

245-247

Source, Material, Cause Of Agent ; of Comparison

2.

247-250 251-253

Of Manner. Means, Instrument, Accompaniment, Of Difference, Quality, Price, Specification

.

253-256 256-259 260

260-262

3.

Locative

Special Uses

Ablative Absolute

TIME AND PLACE USE OF PREPOSITIONS

263-279 270-273
274-305

CHAPTER

III.

Syntax of the Verb

Indicative,

Note on the Moods

JjjfoODS
;

274
t

Subjunctive

General Use

275,276 276
, .

Hortatory
tative
;:~

277,278

liberative

279 280
280-283
283
291

Imperative
Infinitive

TENSES: Introductory Note Tenses of Continued Action

Present
Imperfect Future

291

291-294

294-296 296

Tenses of Completed Action

Perfect

296
296-298
298 298

Pluperfect

Future Perfect
Epistolary Tenses Tenses of the Subjunctive

299 299 300-304 304 306-314 307 308 309

^equence of TensesT Tenses of the Infinitive^ ~

".

Participles

'.

".

".

".

".

Distinctions of Tense

Adjective Predicate

Use Use

Contents.
Future Participle Gerundive

xi
PACK

........... 312 .............. 3^3 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE ............ 314 SUPINES ................... ......... 2O~339 CHAPTER Note ............... and Apodosis .............. ............. 322 Forms Simple Conditions ............... 324 ............... Future ........... 327 Fact Contrary General Conditions ............... 329 Condition Disguised ............... 330 Condition Omitted ............... 332 .............. 332 Modesty ............. 332 ............... 333 Verbs ............... 333 Conditions Complex Comparison ............. 334 ............... 335 Concessive ................... 336 Si and Use Compounds ........... 337
3J8

IV.

Conditional Sentences

Introductory
Protasis

32

321

Classification of

Conditions

325

Conditions

to

Potential Subjunctive

Subjunctive of of Necessity
Particles of

Clauses

Proviso
of

its

CHAPTER V.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

Dependent Constrictions Nntp i Introductory

.

Conditional Relative

Clauses of Purpose, Clauses of Result .

Clauses of Characteristic

Causal Clauses
Relations of

............. ............. Fostquam, Cum Temporal ............ Cum Causal ............. Antequam, Priuaquam .........
Time
etc

....... 339-368 ....... 339 Clauses ......... 339 ............ 340 ............ 343 ........... 346 ........... 348
.

349
350
352
353

Dum, Donee,
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES:
/ Infinitive

Clauses

........ ...... Introductory Note .............

and

354 354
355

Quoad

Clauses of Purpose

.............

356 359

xii

Contents.
PAGB

Causes of Result
f

362

Clauses with

Quod)

366
367

Indirect Questions

INDIRECT DISCOURSE: Introductory Note Formal Indirect Discourse

Subordinate Claus.es Tenses in Indirect Discourse
Conditions, Questions, Commands Informal liidlreU Disiuuisu rT"~.
Integral Clauses
\

369 370
372
373

374
379 380
381

IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX

CHAPTER

VI.

Arrangement

386-393

General Rule
Special Rules Structure of the Period

386
392

392

PART
CHAPTER
I.

III.

PROSODY.
394-401

Quantity

Introductory Note General Rules of Quantity

Quantity of Final Syllables Quantity of Penultimates

394 394 396 398-401

402-406

CHAPTER

II.

Rhythm
:

Measures of Rhythm The Musical Accent

Feet

402-405

406
407-424
407

CHAPTER

III.

Versification

The Verse
Dactylic Verse
:

Hexameter Elegiac Stanza ; Other Dactylic Verses

Trimeter

408
.

410, 41

Iambic Verse

411

Other Iambic Measures

Trochaic Verse

Mixed Measures
Logaoedic Verse Metres of Horace Index to Metres of Horace

413 413 414

415,416 417-421 420

Contents.

xiii

PAGE

Other Lyric Poets

Miscellaneous
Fatly Prosody

421

422
423, 424

MISCELLANEOUS: Reckoning of Time

Measures of Value
Abbreviations

425

427

428

Glossary of Terms

429-432

APPENDIX

Latin and Kindred Tongues

Principal

433-438
438, 439

Roman

Writers

INDEX OF VERBS INDEX OF

440-448
449
ff.

WORDS AND

SUBJECTS

LATIN GRAMMAR.
LATIN GRAMMAR is usually discussed under three heads i. Etymology; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Etymology treats of the form of separate words, as either written or spoken Syntax of their function when joined together as parts of the sentence Prosody of their arrangement in
:
;

metrical composition.

PART

FIRST.

ETYMOLOGY.
and Sounds.

CHAPTER
The
is

I.

Letters
Alphabet.

Latin Alphabet, as the language is usually written, the same as the English (which, in fact, was borrowed
it),

from
ah),
i

except that
it

it

has no w.
:

Properly,

consists, however, of only twenty-three letters

a (called

(be {bay}},

c (ke\

(de), e (e

(ee),

(kd) [see

6], 1 (el},

r (er), B (ess), t (te), u,

(oo),

* (*). n o p q (em), (en), (<?), (pe), (koo), x (/>), y (u Graeca?), z (zeta). Of

[A]),
f (ef),

(#?).

were added in Cicero's time to express the corresponding sounds (v, ) in borrowed Greek words (cf. Cic. N. D. ii. 93). i and u (v) have a twofold value, which is often in modern writing
these,

y and z

indicated by a double form

i, j

u, v.

See

4.

Classification of the Letters.

1.

The

letters are divided, with reference to their sounds,

(litterae vacates)

into

Vowels

and Consonants

(litterac con-

sonantes). are called a

Two

vowels united so as to express one sound

Diphthong.

2
.

Etymology: Letters and Sounds.

a The VOWELS
are a, e,

l, 2.

sonants.

The Diphthongs

The rest of the letters are Coni, o, u, y. are ae (ae), au, ei, eu, oe (03), ui, and in

Early Latin ai, oi, and ou. NOTE. All the divisions of the
letters

letters apply really to the sounds which the represent ; but as the sounds in Latin very nearly correspond to the letters, no real confusion need arise if both are spoken of without distinction.

b. Vowels are Open (a, o), Medial (e, u), or Close the position of the organs in pronouncing them.

(i),

according to

NOTE. The vowel a, as in father; is the most open (i.e. the organs are least constrained in pronouncing it). Starting from this sound, and narrowing the mouth sidewise, at the same time raising the middle of the tongue, we come through
ja,

/
X
e
x

\^ A
.^In (not)

fi(hat) C((.aw)
(e7i) .._<.

several gradations not always recognized, but no doubt always more or less existent in speech, to the sound of e (as in eAf) and i (ee, as i in machine}. This sound, if enunciated rapidly with a following vowel, passes

t ^ie soun d f English y (consonant). If, on the other hand, the mouth is narrowed up and down, and at the same time the back of the tongue is raised, we ****. ~~~V ^^-"-"" come in the same manner to o and U (oo in fool). If, starting with O, we contract in the first manner, we come through a common German sound (5) to e. If, starting from u, we do the same, we come to French U, German U, Greek v, and Latin y. And this sound, in turn, approaches i.

mto

(00)

These processes may be represented

in

a vowel scale as above.

2.
th,

CONSONANTS. a. p, b, c (k), q, g, t, a, as also ch and are called Mutes (Explosives, Momentary sounds).
entire stoppage

These are produced by an

subsequent explosion.
1.

of the breath and a

:

They
s,

are classified as follows

p,

c (k),

q,

t,

are called Surds (tenues).

These are without vocal tone.

2.

b,

g,

d,

z,

are called Sonants (mediae).

slight vocal tone.

These are accompanied by a

3.

ch and th are called Aspirates.

In these a breath follows the explosion. They are found chiefly in words borrowed from the Greek, ph, which also was borrowed from
the Greek, probably was never
b.

sounded as an aspirate

in Latin.

and n are called Nasals.

These are pronounced with the same position of the organs as b and A third d, except that the nasal passage is opened instead of closed. nasal, n adulterlnum (like n in ink), corresponding in the same way to g, existed in the language, but had no separate sign.

3-5.
1

Classification of

t Jic

Letters.

:*.

From

the organs of speech chiefly used in the utter-

ance of

(pronounced

the mutes and nasals they are divided into Labials with the lips), Palatals (with the palate), and

Lingtials (with the tongue). Their relations are seen in the following table:
SURD.

SONANT.

ASPIRATE.

NASAL.

Labial.
Palatal.

p
c (k), q
t

b
g

wanting

m
n n
(as in ink) (as in rent)
:

ch
th

Lingual,
a.

d
n,
r.
f,

Other useful special classes of sounds are distinguished as

Liquids
:

1,

Fricatives (Spirants): Sibilants : 8, Z.

ph, th (not

aspirate, as in thin), h, 8, z.

Double Consonants: X (cs), Z (ds). Semi-vowels: i, V (see 4).

b.

is

merely a breathing.
i

and v (u) before a vowel in the same syllable are consonants and have the sound of English consonant y and w respectively. (Cf. i and u in pinion, They are sometimes called issuing, rapidly pronounced.)
4.

SEMI-VOWELS.

Latin alphabet had no separate signs for the semi-vowels; but both vowel and consonant i, and v or u (without distinction) for both vowel and consonant V (u). The character j was unknown in classical times, and u was but a graphic variation of V. In mediaeval Latin j and V came to be used to indicate the consonant sounds of i and V (u), and this usage is often followed by small letters. In writing capitals, however, the forms modern editors in

Semi-Vowels. NOTE i. The

i

used

for

J and
i
;

writing but IVVENIS. are avoided. Thus iuuenis, iuvenis, or juvenis, In this book vowel and consonant i are both represented by the same character, but V is used lor the consonant, u for the vowel sound of V (u). Thus iustua,

vir,

iuvenis.
2.-

NOTE
times,

The

though consonant

in classical English sounds of j and V did not exist in Latin v (u) began no doubt to approach English v in many

persons' speech.

NOTE 3. In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes 8U, u forms a comneither as a vowel pound sound with the preceding consonant, and is reckoned nor a consonant. Thus aqua, anguis, consuetus. (Cf. English quill, anguish,
suave.)

5.

The Romans

distinguished

Long vowels from Short

in sound,

ference.

but had no regular characters to express the difAt various times attempts were made to mark

this distinction,

but none came into general use.

Etymology: Letters and Sounds,

In modern times short vowels are marked thus
;
:

5-8.

a, S ; and long, thus : either long or short, thus : I, I. In this book all simple vowels not marked are supposed to be short. But final o and i are marked according to their prevailing length or

a,

those that

may be pronounced

shortness, though they sometimes vary from this quantity in poetry.

NOTE.

other, but form

Vowels and consonants are not separated by any sharp line from each a continuous scale from the most open vowel (a) to the mutes, for

which the mouth is entirely closed. The general tendency of phonetic changes in language has been from the two extremes towards the middle.

Early Forms. 6. The character c (surd palatal) originally stood

palatal (g).

for the

sonant

This force it b, c, but Alpha, Beta, Gamma.) always retained in the abbreviations C. (for Gaius), and Cn. (Gnaeus). In prehistoric times these two sounds were confounded, and C was NOTE. used for both. The character k (surd palatal) was thus supplanted, except in a few words and abbreviations: as, Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago. About 300 B.C. G was invented to distinguish the sonant again, but was put in the place in the alphabet once occupied by z, which at that time had dropped out of use. When Z was afterwards restored (in Greek words), it was put at the end of

(Hence,

a,

the alphabet.

7. Till after the age of Augustus the use of u (vowel) after u (v) was avoided. This was done either by preserving o, when but for this tendency it would have become u, as in voltus (but cultus), servSs (but dominus), suSs (but meus), quom (but turn), reliquSs (but relictus) or in case of quu, by writing cu, as in cur (for quor), ecus (for equos, later equus), cum (for quom, very late quum), relicua (for reliquos, later reliquus). Compare c for qu in cotidie,
;

written for quotidiS.

Phonetic Variations.
8.
1.

Variations of sound are of two classes

Inherited differences of form in the

NOTE. These variations of form in derivation occur in other languages akin to Latin with great regularity and marked significance. They lost their importance in Latin, but have left traces throughout the language, so that its structure cannot be explained without taking them into
account.
2.

(see 22). words connected with each other by

same root

Unconscious alterations of sounds developed in course of time

itself.

in

the language

NOTE.
articulation

Such alterations arise in every language after long use from careless and an unconscious tendency to secure an easier utterance and they
;

depend very much upon

euphonic change.

accent.

This process

is

often called phonetic decay or

9,

10.]

Phonetic

Variations.

J).

and

less

Inherited differences appear in variations of vowels, commonly in liquids connected with vowels.
:

a. Vowels vary between long and short of the same kind as, emo. 1 buy, gmi, / bought ; lego, I read, Iggi, I read; tego, leaver, tggula, a tile; sono, I sound, persSna, a mask (as sounded through); rego, 1 rule, rgx, a king; dux, a leader, duco, I lead.
b.

Vowels vary

in quality:

tego,

/ ewer, toga, a

as, pendo, I weigh, pondua, weight ; robe] fldus, faithful, foedus, a treaty. (Cf.

fall, fell] bind, band, bound.}

c. Vowels vary between a short vowel of one quality and a long vowel or diphthong of another: miser, wretched, maestus, sad; dare, to give, donum, gift; ago, I lead, ggi, I led. d. Liquids are transposed with vowels, sometimes with change of

the vowel: as, sperno,

stravi,
flagro,

/ spurn, sprgvi, I spurned; sterno, strewed; gigno, / beget, (g)natus, a son; fulgeo,

I strew, I shine,

I burn.

1C.

Unconscious changes occur

in

both vowels and con-

sonants,
a. Vowels and diphthongs are weakened, usually in the directions marked on the vowel-scale (see page 2) as, factus, made, confectus, made up; lubet (old) it pleases, libet (later); agmen, a march, agminis, ofa march; capio, I take, incipio, I begin; lego, Ipick, colligo, Igather; caedo, I cut, cecidi, I have cut; salio, I leap, exsulto, 1 leap up and down (for joy) pello, I drive, pulsus, driven ; servos, a slave (early),
:
;

servus, a slave (later); optumus, optimus (see

12.

of ivory, eburneus, made of ivory

(later),

vorto

(early),

d); eboris, turn, verto

I turn.

NOTE. When vowels seem to be changed contrary to the direction of the vowel-scale, either both are changed in different degrees from some common vowel higher up the scale, or the change is due to some special cause : as, lens, euntis
(for

simul
b.

felons, 1 feiontis 1 ); volentem, but voluntas auceps, aucupis. (for simolis, etc.)
;

(for

volont-); similis,

Two vowels coming together are very often contracted as, cog5 co-ago obit for obiit; nil for nihil (see 347. c}; dg-beo for dehibe5 (de-habeo, see a, above) rursus, re-versus (re-vorsua, see
:

for

c below);
(for

amarat

(for

amaverat)

cuuctus

(for

coiunctus)

surgo

sub-rego).
1

Form

not found

6
c.

Etymology: Letters and Sounds.

[10,11

Vowels are often entirely lost between two consonants (syncope)-. audacter for audaciter iurgium for iurigium disciplma for diacipullna; caldus (popular), calidus (literary); or at the end of a word : as, die for dice ; satin for satisne ; hSrunc for hOrunce. d. Vowels are rarely inserted between two consonants in the effort to pronounce a difficult combination of sounds (cf. ettum for as, HerculSs for HerclSs, drachuma for drachma, ager for elni)
as,
; ; ;

agr(o) (see
NOTE.
tell

38).

In

many

cases in which

a vowel
:

is

sometimes found

it

is

impossible to

whether
e.

it is

original or developed

as,

saeclum and saeculum.

language are sometimes shortened

Vowels found long in the

earlier

later: as, fid6I (later fidei),

amat

(later

amat:

375.

fy
for another
:

11.

a.

Consonants are unconsciously substituted one

in accordance with regular tendencies of the language. or n : as, 1. r for s between two vowels or before

Thus

eram

(root ES),

generis (for f genesis, from genus), maereo (cf. maestus), dirimS (dis-emo), diribeo (dis-habeo), veternus (vetus-nus), carmen

(fcasmen,
2.

cf.

Casmena).

(Compare Eng. was, were?)

:

a for

cad-tus),

d or t, making an easier combination as, casus (for cessum (ced-tum), mansus (man-tus), passus (pad-tus

and pat-tus), equester (equet-ter). b. Consonants are omitted : as, examen (exagmen), caementum (caed-mentum), semestris (ses-mestris), luna (luc-na), denl (f decni), hoc (abl. for hod-ce), autumnus (auctumnus, root AUG), fulmen (fulg-men), pgrgo (per-rego), Us (stlis), cor (fcord), lac
(lact-),
1.

Especially

pes (fpeds). h: as, praebeo (prae-habeo), vemens

consonant
at the
is

(for

vehe-

mgns).
2.

And

and v

as,

conicio (con-iacio), prorsus (proafter a short vowel.

vorsus). 3. Also B
NOTE.

end of a word

This

limited to early Latin

and

colloquial usage:

plenu(s)

fldel,

qualist (qualis est).

to another

Consonants are unconsciously inserted in passing from one sound as, sumo, / take, sumpsi, / took, sumptus, taken (for sum si, sum-tus); hiemps, winter, hiemis, of winter. Cf. Thompson (Tom's son).
c.
:

NOTE.
d.

These are

called Parasitic sounds.

:

Consonants are transposed

miaceo, mlztus

(for

misc-tusV

11, 12.]
c.

Phonetic Variations.

Consonant* and vowels are unconsciously changed (dissimilation) same sound in two successive syllables from Pal6s) f merldiSs (for medl-difis), pietaa parnia (for palilia,
to avoid a repetition of the
(for fpiitas, as in caritas).
:

NOTE. In some cases this principle prevents changes which would take place according to other tendencies of speech.
/.
1.

A consonant is changed by the influence of a neighboring sound,

Into the

same sound as

the neighbor (complete assimilation}

as,

c58sI(cSd-sI),summus (sup-mus), sella (sed-la), puella (puer(u)la), pressl (prem-sl), occid5 (ob-cado), mitissimus (for mitiustimus).
2. Into a sound of the same organ or the same quality (or both) as the neighbor {partial assimilation) (see table of mutes, 3) : as, contero (com-tero, labial to lingual), scriptus (scrib-tus, sonant to

surd),

segmentum (fsecmentum,
Sometimes the
first

surd to sonant),

impero

(in-per5,

lingual to labial).

NOTE.

consonant governs (regressive assimilation}, some-

times the second (progressive assimilation) .

3.

These changes

affect especially the final

as,

consonant of the preposi-

accedo (ad-cedo), afficio (ad-facio), occurrd (ob-curr6), corruS (com-ruo), effero (ec-fero), suppono
tion in

Compounds:

(sub-pond). NOTE. The

before

rules for this assimilation

;

may be

lated before C, g, p, t

less regularly before 1, r, 8,

ab f, n, Q, the form ad is to be preferred, the form a, au, or abs. In (con, CO), assimilated before 1, n, P; is changed to n before C, d, f, g, J, q, s, V; sometimes becomes n before p; is sometimes assimilated (otherwise n) before 1 and r;

com

given as follows: ad is assimiand rarely before m; while is not assimilated, but may take is retained before b, p, is ;

m cOnectO, conlveO, conltor, cSntlbium. In usually changes n to m before b, m, p before the better orthography retains n. ob and 8ub are assimilated before C, f p, and sometimes before m sub also before r and, early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes becomes p before 8 or The inseparable amb loses b before a consonant, and m sometimes assimilated. Clrcum often loses m before t 8 of dis before a vowel becomes and before
loses the final
in
;

com

gf,

in

t.

is

r,

a consonant b lost or assimilated. The d of red and Bed is generally lost before a consonant. In most of these cases the later editions prefer the unaltered forms throughout; but the changes given above have good authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as assum for adsum), had better be avoided
Lexicons vary in the spelling of these combinations.

12. Variations of Spelling occur

inscriptions,

in

and especially

in

modern

editions.
first;

manuscripts and In the folobjectionable

lowing lists the better forms are put forms in parenthesis.

Etymology: Letters and Sounds.

[12,131

NOTE. These variations are generally mere mistakes in spelling. Many ot them are due to the practice of writing from dictation, by which most MS. copies of the classics were made. A single reader dictated to several copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt. The tendency of the best editions is to restore, as normal, the forms oi the late Republic or early Empire (the time of Cicero or but to so far as these may be determined from inscriptions, etc., Augustus),
preserve, in each author, any peculiarities that mark the spelling of his time. choice among forms appears often to be arbitrary, for inscriptions oi the

The
same

period sometimes differ considerably.

<z.

The

letters

a vowel:

uuiitio

and sounds of ci and ti are interchanged before (nuncio), contio (concio), dicio (ditio),
(suspitio),

condicid (conditio), suspicio

nltius).

tribunicius (tribu-

NOTE. This substitution began very early (in a few words) while the c still had the sound of k. But generally it belongs to a later period of the language, and is due to the disturbing influence of consonant i; nJLtio (natyo) became nacho t or nazio, or nasho* It is this disturbance that has produced the modern sibilant sound of C, as well as that of ti : as, nation (through the French) from natio ;
speciest

from species.

b.

Several words are written sometimes with and sometimes without

an

initial h: as, harena or (arena), erus or (herus), umerus or (humerus), urn or or (humor). c. In later Latin, e, ae, and oe became alike in sound (like ainfate), and hence they are often confounded in writing: as, faenus (fenus,

foenus). d. Other words variously spelled are : adulescens, adolescens aheneus, aeiieus ; Snulus, annulus ; artus, (arctus) ; autumnus,
;

(auctumnus) caelum (coelum); cum, quom, (quum) epistula, epistola ; exsul, exul fecundus (f oecundus) f emina, (foemina)
; ;
;

lltera, littera

lubet, libet

lubido, libido
;

milia, millia
;

nequi-

quani, nequicquam,

quidquam

nequidquam paulus, paullus quicquam, umquam, unquam verto, vorto volnus, vulnus
;

Also proelium, (praelium) servos, servus. voltus, vultus the gerundive-form -endua or -undus, and the superlative -imus or
;

umus. e. At the end of a few words d was anciently written aput for apud. /. Some variations in spelling mark the changes in
Combinations.

set for sed,

10 and. II.

13.

Two

times in sound.

words are often united in writing, and someThus,

13-15.]

Knnhn/

l<t>nns.

a. Conjunctions or other particles and pronouns are sometimes connected as in etenim, unuaquiaque, iamdudum, iamdiu, aiquia,
:

alquidem also a few short phrases, as, quire", quamobrem, rgapublica, iusiurandum, paterfamiliaa. b. The verb eat, is, is sometimes joined with the preceding word, would be united by elision especially in the old poets, when the two
;
:

as,

homoat, periculumat, auauat, qualiat (qualia eat)

c.

(like thoifrt,

F-ue).

ala (ai via),

ty

Similar contractions are found in vin' (viane), acirf (aciane), aodea (al audea), aultia (ai vultia). So in English,

worft (wol not).

Syllables.

14. In Latin every word has as many

syllables as

it

has

vowels or diphthongs.
a. In the division of

two vowels
NOTE.

is

to

words into syllables a single consonant between be written and pronounced with the latter.

This rule applies also to

and consonant

i.

b. This rule is sometimes extended to double consonants, or any combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word as,
:

ho-apea, ma-gnua,
c.

di-xit.

In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-eat, ob-

latua.
d.

syllable
;

as pi-ua
atat.
e.

a syllable

preceded by a vowel in the same word is called pure, preceded by a consonant, impure, as cou-

Any

syllable

all

others are called close.

ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open ; Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the

second close.

Kindred Forma.
In English words derived from the Latin, the original letters But in native English are retained (as ambition from ambitio). 1

15.

words

which are cognate with the Latin (see Appendix), the sounds are rarely represented by the same letters in the two languages, but usually by closely related letters which regularly
original

correspond.
1

Many

as,

fashion,

words, however, coming through the French follow French changes fafon (factio) chivalry, cheval (caballus) chimney, cheminee
: ;

(caminus).

10
LATIN
c, k,

Etymology: Letters and Sounds,

ENGLISH

15, 16.

qu

H,

WH:
CH TH
:

quT,

who] cos, hone; carpS, harvest; calo (kalendae), hail; cord-, heart.

g
t

K,

genus, kin; germ, knee; gusto, choose.

T or D (rarely)

stare,

\&)thou\ ires, three; tenuis, thin. stand $ torre5, dry.

d p
f (for

T: duo, two; dens, tooth; seeled, sit. F: pater, father; pul\us,foal; paucl, /he/.
oh)

B: fero

(<e/oeo),

bear; frater

((f>pa.Tr)p)

brother.

f(fordh)

D:
Y,

fores (Ovpa), doors; fera (Oyjp), deer.

hostis, guest.

h
i

cons.,

G: vehd, wagon] haedus,#dtf; w: iugum,yo&e; ovis, ewe.

Sometimes a consonant
word.

lost in the Latin appears in the English Thus, (s)niv-, snow; (h)anser, goose; (s)nervo-, snare.

Sounds
NOTE.

of the Letters.

pronunciation of Latin is different in different countries. Among us, it usually follows one of two ways, which may be called the Roman (or Phonetic) and the English method.

The

16.
NOTE.
also

By
A

the

Roman

(or Phonetic)

method, every

letter

has always the same sound.

long vowel in our enunciation almost necessarily acquires a slightly
different quality

from a short one, as

in boot

and

foot,

machine and

holiest.

See

bs

below.
:

VOWELS

a as in father; e as eh? (prolonged); they; I as in machine;

as in idea.

% as eh? (clipped).
I as in holiest.

u y between u and
DIPHTHONGS
:

as in holy ; as oo in boot;

8 as
ii
z

in obey.

as oo in foot.
in

ae

like

ay ; oe

like oy

(German it). ; au like ow

now.

ei as in eight; eu as eh'oo; ui as oo'ee. c and g are always hard, as in cotne, get.

s
i

is

always sharp, as in sea,

is like

lips.

cons,

y \nyoung; v

(cons, u), like

w in wing;

CONSONANTS,
as in English, except that
:

qu
bs
is

as in English.

like/j; ch like k;

ph

like/i

before s or f was combined with the preceding vowel somewhat as French nasal making the vowel long.
,

z as dz in adze.

th as

in rathole, later as in thin.

16-18.]

Quantity and Accent.

NOTE

i.

sounded with the

NOTE

2.

In the ancient pronunciation, ph was distinguished from f by being lips only, instead of lip and t-Tth. In many words (as abietis, tenuis), i and u sometimes had the

consonant sound, though usually in such words reckoned as vowels. NOTE 3. The diphthong ae was anciently sounded as above, but early in the time of the Empire acquired from popular or provincial use tin- lon^ sound of e. .\>IK 4. When two consonants come together (as in condo, postea), or a consonant is doubled (as in aunus, ullus, mltto), care should be taken to pronounce both letters distinctly. It was doubtless this distinct pronunciation of consonants that made a syllable with a short vowel long by Position ($ 18. d).

17. By the English method, the sounds as in English but

;

letters

have the same

5,

a. Final a is pronounced as in America ; but in the monosyllables da, qua, sta, sometimes as \\\pay] e in open syllables as in me, in

open
oh)

men; i in open syllables as in Hi! in close as in phi] o in syllables as in tone, in close as in not] u as in pull or as in hull, without any definite rules, as ullus (like gull us), but fullo (like/w//
close as in
;

like

/.

In this method of pronunciation, syllables are often treated as open or close according to the position of the accent: as, i'-ter (open), it-i'neris (close).

NOTE.

b.

The diphthongs
ei
like

ae, oe, are

pronounced

like e;

au

like

aw, eu

and ui end of a word as in

like

ew,

/in kite] es and (in plural words) 6s at the disease, morose.

before
e,
i,

c.

y, ae, oe,

The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and/) eu ch is always hard, as in chasm, chemist.
;

NOTE. The English method should be retained in Roman names in English, as Julius Cfssar; and in familiar quotations, as e pluribus unum ; viva voce ; vice versa; a fortiori ; veni, vidi, vici, etc.

Quantity and Accent.

18. Vowels are long or short (as affecting their pronunciation} only by nature. Syllables (as affecting- accent and metrical value} are long or short, according to their
vowel, but are also made long by Position through the obstruction of consonants. The length or shortness in

both cases
NOTE.

is

called Quantity

(cf.

347).

of the rules of Quantity affect length by nature only, length by position only, and some both.

Some

some

a.
b.

diphthong is long as in aide's, f oedus. So, derived from a diphthong: as, exclude (ex-claudo).
:

A A

vowel before another vowel or h

is

short: as in via, nlhil.

also,

a vowel

c.

vowel formed by contraction

is

long:

as. nil (nihil).

12
d.

Etymology: Letters and Sounds.

18,19.

syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants (exwith 1 or r), or a double consonant (x, z), is long by a mute cept Position ; as in pingo, saxum, Mezentius. Before nf and ns, gn and gm, and i consonant the vowel itself becomes long by nature : as in

infero, praesens,
e.

magnus, agmeii, hums.

a short vowel
in verse
is
:

A syllable in which
;

is

common
f.

i.e. it

may be long

followed by a mute with as in alacris, latebrae.

or r

vowel before nd, nt

is

regularly short

by nature

as,

amant.
is

amandus from am are. NOTE. A vowel is lengthened

developed as a vanish
;

before i cons, because another thus a(')yo becomes aio.

(vowel)

19. In Latin the accent in words of more than one

syllable is on the Penult or Antepenult. DEFINITION The Penult is the last syllable but one
:

the Antepenult, the last

but two.
a.

Words

of two syllables are always accented on the

first syllable

Ro'ma, ve'ho, i'pse. b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on
is

the Penult,

if that

long

as,

ami'cus, praesen'tis

if it

is

short or

common, on

the

Antepenult: as, do'minus, alacris, la'tebrae, conti'niio, praete'rltum, dissocia'bilis. NOTE. In words of more than four syllables a secondary accent usually arises at a convenient distance from the main accent as, naviga"tio'nibus, pecu"lia'ria.
:

joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dSS'que, amarg've, tlbi'ne, ita'que (and. . . s0), as distinguished from i't&que
c.

When

an Enclitic

is

So (according to some) ex'inde, ec'quando, etc. (therefore). d. EXCEPTIONS: I. Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the
accent of the simple verb: as, benefa'cit, calefa'cit (see (These were not true compounds, but phrases.)
2.

169. a)

-ius,

and the genitive of those

:

In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in in -ium retain the accent of the nomi'

native
3.

CornS'li, Vergi'li, inge'ni (see 40. c). Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of
as,
:

the complete words for sati'sne.

as, illi'c for illi'ce,

produ'c

for

produce, sati'n

ancients recognized three accents, acute ('), grave (*), and cir* Accent no doubt originally consisted in a change of pitch, eleva^ and not merely in a more forcible utterance tion, depression, or both combined, (ictus). But in Latin this pitch accent had been supplanted by a stress accent it

NOTE.

The

cwnflcx (*).

historical times.

20, 21.J

Root and Stem.

13

CHAPTER

II.

Words and
Inflection.

their

Forms.

20. INFLECTION
word, to show
a. Inflectional

its

is a change made grammatical relations.

in

the form of a

or at the beginning, but oftener in

changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, its termination: as, vox, a voice ;

vocis, of a voice; voco,

called; tangit, he touches
;

call;

vocat, he

calls;

vocavit, he has

tetigit, he touched.

b. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the preposition
;

of or the mood.
c.

like;

and

in

vocet

the change of vowel signifies a change of

relations
in

Inflectional

of tense or
lish
:

changes in the body of a verb usually denote mood, and correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs
he breaks or
bites
;

Eng-

as, frangit,
;

broken

mordet, he

breaking; fregit, he broke or has momordit, he bit. 1

is

Root and Stem.

21.

The body
is

of a word, to

which the terminations are

attached,

called the

STEM. 2

The Stem

contains the idea of the word without relations; but,

except in the first part of a compound, it cannot be used without some termination to express them. Thus the stem voc- denotes voice; with -B added it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or

agent of an action

with

The stem

is in

many

-is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice. forms so united with the termination that a
is

comparison with other forms

necessary to determine

it.

1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of Stem, but have become a part of the system of inflections.
;

Serv-

The name Stem is sometimes incorrectly given to that part of a word in servus which is unrh:mgf<l in inflection. This may be called the

as
base.

14

Etymology : Words and their Forms.

22.

22-24.

A ROOT is the simplest form attainable by analysis word into its component parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same or kindred
of a
is voc, which does not mean to call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With a-

languages. Thus the root of the stem voc-

or

I call)

with avi- it is the it becomes voca-, the stem of vocare (to call} stem of vocavit (he catted}; with ato- it becomes the stem of vocStus with Stion- it becomes the stem of vocationis (of a calling}. (called} With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox (a voice: that by which we call). This stem, again, with -alls added, means belonging to a voice , with -tila, a little voice.
; ;

In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become Words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning. Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a separate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier.

NOTE.

early time

23. The Stem is sometimes the same as the root: as in due-is, of a leader\ fer-t, he bears ; but it is more frequently formed from the
root

as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB, a voc-is, king of a voice (voc, call). (REG, direct} of 2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : as in fug-a, flight (FUG+a); fugi-s, you fly (FUG + ya); paiigo, I fasten
1.

By changing or lengthening its vowel:

;

shave)

reg-is,

(PAG-f na). 3. By two or more of these methods

tollo,
4.

as in due-it, he leads

(DUC+ a),

I raise (TUL+ya). By derivation and composition,

following the laws of development

peculiar to the language.

(See Chap. VIII.)

by combination vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see 32).
Inflectional terminations are variously modified
final

24.

with the

1 For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit tisth&mi, Greek forwii, Latin sistere and stare, German flet)cn, and English stand. (See Chap. VIII.)

24, 25.]

The Parts of Speech.

15

NOTE. A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open affix one When a close affix is joined to a conbeginning with a consonant, a close affix. sonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic change, as in rexl for regr-sl, or a vowel appears, as in rSg-i-bus. But, in most cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem, as in voca-mus, regi-mus (see \ 123).

The Parts
25.

of Speech.

Words

are divided into nine

PARTS OF SPEECH

Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
a.

A Noun

is

the

name

of a person, place, thing, or idea:

as,

Names Caesar; Roma, Rome] domus, a house] virtus, virtue. of persons and places are PROPER NOUNS; other nouns are called
COMMON.
b.

An

Adjective

is

a word that attributes a quality

as,

bonus, good]

fort.is,

brave, strong.

NOTE. Etymologically, there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any name can still be used to attribute a quality. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name
King.
c.

A A

Pronoun

is

idea without either

d.

Verb

is

a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or naming or describing it as, is, he\ qui, who] nos, we. a word which asserts something: as, sum, I am]
:

am at,

he loves.

In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts NOTE. anything, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a

name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.
e.

Participle is a

word

that attributes a quality like

an adjective,

but being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, Caesar consul creatus, Ccesar having been elected consul] Caesar Pompeium metuens, Ccesar fearing

Pompey.
f.

An Adverb

is

a word used to express the time, place, or manner

:

of an assertion or attribute

as,

splendidS mendax, gloriously false ,

hodie natus, born to-day.

NOTE. These same functions are often performed by cases (see } 148,149) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.

Etymology : Words and their Forms.

25-28.

g. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun and some other word or words in the same sentence per agros it, he
:

goes over the fields ; e pluribus

unum,

one out of many.

152).

NOTE. Prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by cases.
h.

The

relations ex-

A Conjunction is a
Some

tences without affecting their relations

word which connects words, phrases, or as, et, and; sed, but.
:

sen-

NOTE.
until.

adverbs also connect words,

etc., like

conjunctions.
as,

These are

called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive

Adverbs:

ubi, where; donee,

i. Interjections are mere exclamations. They are not strictly to be classed as Parts of Speech heus, halloo I 6, oh!
:

NOTE.

They sometimes express an emotion which

like other

affects

mentioned, and so have a connection conquered/ (alas for the conquered!)

words

as,

vae

some other things victis, woe to the

26. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have inflections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case. Verbs have inflections of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and
person.

NOTE.
degree.
tion
(cf.

These
89).

Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison to indicate inflections are, however, properly stem-formations made by deriva-

27. Those
CLES:
these
jections.

parts of speech which are not inflected are called PARTIare Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter-

NOTE.

The term

Particle

is

sometimes limited
;

to

(interrogative), non, ne (negative) si (conditional), etc., to indicate the form or construction of a sentence.

an

such words as num, -ne, which are used simply

Gender.

28. The genders distinguished in Latin are three Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. a. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
Natural gender
is

distinction as to the sex of the object denoted

as,

puer, boy; puella, girl;

sex: as,

donum, gift.
,

NOTE. Many nouns have both a masculine and feminine form to distinguish qervus, cerva, stag, aoe cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix,

conqueror.

Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor), usually though not necessarily male, are always treated as masculine.

28, 29.]

General Rules of Gentler.

is

17

b.

Grammatical gender *

a formal distinction as to sex where no

It is shown by the form of the adjective actual sex exists in the object. joined with the noun: as, lapis magiius (M.), a great stone ; manua

mea
class
:

(p.), ;///

hand.
designate persons as belonging tc a
of

NOTE.
as,

A few neuter nouns are used to mancipium tuum, your slave.

of classes or bodies of persons
(r.),

Names
(M.),

may be

any gender
(F. pi.),

acies
pet

and

agmen
(as

(N.),

army; operae

as, exercitus workmen; copiae

:

(F. pi.), troops.

Many

names of girls

Paegnium, Glycerium)

are neuter.

General Rules of Gender.

29.

I.

Names

of

Male beings, Rivers, Winds, Months,

and Mountains, are masculine.

2. Names of Female beings, Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine.

NOTE.
tions,

The gender of most of the above may be recognized by their terminaaccording to the rules given under the several declensions.

a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as Allia), with the Greek names Lethe and Styx, are feminine others are variable or uncertain. Some names of Mountains take the gender of their termination: as, Alpes (p.), the Alps ; Soracte (N.). Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun
;

mensis, month, being understood as, lanuarius, January. b. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine as, Sulmo,
: :

Gabil

(plur.)

or neuter, as

Tarentum, Illyricum.

few names of Plants and

tion: as,

Gems follow the gender of their terminacentaureum(N.),<r/tf#r/; acanthus (u.},bearsfoot; opalus

(M.), opal.

What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the product of the imagination in a rude age, when language was in the course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a living creature, violent and strong, and so is
1

masculine
to

and the fable of Atlas shows how similar living attributes were ascribed Mountains, which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny; the Tree shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird her nest of eggs and, to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun. Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine while, among Northern
;

nations, the
(the only repeat

Sun (perhaps for its comforting warmth) is feminine, and the Moon appointer of works and days), masculine. The rules of grammatical gender
and extend these
earlv

workings of the fancy.

8
c.

Etymology: Words and their Forms.

[29-31.

and words quoted merely

triste vale, a

Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, for their form, are neuter: as, fas, right ; nihil, nothings gummi, gum ; scire tuum, your knowledge (to know) ;

sad farewell'; hoc ipsum dm,

this -very

"long"

to
as,

30. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender :
a. If a

exsul, exile ; bos, ox or cow. noun signifying a thing without

as, dies,

life

may be

either masculine

or feminine,

day;

finis, end,

it is

sometimes said to be of

Doubtful Gender.

names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent These are called Epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always mascuTo denote a male fox we line, and vulps, fox, is always feminine. mascula femina. a female hare, lepus vulpes ; may say,
b.

Several

of sex.

Number and

Case.

31. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined in two Numbers, singular &&& plural; and in six Cases,
nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative.
a.
b.

The Nominative is The Genitive may

The Dative
is

the case of the Subject of a sentence. generally be translated by the English Posof.

sessive, or
c.

by the Objective with the preposition

It may the case of the Indirect Object ( 177). usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for; but sometimes by the Objective without a preposition.

d.
It is
e.

The Accusative
used also with

is

many

the case of the Direct Object of a verb of the Latin Prepositions.

177).

usually be translated by the Objective with with, in, or at. It is also often used with prepositions. g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be used as object-cases and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (casus obllqui).

f.

The Vocative is the The Ablative may

by,

case of Direct Address.

from,

NOTE.

A more convenient arrangement of the cases is the following (see n.,p.ao5):

DIRECT CASES: Nominative, Vocative, Accusative. INDIRECT CASES: Genitive, Dative, Ablative. h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another
case (the Locative), denoting t\\z place where. i. Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (
148).

inflectional terminations early became fused with the stem in many cases, Latin words are inflected practically by adding case-endings to a ai. note 2). But the base part of the noun called the base, which is invariable (see

NOTE.

As the proper

and case-endings do not

exactly correspond to the proper stem

and termination.

32, 33.]

Declension of Nouns.

19

CHAPTER
32.

III.

Declension of Nouns.

are inflected in five Declensions, distinthe case-ending of the Genitive Singular, and guished by 1 the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem. by
DECL.
"
3.
i.

NOUNS

Gen. Sing, ae

2.

"i
"

Characteristic

"
4.

Is

"
"
"

"6
if

a (anciently a)
a Consonant

I or
ti

" "

us(uiB)
el

"
5.

a.

The Stem of

a noun

may be

found,

a consonant-stem, by omitfor the case-ending

ting the case-ending ; if a vowel-stem, the characteristic vowel.

b.

by substituting

The Nominative

of

in the first declension) is

most masculine and feminine nouns (except formed from the stem by adding s. 2

the original 8 But many, however, end in O, or in the liquids, 1, n, r, NOTE. (sometimes with one or more letters of the stem) having been lost by phonetic decay n). In some (as in servus, st. servo-) the stem-vowel is modified before ( the final s ; or, as in ager, imber, st. agro-, imbri-, a vowel has intruded itself
into the stem.

33.
a.

The

The Vocative

the singular
1

following are general Rules of Declension is always the same as the Nominative, except of nouns in us of the second declension. 8
:

in

Declension

is

produced by adding terminations

originally significant to differ-

ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the language have given rise to the several declensions ; but it is probable that originally
there vras only one, with perhaps a few variations.

The

original terminations

(answering to prepositions) can no longer be determined with certainty, excep* in a few cases. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final
letter of the

stem. Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them. But they have several peculiarities of inflection, and will be more conveniently treated in a group by themselves (see Chap. IV.). 2 The 8 of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she. 8 In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the weakened stemvowel. Most of the words likely to be used in address are of these declensions ; and,
in practice, comparatively few other words have a vocative. It is given in the paradigms for the sake of symmetry, but may well be omitted in declining.

2O
i.

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

33-35.

In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in

the plural end in a.

The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in the Accusative plural in B. d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in 1
f.

e.

f.

g. in the Ablative singular

first

The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike. The Genitive plural always ends in um. Final i, o, u of inflection are always longs final a
of the
first

is

declension

final

is

short, except long in the

and

fifth

declensions, short in the second

and

third.

34. The Case-endings of

DECL.

the several declensions are the following,

rare forms being given in parenthesis,

i.

Greek forms

in italics :
V.

el(S)
61(1)

em
es

6
es
G.

arum (um) orum (um, 6m) on um, ium,

(abus)
is

eon

uum

erum

D.A. is
A.

(obus)

Ibus
es
(is), a, ia,

as

os

as us,

ibus (ubus) ebus ua es

FIRST DECLENSION.

in a,

35. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends and except in Greek nouns the nominative is like the
Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined
SINGULAR.
:

stem.

PLURAL.
stellae, stars.

NOM.
GEN. DAT. Ace. Voc. ABL.
NOTE.

a (or the) star. stellae, of a star. stellae, to (or for) a star. stellam, a star.
Stella,
stella,
,

stellarum, of stars.
stellis, to (or for) stars.

Stellas, stars.

thou star

stellae,^ stars!

stella with,from, etc.,

a star,

stellis,

with, from,

etc., start.

The- a- ot the stem was originally long.

35-37. J

}'*irsf

Declension: Greek Nouns.

21

GENDER.
:

Nouns

of the first declension are Feminine.

:

EXCEPTIONS Nouns masculine from their signification as, nauta, So a few family or personal names: as, Murena, Scaevola. Also, Hadria, the Adriatic.
sailor.
'5<>.

which

a. The Genitive singular anciently ended in -ai, The same ending occurs in occasionally found as, aulai. the dative, but only as a diphthong.

CASE-FORMS.

is

b. An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, used in the combinations pater (mater, fllius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family (plur. patrgs familias or f amiliarum)
.

c.

The
The

Locative form
:

31. h} for the singular

ends in -ae

for the

plural in is

as,

Romae,

at

Rome] Athenls,

at Athens.

d.

especially in descent: as,

Genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, compounds with c61a and gSna, signifying dwelling and

caelicolum,

celestials;

Troiugenum, sons of Troy;

daughter,
in
is

Aeneadum, sons of sEneas ; so amphora and drachma. e. The Dative and Ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia,
end
in

an older form -abus.

So

rarely with liberta,

Jreed-woman;

mula, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes (as formulas, documents, etc.) are mentioned together, the form in -Is preferred in all but dea and filia.
f.
as,

The

original

ending of the Ablative -d

is

retained in early Latin

praedad,

booty.

Greek Nouns.
37.

Many nouns

of the first declension

borrowed from

the Greek are entirely Latinized, but many retain traces of their Greek forms in various degrees.
a court
(F.)

22

Etymology : Declension of Nouns.

37, 38.

Andromache (F.). AZneas (M.). Leonidas (M.). a Persian (M.). Leonidas Ferses (a) NOM. Andromache (a) Aeneas Leonidae Persae GEN. Andromaches (ae) Aeneae Aeneae Leonidae Persae DAT. Andromachae Persen (am) Acc. Andromachen (am) Aenean (am) Leonidam Leonida (S) Persa Aenea (&) Voc. Andromache (a) Leonida Perse (a) Aenea ABL. Andromache (a)
Anchises (M.).
son of ^Eneas (M.)

comet (M.).

NOM.
GEN.

38-40.]

S n>ud
t

Declension.

Latin nouns of the Second Declension are thus declined

Shi S
.

24

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

40-42.

the accent c. Proper names in -ius lose e in the vocative, retaining of the nominative: as, Vergl'li; also, filius, son; genius, divine

guardian: as, audi, mi fill, hear, my son. d. Greek names in -ius have the vocative le. Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occasionally used as
as, Lacedaemonie, oh Spartan. The genitive plural often has um or (after v) 6m (cf. 7) for orum, especially in the poets: as, deum, superum, divom, of the Gods, viriim, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words

nouns
e.

of money, measure, and weight

as,

sevirum, of the
:

Seviri,

nummum,

of coins, iugerum, of acres. f. DeuB,god, has vocative deus plural

;

nominative and vocative del

dative and ablative dels or

or di (for dii)

dis (for diis).

divine)
is

genitive For the genitive plur. often used.

;

deorum, deum

divum
is

or

divom

(from divus,
:

g. The Gnaivdd

original
(later,

ending of the ablative -d

found in early Latin

as,

Gnaeo), Cneius.
:

41. The

following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem,

retain the e throughout

puer, boy; gener, son-in-law, socer father-in-law ; vesper, evening. as, lucifer, Also, compounds in fer and ger (stem fero-, gero-) morning star ; armiger, squire. a. Some of these have an old nominative in -erus as, socerus. So vocative puere, a boy, as from puerus (regularly puer).
adulter, adulterer;
,

b.

sattiri

Vir, man, has the genitive viri the adjective satur, sated, has vesper, evening, has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi, in the evening).
;
;
.

c. Liber (a name of Bacchus) has genitive Liberi; so, too, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural ( 82. b}

d.

IbSr and Celtiber, barbaric names not properly belonging

to

this declension, retain e throughout.

e.

Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -brl

and vocative
10. d.)

in the genitive.
it

42. The
native

following not having e in the stem insert

singular.
(Cf.

in the

nomi-

a.%er,field, st. agro-;

coluber, snake;

magister, master;
minister, servant;
oleaster, wild-olive;

aper, boar;
arbiter, judge ; auster, south wind;

conger,

sea-eel;

culter, knife;

faber, smith;
fiber, beaver;

onager

(-gr us), wild-ass;

cancer, crab;
caper, goat;
[N.B.

scomber (-brus), mackerel,

liber, book; For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV.]

43, 44.J

Third Declension.

2$

43. Greek nouns

declined
regular:

are including many names in -eus Plural as follows in the Singular, the being

fable (M.)- mock-sun (N.). Delos (P.). Athos (M.). Orpheus (M.).

NOM. mythos
mythS mython Voc. mythe ABL. mythd
Ace.
a.

parSlion
parelii

Delos
Deli

Athos

(6)

Orpheus
Orphei(eos) Orphel Orphea

GEN. DAT.

mythl

parelid

parelion parelion
pare"H5

Atho (I) Atho Del5 Dclon (um) Athon (um) AthSs Dele Atho Delfi

Orpheu Orpheo

Many names

in -es belonging to the third declension have also a

genitive in -I: as,

or

Thucydides, Thucydidi (compare 37. a and 63). b. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us as, Teucer Teucrus. The name Fanthus has the vocative Panthu ( 63. /).
:

c.

The The

mination -on:
d.

genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek teras, Georgicon, of the Georgics.

nominative plural

termination -oe (for Greek -ot) is sometimes found in the : as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).

THIRD DECLENSION.

Nouns

of the

Third Declension are best classed accord(i) in

ing to their stems, as ending Liquid (l, n, r), (3) in a Mute.

Vowel

(i),

(2) in

few whose stems end in u, formerly long (grus, sus), were treated

as consonant-stems.

L Mute-Stems.
44. Masculine and Feminine nouns, whose stem ends
a Mute, form the nominative
in
is

by adding
-s
:

-s.
;

If the
if
it is

mute

a lingual (t, d), it is suppressed before c s)> it unites with -s, forming -x as, (
>

a palatal

op-is, ops, helpi custod-is, custos,

guardian ;

rgg-is, rgx, king.*

Neuters have for the nominative the simple stem (with

some modifications, see

45).

capit-is, caput, head] poSmat-is,

l

poSma, poem.
it

In these the genitive

is

given

first

to

show the stem as

occurs in practice.

26

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

final

45, 46.

46. The vowel before the

is

consonant of the stem

often modified
a.

LABIALS.

adip-is,

adeps.
:

Stems in -Ip- have e before p in the nominative l as, Most stems in dp- are compounds of the root CAP
;

In these the as, particip-is, particeps, sharer. (in capio, take) stem sometimes has the form cup-: as, aucup-is, auceps, fowler. Stems in It- (M. or F.) have e (short) in the nomib. LINGUALS.

The neuter capit-is has caput. native: as, hospit-is, hospes. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending in at- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual as, cord-is, cor ; poemat-is, poema. Stems in Ic- (short i) have the nominative in -ex, c. PALATALS.
:

with a few exceptions ( 67. *), and are chiefly masculine : as, apic-is, apex; indic-is, index. Those in ic- (long i) retain I, and are feminine : as, cornlc-is, cornix. 9

46. Nouns of
Sing.

this class are declined as follows

47.

4aJ

Third Declension.

27

47. In like manner are declined

prlnceps, -ipis (c.), chief \
lapis, -idis (M.), stone ; arigs, -etia (M.). rant',

custos, -odis

(c.},

guard;

iudex, -icis (M.), judge-, cornix, -Icis (p.), raven j

comes,
#.

-itis (c.),

companion;

poema,
.

-atis (&,},

poem

47.

).

1 apparent mute-stems, having the genitive plural in -ium, are to be classed with i-stems ( 54)

Many

Greek neuters (as poSma), with nominative singular in -a, frequently end in the dative and ablative plural in -la, and in the genitive plural rarely in -orum. c. A few nouns apparent i-stems belong here canis, or canSa, gen. cania (stem orig. can-), dog.
b.
:

2.

Liquid-Stems.

48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (1, n, r), the nominative is the same as the stem, except when modified
as follows
a.
:

on- (M. and

F.)

Stems

in

drop n in the nominative

as in leon-ia,

led, lion} legion-is, legio, legion. b. Stems in din- or gin- (mostly feminine) drop n and keep an original 5 in the nominative : as, virgin-is, virgo, maiden. Also a few

others: 2 as, homin-is,

hom5, man\

Apollin-ia, Apollo; carn-is, car5,y&r Most other stems in In- have e and

turbin-is, turbo, whirlpool ; (see 61); Anien-ia, Aiiio.

retain n: as, cornicin-ia, cornicen (M.), horn-blower} carmin-is, carmen (N.), song. 6 c. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, patr-ia, pater,

father} mStr-ia, mSter, mother.* d. Many neuter stems in er- and or(originally s-stems) have -us in the nominative: as, oper-ia, opus, worki corpor-is, corpus, body.

Some stems

in er-

have

-is

as, ciner-is, cinis, ashes.

few masculine and feminine stems have the nominative in -s as well as -r: as, honor-is, hoiios (or honor); arb5r-ia, arbos (or arbor), tree.*

NOTE.
1

For some irregular nominatives of

is,

this kind, see $ ija

That

as would appear from the nominative. parent speech, and depend upon
dif-

2 All these had in the stem. originally 8 These differences are inherited from the
ferent modifications of the

same

* had become weakThese, no doubt, had ened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nom, and voc. sing, show the e. But cf. Marspitria and Mftrspiteria (MA(r)8-piter) 6 See Note 2, page 26.

original vowel ($ 10). originally ter- in the stem, but this

38
e.

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

Stems
in
11-,

48-50,

rr- (N.) lose

one of

their liquids in the nominative

as, farr-is, tar,

grain;

fell-is, fel, gall.

49. Nouns of
Sing.

this class are declined as follows

5O-52.

Third Declension,

29

The

following apparently liquid stems have the genitive plural in

:

-ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems

imber, linter, uter,

venter; fur,
see
61).

glls, 15r,

mas, rnus, [fren]

3.

also virfia (pi. from vis:

Vowel-Stems.
i-

51. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in

turris,

(as

stem

turri-

mare, stem mari-).

except in neuters,
a. Thirty-five

is

formed by adding
I

-s

nominative, to the stem.

The

nouns change others vary between i and e:

canis.
b.

to e in the

1 nominative, and

many

as,

civgs or civis,

citizen

canes or

The nominative of a few stems

i,

but loses

inserting e before

r.

in bri- and tri- does not add -s, These are imber, linter, uter,

venter
c.

54,

and

cf.

The nominative

ager). of neuters

is

the

change of I to S (as in mare). But when the e was lost, as in animal ( 53. c). 2

same as the stem, with the i was preceded by al or ar,

52.
Sing.

Nouns

of this class are declined as follows :-

3O

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

53. Nouns of this class include:

53, 54.

a. Nouns of the third declension in -es or -is (mostly feminine) or e (neuter) having the same number of syllables in the nominative and

genitive (parisyllabic).
b.
c.

Those

in -er, except pater,

lost a final -e. 1

mater, frater, accipiter.

neuters of adjectives in -alls, -aris)

Neuters in

-al, -ar (originally

which have

54.

Many nouns

with apparently consonant-stems were

2 originally i-stems.
1.

These are

as,

Monosyllables with stem apparently ending in two consonants: urbs, moiis (gen. mentis), nox (gen. noctis), arx; together

with imber, linter, uter, venter ( 51. b}. 2. Stems in tat- (as civitas, -atis), 3 or in d or t preceded by a consonant (including participles used as nouns) also the monosyllables
;

dos, [ffaux], fur,

(cf.

glis,

Us, mas,

mus, nix,

[frSn], strix, vis,

scrobs

5 o).

3.

adjectives: as,
(

Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in at-, it-, originally Arpinas, -atis ( 164. .), with penates and optimatSs
are thus declined

7 6. 2).
:

They

Sing, city (F.). STEM urbi-

54-57.]
IMur.

Third Declension.

31

NOM.
Cix. DAT. Ace. Voc. ABL.

imbrSs mitre's aetat6s imbrium aetatum (ium) murium muribus imbribus noctibus aetatibus urbibus minis (Ss) imbris (Ss) urbls(Ss) noctis (5s) aetfitis (gs) imbr6s murSa aetat6s noctes urbSs muribus imbribus noctibus aetatibus urbibus NOTE. The declension of these nouns in the singular differs in no respect from
urbfis

noctgs

urbium

noctium

that of consonant-stems,

and

in the plural in
i

no respect from

that of vowel-stems.

55. Vowel-stems show the

ing forms
a.
:

of the

stem

in the follow-

They
it

all

lack
b.
c.

entirely).

have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables For a few exceptions, see 59.

All neuters have the nominative

and accusative

plural in -ia.

d.
e.

The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly -is. The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im ( 56). The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and
57).

feminines, ends in -I (see

regular case-ending of the accusative singular of i-stems (M. or F.) would be -im as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella,

56.

The

-am

servos, -om)

but in most nouns this

is

changed

to -em

(following the consonant declension). a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively

1.

In Greek nouns and names of rivers.

In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as

2.
3.

partim
b.

and

in

amussim.

The

accusative in -im

restis, turris, securis,

is found sometimes in febris, puppis, sementis, and rarely in many other words.

57. The regular form of the ablative singular of i-stems would be -I: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed
-e.

a.

The
i.

2.

ablative in -I is found exclusively In nouns having the accusative in -im ( 56) also securis. In the following adjectives used as nouns aequalis, annalis,
;
:

aqualis,
tribulis.
3.

cousularis,

gentilis,

molaris.

primipilaris

In neuters (whose nominative ends in

-e, -al, -ar)

except

baccar, iubar, and sometimes

(in verse)

mare, rete.

to

32
b.

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

The
1.

57-60,

ablative in -I

is

found sometimes

In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis, 1 imber, navis, ovis,

pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigilis, turris. In the following adjectives used as nouns affinis, bipennis, canalis, familiaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, tridens,
:

2.

triremis,
c.

The

ablative of

vo calls. fames is always fame (78.

i.

*).

The

defec-

tive

mane

has sometimes locative

mam

77. 2. e) used as ablative.

as Praeneste, Tergeste, d. Most names of towns in -e, and Sdracte, a mountain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerete. e. For canis, see 47. c.

58. The
is

regular Nominative plural of i-stems would be

-is,

but this

very rarely found in nouns. The regular Accusative -is is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is
-els (diphthong).

59. The following have -um (not -ium) in the Genitive plural: cams, iuvenis (originally consonant-stems); ambages, mare (once
only, otherwise wanting), volucris; also (sometimes) apis, caedes,

clades, mensis, sedes, strues, suboles, vates, and (very rarely)

patrials in -as, -atis
;

-is, -itis

as,

Arpinas,

Arpmatum Samnis,
;

Samnitum.
4.

Irregular Nouns.
is

60. In

many nouns the stem

grii-, su-,
:

irregularly modified in

the nominative or other cases.

a.

Thus
-s in the
;

nominative, and are ingrus has also a nominative gruis sus has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural. b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the nominative (bos, bSvis). In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, -is). In ISv- ( Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in lu-piter (for -pater), gen. 16 vis, etc.
flected like

The vowel-stems

add

mute-stems

c.

tilis (p.), the

In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (N.), supellex, supellecnominative has been formed from a shorter stem, in
;

senex, senis from a longer so that these words show a combination of two distinct forms. The shorter form is found in the genitive iecor-is. d. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (N.) (pi. vasa,
(see p. 26, foot-note 2), retains native (see 48. d).

-orum)

its

proper form in the nomi-

Always

in the

formula

aqua

et Ignl interdicl

243. a).

61-63.1

Third Declension.
peculiar forms arc thus declined
:

33

61.
N., V.

Some

Sin-, ox, cow(C.). old man (M.)./^ (F.)- bone (N.). force (F.). swine (c.).

34
f.
plur.

Etymology : Declension of Nouns.

Many Greek nouns
nom.
-Ss, ace. -as
:

63-65.

(especially in the poets) have gen. -6s, ace. -a;

as, aer,

aether, crater, hgros (-ois),

lampas
:

(-adis or -ados), see 43>

g.

lynx

(-cis or -cSs),

nais (-idos), Orpheus (-eos

:

few in -ys have ace. -yn, voc. -y, abl. -ye

-yi, -yn, -y, -ye.

as,

chelys, -yn,

-y

Capys, -yos,

h.

Several feminine
;

names

cases ending in -6 Didonis or Didus

/.

they
dat.

may

in -6 have gen. sing, -us, all the other also have regular forms as, Dido, gen.
:

or Dido, etc. Several Greek forms are irregularly retained in the vocative
;

Didoni

as,

Panthus,

voc.

Panthu

Orpheus, Orpheu
(cf.

Atlas, Atla

Daphnis,

DaphnI; Pericles, Periclg

43).

64.

Some
:

of

these forms are

seen in the following

examples

Sing. hero(M..}. ). STEM hero- lampad-

base(F.}.
basi-

tiger (c.). naiad (Y. }. lyre (F.}. tigrid- (tigri-) naidchely-

V. GEN. DAT. Ace. ABL.

N.,

heros
herois

lampas
lampados lampadi lampada lampade
lampade's

basis baseos
basi

tigris
tigris (idos)
tigri

nais chelys naidos

.
.

heroi

naidi

heroa heroe

basin
basi

tigrin(ida) naida
tigri (ide)

chelyn naide (V. chely)

naidgs

Plur.

V. heroes GEN. heroum D.jA^heroibus Ace. heroas

N.,

bases

tigres

lampadum basium (eon) tigrium

lampadibus basibus basis (eis) lampadas
PROPER NAMES.
tigribus
tigris

naidum

naidibus (idas) naidas

NOM. Atlas
GEN. DAT. Ace. Voc. ABL.
Atlantis
Atlanti

Dido
DIdonis (us) DTdoni (6)

Simois
Simoentis Simoenti

Capys
Capyos
Capyi

Daphnis
Daphnjdis Daphnidi

Atlanta
Atlas (a) Atlante

DTdonem

(6)

Simoenta
Simois

Dido Didone (6)

Simoente

Capyn Capy Capye

Daphnim
DaphnY DaphnT

(in)

NOTE.

The

regular Latin forms can be used for most of the above.

7.

Rules of Gender.

65. The following are general Rules for the Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to the
termination of the nominative.
1

Dative,

herSisin (once

only).

ff 65, 66.]

Third Declension.

35

b.

a. Masculine endings are -5, -or, -OB, -er, -a (gen. -Idia, -Itia). Feminine endings are -aa (gen. -5tia), -6a (gen. -is), -is, -ye, -x,
;

and

e (following a consonant) also, -do, -go, (gen. -inis), -io (abstract collective), and -us (gen. -iidis, -utis).
c.

Neuter endings are

-a, -e, -I,

-y

-c,

-1,

-t

-men

(gen. -minis)

-ar, -ur, -us

(gen. -eris, -oris).

66. The following are general Rules for the Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to their stems.
Stems in i-, having -a in the nominative, are a. VOWEL-STEMS. Those having Feminine, except those mentioned below ( 67. a). 6 in the nominative and those in -al and -ar (which have dropped
the -e) are neuter.

Stems in 1- are Masculine, except sfl, fel, mel, b* LIQUID-STEMS. and sometimes sal (N.). Those in min- are Neuter, except homo, nemo, flamen (M.). Others Those in Sn- are in in- are masculine, except pollen, unguen (N.). masculine. Those in din-, gin-, ion-, abstract and collective nouns, are
feminine.

Others in on-, with cardo, margo, ordo, unio, senio,

in r-

quaternio, are masculine.

Those

30 given below

preceded by a short vowel are Neuter, except about Those in r- preceded by a long vowel are 67. b). (

masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus (p.); crus, ius, pus, rus, tus (thus) (N.), in which the long vowel is due to contraction. Stems in b- and m- are Feminine, c. LABIAL STEMS (no neuters). except chalybs. Steins in p- are chiefly masculine (exceptions below,

67.0d. LINGUAL STEMS.

praeses, lapis (M.).
(as

Stems

in &d-, Sd-, id-, ud-,

aud-, nd-, are

Feminine, except dromas, vas (vadis), pes, quadrupes, obses,

Those

Arpinas), and the masc.

plur.

in at-, ut-, are feminine, except patrials penatga and optimates. Those in

6d-, 6t-, are masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds Those in 8t-, It-, are masculine, except abiea, merges, seges, (F.).

teges
ftt-

(F.),

and those which are common by

signification.

Those

in

are neuter; those in nt- various (see list, 67. d}\ those in It-, rt-, feminine. (For a few isolated forms, see list, 67.) e. PALATAL STEMS. Stems in c- preceded by a consonant or long

vowel are Feminine, except calx, decunx, phoenix, storax, vervgx Those in c- preceded by a short vowel are chiefly masculine (for (M.).
exceptions, see
list,

l&c, phalanx, syrinx

67. e} also

those

g-,

masculine, except [ffrux],

nix (nivia)

(F.).

36

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

67.

of the

67. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns Third Declension, classed according to their Stems
a.

VOWEL-STEMS.
list,

-6s, -is

about 35 nouns (see verres, M.

:
:

51. a), feminine,

except tudes, vates,

-Is, -is

about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine, 2&felis,pellis. Exc. aedllis, amnis, anguis, c., anndlis, antes (pi.), assis, axis,
c.,

buris, callis,

candlis,

c.,

cam's,

C., cassis, caulis, civts, c.,

clunis,

C., collis, crinis, c., ensis,fascis, finis, C.,follis,funis, c.,fustis,

hostis, c., ignis, invents, c., lactes (pi.), C., lares (pi-),

manes

(pi.),

mensis, molaris, ndtdlis, orbis, panis, pedis,

vermis, M.

c., piscis, posits,

sentis, c., soddlis, testis, c., torris, unguis, metis,

vepres

(pi.), C.,

[Those marked

c.

are sometimes feminine; the 'rest

are masculine.]

-,

-is

4Q, -alis

upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter, as mare, cubile. -aris ; -&r, 24 neuter, with several used only in the
:

plural, as

animal, Saturnalia (see

Liquid Stems).
-6r, -ris:

list,

53. c\ for those in -ar, -aris, see

imber, linter, uter, venter,

all

commonly F. [For other apparently consonant stems,

PECULIAR.
grus, gruis,
;

M. except linter, which is see below.]

;

suis, c., herds, herois, M.

F. ; rhus, rhois (ace. rhum), M. sus, misy, -yos, F. oxys, -yos, F. cinnabarl,
;

gummt,

sinapt, N. (indecl.)
b.

chelys, -yn, -y, F.

bos, bovis, c.

LIQUID-STEMS.
sol,

-1,

-lis

9 nouns, masculine, as consul,

:

except

sil,

and (sometimes)

sal, N.

-nis -n, -Snis

-6n,

\_\ren\, splen, M.

Hymen, M.

10 nouns, M., as tiblcen$ except pollen, unguen, gluten, sanguen, N. -mSn, -minis (verbal), as dgmen ; about 60 nouns, N. \>\&flamtn, M. -on, -6nis (Greek) : canon, daemon, gnomon, M. ; aedon, alcyon, ancon,
n, -Inis:
;

-6,

sindon, F. onis: about 70 nouns, names, as Cicero.

all

masculine, as sermo; with

many

family

-io,
-io,

-ionis (material objects, etc.), as pugio: about 30 nouns, masculine. -ionis (abstract and collective), as legio, regio: upwards of 180, feminine, including many rare verbal abstracts.
:

5, -Inia

homo, turbo, nimo, Apollo, M.

67.J

Third Declension.
:

37

-do, -dlnis
-go, -glnis
-ir, -iris
:
:

nearly 50 nouns, as grando, feminine except cardd, drdo, M. about 40 nouns, as compago, feminine with margo, M. or F.
; ;

baccar, iubar, nectar, N.

lar, salar, M.
v.
T/<?>,

-Sr, -ris

accipiter, ft ater, pater. M., mater,

-er, -eris
-Sr, -gris
:

(mostly Greek)
,7<V,

crater halter, prestcr, M.,

',

N.

aether. M.

-gr, -gris

acipenser, agger, anscr, asser, aster, cancer, career, later, acer, cadaver, cicer, mulicr, F. passer, vesper, vomer, M.
: ; ;

laver,

papaver, piper,

slier,

siser,

suber, tuber, tiiber, iiber,

verber, N.
-es, -6ris
-is,
:

Ceres, F.
cinis,
:

-Sris

cucumis, pulvis, vomis, M.

-6r (-6s), -oris

nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the Agent, formed upon verb-stems), as favor, orator, all M. except soror,

uxor,
-6r, -6ris
:

F.
;

castor, rhetor, M.
flos,

arbor,
glos, F.

F.
;

ador, aequor,

marmor,

N.

-6s, -oris
-ur, -uris
-iir, -iiris

mos, ros, M.

os, N.

filr, C.

9 masculine, as vultur]
N.

viith fulgur , guttur,

murmur,

sul-

fur,
-tir,

-6ris
-Sris

-fts,

cbur, femur, ieciir, robur (-j), N. 20 neuter, as genus; also, Venus, F.

mils, M.

-fts,

-6ris

-us, -uris

14 nouns, as pectus, neuter, except lepus, M. tdlus, F. ^rr/?j, z;7j, pus, riis, tus (thus) N.
;

PECULIAR.
sencx, senis, M.
fellis;

Anio,
;

; delphln, -mis ; sanguis (-<?), -Inis ; ^, aeris; far, farris \ fcl, card, carnis, F.

-tents

mel, mellis; tier, itineris\ iecur, iecinoris (iecoris), N.

glis,gliris,u.
C.

LABIAL.
;

-bs, -bis

chalybs, M.
:

plebs, trabs, urbs, F.

1 scobs, scrobs, C.

-ms, -mis
-ps, -pis
:

hiems (often written hiemps},

15 nouns, masculine, as
;

F.
',

princeps

except [] daps'], merops,

ops, slips, F.

forceps, stirps? c.
d.

LINGUAL.
feminine,
as

-s, -Sdis (mostly Greek): dromas, vas, .M. -es, -edis cupes, heres, M.
:

14 nouns,

lampas; except

merces,
;

F.

also, praes, praedis.

F.

-Ss,

-gdis

pcs, quadrupcs, M.
obscs, praescs, c.
five

compes,

-gs, -idis
l

These

were originally i-stems.

Originally i-stem.

38
-is,

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

-Idis
:

67,

nearly 40 nouns (mostly Greek), as cassis, aegis, F.

:

lapis, M.

-6s,

-odis
:

custos, c.

-6s, -otis -us,

-&,

nepos, M.
:

cos, dos, F.

sacerdos, c.
{-tidis}, F.

-udis

inciis,
:

-atis

-as,

(Greek) -atis: about 20 (besides derivatives), M., satids,

(-atis}, c.
:

palus, subscus ; withfraus, laus, peciis nearly 20 nouns, neuter, as poema.

F.

also,

ands

-Ss, -etis

celes, lebes,

mdgnes, M.
;

quies, requies, inquies, F.

-es, -gtis

aries, paries, M.
seges, teges, F.
;

abies, F.

-6s, -Stis
-6s, -itis
:

interpres, c.

about 20, masculine or common, as stipes, hospes.

:

-us, -utis
-ns,

iuventiis, salus, senectus, servittis, virtils, F.

:

-ndis

-ns, -ntis:

frons, glans, iuglans, F. nearly 20 (besides many participles used as nouns), common, as infans ; dens, fons, mons, pons, M. frons, gens, lens,
;

mens,
-rs, -rtis

F.
:

(originally i-stems)

ars, pars, cohors, fors,

Mars, mors,

sors, F.

-ys, -ydis

-s,

-ntis (Greek)

chlamys,
;

F.

Atlas, -antis, M.
os, ossis
; puls, pultis, vds, vasis, N. ;

PECULIAR.
F.
;

as, assis, M.

Its,

Utis ; nox, noctis

; ;

caput,

-itis ; cor,

cordis ; hepar, -atis

also,

compounds of -pus,
e.

-podis, M., (foot), as tripus] lac, lactis, N.

PALATAL.
(pi.),

-ax, -acis

anthrax, corax,fraces

panax, scolopax,
pax,
F.

M..',

fax, styrax.

(storax), F.

-ax, -acis -ex, -ecis

-ex, -Icis
:

cnodax, corddx, llmdx, thorax, M.

dlex, M. or F.
;

vervex, M.

cdrex, forfex, ilex, imbrex,

-ix, -Icis
:

upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, as apex, 'vertex, except nex (necis}, pellex, F. (imbrex3\$,Q M.)

-Ix, -Icis

appendix, coxendix, filix, fornix, larix, salix, struix, vdrix, F. about 30 nouns, feminine, as cervix, radix; besides many in -trix, regular feminines of nouns of agency in -tor ( 162. d).
:
:

-ox, -6 cis -ux, -ucis -ux, -ucis

-x, -cis -x, -gis
:

celox, vox, F.

dux,

c.

crux, nux, F.

balilx, lux, F.

arx, calx,falx, lynx,

,

merx

(def.), F.

calx, calyx, M.

coniux (^nx) grex, remex (gen. -igis), rex, M. ore.; \_\friix~\ with a few rare names of animals. (def.), lex, phalanx, F.
: ;

Other nouns

in -x are nix, nivis

-ychis, M.

and

F.

; nox, noctis; supellex, Styx, Stygis, F.

-ectilis, F.

onyx,

f 68-70.]
fr

Fourth

39

FOURTH DECLENSION.
68. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends
in u-.

line

This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Mascuand feminine nouns form the nominative by adding -B IK-HUTS have for nominative the simple stem, but with a
;

(long).

Nouns
Sing.

of the fourth declension are declined as follows:

//<*;/*/

(p.).

NOM.

40
b.
c.

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

70-72.

d.

The nominative plural has rarely the form -uus. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into -um. The following retain the regular dative and ablative
:

plural in
:

-ubus artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru also dissyllables in -cus as, lacus (but sometimes portibus, veribus). e. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff have also forms of the
;
',

second declension.
/.

Domus, house, has

(cf.

(either originally, or by mistake)

-I,

two stems end-

ing in u- and o-

gen. in

70. d},

and

is

declined as follows: 1

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

NOM.
GEN. DAT. Acc. Voc. ABL.
g.

domus
domus (domi, loc.) domui (dom5)

domus domuum (domorum)

domibus

domum
domus domo (domu)
only locative form of
this is rare,

domos (domus) domus

domibus
the fourth

The

declension

is

domul.

But even
h.

An

almost universally used instead. old form of the ablative ends in -d : as, magistratud (cf.
is

and domi

62. d).

stems, or roots, by

71. Most nouns of the means

fourth declension are formed from verbof the suffix -tus (-sus) (cf.
163.
)
:

as,

cantus, song, CAN, cano, sing; casus (for cad-tus), chance, CAD, cadd, fall', exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul). Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy : as, consulates (as if from fconsulo, -are), senatus, incestus.
a.

The Supines

of verbs

109. c) are the

accusative
:

and

ablative

(or dative, perhaps both) of derivatives in -tus (-sus)

as,

audltum,

memoratu. b. Of many
as,

verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : iussu (meo), by (my} command; so iniussu (populi), without (the

people's} order.

Of some only

the dative

as,

memoratui, divisul.

FIFTH DECLENSION.
72.
g-,

The Stem

of

nouns of the Fifth Declension ends

in
is

which appears in all the cases. formed from the stem by adding -s.
1 The forms in parenthesis are less as locative, though genitive in Plautus
;

The nominative
domi

common.

But the form

is

is

regulal

domSrum

poetic.

72-74.]

Fifth Declension.

41

These nouns are thus declined*

SING, thing (F.) PLUR.

STEM

i-r-

SING, day (M.) PI.UR. dig-

faith (K.). flde-

NOM.
GEN. DAT.
Acc.

rSs rSI
r6I

res

dies
dig! (die) diel (dig)

dies

fides
fide"!

rSrum
rgbus
rgs rgs

digrum
diSbus
digs digs

fidel

rem
rgs re
in these

diem
digs

fidem
fidgs
fidg

Voc. ABL.
NOTE.

rgbus
it is

dig

digbus

The S has been shortened

found

spes, res, but

in the genitive and dative singular of fidgs, long in early Latin.

All nouns of this declension are feminine, except 73. GENDER. dies (usually M.), day, and meridigs (M.), noon. Digs is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general : as, longa digs,

a long times constitute pulchra dies, a fine day.

dig, on

set

day; also in the poets:

as,

74. CASE-FORMS.
-gs (cf. -as of
first

a.

The

Genitive singular anciently ended in

The genitive ending -ei was 36. ). sometimes contracted into -ei, -T, or-g: as, dii (^En. i. 636), and the phrases plgbi-scitum, tribunus plebel. An old Dative in -I or -6 also
declension,
is

mentioned by grammarians.
b.

The

fifth

declension
:

is

nouns have forms of both as, materia, genitive and dative in -gl are rarely found
c.

only a variety of the first, and several -ies ; saevitia, -igs. 1 The in these words.
(cf.

The

Locative form of this declension ends in -S

It is

dative -e

found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time : as, hodig (for hoi-dig, cf. huic), to-day ; perendig, day after to-morrow i dig quarts (old, quarti), the fourth day\ prldig, the day

under a).

before. d. Of

nouns of the fifth declension, digs and rgs only are declined throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative and accusative in the following: acigs, effigies, gluvigs,
spgs.'^

fades, glacies, series, species,

1

dies) are original ft-stems. The others are probably diSs, cf. (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like mOles (cf. moles-tus) diurnus ; spes (cf. spero"). Some vary between the fifth and the third declen-

Nouns

in -ies (except

sion

as, requiSs, satigs (satias, gen. -fttis), plSbgs (plgbs, plSbis), fame* (famgs, gen. -is). * The forms facigrum, specierum, specigbus, spSrum, spSbus, are cited by grammarians, also speres, spSribua*
:

42

Etymology: Declension of Nouns.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
75.

[75,76.

Some nouns

number only (smguldria tantum).

1
.

are ordinarily found in the Singular These are

as, Caesar, Ccesar , Gallia, Gaul. of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, gold; aSr, air; triticum, wheat. ambition ; fortitude, courage; 3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio,
:

Most proper names

2.

Names

calor, heat.

But many
sense.
a.

of these are

used in the plural in some other

Thus
proper name
things,

may be

applied to two or more persons or places,

strictly

or even

and so become

common:

as,

duodecim

Caesares, the twelve Ccesars; Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and TransCasto're's, Castor and Pollux; loves, images of Jupiter. alpine) b. Particular objects may be denoted as, aera, bronze utensils, Hive's,
;
:

snowflakes; or different kinds of a thing : as, acres, airs (good and bad). c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the
quality, or the like
:

as,

ority; otia, periods

quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiof rest; calores, frigora, times of heat and cold.
are

76.

Some nouns

(plurdlia tantum

(cf.

79.

commonly found only Such are c)).

in the Plural

1. Many proper names: as, Athenae, Athens, ThuriT, Fhilippi, Veil, names of towns, Adelphoe (The Adelphi), the name of a play; but especially names of festivals and games : as, Olympia, the Olympic

Games ; Bacchanalia, feast of Bacchus ; Quinquatriis, Minerva ; ludi Roman!, the Roman Games.
2.

festival of

Names of
;

classes: as,
;

ancestors
3.

llberT, children
plural

optimates, the upper classes; maiores, penates, household gods.

:

Words

by

signification

as,

arma, weapons ;
\

9x\fia, joints;
f'01-es,

divitiae, riches; scalae, stairs; v&va.Q, folding-doors

doors.

double-

These often have a corresponding singular or other, as noun or adjective.

a.
to

in

some form

As noun,
;

Bacchus
b.
c.

optimas, an

to denote a single object aristocrat.

as,

Bacchanal, a spot sacred

As

adjective: as,

Cato Maior, Cato

the Elder.

In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder-, valva, a door; artus, a joint.

77.]

Defective Nouns.

43
:

77.
1.

Many nouns

arc defective in case-forms

Indeclinable nouns:

fas, nefas, Instar, necesse, nihil,

opui

(need}, secus.
2.

Nouns found
a.

in one case only (tnonoptotes} In the nom. sing, glos, F. b. In the gen. sing, dicis, naucT, N.
c.

as.

</.
.

memoratui, M. (cf. 71. ). amussim, M. In the abl. sing, pondo, N. mane, N. (Both also treated Of mane an old locative form as indeclinable nouns.
In the dat. sing, In the ace. sing,
;

f. 3.

man! is found.) iussu, iniussu, M. In the ace. plur. infitias, suppetias.

71.

).

Nouns found
a. In the
b.
c.

d.
e.

in two cases only (diptotes). nom. and abl. sing, fors, forte, F. astus, astu, M. In the gen. and abl. sing, spontis, sponte, F. In the dat. and ace. sing, venui (veno in Tac.), vSnum, M. In the ace. sing, and plur. dicam, dicas, F. In the ace. and abl. plur. foras, foris, F. (cf. forgs).
;

4.

Nouns found
a. In

the

nom.,

in three cases only (triptotes). ace., and abl. sing, impetus,

-um,

-u (M.)

b.

c.

lugs, -em, - (p.). In the nom., ace., and dat. or abl. plur. gratgs, -ibus (F.). In the nom., gen., and dat. or abl. plur. iugera, -um, -ibus
78. i.
).

5.

(N., but iugerum, etc., in the sing., cf. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but

defective

in

the

singular. a.

Nouns found
I,

in the sing., in gen., dat, ace., abl.

;

dicionis,

frugis, -T, -em, -e (F.) ; opis, -I (once only), -em, -e (p., nom. as a divinity, see 46). d. Nouns found in the dat, ace., abl.: precT, -em, -e (F.).

-em,

-e (p.)

c.

Nouns found
-e (F.).

in the ace.

and

abl.

cassem,

-e (p.)

sordem,
(p.)
;

d.

Nouns found
obice
(c.,

in the abl. only

rare).

ambage

(F.)

fauce

nom. obex

6.

Nouns
b.

regular in the singular, defective in the plural. a. ills and rus have only iura, rura.

calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lux, nex, 5s, pJLr, pix, praes, ros, sal, sol, tus (thus), vas, want the genitive plural.

c.

Most nouns of

the

fifth

declension want the whole or part of

the plural (see

74. d}.

44
7.

Etymology: Declension of Nouns,

77,

7a

Nouns defective in both singular and plural. a. Nouns found in the nom., ace. sing. nom., ace., abl. plur. sentis, -em; -gs, -ibus. b. Nouns found in the gen., ace., abl. sing. nom., ace., dat, abl.
;
:
;

plur.
c.

vicis, -em, -e

-es, -ibus.

Nouns found
plur.

in the gen., dat., ace.,

-I,

and

abl. sing.;

gen.

wanting: dapis,

-em,

-e.

VARIABLE NOUNS.
78. Many nouns vary either
1.

in

Declension or Gender.
7o./), and
:

In Declension
colus

(keteroclites,

nomina abundantid).
house (see

a.

(p.), distaff';

domus

(p.),

many

between the second and fourth declensions. b. Some nouns vary between the second and third as, iugerum, -I, abl. -e, plur. -a, -um, etc. Mulciber, gen. -beri and -beris sequesvas, vasis, and vasum, -I. ter, gen. -tri and -tris c. Some vary between the second, third, and fourth penus, penum,

names of plants

in -us, vary

gen.

penu. d. Many nouns vary between the first and the fifth (see 74. b). fames has e. requies has gen. -etis, dat. wanting, ace. -etem or -em abl. fame ( 57. c) pubes (pubis, puber) (M.) has -eris, -em, -e pecus has pecoris, etc., but also nom. pecu, dat. pecui; pi. pecua,
-I

and

-oris, abl.

pecuum, pecubus. f. Many vary between different stems

(N.), gen. -oris, also -inis (as

of the same declension

femur

from ffemen); iecur

(N.), pi.

(N.), gen. iecinoris,

iocinoris, iecoris
2.

muuus

munera and munia.

In Gender (heterogeneous nouns).

a.

The
:

following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in

-um

balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many others of rare occurrence.
b. The following have in the plural a different gender from the singular: balneae (F.), baths (an establishment). balneum (N.), bath; caelos (M. ace.). caelum (N.), heaven ;

carbasus dglicium

(p.),

sail;

carbasa
epulae

(N.), sails

(-orum).

(N.), pleasure;

dSliciae (p.),/*/.

epulum (N.), /<?#.$/, frgnum (N.), a bit;

iocus
(M.),

frem
ioca

(F.), feast. (M.) or frena (N.), a bridle.

rastrum

(N.),

a jest; a rake;

(N.),

ioci (M.).

locus (M.), place;

rastri (M.), rastra (N.). Ioca (N.), loci (M., usually topics, spots).

$ 79.]

Variable Nouns.
see 79. a, b (old edition)
78. 2. 0, *.]

45

[For

79
use.
a.

in old [79. c

larities of

Number

Many nouns have irreguedition]. in their either ordinary or occasional

Many nouns
-is (P.),

are found in the Singular or vary in meaning as they

Plural: as,

aedgs,

temple ;

aqua

(p.),

watery
(N.), help;

aedSs, -ium, house. aquae, a watering-place.

auxilia, auxiliaries.

auxilium

bonum
career

(N.),

a good;
dungeon ;
,

bona, property:
carcergs, barriers (of race-course) castra camp.
,

(M.),

castrum

(N.) fort ; codicillus (M.), bit of wood; comitium (N.), place of assembly
(F.) plenty ; fides (p.), harp-string; finis (M.), end;
,

codicilli, tablets.
;

comitia, an
fides, lyre.

election (town-meeting).

copia

copiae, troops.
flngs, bounds, territories.

f ortuna (F.),

f ortunae, possessions. fortime; thanks (also, the Graces}. gratia (e.\ favor (rarely, thanks}', gratiae, horti, hortus (M.) a garden ; pleasure-grounds. impedimentum (N.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage.
,

littera (p.), letter (of alphabet)

litterae, epistle.
loci, topics.

locus (M.),//0^[pl.loca(N.)]

(In early writers the

regular plur.)

ludus (M

) sport ; natalis (M.), birthday ;

.

Ifcdi,

public games.
.

natales, descent.

opera

(p.),

work ;

operae day-laborers (" hands ")

,

[ops] opis (p.), help ( 46) ; pars (P.), a part; plaga (p.), region ; rSstrum (N.), beak of a ship-,
sal (M. or N.), salt
; ;

opgs, resources, wealth. partes, part (on the stage), party.

plSgae, snares. rostra, speaker's platform.
sales, witticisms.

tabella (p.), tablet

tabellae, documents, records.

is someb. The singular of a noun usually denoting an individual times used collectively to denote a group as, Poenus, the Carthagini:

ans ; miles, the soldiery ; eques, tJie cavalry. used c. Of many nouns the plural is usually, though not exclusively, (cf. 76) as, cervicgs, the neck; Quirltgs, Romans; viscera, flesh
:

faucgs, throat.

46
d.

Etymology : Declension of Nouns,

The
poets often use the plural

79, 80.

number
;

for the singular,

:

for metrical reasons,

sometimes from a mere fashion

as,

sometimes ora (for 6s),

the face ; sceptra (for

silence (cf.

sceptrum). sceptre

silentia (for silentium),

75.

<:).

PROPER NAMES.

Roman had regularly three names, denoting the the person, gens, and the family.
8O.
a.

Thus, in the name

Marcus Tullius

Cicero, we have Marcus,

the prcenomen, or personal name (like a Christian or given name) ; Tullius, the nomen (properly an adjective), i.e. the name of the gens

or house, whose original head was a (real or supposed) Tullus the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin a nickname, case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.

Cicero,
in this

When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the NOTE. cognomen is usually put in the plural : as, Publius et Servius Sullae.
b.

A fourth or fifth
of Scipio the
:

name nus Aemilianus

Thus the complete Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio AfricaAfricanus, from his exploits in Africa ; AemiliS-

name * was sometimes given.

nus, as adopted from the jEmilian gens.

c. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the nomen of their gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A younger daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, and so on.

d.

The commonest praenomens

are thus abbreviated L. Lucius.

A. Aulus.

App. Appius.
C. (G.) Gaius (Caius)
(cf.

M. Marcus.
6).

Q. Quintus. Ser. Servius.

M'. Manius.

Sex. Sextus.
Sp. Spurius.
T. Titus.
Ti. Tiberius.

Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). D. Decimus. K. Kaeso (Caeso).

e.

Mam. Mamercus.
N. Numerius.
P. Publius.

A feminine
Q
for

prsenomen

is

sometimes abbreviated with an inverted

letter: as,

Gaia (Caia).

1 The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these additions, but later grammarians invented the word "agnomen to express them.

81.}

lujlcction of Adjectives.

47

CHAPTER IV.

Adjectives.

INFLECTION.

ADJECTIVES and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and correspond with their nouns in gender, number^ and case. They are (i) of
the First and Second Declensions, or
(2)

of the

Third

Declension.

1.

First

and Second Declensions.

first

81. Adjectives of the

and second declensions

(a-

and

o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, in the Feminine like stella, and in the Neuter likebellum; as,

bonus, good.
SINGULAR.
F. M. STEM bono- bonS-

NOM. bonus bona

GEN. boni DAT. bono

bonae bonae

Ace. bonum bonam bona Voc. bone bona ABL. bono

miser, 'wretched.

83, 84.]

Inflection of Adjectives.
alter,' -terlus, the other.

49

whole, alius (N. aliud), other, totus, ullus, any. nullus, no, none.

neuter, -trlus
uter, -trlus,
:

,/M,r.
(of two),

solus, alone.

unua, **.
is

wA*A

Of these

the singular

thus declined

5O

Etymology: Adjectives.
16 vis (stem levi-), light.

84.

SINGULAR.
M., F.

PLURAL.
N.
M., F.

N.

V. GEN. DAT. Ace. ABL.

N.,
a.

levis
levis
levi

leve
levis
lev!

levSs

levia

levium
levibus
levis (es) levibus

levium
levibus
levia

levem
lev!

leve
levi

levibus
:

The

following stems in ri- have the masc. nom. in -er

acer,

alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester, terrester, volucer, and are called adjectives of
three terminations.

So also, celer, celeris, celere; and names of months in -ber (cf. 51. ti) as, October. These are declined as follows
:

acer, keen. STEM acriSINGULAR.

M.
N., V.
F.

PLURAL.
N.

M.

F.

N.

acer
acris

acris
acris
acri

acre
acris

acres

acres

acria

GEN. DAT. Acc. ABL.

NOTE.

acrium
acribus
acris (es)

acrium
acribus
acris (es)

acrium
acribus
acria

acri

acri

acrem
acri

acrem
acri
is

acre
acri

acribus
late,

acribus

acribus
and
in

This formation
:

comparatively

and hence,

in the poets

early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine

times used for both genders

as,

form of these adjectives was somecoetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris,

is

funebris, illustris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there masculine form at all. Thus
:

no separate

illustris, brilliant.

STEM illustri-

SINGULAR.
M., F.

PLURAL.
N.
M., F.

N.

N., V.

illustris
illustris
illustri

illustre
illustris
illustri

illustres
illustrium
illustribus
illustris

illustria

GEN. DAT. Acc. ABL.

b.

illustrium
illustribus
illustria

illustrem
illustri

illustre
illustri

(es)

illustribus

illustribus

CASE-FORMS.

Adjectives of two and three terminations, being

true i-stems, retain in the ablative singular -I, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly -Is (see 55 and p. 30, n. 2). But the forms of some are doubtful.

NOTE.

For metrical reasons, an

ablative in -e

sometimes occurs

in poetry.

84, 85.]
c.

Inflection of Adjectives.

51

celerum

celer, swift, when used as a noun, denoting a military rank, has The proper name Celer has the ablain the genitive plural.

tive in -e.

85.

The remaining

adjectives of the third declension

but all except Comparatives have the form of i-stems in the ablative singular -I, the nominative, accusative and vocative plural neuter -ia, and the
are Consonant-stems;

In the other cases they follow the genitive plural -ium. rule of Consonant-stems.
NOTE.

The

ablative singular of these

words often has

-e.

These adjectives (except comparatives) have the same nominative singular for all genders, and hence are called adjectives of one termination^-

All except stems in

1-

or r- form the nominative singular from

the stem by adding -a. a. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows

Etymology :
b.

A djectives.
:

[85.

Other examples are the following iens, going. concors, harmonious.

STEM concordeuntN.
M., F.

par, equal.
p5,rM., F.

Sing.
N., V.

M., F.

N.

N.

concdra
concordis

iens
euntis

par
paris

GEN. DAT. Ace. ABL.

Plur.

concord!

eunti

par!

concordem

concors

euntem
eunte

iens
(I)

oarem
par!

par

concord!

N., V. Concordes

concordia

euntes

euntia

pares

paria

GEN.

concordium

euntium
euntibus
euntis (es) euntia

parium
paribus
paris (es) paria
fiber, fertile.

concordibus D., ABL. Ace. concordis (es) concordia

praeceps, headlong.
STEM praecipit-

dives, rich.
dlvitM., F.

uberN.
M., F.

Sing. N., V.

M., F.

N.

N.

praeceps

dives
divitis
diviti

fiber

GEN. praecipitis DAT. praecipiti Ace. praecipitem praeceps ABL. praecipiti

Plur.
N., V. praecipites

uberis

uberi
dives

divitem
divite

uberem uber
ubere
uberes

praecipitia

divites

[dltia]

ubera

x GEN. praecipitium D., ABL. praecipitibus Ace. praecipitis (es) praecipitia

dlvitum
divitibus
divitis (es) divitia
old.

uberum
uberes

uberibus ubera

vetus,
STEM veterSINGULAR.
M., F.

(for

vetes-)

PLURAL.
M., F.

N.

N.

N.,V.

vetus
veteris
veteri

veteres

GEN. DAT. Ace. ABL.

NOTE.
intruded

vetera veterum
vetera

veteribus
vetus

veterem
vetere

veteres

veteribus
most s-stems the r has

Of

these

itself into

vetus is originally an s-stem. In the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for

bi-corpos),

degener

(forde-grenes).
c.

form

in -a

few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative luno Sospita.
:

Given by grammarians, but not found.

86, 87.]

Inflection
3.

of Adjectives.

53

Comparatives.

86. Comparatives arc declined as follows:

nielior, better. STEM inelior- for meliospi firM., F.

4jlua. more. for plusN.

Sin-.
N., V.
(ii:\.

M., F.

N.

melior
melioris
meliori

meliua

plus
pluris

DAT.
Ace. ABL.
Plur. N., V.

meliorem

melius meliore or meliorl

plus

plure

meliores

meliora

plurgs

plura

GEN. DAT. Ace. ABL.

a.

meliorum
melioris (gs)

plurium
pluris (es)

melioribus meliora melioribus

pluribus plura

pluribus
;

The stem
all

or- in

of comparatives properly ended in os- but this became cases except the neuter singular (N., A., v.), where s is retained,

and 6

is changed to u (cf. hondr, -oris; corpus, -dris). paratives appear to have two terminations. b. The neuter singular plus is used only as a noun.

Thus com-

The

genitive

(rarely ablative)

is

used as an expression of value

(cf.

252. a).

The

dative

is

not found in classic use.

The compound complures,

several,

has sometimes neuter plural compluria. All other comparatives are declined like melior.
4.

Case-Forms.

87. In adjectives of Consonant stems the following

Case-forms are to be remarked
a.
:

The Ablative

singular

commonly ends
-e.

in

nouns (as superstes, survivor) have

such (especially in the ablative absolute, have -e ; but participles used as adjectives have regularly -I. The following have uniformly -I: amens, anceps, concors (and other compounds of cor), censors (but as a substantive, -e), degener,

-I but adjectives used as Participles in -ns used as 225), or as nouns, regularly

;

hebes, ingens, inops, memor (and perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.

b.

its

compounds), par (in prose),

In the following, -e

is

the regular form of the ablative: caeles,

compos, [fdeses], dives, hospes, pauper, particeps, princeps,

It-,

superstes, sospes also in patrials (see 54. 3) and stems in at-, ut-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives.
;

54
f.

Etymology: Adjectives.
The

87, 88.

The accusative genitive plural ends commonly in -ium. which are less inclined in even in ends -Is, comparatives, plural regularly to the i-declension.
d.
1.

genitive plural ends in -um Always in dives, compos, inops, particeps,

The

prmceps, praepes,
:

supplex, and compounds of nouns which have -um

bi-color.
:

as,

quadru-pes,

2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns as, silentum concilium, a council of the silent shades (Virg.). e. In vetus (gen. -gris), pubes (gen. -gris), uber (gen. -8ris),

which did not become i-stems, the endings -e (abl. sing.), -a (neut. nom. ace. plur.), -um (gen. plur.) are regular. (Uber has also -I in abl.)
f. I. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-orus). few are indeclinable as, damnas, frugi (really a dat. of ser2. vice, see 233), nequam (originally an adverb).

3.

Several are defective

as, (a)

exspes
etc.,

(only nom.),

exlex (exlegem)

(only nom. and ace. sing.),

sing.);
4.

pernox (pernocte)

() primoris, seminecT,
is

(only nom. and abl. which lack the nom. sing.

Potis

pote

often used as an indeclinable adjective, but sometimes has in the neuter.

5.

Special Uses.
:

following special uses are to be observed Many adjectives have acquired the meaning and construction of nouns: as, amicus, a friend ; aequalis, a contemporary; maiores, ancestors (see p. 47, head-note, and 188).

88.

The

a.

b.

Many

masculine and feminine.

gender.

adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the These may be called adjectives of common

Such are adulescens, youthful; [fdeses], -idis, slothful] inops, -opis, poor; sospes, -Itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, may be called masculine adjectives. c. Many nouns may be used as as, pedes, a footman adjectives 188. d). or on foot (see Such are especially nouns in -tor (M.) and -trix (p.), denoting the agent ( 162. a}: as, victor exercitus, the conquering army ; victrlx causa, the winning cause,
.

d. Certain forms of

many
;

adjectives are regularly used as adverbs.

(

These
as,

are, the accusative

and ablative of the neuter singular

148. d, e)

multum, multo, much

:

the neuter singular of comparatives (see

92) as, melius, better ; levius, more lightly. NOTE. Adverbs ending in -e and -ter were also once case-forms:
dearly
,

as, cftre,

leviter, lightly; Seer-rime, most eagerly

148. a, b).

89.]

Comparison of Adjectives.

55

COMPARISON.
In Latin, as
parison
tive.
1.
:

in English, there arc three degrees of comthe Positive, the Comparative, and the Superla-

Regular Comparison.

81). The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior 1 (neuter -ius ), the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um) to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel as,
:

car us. dear

levis, light tell?,

(st.
(st.

caro-)
;

carior, dearer]
iQvipr, lighter',

^carissimus^^mr^/.
levissimus,
lightest.

levi-)

happy
dull

(st. felic-)

bbes,

(st.

hebet-)

feUGior,/iapp/er; felicissimus, happiest. hebetior, duller ; .hebetissimas, dullest.

a. Adjectives in -er

form the superlative by adding -rimus to the

is

nominative.

The comparative
Seer, keen
;

regular

as,

acrior, acerrimus.

mjser, wretched ; miserior, miserrimus.

So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus. from the old form veter and maturus, besides its regular superlative (mJLtiilis-Simusj, has a rare form maturrimus. For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used. b. The following in -lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its vowel
;
:

facilis

(st. facili-),

difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis,

:

humilis.

The comparative is regular c. Compounds in -dicus

as, facilia.

easy* facilior, farjnimng

(saying), -ficus (doing), -volus (willing),

take in their comparison the forms of corresponding participles in -ns, which were anciently used as adjectives as,
:

jnaledicus, slanderous] maledicentior, jnaledicentissimus. ^nalevolus, spiteful] malevolentior, malevoleiitissimus.

^Adjectives

in -us

of comparison, but are compared by

preceded by any vowel but u rarely have forms means of the adverbs magis, more ;

maxime, most:
idQiieua^y?/
,'

as,

jnagis idoneus,

maxime

idoneus.

NOTE.
1

But plus has piissimus.

suffix (earlier -ios) is the same as the Greek -Icav, or the Skr. That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form perhaps for -iostimus (comparative and superlative), or possibly for -ist-timus (two superlatives). The endings -limus and -rimus arc formed by assimilation ($n./) from -timus and -Simus. The comparative and superlative thus formed are new stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection. -iyans.
;

The comparative

56

Etymology: Adjectives.

89-91.

Most derivatives in -Icus, -idus, -alls, -aris, -Iks, -filus, -undus, -timus, -inus, -Ivus, -orus, with compounds (as degener, inops) are also compared by means of magis and maxime.
e.

Participles

when used

as adjectives are regularly compared: as,

patiens, patient; patientior, patientissimus. apcrtus, open; apertior, apertissimus.

/.
tives

A
:

form ot diminutive

is

made upon

the stem of

some compara-

as,

grandius-culus, a
2.

little

larger (see

164. a).

Irregular

and Defective Comparison.

lar

90. Several adjectives have in thejr comparison irreguforms as,

:

,bpnus^meliqr. optimum good, better, best. malus. peior. pessinma bad, worse, worst.
v eit magr"g, mainr, greater, greatest. parvus, minor, minimus. smalL less, least. jnultus, plus J^4-(fi 86~L plurimus, much, more, most.
.

7^-^^

multi, plures, plurimi, many, more, most.

nequam
__frugi

(indecl.),

nequior. nequissimus. worthless

(ct.
(cf.

87. f. 2}
87. f. 2).

findecU, frugalior. frugalissimus, useful, worthy y*>ri or, dextimus. on the , dexter j^ right, handy.

NOTE.

These

irregularities arise

from the use of

different

stems

(cf.

89. c).

91.

Some Comparatives and

-

Superlatives appear with-

out a Positive
a.

The

following are formed from stems not used as adjectives

:

on this side} ^citerior. citimus. hither, hither most. in, intra'fprep. in, within} :_iriterior, intimus, inner, inmost.
prior, primus, former, first. next. p_roge^adv. near} propior, proximus, nearer, ultra^adv. beyond} ulterior, ul timus, farther, farthest.
pjrae,

cis, citra (adv.

pro

(prep, before}
:

b.

Of

the following the positive forms are rare, except

:

when used

as

nouns (generally in the plural)

1 The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter) so that he comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are comparatives of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comp. in -er).
,

The
those in
like

superlatives in

-timus (-tumus)

are relics of old forms of comparison

-mus like Imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms extremus are superlatives of a comparative. In tact, comparison has always
sa.y further er

been treated with an accumulation of endings, as children

and furMerest.

91, 92.]

Comparison of Adverbs.

57

^xterua, exterior, extremua (extimire). outer, outmost 82. d ) Inlfifciar, Tnfimnn. (imus), Urw.er, lowest (
[posterus]. posterior, onatrgmua poatumusj, latter, last. l. superior, fiupxmus__or summus, higher\ highest.
(

The plurals, exteri. foreigners*, inieri, the gods below; posterity ;,auperL. the heavenly gods, are common 88. b), are formed the c. From iuvenis, W7tt///,,senex, old man (cf.
comparatives rupior. younger, senior, older.

For these, however,

minor natu and maior natu are sometimes used (nsitu being often The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and omitted). maximus, with or without natu.
NOTE.
a.
1.

In these phrases

natu

is

ablative of specification (see

<J

253).

In the following, one or other of the forms of comparison

;

falsus, fidus compounds), inclutus (or inclitus), invictus, invitus, novus, pius, sacer, vafer, vetus ( 89. a). 3. The superlative is wanting in actuosus, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, caecus, diuturnus, exilis, ingens, ieiunus, longinquus, obllquus, opimus, proclivis, propinquus, satur, segnis, serus. supinus, surdus, taciturnus, tempestivus, teres, vicinus, and in some
(with
its

The positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimjus simus p<->*-j^- pnti^Bitni-ia 2. The comparative is wanting in bellus, caesius,
;

is wanting: ocior, ocis-

adjectives in -ilis.

NOTE. Many adjectives as aureus, golden are from their meaning incapable of comparison; but each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus niger, glossy black, and candidus, shining -white, are compared but not ater or albus, meaning absolute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior)
;

3.

Comparison
of

of

Adverbs.
is

92.

The comparative

Adverbs

the neuter accusa-

comparative of the corresponding Adjective; the superlative is the Adverb in -5 formed regularly from
tive of the

the superlative of the Adjective

:

as,

(from^carus^ dear) carius, caris.sime, ^a^e, dearly miser e (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched)

miserius,

miserrime.
leviter (from levis, light): levius, levissime.

audacter (audaciter) (from audax, bold}: aud^cius, audacissime, benS, well (from bonus, good) melius, optime. male", /'// (from makis, bad) pcius, pessiine.
: :

58

Etymology; Adverbs.
following are irregular or defective
;
:

92, 93.

The

diu, long (in time)

diutius, diutissime.
all.

potius, rather-, potissimum,// of all, in preference to jiaepe, q/feft/^saepius, oftener, again ^ saepissime. satis, enough ; satius, preferable. secus, otherwise; secius, worse.

multuin^ (multo) nyagia, nvaxim.f, .nturh^ more, most. parum, not enough ^1^""% /^J, minime, least.
, ,

4.

Signification.

93. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows
:

a.

The Comparative denotes a

considerable or excessive degree of a

quality: as, brevier, rather short;

b.

audacior,

too bold.

Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a wry 7/z^# degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison as, maximus
:

The

numerus, a very great number.

the highest possible degree: as,

With quam,

vel, or

unus

it

denotes

quam maxime

potest

quam plurimi, as many as possible; (maxime quam potest), as much as can be;

virum iinum doctissimum, the one most learned man. c. With quisque, each, the superlative has a peculiar signification. Thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest (each richest man) primus quisque, all the first (each first man in his
;

order).

quisque imply a proportion as, sapientissimus quisque aequissimo animo moritur

:

Two

superlatives with

(Cat. Maj.

83), the -wisest

d.

men

die with the greatest equanimity.

is

high degree of a quality

&z<^

also denoted

by such adverbs as
(

admodum,
as,

valde, very, or by per or prae in composition

170. c}

valde malus, very

= pessimus

permagnus, very great ;

:

praealtus, very high (or deep). e. A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition as, subrusticus, rather clownish; or by minus, not very; minime, not at all; parum, not enottgh ; non satis, not much.
f.

The comparative maiores has

88. a, 91. c).

the special signification of an-

cestors (cf.
g.

The comparative minores

in taking things

often

means descendants.
each thing
is

As
it.

one by one off a

pile,

uppermost when you

take

94.]

Numerals.

59

NUMERALS.
1.

Cardinal and Ordinal.

1M-.

used

in

Cardinal numbers arc the regular scries of n umbers Ordinal numbers 1 are adjectives decounting.
Cardinal numbers answer the question quot ? how many f quotus ? which in order? one of how many?

rived from these to express order or place.

NOTE.
Ordinal

numbers, the question

These two
1.

series are as follows

CARDINAL.
Onus, una, unum, one. duo, duae, duo, two.
tres, tria, three.

ORDINAL.
primus,
-a,

ROMAN NUMERALS.
I.

-um,yrj/.

2. 3.

secundus

(alter), second.

II.

tertius, third.

III.

4.
5.

quattuor (quatuor)

quartus
qulntus sextus

IV.

qulnque
sex

V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

6.
7.

septem
octo

8.

Septimus octavus

novem decem n. undecim 12. duodecim

9.

norms
decimus

IX.

10.

X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.

13.
14.
15.
1

tredecim (decem et tres)

quattuordecim
qirindecim

6.

sedecim
septendecim
duodevlgintl (octodecim)

17.
1

8.

19.

undevigintl (novendecim)
viginti

undecimus duodecimus tertius decimus quartus decimus qulntus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus duodevicensimus undevlcensimus
vlcensimus (vigensimus) vlcensimus primus

XIV.

XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.

XIX.

20.

XX.
XXI.

21.

viginti

unus

(0r unus et viginti)

i

(unus

et vlcensimus, etc.)

of the
of

The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus) are formed by means same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (compare the form inflmus)
as the last of a series of ten
;

may be regarded
pro;

primus

is

a superlative of the stem

(quartus, quintus, sextus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -ros, and with irpwros, superlative of irpd',
the forms in -tus

norms

is

contracted from

novimus

while the others have the regular superlative

ending -simus. Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor; and alter is a comparative form (compare -repos in Greek). The multiples of ten are compounds of the unit with a fragment of decem as, viginti = dvi-ginti
:

(duidecem-tl?).

6o
CARDINAL.
30.

Etymology: Numerals.
ORDINAL.
tricensimus

[94.
ROMAN NUMERALS.
XXX.
XL.
L.

triginta

40.
50.

quadraginta

quinquaginta
sexaginta
septuagiiita

60.
70.

quadrage nsimus quinquagensimus sexage nsimus

septuagensimus
octogensimus nonagensimus
centensimus

LX.

LXX.

80.

octoginta

LXXX.
xc.
c.
etc,

90. 100.
1

nonaginta

01.

centum centum
trecentl

(et) unus, etc.

200.

ducentl, -ae, -a

centensimus primus, ducentensimus

trecentensimus

CI.

cc.

300.

ccc.

400.
500.

quadringentl

quadringentensimus
quingente nsimus sexcente nsimus
10,

cccc.
or D.
DC.

qulngentl 600. sexcenti

700.

septingenti
octingenti

septingentensimus

DCC.

800. 900. 1000.

octingentensimus

DCCC.

nongenti
mille

nongentensimus
millensimus

DCCCC.
Clo,

or M.
100.

5000.
10,000.

qulnque milia (millia)

100,000.

decem milia (millia) centum milia (millia)

in

quinquiens millensimus deciens millensimus

centiens millensimus
are often written without the

CCIOO.

ccciooo.

NOTE. The forms simus, etc.

a.

-ensimus

n:

as,

vie e-

For the

inflection of

unus, see
is

83.

It often
;

has the meaning

of same or only.

The

plural

used in this sense

but also, as a simple

numeral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra, one camp (cf. 95. b). The plural occurs also in the phrase uni et alter!, one party and
the other (the ones
b.

and the others). Duo, 1 two, and ambo, both, are thus declined NOM.

94, 95.]

Numerals.
are rare, duodgvlgintl,
.

6l

The forms octodecim, novendecim

dSvIginti being used instead.
occasionally found:
as,

un

Similar forms for higher numb*

thirty-eight;

duodequadraginta,
to 1000, are o-stems,

undgceu-

tum,
ii.

ninety-nine.

The hundreds, up
bonus.

and are

regularly declined

like the plural of

e. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective. In the plural (milia or millia, thousands) , it is used as a neuter noun,

with a genitive plural. Thus, cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men ; but cum duobus milibus hominum, with two thousand Men. 1

NOTE. The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and accusative: as, mille hominum mlsit; but in the other cases only in connection with the same case of milia: as, cum octo milibus peditum mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.
f.

The

ordinals are o-stems,

2.

and are declined

like

bonus.

Distributives.

95. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural

of bonus.
NOTE.
time?
1.

These answer

to the interrogative

quoteni ? how many of each,

100.

or at a

as,

slngulT,

one by one.

8.

octSnl den! or

centem

2.

'tiiTHitivo-and-two.

duodevlcem
19.

200. ducenl 300. trecenl

3.

term, trim

noveni

dem

or

4.
5.

quaterm
quinl sen!

undevlcenl
20. vlceni 21. vicenl slnguli, etc.
30. trice nl

400.

quadringem

6.

500. qulngenl 600. sescenl 700. septingenl

7. 8.

septenl octoni

40.
50.

quadragenl

800. octingeni

9.

noveni
denl

10.

60.

qulnquagem sexagem

900. nongenl 1000. millem

11.
12. 13.

undenl duodeni term dem,

70. septuageni 80. octogeni

etc.

2000. blna milia

10,000.

dena milia

90.

nonagem

100,000. centena milia

Distributives are used as follows:

a. In the sense ot so many apiece or on each side: as. singula singulis, one apiece (one each to each one) agri septena iugera plebi divlsa sunt, i.e. seven jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each).
;

etc.

Or, in poetry,

cum

bis mille hominibus, with twice a thousand men.

62
b.

Etymology: Numerals.
Instead of Cardinals, to express simple number,
:

95-97.

when a nolm is meaning as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts}. But the plural um is used (instead of singuli), to signify one (see 94. a), and trim (not term) for. three.
plural in form but singular in
c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two] ter septenis diebus, in thrice seven days. d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs

or sets are spoken of: as,

3.

bina

hastilia,

two shafts (two

in a set).

Numeral Adverbs.
the

96. The Numeral Adverbs answer (quoties), how many times, how often.
1.

question

quotiens

semel, once.
ter, thrice.

12.

duodeciens

40. quadragiens
50.

2. bis, twice.
3.

13. terdeciens. 14. 15.

quinquagiens

quaterdeciens

60. sexagiens
70. septuagiens

4.
5.

quater

qumquiens

(-es)

16. 17.

qulndeciens sedeciens

80. octogiens

6.
7.

sexiens (-es)
septiens (-es) octiens

septiesdeciens 18. duode viciens

90. nonagiens 100. centiens

8.

19.

undeviciens

200. ducentiens

9.

noviens
deciens

20. viciens 21.

10.

semel

et viciens, etc.

300. trecentiens 1000. miliens

10,000.- deciens miliens

n. undeciens
:

30. triciens

NOTE. They are used, in combination with mille, to express the higher numbers as, ter et triciens (centena milia) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces. Forms in -ns are often written without the n as, quinquies.
:

4.

Other Numerals.
single,

97. The

adjectives

simplex,

duplex, double, two-fold,

triplex, quadru-, quincu-, septem-, decem-, centu-, sesqui- (i^), multi-plex, manifold, are called Multiplicatives.
a.
b.

PROPORTIONALS are
:

duplus, triplus,

etc.,

twice as great, etc.

1

TEMPORALS bimus, trimus, of two or three years' age; biennis,

triennis, lasting two or three years] bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months, biduum, biennium, a period of two days or years.
c.

d.

PARTITIVES binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts. FRACTIONS: dimidia pars (dimidium), a half; tertia ^^.r^athird.
:

NOTE.
(a pound)
e.

and the numerals

But fractions are regularly expressed by special words derived from as as, triens, a third; bes, two-thirds.
:

Other derivatives are: unio, unity ; binio, the two (of dice); primanus, of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; denarius,
a

sum

of 10 asses;

binus

(distributive), double, etc.

98.]

Personal and Rcjlcxivc Pronouns.

63

CHAPTER V.

Pronouns.

98. Pronouns have special forms of declension.

NOTE. These special forms are, in general, survivals of a of declension than that of nouns.
1.

more

primitive form

Personal Pronouns.
of the first person are ego,
/,

The Personal pronouns

nos,

we

of

the second person, tu, thou,

vos,/

or you.

64
b.

Etymology : Pronouns.
The
:

98, 99.

reflexive

only in this sense, the

declined

pronoun of the Third Person has a special form used same for both singular and plural. It is thus

GEN. DAT. Acc. ABL.

sui, of himself, herself, themselves. sibi, to himself, herself, themselves.

se

(seise"),

himself, herself, themselves.

se (sese), by himself, herself, themselves.

Sis (genitive) and sed (accusative and ablative) are ancient.

3.

Possessive Pronouns.
:

The Possessive pronouns are, for the first person meus, my, noster, our; for the second person: tuus, thy, your, voster, vester, /0#r; for the third person suus, his, her, their. These are declined like But first and second declensions (see the of 81, 82). adjectives meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in the vocative singular mascu:

line.

Suus is only reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive NOTE. pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, he killed his (own) father ; but patrem eius occidit, he killed his (somebody else's) father.

99. In the meaning and use of the Personal, Reflexive, and Possessive pronouns it is to be observed that
a.

To

express Possession and similar ideas the possessive pro-

nouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive Thus, my father is pater meus, never pater pronouns (cf. 197. a). mel. b. The forms nostrum, vostrum, etc., are wedpart&tvefy: as,

unusquisque nostrum, each one of us \ vostrum omnium, of all of you.

NOTE.

so

The forms

genitives of the possessives

nostrum, vostrum, Latin we find una vestrarum,

c.

of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the mel, tul, sul, nostri, vostri, gen. sing, neuter So in early and later gen. plu. masc. or neuter contracted.
: :

one of you (women).

The

genitives mel, tuT, sul,

213. N.)
:

nostri, vestri, are chiefly used

objectively (see

as,

memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me), me" tui pudet, I am ashamed ofyou.

99, 10O.]

Demonstrative Pronouns.

65

(/.

The

reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter

. . .

s6 or alter

alterum

as,

alter alterius
the other).

ova

frangit, they break each other's eggs (one ... of

inter s6 amant, they love one another (they love

selves).

among them-

e. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative of the personal and reflexive pronouns as, tecum loquitur, he talks
:

with you.
f.

To

the

personal

and

sessive)
to
all

pronouns certain except tu (nom.)

;

(and sometimes to the posare joined for emphasis: -met -te to tu (tute, also tutimet) -pte to
reflexive
enclitics
;

the ablative singular of the adjectives, others: as,

and

in

early

Latin

to

the

vosmetipsos proditis, you betray your own very suopte pondere, by its own weight.

selves.

4.

Demonstrative Pronouns.

that

are hie, this; is, ille, iste, with the Intensive ipse, self, and Idem, samel a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used
;

1OO. The Demonstrative pronouns

by the poets; a genitive singular

iste.
b.

in

-i,

-ae,

-I,

occurs

in ille

and

Iste

with the entire loss of the

and
c.

ille is

Ipse

in early writers in the form ste, etc., syllable ; and the first syllable of ipse very often used as short in early poetry. is compounded of is and -pse (for -pte, from the same root
is

sometimes found
first

as potis)
occurs.

(cf.

declined, as in

99-/), meaning self. The former part was originally reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus

Idem
1

is

the demonstrative is with the affix -dem.

clearly distinguishable. tive enclitic -co, which

These demonstratives are combinations of O- and i-stems, which are not Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstraappears ir full in early Latin (nice), and when followed by the enclitic -ne (hicine). In most of the cases -ce is shortened to -C, and in many lost; but it is often appended for emphasis to forms that do not regularly retain rt In early Latin -C alone is retained in some of these (horunc). (as hdiusce). Hie and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic: illic. illaec, illuc;
:

also illSc (ace. or abl.

101. p. 67).

66

Etymology: Pronouns.

101.

1O1. The demonstratives are used either with nouns

From their signifias Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns. a vocative. have They cannot cation they (except ipse)
are thus declined
:

101, 102.]
Tile

Demonstrative Pronouns.
-ce.

67
Thus
N.
:

and iste are combined with the demonstrative

M.
illlc
F.

Sing.

N.

M.
istic

F.

NOM.
Acc. ABL.
Plur.
N.,

illaec illoc (illuc) illunc illanc illoc (illuc)

illoc
iliac

istoc (istuc) iatunc istanc istoc (istuc)

istaec
istac

illoc

istoc

istoc

ACC.

illaec

istaec

a. For the dative and ablative plural of hie the old form hibus is sometimes found haec occurs (rarely) for hae. b. The normal forms ill!, isti (gen.), and illae, istae (dat), are found also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). c. The plural forms T, is, idem, isdem, are often written ii, iis, etc. Obsolete forms are eae (dat. for el), and eabus or Ibus (dat. plur. For el are found also Si and el. for Is).
; ;

d.

By composition

with ecce or gn, behold! are formed

;

eccum,
gllas
;

eccam, eccos, eccas eccistam. These forms

e.

eccillum, ellum, ellam, are dramatic and colloquial.

ellos,

The combinations huiusmodi (hiiiuscemodi), eiusmodi,

etc.,

are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such: as, res giusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort : compare 215).

1O2. In the use of these demonstratives

observed that

it

is

to

be

near the speaker (in time, place, thought, hence called the demonstrative of the It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes first person. for "the latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writa.
is

Hie

used of what

is

or on the written page).

It is

ing; more rarely for "the former," when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean

of what

" the former" also (usually following its noun) (see under hie, a} is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean " the following."
;

1 The intensive -ce is also found in numerous combinations as, httiusce, hunce, horunce, harunce, h6sce, hisce (cf. n., p. 65), illlusce, Isce also with the interrogative -ne, in hocine, hoscine. istflcine, illlcine, etc. The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nom.), eumpse, eampse, eopae, eapse (abl.).
:
;

68
c.

Etymology: Pronouns.
Iste
is

102-104.
:

used of what

is

between the two others in remoteness

hence called the demonoften in allusion to the person addressed, It especially refers to one's opponent (in strative of the second person.
court, etc.), and frequently implies a kind of contempt. d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and does not denote

any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a personal pronoun (see 98. I. a) and is often merely a correlative to the relative quT as, eum quern, one whom ; eum cSnsulem qul non dubitet
;
:

(Cic.),
e.

a consul who will not

hesitate.

Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, as nos ipsi (nosmetipsi), we ourselves ; or independently (the verb containing the pronoun, or the context implying it), as ipsi adestis, j0# are yourselves present i or with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Virg.), the very

fountains.

NOTE. In English, the pronouns himself, etc., are used both intensively (as, he will come himself} and reflexively (as, he will kill himself} in Latin the former
:

would be translated by ipse

the

latter,

by se or sese.

is are used to point in either direction, /. The pronouns Me, ille, and back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned. The neuter forms are especially used to refer to a clause, animum videre phrase, or idea as, est illud quidem vel maximum
:

(Tuscul.

i.

52), that is in truth

5.

a very great thing to

see the soul.

Relative Pronouns.

1O3. The
clined
:

relative

pronoun

qul,

who, which,
PLURAL.

is

thus de-

SINGULAR.

NOM. qui GEN. cuius

DAT. cui
Ace. quern ABL. quo
6.

quae
cuius cui

quod
cuius
cui

qui

quae
quibus quas quibus

quae
quibus quae quibus

quorum quarum quorum

quibus quos quibus

quam
qua

quod
quo

Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns.

(qul),
:

1O4. The interrogative or indefinite quis

which ? any, NOM.
GEN. DAT. Ace. ABL.
is

who?

declined in the Singular as follows

quis (qui) cuius cui

quae
cuius cui

quid (quod) cuius

cui

quern

quam
qua

quid (quod)

quo

quo

104. J

AY/<///7v
Plural

and

Interrogative Pronouns.
that of the Relative.
105. d).

69

The
is rare

is

the

same as

The

singular quis

as an indefinite (see

the
$

NOTE. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of same Stem, and the forms for the most part are the same (compare 103 with The interrogative sense is 104). The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-.i

doubtless the original one.

quae. quid, substantive, and vocat ? who calls ? quid videa ? ^qui, quae quod, adjective : as, quis ""*~-* ? what man- calls f ^auod wfat do yon sec ? gnT hnpin templum luhat temple do you see?
interrogative
f

CASE-FORMS. and

a.

The

relative has

always quT, quae quod.

T

The

indefinite

have

fluis.

NOTE.
is

But qul

is

often used without

any apparent adjective force

and quis
:

common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person as, qui nominat me? who calls my name? quis dies fuit? what day was it? quis homo? what man? but often qul homo? whatsortofa man? nescio qul sis,
very

/ know not who you

b.

are.

and dative are quoius, quoi. used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combination quicum, with whom, as an interrogative or an Old forms
for the genitive
is
c.

The form qui

;

indefinite relative.

d.

The
e.

dative

nominative plural ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. and ablative quis (stem quo-) is old, but not infrequent. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the

ablative, as with the personal

pronouns

99. e)

as,

quocum,

qui-

cum, quibuscum.
NOTE.
(Juv. 4. 9).

But occasionally

cum precedes as

with other words: as,

cum quo

f.

The The

accusative form

quom, cum (stem quo-)

when
or since.

is

used only as a

conjunctive adverb, meaning

g.
tive.
It is

adjective uter is used as an interrogative and indefinite reladeclined as an adjective of three terminations (see 83).

NOTE.

This word

is

probably the comparative of the stem quo-;

irorepos.

cf.

intra

(p. 56, foot-note),

and Greek

1O5. The pronouns quia and qul appear

binations.
1

in various

com-

From qui-

quae
made

are formed quis, quid, quern, quibus, qul (abl.) while qui, (nom.), are probably lengtlicniul forms of qu6-, qua- (see $ 32, decl. i), by the addition of the demonstrative particle i.
;

/O
a.

Etymology : Pronouns.
The adverb -cumqne (-cunque)
makes an
indefinite relative,
:

[
to

105.
the

(cf.

quisque) added
is

relative

which

declined like the simple

word

as,

quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatetc.

ever; cuiuscunque,

same meaning, may be used with any relative as, qualiscumque, cf whatever sort; quandocumque (also rarely quandoque), whenever; ubicumque, wherever. b. The interrogative form doubled makes an indefinite relative as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wherever}. Of quisThis
suffix,

NOTE.

with the

quis both parts are declined, but the feminine

thus

is

wanting

in classic use

NOM.
Acc. ABL.
Plur. NOM.
D.,

quisquis (quiqui)

quemquem
quoquo
quiqui

quidquid (quicquid) quidquid (quicquid)

quaqua

quoquo

ABL. quibusquibus
is

NOTE.

This compound
case-form

rare, except in the

is

quoquS. The

quamquam

although (strictly however). Quiqui form. The grammarians give also a regular genitive and dative. is used like a genitive, but is probably locative.
c.

forms quisquis, quicquid, and used only as a conjunction, meaning (nom. sing.) is an early and quaqua a late

CuicuimodJ

Indefinite

quispiam, any
all.

Of

are the following: quidam, a, a certain; quivis, quilibet, any you please; quisquam, any at these the former part is declined like quis and qui, but they

compounds

all

have both
d.

The

quod (adjective) and quid (substantive) in the neuter. indefinite quis, otherwise rare, is found in the compounds

aliquis, some one, and the combinations si quis, if any ; lie quis, lest any, that none; ecquis, num quis, whether any, and a few others. These are declined like quis, but have generally qua instead of

quae, except in the nominative plural feminine. The forms aliquae, ecquae, nominative singular feminine, occur rarely.
NOTE.
instead of
if

The compounds quispiam, aliquis, and quisquam are often used quis with si, ne, and num, and are rather more emphatic, as si quis,
if

any one, si aliquis,

some

one, si

quisquam,

if

any one

(ever, cf. h}.

These compounds are thus declined

Slug.
aliquis, some.

NOM.
GEN. DAT. Acc. ABL.

aliquis (aliqui) aliqua

aliciiius

aliquid (aliquod)

alicui

aliquem
aliquo

aliquam
aliqua

aliquid (aliquod) aliquo

105,106.]
Plnr.

Conrln fives.

/I

NOM.
GEN. DAT. Acc. ABL.

aliqul

aliquae

aliqua

aliquorum
aliquos
in

aliquarum
aliquibus aliquas aliquibus

aliquorum
aliqua

The forms

-qul and -quod are adjective

:

-quid, substantive

as,

those in -quis and aliquod bonum, some good thing; but aliquid
;

bom, something good (something

NOTE.
But the
e.

of good).
all-, old

Aliquis is compounded with meaning other usually disappears.

enclitic particle

stem of alius

(p. 49, foot-note).

que added to the interrogative gives a uniquisque, every one, uterque, either of two, or both. In this combination quis is regularly declined. In the compound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are
versal
:

The

as,

declined,

Quotus quisque has

disparaging sense.

and they are sometimes separated by other words. the signification how many, pray ? often
relative

in a

f.
g.

The
(-a,

cuius

-um), whose] and a

and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective patrial cuias (cuiat-), of what country.
are derivative adjectives

Quantus, ho^u great, qualis, of what sort,

from the same stem as the interrogative. They are used as interrogative or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis (106).
//. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, anywhere, are chiefly used in negative sentences, or where there is an implied negative, as in interrogative or conditional sentences, or after quam,

than] sine, without] vix, scarcely: as, necquisquam ex agmine tanto, and nobody from that great throng] si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any one is timorous, I am the man ; sine ullo domino,
without any master]

an quisquam usquam gentium est aequg miser? why I is there anybody anywhere in the world so wretched? /. Quisiiam is emphatic: pray, who? ecquis and iiumquis are compounded from the indefinite particle en and the interrogative num they mean not who, but any in a question: as, ecquis iios videt? does
;

any one

see us ?

num

quid hoc dubitas, do you at

7.

all doubt this

.-

Correlatives.

lOtt. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and adverbs have corresponding demonstrativet relative, interrogSuch parallel forms are called ative, and indefinite forms.

CORRELATIVES.

They

are

shown

in

the following table:

Etymology: Pronouns.
DEMONSTR.
,

106. 107.
1NDEF.

RELATIVE.

1NTEKKOG.

1NDEF, RELATIVE.

that

q\i\,who

quis ? who f quisquis, whoever

tantus, sogreat quantus

quantus ? (quantuscumque) (qualiscumque) ubiubi

quoquo quaqua (undecumque) (cumcumque) quotquot

toties, so often quoties

quoties ?

(quotiescumque)

108-10.

Inflection

of the Verb:

Voice,

<><></,

Tense.

73

CHAITKR VI.
I.

Verbs.

-INFLECTION OF THE VERB

1O8. The inflection of the Verb denotes Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.
a.
b,

The VOICES
~Tfie

are two Active and Passive. MnniTs arg foiirT'lr^jriV"*'- Subjunctive, Imperative, and^
:

c.

The TENSES
1.

are six, viz.

For continue.^

artinn, Etessftt, Imperfect, Future.

2. Jor completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, J There are separate terminations PERSON __ - andNuM.BER. rgt CA both in each of the three PERSONS, f ^ndi and I*"***,

d.

--

^^^
2.

for

the

singular

and

in the plural.

Noun and Adjective Forms.

:

109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the Latin Verb
a.

Four PARTICIPLES,

viz.

Active: the Present and Future Participles. Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive. 8
b.

The GERUND

this

is

in

form a neuter noun of the second declen-

sion, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive (see 114. note).
c.

The SUPINE:

see
3.

71.

a and

114. b.

Defective Forms.

in certain parts of the

1

110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting verb
:

The Infinitive is strictly a case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of but it plays so important a part in verbal construction, that it the verb (p. I2O./) is properly treated as a part of the verb. 2 The Participles are Adjectives in inflection and meaning (see \ 25. e) but have the power of Verbs in construction and in distinguishing time. 8 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective, indicating necessity or duty (see In late use it became a Future Tussive Participle. 113. d).
; t

74

Etymology:

Verbs.

[110-12.

a. The Subjunctive mood wants the Future and the Future Perfect. In most constructions, these tenses are supplied without ambiguity by for the Present (or Imperfect) and the Perfect (or Pluperfect)
;

originally all tenses of the subjunctive

referred

to

future

time.

In

some constructions

the want

is

supplied by the future participle with

:

the proper tense of the verb signifying TO BE as, cum secuturus he will since sit, follow. b. In the Passive voice in all moods the tenses of completed action (Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect) are supplied by the Perfect
Participle with the present, imperfect,

and

future of the verb signifying

TO BE
c.

as,

occlsus

eat, he

was

killed.

In the Imperative mood, the only tenses are the Present and the

Future.
d. In the Infinitive mood the Present (active and passive) and the Future in the active Perfect (active) only are formed by inflection. voice is formed by the Future Participle with the infinitive signifying

TO BE: as, amaturus esse, to be going to love; in the passive, by the Former Supine with iri (infin. pass, of ire, to go): as, amatum For the Perfect passive, see b above. iri, to be about to be loved.

II.

-SIGNIFICATION OF THE FORMS OF THE VERB.

1.

Voices.

111. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally correspond to the active and passive in English; but
a. The passive voice often has a Reflexive meaning as, induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes] Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns
:

(himself).

NOTE. This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and doubtless a survival of the original meaning of the passive ( 118. note).

is

b. Many verbs are used only in the passive form, but with an active or reflexive meaning. These are called DEPONENTS (deponentia), i.e., verbs which have laid aside (deponere) the active form and the passive

meaning (see

135).
2.

Moods.

112. The MOODS of the Latin verb are used as follows:

a.

The
:

Indicative

Mood

is

used for direct assertions and interro1

gations
in

as,

valgsne? valeo, are you well?

of predication.

am

well; and also

some other idiomatic forms

112.]
b.

Moods.

75

idiomatic uses, as in commands, and various dependent clauses. It is fmiw.-ntly translated by the English Indicative; sometimes by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should] sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive sometimes by the Infinitive and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibiconditions,
; ;

The Subjunctive Mood has many

tions.

Thus
let its

eainus,

go.

cum

venisset,

when he had

come.

ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see). tu ne quaesieris, do not tJiou inquire. nemo est qul ita existimet, there is no one who thinks

adsum

so.

beatus sis, may you be blessed. nS abeat, let him not depart.

quid morer, why should I delay ? sunt qui putent, there are some who think. imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write (that I write). nescio quid scribam, I know not what to write. licet eas>,you may go (it is permitted that you go). cave cadas, dorft fall. vereor ne eat, Ifear he will go. vereor ut eat, Ifear he will not go. si moneam audiat (pres.), if I should warn, he would hear. si vocarem audiret (imperf.), if I were (now) calling, he would
Jiear.

quae

cum

dixisset abiit, and when he had said this, he went away.

NOTE. The Latin Subjunctive is -often translated, formally, by means of the English auxiliaries may, might, could, would, etc., to distinguish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite
Thus, / may write is often not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi / would write is scribam, scribere / can write is possum scribere scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) I should write, (//etc.), scriberem
meaning.
;
; ;

(si)
c.

or (implying duty)
is

oportet

me

scribere.

The IMPERATIVE
place
is

used for exhortation, 'ntreaty, or command]

but

266, 269). by the Subjunctive ( used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the In special con270, 271. d). subject or object of another verb ( structions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by
its

often supplied
is

d.

The INFINITIVE

that

mood

in

English (see "Indirect Discourse,"

264
ff.

335

ff.).

NOTE.

For the Syntax of the Moods, see

J6

Etymology : Verbs.
3.

113.

Participles.

113. The PARTICIPLES

follows
a.
:

of the Latin verb are

used as

The Present

meaning and use as the English

.

participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same participle in -ING: as, vocans, calling*,

(For its inflection^ see egens, legentes, reading. 85). b. i The Future participle (ending in -urus) is oftenest used to express what is likely or about to happen.
NOTE.
city is

When

thus used with the tenses of the verb

129)
:

called the First Periphrastic conjugation (see

as,

TO BE it forms what is urbs est casura, the

about to fall ;
It is

mansurus eram,
more
to

/ was going

to stay.
:

2.

venit auditurus, he came

c.
1.

as, purpose (see 293. ) hear (about to hear). The Perfect participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses: It is sometimes equivalent to the English Perfect Passive parti-

also used,

rarely, to express

ciple in -ED: as, tectus, sheltered; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, having been struck ; and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus,

acceptable.
2.

It is also

used to form certain tenses of the passive

no.

b~)

as,

vocatus
NOTE.

est, he

was
is

(has been) called.

Perfect Active or Present Passive participle in Latin. The used in an active sense, as

There

no

perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally sectltus, having followed. In the case of other verbs
is

some

different construction

used

for these
;

missing participles:
;

as,

cum venisset, having come

(when he
cavalry struck

had come)

equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cavalry (the d.um verberatur, while he is (being) having been sent forward)

(=
d. i. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus) is often used as an adjective implying obligation or necessity (ought or must} as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
:

NOTE.

When

thus used with the tenses of the verb

TO BE

Periphrastic conjugation
2.

delig-erdus erat, he ought

to

it forms the Second have been chosen ( 129).

In the oblique cases the Gerundive

commonly has
its

the

same meanis

ing as the

Gerund

(cf.

14. a},

though

construction

different.

(For examples, see

295

ff.)
;

e. The Participles may all be used as simple and the adjectives present and perfect participles are sometimes compared as adjectives
:

as,

amans, amantior, more fond; dilectus, dilectissimus, dearest. f. The Present and Perfect participles are (like adjectives) often
in the plural
(

used as nouns, especially

(those ruling)
;

188)

as,

regentes, rulers

mortui, the dead,

113-15.]

Gerund

(Did Supine ;

Tenses.

77

is often used prcdicatively to indig. As an adjective, the participle cate some special circumstance or situation: as, moriturl vos salutS-

mus, we

at the point

of death (about
4.

to die) salute you.

Gerund and Supine. 114. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows:
a.
It
is

The GERUND

is,

in form, the neuter singular of the Gerundive.

a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English verbal noun in -ING ( 295) as, loquendl causa, for the sake of speaking.
:

Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is useful ; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing.

NOTE.

In this use the

b.

The SUPINE

is

in

form a noun of the fourth declension

71. 0),

found only in the accusative ending in -turn, -sum and the ablative (or These are sometimes called dative, probably both) ending in -tu, -su. the Former and the Latter Supine. The Former is used after verbs and
the Latter after adjectives
1.
(

302, 303)

as,

2.

venit spectatum, he came to see. mirabile dictu, 'wonderful to tell.

5.

Tenses.
classes, viz.
:

115. The tenses of the verb are of two

1
.

Of continued action.

1.

2.

PRESENT: scribo, lam writing. IMPERFECT: scrlbebam, I was writing.

3.

FUTURE

scrlbam, / shall write.

2
.

Of completed action

4.
5.

6.

PERFECT: scrips!, I have written, I wrote. PLUPERFECT: scripseram, / had written. FUTURE PERFECT: scripsero, f shall have
a.

written.

Tenses of the Indicative.

a.

The

as the corresponding tenses in English

tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning but are in some cases dis;

tinguished differently in their use. i. The Future or Future Perfect

Thus
is

often used in subordinate clauses

where we use the Present

si

as,

cum venero

quid habebo dabo, if I have (shall have) any thing. I will give. scrlbam, when I come (shall have come), I will write.

78
2.

Etymology : Verbs.
The Present and Imperfect

115, 116.

are often used to express continued

:

action where the English uses tenses of completed action

as,

iam diu aegroto, I have long been (and still am) sick. iam diu aegrotabam, I had long been (and still was) sick.
NOTE.
Pluperfect, that I

Here the Perfect, aegrotavi, would imply was well at the past time designated.

that I

am now

well;

b. The Imperfect is used to describe in past time a continued action or a condition of things : as, scribebat, he was writing*, ardebat, it

was on fire. c The Perfect, having two

Definite
1.

separate uses,

is

divided into the Perfect

and the Perfect Historical (or

Indefinite).

Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed in present time, and corresponds to the English (present- or compound-) perfect: as, scrips!, I have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the English past or preterite and the Greek aorist as, scripsit, he
:

The

wrote ; arsit,

it

blazed up.
b.

Tenses of the Subjunctive.

tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are chiefly used in dependent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (see 286) but
d.

The

have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax,

111.

266

if.,

283, 308).

-PERSONAL ENDINGS.

116. Verbs have regular terminations 1 for each of the three Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive.

These are:
Sing.
1.

ACTIVE.
(-6 or-i):

PASSIVE.
-r
:

-m
:
:

2. -s 3. -t

am-6, Hove. ama-s, thou lovest.

ama-t, he loves.

amo-r,
:

I am

loved.

-ris

or-re ama-ris, thou art loved.

:

-tur

ama-tur, he
PASSIVE.

is loved.

PlUF.
1.

ACTIVE.
:

-muB
:

ama-muSj'ze/tf /<?z/.

-mur
-ntur

ama-mur, we are
ama-miiii,
:

loved.

2. -tis
3.

-nt:

ama-tis,/0# love, ama-nt, they love,

-mini:

you are loved.

ama-ntur, they are loved.

1 These terminations are fragments of old Pronouns, whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem (compare p. 19, note i). But the ending -mini in the second person plural of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek -fifvos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. It is thought by some scholars that -nt has a similar origin.

116-18.]
NOTE.

Fotws of

the

Verb.

79

The present indicative of the active voice has lost the -m, and ends This modified stem-vowel -6 except in sum and inquam ( 119, 144. b). 5 ,tands for blended in sound with a preceding vowel (amo = fama-m). The
in the

perfect the future perfect,

and

the future in

-b5 have

also lost the

-m.
:

a.

The

Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations

-stl:

SING.

2.

amav-i-stl, thou lovedst.

:

PLUR.

2. 3.

-stis

amav-i-stis,
:

you

loved.

-erunt or -6re

amav-grunt

(^-Sre),

they loved.

b.

The Imperative
:

has the following terminations:

PASSIVE.
-re
:

Sing.
2.
2.

ACTIVE.

ama, love thou.

:

-to

ama-to, thou shalt love, -tor

ama-to,
let

ama-re, be thou loved. ama-tor, thou shall be loved.

him

love,

-tor

ama-tor,

let

him

be loved.

Plur.
2.

-te

ama-te, love ye.

-mini

ama-mini, be ye loved.
ama-ntor,
let

3.

-nto

xma.-r&Q.letthemlove. -ntor

them be

loved.

IV.-FORMS OF THE VERB.

117. Every Latin verb-form (except the adjective and noun forms) is made up of two parts, viz.
:

1. The STEM (see or development of it.

21).

This

is

either the root or a modification

2.

The ENDING,
b.

consisting of

a. the signs of

mood and

tense.

the personal ending (see

in

116).

the verb voca-vi-t, he called, the root is VOC, modified into the verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of the tense sign -ul (-vl) becomes the perfect tense vocavl; and to this is added the personal ending (-t) of the third person singular.
I.

NOTE

Thus

These endings are of various origin. In none of them, however, mood sign strictly inserted between the root and the personal terminations. All verb-forms are either inherited from a time when the elements were still significant and could still be compounded, or are imitations of such inherited
2. is

NOTE

the tense or

forms.

18.

for

The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs mood and tense combined with personal endings, are

exhibited in the following table:

8o

118, 119.

Forms

<>f
re

the
l'<

Verb.

8l

I'll til

fj<-rt

Sirig:

I.

-er-o
-eri-s

er5
-tus(-ta,

2.

eris

-turn)
3. -eri-t

lerit
f

Plnr.

i.

-eri-mus
-eri-tis

erimus
erunt

2. 3.

'"L'Heritis
-ta)
I

-eri-nt

IMPERATIVE.
I 'resent.

Sing.

2.

Plur.
-to

2.

-te

Sing.

2.

-re

Plur.

2.

-mini

rut ure.
2.
2.

-tote

2. 3.

-tor
-tor

2.

3.

-to

3.

-nto

3.

-ntor

For convenience a
verb
is

table of the

Noun and

Adjective forms of the

here added.
INFINITIVES.

Prcs. Perf.

-re (Pres. stem) -isse (Perf. stem)

i.n.iv.-ri; in.

-i

Fut.

-turns

(-a,

-um) esse
PARTICIPLES.

-tus (-ta, -turn) esse -turn iri

Pres.
J'crf.

-ns, -ntis

-tus, -ta, -turn

Fnt.

-turus,

-a,

-um

Oer.

-ndus,

-a,

-uin

GERUND.
-ndi, -ndo,

SUPINE.
-turn, -tu

-ndum, -ndo

The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long except before NOTE. -mus, is of doubtful origin. It is probably in all cases a part of the stem, as it is
dedi, stetl, where it takes the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes -vi (of unorigin) and -si (akin to those of Greek t5e/|a and Skr. adikshani) and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but probably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The S before -tl and -tis is also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es; but it may be, like the personal endings, of pronominal origin. The Passive is a middle (or reflexive) form peculiar to Latin and Celtic, and of
in

known

uncertain origin.

The Verb Sam.

119. The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the
Future.
Its

conjugation

is

for the inflection of all

given at the outset, on account of other verbs.

its

important v

82

Etymology :
PRINCIPAL PARTS
INDICATIVE.
Present.
:

Verbs.
Infin. esse, Perf. fui,

Pres.

sum,

Fut. Part, fu turns.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Sing.

i.

sum, I am.

119, 120.]

The Verb SUM.

/*!///<

83

1.

fuero, fsJiall have been.

rinr.

I.

2.

3.

fawA*, you win have bet*. fuerit, he will have been.

6a, bethon.

2.

3.

fuerimus,w^ shall'have been. iueritis, you ivill have been. i-aeiint, they will have been.
este, &?/<?. eat.ote, ye shall

IMPERATIVE.
I'rwiit.
rntnr<-.
.s/;/^. 2.

Plitr. 2.
be.
2.

2.

e&to, thoji shalt

ezto, he shall be.

be.

3.

3.

&\mto, they shall be.

INFINITIVE.
rri'si-nt.

esse, /0

&?.

Perfect,

ftiisse, /# //tf?^

^<?.
/V>

rut ure. fore or futurus esse,

^ about to be.

PARTICIPLE.
i'it
t

nre.

futurus,

-a,

-um, about

to be.

a. The present participle, which should be fsens (compare Sanskrit sant), appears in that form in ab-sens, prae-sens and as ens (comThe simple form ens is sometimes found in late pare o>v) in pot-ens. or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms 6ns, being ; entia, things which are. Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an b. RARE FORMS.
;

inchoative present, see

Subjunctive

167. a). Present, siem, sies, siet, sient

;

fuam, fuas, fuat,

fuant

Perfect,

fuvimus
etc.,

Pluperfect, fuvisset.
etc.,

NOTE.
of meaning.

For essem,

forem, fores,

are often used without difference

which
ER
(see

12O. The verb sum appears in numerous compounds, will be treated under Irregular Verbs ( 137).
The
root of the verb

NOTE.
\

sum
is

is

ES,

which

in the imperfect
S.

is

changed

to

ii. a. i),

and

in

many

cases

shortened to

as found in several languages more or less closely " the following table, the Indo-European" being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form syam corresponding to the Latin sim (siem)
:

Some of its modifications, related to Latin, may be seen in

INDO-EUROPEAN-

SANSKRIT.

GREEK.
(opt.)

LATIN.

LITHUANIAN.

es-mi
es-si
es-ti

as-mi
as-i
as-ti

syam
syas
syat

ew"
iffri

s-um
es
es-t

es-mi
es-i
es-ti

tfffffi

s-masi
S-tasi

s-mas
s-tha
s-anti

syama
syata
syus

^a^4v fart
^vrf1

s-umus
es-tis

es-me
es-te
es-ti

8-anti

s-unt

The

Perfect

and Supine stems,

f ui-, futflro-, are

kindred with the Greek

t<pv

and

with the English be.

1

Old form.

84

Etymology :

Verbs.

121, 122

The Three Stems.

121. The parts of the Latin verb may be formed upon three different stems (partly real and partly supposed),
called the Present, the Perfect,

and the Supine Stem

(see

notes, pp. 86, 119

a.

ff.).

The

tenses of continued action, both active and passive, together

with the Gerund and Gerundive, are formed upon the and collectively are called the Present System.
b.

PRESENT STEM,

the

The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed upon PERFECT STEM, and are called the Perfect System. c. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are formed
called the Supine System.

upon the SUPINE STEM, and are

Since Latin verbs are commonly spoken of under the form of their present tense, the other parts are usually said to be derived from this. It is only in the verbs formed later in the language that this is true. Thus armavi, I have armed, does come from armo, / arm; but Sivi, I have allowed, does not come from sino, / allow; but both sin5 and slvi come from a common source, the
I.

NOTE

by different processes. The Influence of Analogy. Many Latin verbs were not inherited from the parent speech, but formed during the separate existence of the language. The forms of these verbs are not strictly compounds of root or stem and ending, but are imitations of verbs already existing in Latin. For it is only by analogy that elements (parts of words) not complete and significant in themselves can be used to form new A'ords in a developed language. When stems are not felt as significant, they cannot be used for composition. Thus a form like fugabat could be made only from a complete word fuga, or from some form in which fuga seemed to be a complete word and must be regarded, not as a compound of stem and auxiliary, fuga- + bat (like ara- + bat), but as an imitation of forms like arabat, which Simple Perfects like dedl and compound originally were really compounds. forms like vexi have both influenced, by analogy, the production of new forms, like momordi from mordeo, mansl from maneo.
22, 123, 124),

root (see

NOTE

2.

V.- REGULAR VERBS.

Latin verbs are classed as Regular or Irregular according as they do or do not follow the inflection of the Four
Conjugations.

122. There are

in

Latin four principal forms of Present

Stems, ending respectively in a-, e-, 6-, I-. With this difference of stem most of the other differences of conjugation
coincide.

122. J

Regular

Verbs.

85

a. Verbs are accordingly classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present Infinitive Active.
b.

The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a

1.

verb, which determine

its

conjugation

throughout, are

2. 3.

4.

The Present Indicative showing the present stem and The Present Infinitive the conjugation. The Perfect Indicative, showing the perfect stem. The Supine (or the Perfect Participle), showing the supine
\ >

stem.
c.

The

regular forms of the conjugations are seen in the following

:

First

amo, amare, amavi, amatum, amor, amari, amatus. Present- and Verb-stem ama-, Perfect-stem amav-, SupineActive,
love.

Passive,

stem

am at-.
blot out.

Second

deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, Passive, deleor, deleri, deletus.

Present- and Verb-stem dele-, Perfect-stem, delev-, Supinestem delet-.

Third: tego, tegSre, texi, tectum, cover. Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus.

Root TEG, Verb-stem tegg-, Perfect-stem tex-, Supine-stem

t5ct-.

Fourth

audio, audire, audivi, auditum, hear.

Passive, audior, audiri, auditus.

Present- and Verb-stem audi-, Perfect-stem, audiv-, Supinestem, audit-.

In the

in the perfect

Second conjugation, however, the characteristic e- rarely appears and supine: the type of this conjugation is, therefore
Second: moiieo, monere, monui, monitum, warn. Passive, moneor, nioneri, monitus.

d.

In

many

verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two

134)
:

or

more

different conjugations (cf.

1.

as,

2, 3,

2. 3.

domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. maneo, manere, mansi, mansum. remain.
peto, petgre, petivl, petitum, seek. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind.
to the conjugation to

4,
3,

4.

Such verbs are referred

stem conforms.

which the

first

or Present-

86

Etymology :
1.

Verbs.

Present Stem.

NOTE. The parent speech from which Latin comes possessed verbs with present stems of three different kinds. These verbs were formed
as follows
First
: :

personal endings. These noun-stems had been formed from roots by the addition of various
:

From roots, by adding the personal Second From noun-stems, by adding the

endings.

suffixes, as a-, na-, ya-, ta-.

-yami,

and stems, by adding a common suffix (probably -yomi) which already contained the personal endings. Verbs of all these forms were inherited by the Latin. Of the first class few survive, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been forced into some one of the four conjugations. Examples are est,
Third
:

From

roots

etc., later

from edo

Of

das, from do (dare) flemus, from fleo. In these the verb-stem the second class a large number remain.
;

fert,

from fero

ends in a short vowel, Sis

(I-)

This
Besides

is

a- (5-) of the noun-suffixes.

this, the

a remnant of the original vowel consonant of the suffix

Verbs of this form are often called primitive verbs, often preserved. because the language lost the power of making new forms of this type They make up the third conjugation. Exexcept in a few cases. amples are: fero (stem feroe-) for bher-o-mi (cf. fert in the first
for star-no-mas plectunt (stem So pello (stem pelloe-) for pel-yo-mi. plectoe-) disco (stem discoe-) for di(c)sco-mi. This last form became the 167. a). type for a large number of verbs called inceptive (see

class)

sternimus (stem sternoe-)

for plec-to-nti;

Of

in contact with the suffix

the third class, those verbs in which any vowel (except u) came (-yami) suffered contraction so as to present
a-, e-, I-, at the
first,

a long vowel, types of the

end of the stem.

These became the

second, and fourth conjugations respectively. In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the

Romans
regular

themselves (after the

mode

forgotten)
suffix -ize

from noun and adjective stems.

of formation had been entirely This came to be the

verbs, just as in English the borrowed can be added to adjectives to make a verb as, modernize. Those verbs of the third class in which a consonant or u came in
;

way of forming new

contact with the suffix

-yami

suffered various phonetic changes.

Such

verbs

fell

form of it,
for

partly into the third conjugation, giving rise to an irregular and partly into the fourth, and some have forms of both.

Examples are: (con)spicio, -spicere, forspek-yomi; veniS, venire, (g)ven-yomi cupio, cupere, but cupivi orior, oritur, but oriri. But pluo, pluere, for plu-yomi and hence, by analogy, acuo, acuere.
; ;

123.
1

Present Sfrw.
in all

87
.is

Hut

those cases

many

cross-analogies and errors as well

phonetic changes have been at work to produce irregularitihas arisen the traditional system which may be practically represented
as follows
:

The Present Stem

is

formed from the Root

l
:

in all

regular verbs in one of the following ways

a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long vowel (a-, -, I-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, voca-re (voc), mone-re (MEN, cf. meminl), sopi-re (SOP).

NOTE.

These verb-stems are almost

all really

formed from noun-stems on

the pattern of older formations (see note, p. 86).

b. In the Third conjugation, by adding a short vowel (8-, i-) to the This vowel may be preceded root: as, tegg-re (TEG), all-tis (AL). 1. By n, t, BC, or the terminal consonant of the root repeated (a

as, temne-re (TEM), plect-6 phonetic representative of original i) (PLEC), cresce-re (CRE), pell-o (for pel-io, PEL), mitt-6 (MIT). 2. By i, which in most forms disappears in inflection (see 126. c)
:

as, fug-i-o, fug-S-re

c. 1.

(FUG).
also be

The

root

may

changed
: :

2.

By lengthening the vowel as, dic-e-re (DIG), caed-e-re (CAD?). By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication') as, gT-gn-e-re

(GEN).
3.

By

inserting a nasal

(m

or n)

as, find-e-re (FID)

tang-e-re

(TAG). d. In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem irregularly treated as a root: as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re
(aestu-s) cf. acuo, acuere. e. A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem as, These are counted as irregular. fer-re, fer-t es-se vel-le, vul-t.
; :
; ;

These formations may be traced

SANSKRIT.

in the following parallel inflections

SANSKRIT.

SANSKRIT.

i.

vach-aya-mi
vach-aya-si vach-aya-ti

voc-(a)-5
voc-a-s

2.

vah-a-mi
vah-a-si vah-a-ti

veh-o
vch-i-s
vch-i-t

3.

pag-ya-mi
pag-ya-si pa^-ya-ti

-spic-i-o
-spic-i-s

voc-a-t

-spic-i-t

vach-aya-mas
vach-aya-tha vach-aya-nti In some cases
(cf.

voc-a-mus
voc-a-tis

vah-a-mas
vah-a-tha
vah-a-nti

vch-i-mus
vch-i-tis

pag-ya-mas -spic-i-mus
pag-ya-tha
pag-ya-nti
-spic-i-tts

voc-u-nt

veh-u-nt

-spic-i-unt

there appears to be a connecting vowel not explained above; but this comes from the irregular use of a verb-stem in place of a root, as in

oritarus

ortus),

monitus

(cf.

mens, mentis).

88
f.

Etymology: Verbs.

123-125.

few have roots ending in a vowel. These generally use as stem the root without additions, but sometimes modified as, present da-mus (DA), fle-mus (stem fie-, root form unknown), sisti-mus
:

But others, as rui-mus (RU), are formed with an additional (STA). vowel according to the analogy of d.
2.

Perfect Stem.
is

124. The Perfect Stem

a'.

formed as follows
is

(u) (see p. 120, c) voca-v-i, audi-v-i; or to the root: as, son-u-I (sona-re, root SON), mon-u-i (mone-re, MON treated as a root).

The

suffix

added

to the verb-stem: as,

NOTE.
$ 9.

d)

as,

In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened (see stra-v-1 (sterno, STAR), spre-v-i (sperno, SPAR).
suffix

b.

The

is

added

to the root:

as, carp-s-I

(CARP), tex-I

(for teg-s-I, TEG).

as,

NOTE. fmx-i
c.

The

modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect

(FIG, present

stem flnge-), sanx-I (SAC. present stem sand-).

The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant generwith 8, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-i (cado, CAD), ally to-tond-i (tondeo, TOND).
NOTE.
reduplication has been

In fld-I (for ffe-fld-I, find-6), scid-i (for fsci-scid-i, scindo), the lost, leaving merely the root.
is

lengthened: as, eg-i (ag-6), fug-i (ftig-i-6). used as the perfect stem as, vert-i (vert-6, solv-i used as root). SOLV (solv-6, VERT), f. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem
e.

d.

The root-vowel The root itself

is

as,

peti-v-i (as

if

from fpeti-6, fpetT-re, PET).

3.

Supine Stem.
1

125. The Supine Stem

phonetically
a.
b.

is

formed by adding

t-

(or

B-)

the root, with or without i: as, cap-t-um (capio, CAP), moni-t-um (moneo, MON used as root), cas-um (for cad-t-um, CAD).

To To

the verb-stem

as,

ama-t-um, dele-t-um, audi-t-um.

NOTE
supine
:

i.

The

modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the

lost

as,
2.

tinc-t-um (tingo, TIG), ten-s-um (ten-d-o. TEN).

NOTE

The supine
(as
1
if

petl-t-um

is sometimes from a from fpeti-o, fpeti-re, PET).

or imaginary verb-stem

as,

For the modifications of the Supine Stem, see

p. 121, 3.

126.]

Sufinc Stem.

89

1 26. The forms of the several conjugations from which, 118, all the moods and by adding the verb endings in tenses can be made are as follows
:

a.

The

First

Conjugation

includes
:

all

verbs which
;

with a few the root to form the present stem * as, ama-re root ends in a (do, dare; for, farl; flo, flare; no, nare
stare).
1.

add 5- to whose
;

sto,

amo = fama-o), and in ame-mus. ame-s, changed 2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the For exceptions, see present stem: as, ama-v-I, ama-t-um.
The stem-vowel
5is

lost before -6 (as,

the present subjunctive

is

to 6

as,

130.
b.

The Second Conjugation

(fle-6, fle-re
;

includes

all

verbs which add e- to the

;

root to form the present stem, as

mone-re
;

with a few whose root

ends in e

neo, ne-re

re-or, re-rl).
:

1. In the present subjunctive a is added to the verb-stem as, mone-a-s, mone-a-mus (cf. 118). 2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine stem by adding t to the present stem as, dele-v-I, dele-t-um. But most form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, having 1 for S For lists, see as, mon-u-i, moni-t-um. 131.
:
:

c.

The Third Conjugation

which

includes
root
to

all

137)

add

S-

to

the

form

verbs (not irregular, see the present stem: as,

in 8:
as, se-rg-re for

tegg-re, capg-re; with a few

whose root ends

fse-se-re (reduplicated from SE, cf. satum). 1. The stem-vowel S- is lost before -o, becomes

u2

before -nt, and I

:

before the other endings of the indicative and imperative as, teg-6, in the imperfect indicative it becomes e teg-it, tegu-nt as, tege; :

bam

in the future, e

as,

teges
i 8
;

in the present subjunctive

:

as, tega-s.

Verbs

in -io retain the

before a, 6, u, and e

as,

capi-at, capi-unt,
as,

capi-ebat, capi-es, capi-et

fcapi-it), cap-eret. 2. All forms of perfect
tion.

but lose

it

elsewhere:

cap-it (not

See

lists,

132.

and supine stems are found in this conjugaBut the perfect is never formed from the
(

present stem, but always from the root

121. n. i).

2
8

The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see \ The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus ($ 12. d). The e in capiet, once long, was afterwards shortened.

130.

90
d.

Etymology:
The Fourth Conjugation
:

Verbs.
all

126, 127.

includes

verbs which add I to the In these the perfect and

:

root to form the present stem

1 as, audi-re.

as, audi-v-i, supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem audi-t-um. 2 The endings of the third conjugation are added in the

third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the as, imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive
:

audi-unt, audi-ebat, audi-etis, audi-at.

present stem
is the same as the ama, mone, tege, audi. But verbs in -io of the third conjugation omit i as, capS (not fcapie). f. The tenses of completed action are all regularly formed by adding

e.

The

Pres. Imperative Act. (second pers. sing.)

:

as,

the tense-endings (given in

118) to the perfect stem: as, amav-I,

amav-eram, amav-ero, amav-erim, amav-issem, amav-isse. g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by
to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of continued action of the verb esse as, perf. amatus sum; plup. amatus eram, etc.

adding

4.

Synopsis of the Verb.

127. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verbs arranged according to the several stems. Amo, a
regular verb of the
first

conjugation,

is

taken as a type.

PRESENT STEM, ama-; PERFECT STEM, amav-; SUPINE STEM, amat-.

PRES.

IMPERF.

FUT.

PERF.
j !

PLUPERF.

PUT. PERF.

IND.

amo ama-bam ama-bo SUB. ame-m ama-rem ama-t5 IMP. 2. ama

INF.

amav-i

amav-erim
j

amav-eram amav-ero amav-issem

ama-re
i

amat-urus amav-isse
i

esse'

PART, ama-na
IND.

amat-urus
amat-us sum amat-us sim

SUB.

amo-r ama-bar ama-bor ame-r ama-rer ama-tor IMP. 2. ama-re

INF.

eram essem

ero

ama-ri
j

ama-tum
Ger.

iri
|

amat-us esse

PART.

ama-ndus amat-us

A
;

in i

few are formed from noun-stems, as flnl-re (from fini-s), and a few roots end but these are not distinguishable in form.
133.

For exceptions, see

138.]

Spiriat I'onns.
:

91

128. The following special forms require notice

is a. in tenses formed upon the perfect often lost and contraction takes place. Thus, 1. Perfects in -avi, -gvi, -ovi, often contract the two vowels into 5,

stem, v between two vowels

amarim for amaverim as, amasse for amavisse amavissem consugrat for consugverat flgstis for flevistis nosse for novisse. So in perfects in -vi, where the v is a part of the present stem as, commorat for commoverat.
6,

6 respectively
for

amassem
;

NOTE.

The

first

person of the perfect indicative (as

amavi)

is

never con-

tracted, the third very rarely.

2.

Perfects in -Ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels

:

except before at and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect
as,

audieram

for

audiveram

audisse

for

audivisse

audisti

for

audivisti; abiit for abivit.

for siveris, etc.
b.

The forms

siris, sirit, siritis, sirint,

In

many

(from sivero or siverim), are archaic. forms from the perfect stem, is, iss, sis are lost in like
if

manner when
dixisti (x

s would be repeated
;

cs)

traxe

for

traxisse

they were retained as, dixti for evasti for evasisti vixet for
:

vlxisset;
archaic
c.

erepsemus

for

erepsissemus.

These forms belong

to

and colloquial usage. Four verbs dic5, duco, faciS, fero

with their compounds,

drop the vowel- termination of the imperative, making die, due, f&c, The forms dice, fSr; but compounds in -ficio retain it, as confice. duce. face (never fere), occur in early Latin.

For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always used and scltote usually in the plural. e. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetry: 1. In the fourth conjugation -Ibam, -Ib5 for -iebam, -iam (future). These forms are regular in eo, go ( 141). 2. In the present subjunctive -im as in duim, perduim (for dem,
d.
in the singular,
:

sum

fperdem), and volo and

3.

retained in
their

religious formulas.

This form

is

regular in

In the perfect

compounds ( subjunctive and

119, 138). future perfect

;

-sim, -so

as,

ausim (= ausus faxim, faxo, iusso, recgpso, (= fgcero, etc.) aim). 4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocarl; agier for
agi.

-assere is found used as a future perfet 5. A form in -asso, amassis, from amo levasso, from levo impetrassere, from impetro iudicassit, from iudico.
:

92

Etymology: Verbs.
FIRST CONJUGATION. -ACTIVE VOICE.
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Pres. amo,
INDICATIVE.
Present.
Infin.

amare,

Perf.

amavi.

Supine amatum.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

amo, I low.

amem
ames amet

am as, thou loves t (you love). am at, he (she, it) loves.

amamus, we
love.

amemus
ametis

amatis, you love.

amaiit, they love.

ament
Imperfect*

amabam, / loved.
amabas,^?// loved. amabat, he loved.

amarem
amares amaret

amabamus, we
amabant,

loved.

amaremus
amaretis

amabatis, you loved.

they loved.

amarent
Future.

amabo, / shall love. amabis, you will love.

amabit, he will love.

amabimus, we shall love. amabitis, you will love. amabunt, they will love.
Perfect.

amavi,

I loved.

amaverim
amaveris amaverit

amavisti, you loved. amavit, he loved.

amavimus, we loved. amavistis, you loved. amaverunt (-ere), they

amaverimus
amaveritis
loved.

amaverint
Pluperfect.

amaveram, I had loved. am averts, you had loved. amaverat, he had loved.
amaveramus, we had loved. amaveratis, you had loved. amaverant, they had loved.

amavissem
amavisses amavisset

amavissemus
amavissetis

amavissent

129. J

I'irst

Conjugation.

93
PLURAL.

'tit ii

I', ,-j'irt.

SINGULAR.

amfivero, I shall have loved.

amaveris, you "Mill have loved. amaverit, he 'will have loved.

amaverimus, we shall have loved. amaveritis, you will have loved. amaverint, they will have loved.

IMPERATIVE.
i'ivs. 2.

am5, love th6u.

am ate,

am ato.

thoit s Jialt love.

love ye amatote, ye s-kail love.

amato, he shall love.

f.

amanto, they shaft love.

INFINITIVE.

amare,

to love.

amavisse or amasse, to'have loved. Future, amaturus esse, to be about to love.

PARTICIPLES.
Present,

amans, -antis, loving. Future, amaturus, -a, -um, about

to love.

GERUND.
GEN. amandi, of loving. DAT. amando,/0r loving.
SUPINE.

Ace. amandum, loving. ABL. amando, by loving.

Latter,

Former,

amatum

amatu,

to love.

129. The so-called Periphrastic conjugations are formed by combining the tenses of esse with the Future Active Participle and with the Gerundive: as,
First Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. sim amaturus sum, I am about to love. amaturus eram, / was about to love. essem amaturus ero, I shall be about to love.

Pres.

Imperf.
/>//.

Perf.

Pluperf. Fut. Perf.

amaturus fui, I was about, etc. fuerim amaturus fueram, / had been about, etc. fuissem amaturus f uero, I shall have been about, etc. INFINITIVE Pres. amaturus esse Perf. amaturus fuisse
:

Pres.

Second Periphrastic Conjugation. amandus sum, f am to be loved. sim amandus eram, f was to be loved. essem Iwperf. /-///. amandus ero, I shall be [worthy] tobe loved. amandus fui, I was to be loved. fuerim Perf. fuissem Pluperf. amandus fueram, Iliad been, etc. //. Perf. amandus fuero, / shall have been, etc. INFINITIVE: Pres. amandus esse Perf. amandus fuisse

94

Etymology :

Verbs.

FIRST CONJUGATION. -PASSIVE VOICE.

PRINCIPAL PARTS
:

Pres.

amor,

Infin.

amari,

Perf.

amatus sum.

INDICATIVE.
Present.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

amor, / am
amaris

loved.

amer
ameris
(-re)

(-re), j0# are loved. amatur, he is loved.

ametur

amamur, we are

loved.

amemur
amemini amentur
Imperfect.

amamini, you are loved. amantur, they are loved.

amabar, I was loved. amabaris (-re),jy0& were

amarer
loved.

amareris

(-re)

amabatur, he was

loved.

amaretur

amabamur, we were loved. amabamini, you were loved.

amabantur, they were
loved.

amaremur
amaremini amarentur
Future.

amabor, I shall be loved. amaberis (-ie),you will be

amabitur, he will be loved.

loved.

amabimur, we shall be loved. amabimini, you will be loved. amabuntur, they will be loved.
Perfect.

amatus sum, / was loved. amatus es, you were loved. amatus est, he was loved.
amati sumus, we were loved. amati estis, you were loved. amati sunt, they were loved.
Pluperfect.

amatus sim amatus sis amatus sit

amati simus
amati sitis

amati sint

amatus eram, I had been loved. amatus eras, you had been loved. amatus erat, he had been loved.
amati eramus, we had been loved. amati eratis, you had been loved.

amatus essem amatus esses amatus esset

amati essemus amati essetis
amati essent

amati erant, they had been loved.

130.]

First Conjugation.
I 'at
ii

95

ri-

1'i-r/i'ct.

SINGULAR.

amatus er8, 1 shall have been loved. amati erimua, we shall have, etc. amatus eris.jw/ will have, etc. amati eritia, you will have, etc. amatus erit, he will have, etc. amati erunt, they will have, etc.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
i-'ut.

2.

amare, be thou loved,

aniator, thou shall be loved.

amamini,

be ye loved. be loved.

3.

am at or,

he shall be loved.

amantor, they shall

INFINITIVE.
Present, amarl, to be loved,
rci'fect.

amatus

esse, to have been loved,

iri

rut a re.

amatum

(amatus fore),

to be about to be loved.

PARTICIPLES. amatus, loved (beloved, or having been loved). Future (Gerundive), amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely).
Perfect.

13O. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem as, armo, arm (arma, anus} caeco, to blind (caecus, blind) exsulo, be an exile
: ;

(exsul, an exile)
like

amo

The

166. a). Their conjugation is usually regular, ( of a though many only few forms are found in use. following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly.
;

Those marked

have also regular forms.

crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound. cubo, cubul, cubit-, lie down. do, d^re, dedi, dSt-, give (DA).

neco, *necui, *nect-,

plico, *-plicuT,
*-

kill.

domo, domui, domit-,

iuvo (ad-iuvo), iuvi,
labo, -avi (no sup.),

subdue.
1

frico, fricui, *frict-, rub.

iut-,

poto, potavi, *pot-, drink. seco, secui, sect-, 1 cut. sono, souui, sonit-, 1 sound.
sto, steti, stat- (-stit-), stand.

help.

totter.

mico, micui (no

sup.), glitter.

tono, tonui, tonit-, thunder. veto, vetui, vetit-, forbid.

:

NOTE. Compounds ot these verbs have the following forms crepo dis-crepul or -crepcu'i. d6 circurn-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, venum-do, -dedl, -dat-,
: :

gation

other

compounds are of the 3d,

of the ist conjuas condo, condere, condidi, conditum.

-it-;

mic5
plic5

dl-micavi, -nticat-; c-micui, -micat-. re-, sub- (j^-), multi-plied, -plicavi, -plicat-; ex-plico (unfold), -J,
-iiv't

(explain), -avt, -at-; im-plico,

(-id'),

-catum (-ifum).
;

8t5

con-sto, -stitl, -stit- (-stat-); ad-, re-sto-,

sto, -stefi,
;

-stit't,
,

ante- (anti-}, inter-, super-

circum-sto, -stefi
l

(-stitl),

dl-sto,

no

perfect or supine.

Future Participle in -&ttlrus.

96

Etymology :

Verbs.

SECOND CONJUGATION.
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum; Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus sum.

ACTIVE.
INDIC.

PASSIVE.

131

Second Conjugation.
Future
Perfect.

monuero
monueris monuerit

monitus ero monitus eria monitus erit

monitl erimua
monitl eritia

monuerimus
monueritia

monuerint

monitl erunt

IMPERATIVE.
SING.

PLUR.

SING.

PLUR.

Pres.

2.
2.

monS
moneto mongtS

Fut.

3.

monSte monetote monento

monere monetor monetor

moneminl
monentor

INFINITIVE.
Pre*.
Per/,

monSre

monuisse Fut. moniturua esse

monerl monitus esse

monitum iri (monitua fore)

PARTICIPLES.

Pres.

monSna

Per/,

monitua

Fut. moniturua

Qer.

monendua
SUPINE.

GERUND.
monendl,
-do,

-dum, -d5

monitum, monitQ

131. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -aco ( 167. a):
as,

caleo, be

warm ;
,

calor,

warmth ; calidus, warm ; calesco, grow

timid.

warm; timeo fear ; timor,fear; timidua,

Most of the verbs of
supine like
stroy \ fleo,
fill;

the second conjugation form their perfect

and

moneo.
weep
;

-oleo, grow.

d61eo, deneo, spin; vieo, plat; and compounds of -pleo, The remainder are :
:

The

following have -Svi and

-etum

algeo, alaT, be cold.

Srdeo, arsi, Srs-, burn.

faveo, fSvT, fsmt- t fav0r. ferveo, fervl (ferbu

audeo, ausus aum, dare. augeo, auxl, auct-, increase. caveo, cavi, caut-, care. cgnseo, cgnauT, cSna-, value.
cieo, civT, cit-, excite.

foveo, fovi,

fot-, cherish.

frigeo, frixi, be cold.

fulgeo, fulsi, shine.

gaudeo, gavisua aum,

haereo, haesi. haes-,

rejoice.

cling.

doceo, docuT, doct-,

teach.

indulgeo, indulai, indult-, indulge.

Etymology : Verbs.
iubeo, iussi, iuss~, order. langueo, langui, be faint. liqueo, liqui (-licui), melt. luceo, luxi, -luct-, shine. lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn. maneo, mansi, mans-, wait. sedeo, sedi, sess-,
sit.

131,

soled, solitus sum, be wont.

sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), sorpt-,

suck.

spondeo, spopondi, spons-,

pledge.

mixt- (mist-), mix. strides, stridi, whiz. suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge. mordeo, momordl, mors-, bite. teneo (-tineo), tenui, tent-, hold. moveo, movi, mot-, move. tergeo, tersi, ters-, wipe. mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe. mulgeo, -si (-xi), muls- (-mulct-), tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear. milk. torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist. misceo,
-GUI,

niveo, -mvi (-nixi), wink.

torreo, torrui, tost-, roast.

paveo, pavi,_/fcr. pendeo, pependi, pens-, hang. prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine.
rideo, risi,
ris-,

turgeo, tursi, swell.

urge 6, ursi, urge.

videS, vidi, vis-, see. voveo, v5vi, vot-, vow.

laugh.

NOTE.

maereo,
arceo,

following have a perfect in -Ul, but have no supine. be sad) have neither perfect nor supine.

The

few (as

wardoff, egeo, need. pateo, lie open, studeo, attend to. sile5, be silent. called, be skilful, floreo, bloom. shudder, lack. horreo, careo, caneo, be white.

THIRD CONJUGATION.
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, tego, tegSre, texi, tectum; Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum.

ACTIVE.
INDIC.

PASSIVE.

Third
ACTIVi:.
INDIC.

99
PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJ.

SUBJ.

TOO

Etymology:
Verbs

Verbs.

in -id.

Verbs of the third conjugation in -io have certain forms of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They retain the i of the stem before
a, 6, u,
participle

and e, but lose it elsewhere except in the future and in the and gerund. Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows
:

PRINCIPAL PARTS: capio, capgre, cepi, captum; capior, capi, captus sum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC.

SUBJ.

INDIC.

SUBJ.

132.J

'//

/ / (/

C< njngation
>

101

Verbs of the third conjugation rndinp in -i5 are the following: capio", N<>TF.. cupi6, faci6, fodi6, fuj?i6. iacio", pario, quatio, rapiS. sapiS, \\ith

compounds
in
;

of -CUti6, -licio, -spiciS.

For

their

Principal Parts, see the

lists

132.

1,*5li.

The

following

lists

include

most

simple

verbs

of

the

third conjugation, classed according to the formation of the perfect

stem.
a.

Forming the

perfect stem in

s(x)

124. b

and note):

ango, anxl, anct-, choke.

carpo, carpsi, carpt-, pluck. cedo, cessi, cess-, yield.
cingo, cinxi, cinct-, bind. claiigo, clanxl, sound.

pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on. pingo [PIG], plnxi, plct-, paint.

plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud. plecto, plexl (-xul), plex-, braid.

claudo, clausi, claus-, shut.

clepo, clepsl, clept-,
steal.

premo, pressl, press-, press. promo, -mpsl, -mpt-, bring out.

quatio, (-cussi), quass-, shake.
rasi, ras-, scrape. rexl, rect-, rule.

como, compsl, compt-, comb, deck. rado, coquo, coxi, coct-, cook. rego,
-cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake. demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away.

repo, repsl, rept-, creep.

rodo, rosi,

ros-,

gnaw.

dico, dixi, diet-, say.

divide, divisi, divis-, divide. duco, duxi, duct-, guide.

flgo, fixi, fix-,yf:r.

sarpo, sarpsl, sarpt-, prune. scalpo, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape.

scribo, scrips!, script-, write. serpo, serpsi, serpt-, crawl.

fingo [FIG], finxi,

fict-,

fa shion.

spargo, sparsi, spars-,

scatter.

flecto, flexi, flex-, bend.

fluo, fluxi, ft.\nx.-,flow.

-spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view.

frendo,

-fresi, fress-,

gnash.

-stinguo, -stinxl, -stinct-, quench, stringo, strinxi, strict-, bind.

frigo, frixi, frict- (frix-),/r/.

struo, struxi, struct-, build.

gero, gessi, gest-, carry. laedo, laesi, laes-, hurt.

-licio, -lexl, -lect-, entice (glicui,
-licit-).

sumo, sumpsi, sumpt-,

tego, texi, tgct-, shelter.

take.
rise.

surgo, surrexi, surrect-,

temno, tempsl, -tempt-,

lick.

despise

lingo, linxi, linct-,

tergo, tersl, ters-, wipe.

tingo, tlnxl. tinct-, stain.

ludo, lusi, lus-, play. mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. mitto, mlsi, miss-, send.

traho, traxi, tract-, drag.

trudo, trusl,

trils-.

thrust.

necto [NEC], nexi (nexul), nex-, uro, ussi, ust-, burn. tc weave. vado, -vasi, -vas-, go. nubo. nupsi, niipt-, marry. veho, vexi, vect-. draw.
pecto, pexl (pexul), pex-, comb.
vivo, vixl, vict-,
live.

102
b.

Etymology :
Reduplicated in the perfect
(

Verbs.

132.

124. c)

cado, cecldl, cas-,/<z//. caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut. cano, cecini, cant-,
sing.

pario, peperi, part- (pariturus),

bringforth. pellS, pepull, puls-, drive.

curro, cucurri, curs-, run. pendo, pependi, pens-, weigh. disco [DIG], didici, (disciturus), posco, poposcl, (posciturus), learn. demand.
-do, -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, etc., with cred5, vendo), put [DHA].
fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive.

pungo
prick.

[PUG],

pupugi, punct-,

sisto [STA],

stiti, stat-, stop.

pango
parco,

[PAG], peg! (pepigi), pact-, tango [TAG], parsi,

tetigi, tact-, touch.

fasten, fix, bargain.

tendo [TEN], tetendi

parcifc-

(-tendi),

peperci,

(pars-), spare.
c.

tens- (cent-), stretch. {beat. tundo [TUD], tutudi, tuns- (-tus-),

124. a):

Adding u (v)

to the verb-root (

alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish.

pasco, pavi, past-,/^^/.

percello, -cull, -culs-, upset.

cerno, -crevi,

-cret-, decree.
till.

colo, colui, cult-, dwell,

pono

[POS], posui, posit-, put.

rest.

compescS, compescui,
consulo,
-lui,

restrain.

quiesco, quievi, quiet-,

rapio, rapui, rapt-,

consult-, consult.

seize.

cresco, crevi, cret-, increase.

-cumbS

[CUB], cubul, cubit-,

lie

scisco, scivi, scit-, decree. sero, sevl, sat-, sow.

sero, serui, sert-, entwine.
siiio, sivi, sit-,

down. depso, depsui, depst-, knead.

excello, -cellui, -eels-,
furo, furui, rage.
excel.

permit.

fremo, fremui, f remit-, roar.

sperno, sprevl, spret-, scorn. sterno, stravl, strat-, strew.

sterto, stertui (sterti), snore. strepo, strepul, strepit-, sound.

gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan.

glgnS [GEN], genuT, genit-, beget. meto, messui, mess-, reap. molo, molui, molit-, grind. occulo, occului, occult-, hide.
d.

-suesco, -suevi, -suet-, be wont. texo, texui, text-, weave.

tremo, tremuT, tremble. vomo, vomul, vomit-, vomit.

Adding Iv
-ivi,

to the verb-root (cf.

arcesso,

arcessit-,

124. f): summon. peto, petivi,

petit-, seek.
seek.

capesso, capessivi, undertake.

cupio, cupivl, cupit-, desire. incessS, incessivi, attack.

quaero, quaeslvi, quaesit-, rudo, rudivl, rudit-, bray.

trlt-, rub.

sapio, saplvi (sapui), be wise.

lacesso, lacesslvl, lacessit-, pro- tero, trlvi,

132.

Third Conjugation.
(cf.

103
124.

e.

Lengthening the vowel of the root

d):

ago, ggl, 5ct-, drive.

capio, cSpi, capt-, take.

lavo, lavl, lot- (laut-), wash (also

reg. of 1st conj.).

1 edo, edi, esum, eat (see lego, Iggi, ISct-, gather. 140). lino [LI], lev! (Hvi), lit-, smear. emo, Smi, empt-, buy. facio, fed, fact-, ;>>/tf/'<f (see 142). linquo [Lie], -liqui, -lict-, leave. nosco [GNO], novi, not- (co-gnit-, fodio, fodl, foss-, dig. S-gnit-, ad-gnit-), know. frango [FKA(;], fregi, fract-, break.

fugio, fugi, fugit-,/^. fundo [FUD], fudi, fus-, pour.

iacio,
ieci,
iact-, throw,
(-icio,

rumpo
vinco

[RUP], rupi, rupt-, burst.

[vie], vici, vict-, conquer.

scabo, scabi, scratch.

-iect-).

f.

Retaining the present stem or verb-root

(cf.

124. e)\

arguo, -ui, -utum, accuse. bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink.

-ceiido, -cendl, -cens-, kindle.

pinso,

-si,

pins- (pinst-, pist-),

bruise.

cud 6,
cute.

-cudi-, -CUB-, forge.

facesso,

-dl, prehens-, seize. ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-) fall. facesai, facessit-, exe- scando, scandi, scans-, climb.
,

prehendo,

scindo

[SCID],

scidi,

sciss-,

-fendo, -fendi, -fens-,

ward off.

tear.

findo [FID],
ico, ici, let-,

fidi,
////.

fiss-, split.

sido, sidl (sedi), -sess-,

settle.

lambo, Iambi, lambit-,

luo, luT, luit-,

lap.

solvo, solvi, solut-, stride, stridl, whiz.

loose,

pay.

wash.

vello, veil! (vulsi), vuls-, pluck

mando, mandi, mans-, chew.

nuo, nul, nuit-, nod.

pando,
open
.

pandi,

pans-

verro, verri, vers-, sweep. verto, verti, vers-, turn. (pass-), viso [VID], visi, vis-, visit. volvo, volvi, volut-, turn.
:

NOTE.

The

following have no perfect or supine

claudo, limp.
fatisco, gape.

hisco, yawn. rabo, rave.

tollo (sustull,

fulgo, flash.
glisco, swell.

sublatum

supplied

glubo,

peel.

from suffero), raise. vergo, incline.

The

following

compounds
is

of

leg-5

have -lexi

diligrS,

intellego,

negleg-6.
these the perfect stem cation (^ 124. c. note).
2 In

the

same

as the verb-root, having lost the redupli-

104

Etymology:

Verbs.

FOURTH CONJUGATION.
PRINCIPAL PARTS
:

Active, audio, audire, audivi,

auditum

Passive, audior, audiri, auditus

sum.

ACTIVE.
INDIC.

PASSIVE.
INDIC.

SUBJ.

SUBJ.

133.J

io6

Etymology: Verbs.

134, 135

sarrio, -ivl (-ui), -itum, hoe. saepio, saepsi, saept-, hedge in. salio (-silio), salui (salii), salt- sentio, sensi, sens-,y^/.
(-sult-), leap.

sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.

-ivl, singultum, venio, veni, vent-, come.
sob.

sancio [SAC], sanxi, sanct-, sanc- singultio,

tion.

sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch.

vincio, viiixi, vinct-, bind.

.

The

following are regular in the perfect, but have no supine stem

gestio, be overjoyed. glocio, cluck (as a hen). ineptiS, play the trifler.

caecutiS, be purblind.

dementio, be mad,
ferocio be
fierce.

Parallel Forms.

134. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, which only one is generally found in classic use as,
:

of

lavo, lavare or lavgre, wash (see 132. seated, scatere or scatgre, gush forth. ludifico, -are or ludificor, -ari, mock.
fulgo, fulgSre or fulgeo, fulgere, shine.

e).

DEPONENT VERBS.
135. Deponent Verbs have the form
1st conj.

of the Passive
:

Voice, with an active or reflexive signification

as,

mlror, mlrari, miratus, admire. 2d conj. vereor, vereri, veritus, jfozr. 3d conj. sequor, sequi, secutus,/^//^^.
4th conj. partior, partiri, partitus, share.

INDICATIVE.
II.

Pres.

mlror
mlraris (-re)

miratur

mlramur mlraminl
mlrantur
Impf. mirabar
Put.
Perf.

mlrabor

miratus sum Plup. miratus eram F. P. miratus ero

135.]

Deponent

\\-rbs.

TO/

SUBJUNCTIVE.
i.

n.

in.

iv.

Fres.
//////.
/'<;/.

mTrer

verear
verSrer
veritus

sequar

partiar

mnarer
miratus sim

aim

sequerer secutua aim

partlrer

partitua

aim

riup. mlratua esaem veritus e.saem secutua eaaem partitua eaaem

IMPERATIVE.
mlrare, -ator,
etc.

ver6re, -Stor

sequere, -itor

partire, -Itor

INFINITIVE.
Pres. mlrarl
Perf.

ver6rl

sequl

partlrl

Fut.

secutua esse veritus ease miratua esae partitua eaae mil aturua esse veriturus esse secuturus esse partiturus esse
PARTICIPLES.

mlrans Put. miraturus Perf. miratus

Pres.

verSns
veriturus
veritua

sequens secuturus secutus

partiSns

partiturua
partitus

Ger.

mirandus
mirandi, -6,
etc.

verendus
etc.

sequendus
sequendi,
etc.

partiendus
partiendi, etc.

GERUND.
verendi,

SUPINE.

mlratum, -tu
a.

veritum, -tu

secutum,

-tft

partitum, -tu
as,

Deponents have the

participles of both voices

Becpieiia, following.

secuturus, about

to follow.

aecutus, having followed,

b.

sequendus,

to-be-followed.

The

otherwise deponent
c.

perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs it is often passive as, mercatus, bought ; adeptua,
:

gained (or having gained}.

The

future infinitive

is

always in the active form

iri)
.

thus,

aequor

has aecuturua esse (not

d.
itive verbs, or

secutum

The gerundive, being

passive in meaning, is found only in transneuter verbs used impersonally: as,

hoc confitendum est, this must be acknowledged. moriendum est omnibus, all must die.
to
e. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in meaning, corresponding what in Greek is called the Middle Voice ( in. a). f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense as,
:

criminor, 7 accuse, or f am accused. g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meaning, found in both active and passive forms as, mereo or mereor, / deserve.
;

io8
h.
all

Etymology :
More than
-Iri,

Verbs.

135, 136.

half of

all

of these are regular.

The

deponents are of the First Conjugation, and following deponents are irregular
:

adsentior,
get.

apiscor, (-ip-),

adsensus, assent. nascor, -i, natus, be born. nitor, -T, nisus (nlxus), strive. -I, aptus (-eptus),
obliviscor,
-i,

oblltus, forget.

opperior, -Iri, oppertus, await. expergiscor, -I, perrectus, rouse. ordior, -Iri, orsus, begin. orior (3d), -iri, ortus, (oriturus), experior, -iri, expertus, try.
defetiscor,
-I,

-fessus, faint.

fateor, -eri, fassus, confess.

fatiscor,
-I,

rise.

paciscor, -I, pactus, bargain. gape. fruor, -I, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. patior (-petior), -I, passus (-pesfungor, -I, functus, fulfil. sus), suffer. gradior(-gredior),-i,gressus,j/(?/. -plector, -I, -plexus, clasp.
Irascor,
-I,

labor,

-I,

Iratus, be angry. lapsus, fall.

profijciscor,

queror,

-I,

-I, profectus, set-out. questus, complain.

loquor,
speak.

-i,

locutus (loquutus), reor,

-I,

rerl, ratus, think.

-I,

revertor,

reversus, return.

-miniscor,

-mentus, think.

ringor,

-I, -I,

rictus, snarl.

metior,

-iri,

mensus, measure.

sequor,
tueor,
utor,

secutus (sequutus),
tuitus (tutus), defend. ultus, avenge.

morior,

-I (-IrT),

mortuus (mori-

follow.
-eri,

turus,

die.
-i,

nanciscor,
find.

nactus (nanctus), ulciscor,

-i,

-I,

usus, use, employ.

The deponent comperior, -iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio. Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect system, revert!, reverteram, etc.
NOTE.
/'.

The

following deponents have no supine stem

-ti,

turn aside (to lodge). medeor, -eri, heal. reminiscor, -I, call to mind. diffiteor, -eri, deny. melt vescor, liquor, -I, feed upon. (neut.).

devertor,

NOTE.

appeared. language signs of being used in the active.

Deponents are only passive (or middle) verbs There is hardly one that does not show at

whose

active has dis-

some period

of the

Semi-Deponents.

136.
in

few verbs having no perfect stem are regular the present, but appear in the tenses of completed action

as deponents.
passives.

These are
are
:

called semi-deponents or neuter

They

audeo, audere, ausus, dare,

fido, fid6re, fisus, trust.

gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus,

rejoice.

soleo, solere, solitus, be wont.

'

136, 137.]
a.

Deponent
there
is

IOQ

From audeS

form sodgs (for si audgs), an thou will,

an old subjunctive perfect ausim. The is frequent in the dramatists

and
b.

rare elsewhere.

The active forms vapulo, vSpulare, be flogged, and vgiieo, vgulre, be sold (contracted from vgiium Ire, go to said), have a passive meaning, and are sometimes called neutral passives. To these may
be added
fieri, to be

tnade (see

142),

and exsulare,

to be

banished

(live in exile).

NOTE. The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iuro, iurare. iuratus, swear; nubo, nubere, nupta, marry; placed, placere, placitUS, file use. [For the regular Derivative Forms of Verbs, see \ 167.]

IRREGULAR VERBS.
137. Several verbs add some of the personal endings
of the present system directly to the root, or combine two verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs
(cf. p.

86).

They

are sum, volo, fero, edo, queo, eo,

fio,

and

their

compounds.
of inflection with the

Sum has already been inflected in 119. a. Sum is compounded without any change
prepositions ab, ad, de in, inter, ob, prae, In the compound prosum, pro retains
its

pro (prod), sub, super.

original

before e.

Thus,
INDIC.
Pres.

SUBJ.

prosum, I help. prodes prodest

prosim
prosis
prosit

prosumus
prodestis

proslmus
prositis

prosunt
Imp.
Put.
Perf.

prosint
helping.

proderam, / was
prodero, / shall
profui, I helped.

prodessem
profuerim

help.

profuissem riupf. profueram, I had helped. /'. P. prof uero, / shall have helped.
IMI-I.K.

prodes, prodesto,

etc.
Intt.

IXFIN. Pres.

prodesse

Perf. profuisse
to help.

profuturua esse

PART.

profuturus, about

116

Etymology :

Verbs.

137,

b. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, making the verb possum. This is inflected as follows
:

able,

INDICATIVE.
Pres.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

possum, I can. potes, you can.

potest, he can.

possim
possis possit

possumus, we can. potestis, you can.

Imp.
Put.
Perf.

possimus
possitis

possunt, they can. poteram, / could.

potero, / shall be potui, / could.
able.

possint

possem
potuerim potuissem
able.

Plupf. potueram F. P. potuero, / shall have been

INFIN.

Pres.

PART.
NOTE.
;

posse pot ens

Perf. potuisse
(adj.),

powerful.
etc.,

The forms potis sum, pote sum, Other early forms are potesse possiem, -es, possit) potestur (with pass. inf. cf. $ 143. a).
;

occur

in

early writers.
(for

-et

poterint, potisit

138. Volo and

nolo
(for
(for

its

compounds

are inflected as follows

volo, velle, voluT, wish.

malo

ne volo), nolle, nolui, be unwilling. magis or mage volo), malle, malui, wish
Present.

rather, prefer.

INDIC.

SUBJ.

INDIC.

SUBJ.

volo
vis

velim

veils volt(vult) velit

volumus
volunt

velimus
velint

voltis(vul-)velitis

volebam

vellem

138, 139.]

/; v v 'gi< Id r

Verbs.

Ill

IMIT.KATIVK.

noli
jFuf.

nollte, do not.

nClito
n61Ito

nolitote, thou shall not, ye shall not.

velle

voluisse

nolle

INFINITIVE. iioluisse

malle

maluisse

PARTICIPLES.
Pres. volgns, -willing,

nolgns, unwilling.

GERUND.
volendi
(late)
for si
etc.,

The forms sis for si vis, sultis NOTE. volo, nevls (ne-vis), mage volo, mavolo,

voltis, and the forms occur in early writers.

ne

139. Fero,

ferre,

tttll,

1 latum, bear.

ACTIVE.

PASSIVE.

112

Etymology :

Verbs.

140.

14O. Edo, edere, edi, esum, eat, is regular of the third conjugation, but has also some forms directly from the root (ED) without the These are in full-faced type. characteristic vowel.
ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.

Irregular Verbs,

141. Eo,
Pres. S.

Ire, IvI,

Itum, got
SUBJUNCTIVE.
earn, eas, eat

INDICATIVE.
eG,
Is, it

P.

Imus,

Itis,

eunt

eamus,
irem,

eatis,

eant

Imperf.
Future,

ibam, Ibas, Tbat ibamus, Ibatis, Ibant

Ibo, Ibis, Ibit

Ire's,

iret

Iremus,

iretis, irent

Ibimus,
Perfect.

Ibitis,

ibunt
Iverim (ierim) Ivissem (Issem)

IvI

(ii)

Pluperf. iveram (ieram) Put. Perf. ivero (iero)

IMPERATIVE.
X,

Ite, ito, ito,

itote,

eunto
Fut. iturus

INFINITIVE.
Pres. ire

Perf. ivisse (Isse)

PARTICIPLES.
Pres. iens, euntis

Fut. iturus

Ger.

eundum

GERUND: eundi,
a.

-do,

-dum, -do

SUPINE: itum, itu

others,

are transitive.

The compounds ade5, approach, ineo, enter, and some They are inflected as follows in the passive
:

INDIC.
Pres.

SUBJ.
Pres.

adeor
adiris

Impf. adibar
Fut.
Perf.

adear

adibor
aditus

adltur

sum
INFIN.

Perf.

Impf. adirer aditus sim

adimur

Plup. aditus eram adimini F. P. aditus ero adeuntur

inflected, the

Plup. aditus esseni aditus esse adiri,

PART.

aditus

adeundus

Thus

forms of eo are used impersonally in the third

The infini;rson singular of the passive : as, itum est ( 146. d}. ive Iri is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive
passive
?),

147.

c.

i).

The verb veneo,

be sold

(i.e.

vgnum

eo, go to

b.

and
c.

in the

v are more common, compounds are regular as, adii, adieram, adiisse (adisse). The compound ambio is inflected regularly like a verb of the
:
:

has also several forms in the passive. In the perfect system of eo the forms without

fourth conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative. d. Pro with eo retains its original d as, prodeo, prodis, prodit.
1

Root

I, cf.

ffyu

the

e stands

for ei,

lengthened form of the root

I.

14

Etymology:

Verbs.

142, 143.

142. Facio, facSre, fed, factum, make, is regular. But it has imperative fac in the active, and besides the regular forms the future The passive of facio is perfect faxo, perfect subjunctive faxim.
fio, fieri,

factus sum, be made, or become.

stem of fio are regular of the fourth conjugation, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive
tenses of the
first

The

fieri.

INDICATIVE.
Pres. S.
fio, fls, fit

SUBJUNCTIVE. flam, fias, fiat

fiamus,
fiatis,

P.

Imperf. Future,
Perfect,

fimus, fitis. fiunt fiebam, fiebas, etc.

flam, fies, etc. factus sum

fiant

fierem, fieres, etc.

factus sim factus essem

Pluperf. Put. Perf. factus ero

factus eram

IMPER.
INFIN.

fi,

fite, flto, fitote,

fiunto
Fut.

Pres. fieri
Perf. factus

PART.

Perf. factus esse Ger. faciendus

factum

iri

a. Most compounds of faci5 with prepositions change a to ent stem), or g (supine stem), and are inflected regularly: as,

I (pres-

conficio, confice're, confeci, c6nfectum,yf/.r^. conficior, confici, confectus.

b.

Other compounds retain

a,

and have

-fio in the passive:

-fieri,

as,

benefacio, -facere, -feci, -factum; pass, beneflo,

benefit.
(

-factus,

These

retain the accent of the simple verb

as, bene-fS'cis

19c.

OA few isolated
it

forms of -fio occur in other compounds

defit,
it

viz.,

confit,

happens,

lacks,

infit,

he begins (to speak).

confiet

defiunt
defiet

infiunt
effieri, to be effected.

confiat
confieret
confieri

defiat
defieri

interfieri, to perish.

interflat,

let

him perish.

DEFECTIVE VERBS.
lost their Present stem, and use tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regonly These are ularly.

143. Some verbs have

143,144.]
a.
1 CoepI, S fogan

Defective
;

Verbs.
Fut. Part

115

Infin.

coepisse

coepturus

Perf.

Pass. Part, coeptus.

The

passive

is

used with the passive

infinitive: as,

coeptus

sum

vocSri, / began to be called, but coepl vocare, / began to call (cf. For the present incipio is used. 144. note). b. OdI, I hate '^ perfect participle osus, hating or hated (perosus, utterly hateful), future participle osurus, likely to hate. / remember ; 8 with the Imperative memento, mec. Memiiii,

mentote
NOTE.

Part.

meminSns.

OdI and merninl have a perfect form with a present meaning, and are called preteritive verbs. Novl and consuevl (usually referred to nosco and COnsuescS) are often used in the sense of / know (have learned), and / am accustomed (have become accustomed), as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are
occasionally used in the

same way

(see

279.

Remark).

144. Many
maereo,
In
in its

verbs are found only in the present system.

Such are

-ere, be

sorrowful
:

(cf.
is

maestus, sad)',

ferio, -Ire, strike.

many

the simple verb

as,

incomplete, but the missing parts occur

compounds

vado, vadere, invasi, invasum.

:

Some
a.

verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms

INDIC. Pres.
/;///.

as,

Aio, Isay:
516, ais, ait
;

aiunt
etc.

aiebam (aibam), aiebas,

SUBJ.

Pres. aias, aiat, aiant al IMPER.

PART.
b.

aiens
only, except in poetry, in direct quotations, is possibly from the same root)
:

Inquam, I say (used

INDIC. Pres.

like the

English quoth, which

inquam, inquis, inquit

inquimus, inquitis
(late),

inquiunt

Impf. inquiebat Fut. inquies, -et

Perf. inquisti, inquit

IMPER.
c.

inque, inquito
fSrl, to speak,
It

The deponent

forms the perfect tenses regularly

as,

fatus sum, eram, etc.

has also

INDIC. Pres. fatur, fantur Fut. fSbor, fabitur

IMPER.
INFIN.
1

fare
farl
2

Root AP (as in apiscor) with co(n-). Root MEN, as in mens.

Root OD, as

in

odium.

n6

Etymology:

Verbs.

144.

PART. Pres. (dat.) fanti Perf. fatus, having spoken. Ger. fandus, to be spoken of. GER. fandi, -do SUP. fatu
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter, occur: as, praefatur, affari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The compound infaiis is regularly used as a noun (child). Infandus, nefandus,
are used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable. d. Quaeso, I ask, beg (original form of quaere,
132. d), has

INDIC. Pres. quaeso, quaesumus INFIN. quaesere

PART.
e.

quaesens
triumph, has the following :
Pres.

Ovare,

to

ovat ovet Imperf. ovaret PART. ovans, ovaturus, ovatus GER. ovandj
INDIC. Pres.

SUBJ.

/.

A few verbs are

found chiefly in the Imperative

as,

Pres. sing, salve, plur. salvete, hail I (from salvus, safe and sound). An infin. salvere also occurs.
Pres. sing, ave (or have), plur. avete, Fut. aveto, hail or farewell.

Pres. sing, cedo, plur. cedite (cette),WV, tell. Pres. sing, apage! begone! (properly a Greek word).
g. Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo. are rarely used except in the present.

They

INDIC.

SUBJ.

INDIC. Present.

SUBJ.

queo
quis
quit

queam
queas queat
queanius
queatis

nequeo (11011 queo) nequeam

noiiquis

iiequeas

nequit
iieqminus
nequitis

nequeat

quimus
qultis

nequeamus
iiequeatis

queunt

queant

nequeunt
Imperfect.

nequeant

quibam
quibat quibant

quirem
quiret

nequibam
nequibat nequibant

nequirem
nequiret nequirent

quirent

144, 145.]
INDIC.

I))ipcrsonal
SUBJ.

Verbs.

117
SUBJ.

INDIC.

Fut i/ rr.

quibo quibunt
quivl
quivit
qulverit

nequibunt
Perfect.

iiequivi

nequivistl

quivgrunt
qulssent

nequivit nequiveruiit
nequisset
INFINITIVE.

quire

quivisse (quisse) nequlre

PARTICIPLES.

nequivisse

quieus, queuntis

nequigns
infinitives
:
;

NOTE.
as,

few passive forms are used by old writers with passive

quitur, quitus, queatur, queantur, nequitur, nequitum and coepl ($$ 137. note and 143. a).

cf.

possum

Impersonal Verbs.

145.

Many

verbs, from their meaning, appear only in

the third person singular, the infinitive* and the gerund. These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal
1

subject.
CONJ.
I.

Their synopsis may be given as follows:

ii8

Etymology:

Verbs.

[146.
:

146. Impersonal Verbs may be

a.

classified as follows

as, pluit, it rains

Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day : ; ningit, it snows ; grandinat, it hails ; fulgurat, it
vesperascit
(inceptive,
167.
*z),

lightens*,

it

grows

late;

lucet hoc

iam,
verb

it is

getting light now.

In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject as, luppiter tonat, Jupiter thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as,

NOTE.
is

fundae saxa pluunt,

the slings rain stones.

b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed 221. b). Such are: miseret, it grieves ; paenitet in the verb ( (poenitet), it repents ; piget, it disgusts ; pudet, it shames ; taedet, it wearies : as, miseret me, I pity (it distresses me).

Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, I pity NOTE. and occasionally other parts as, paeniturus (as from (am moved to pity) fpaenio), paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est.
;
:

c.

Verbs which have a phrase or clause as

their subject (

270. a,

330, 332. a)\ as,

accidit, contingit, evenit, obtingit, obvenit,

libet,
it

fit, it

happens.

pleases.
est, it is resolved.
it is

licet, it is permitted.

certum

constat,
decet,

clear.
/'/

placet, videtur,
it is

seems gooa.
delights.
/'/

becoming.
it

delectat, iuvat, praestat,

oportet, necesse est,

it is better.

is needful.

interest, refert, it concerns. vacat, there is leisure.

restat, superest,
it

remains.

may be used personally. Libet and licet have The participles libens also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est, etc. and licens are used as adjectives.
NOTE.

Many

of these verbs

The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally pugnatur, there is fighting (it is fought) itur, some one goes (it is 1 gone) parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see 23O).
d.
:

as,

This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French fela sefaii).

147.]

Origin and History of Verb-Forms.

Periphrastic Forma.

II 9

147. The following periphrastic forms are found

inflection of the verb
a.
b.
:

in the

The The
The
By

so-called "Periphrastic Conjugations" (see 129). tenses of completed action in the passive formed
:

by the

tenses of ease with the perfect participle

c.
1.

as,

amatus
:

eat.

future infinitive passive,

formed as follows

the infinitive passive of eo, go, used impersonally with the

:

supine in -um as, amatum irl. By fore (or futurum ease), with amatus fore).
2.

the perfect participle

288. /).

(as

3.

By fore with ut and

the subjunctive

(cf.

NOTE.
Origin and History of Verb-Porma.

The forms that make up the conjugation of a verb are composed of formations from a root, originally separate, but gradually grouped together, and afterwards supplemented by new formations made on old
to supply deficiencies. Some of these forms were inherited, already made, by the Latin language; others were developed in the course of the history of the language itself.
lines
i. PRESENT STEM. The Present stem is a modification or development of the root (see 123). In regular forms of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations it appears in all the other parts of the verb (including noun and adjective forms) as well, and is accordingly called

the Verb-Stem.

The

tenses of the Present system are

:

made from

the Present stem

as follows

a. In the Present Indicative the personal

endings are added directly

to the present stem. Thus root AR, present- (and verb-) ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis.
b.

stem art-

complete verb), is added, BHU (cf. fui, futurus, fio,

to a complete

In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, etc. (originally a bam is probably the imperfect of the root
<v'co, be),

meaning I was.

This was added

word

hence ara-bam.

originally a case of a noun, as in I was a-ploughing, The form probably began in the second or the third

conjugation and from that was extended to the others. c. In the Future Indicative a similar suffix, -bo, -bis,

etc., is added (by the same process), bo is probably a present form of the same root BHU, with a future meaning as, ara-bo.
:

Etymology :
This form once in use in

Verbs.

all the conjugations was later supplanted and fourth by an inherited form, which was originally an optative mood, differing from the present indicative only in the final vowel of the stem (see 126. c. i) as, suge-bo (old) sugam, suges

in the third

(later).

d. In the Present Subjunctive the personal terminations

were added

to another form of present stem of great antiquity with a different

vowel
e.

as,

amem, moneam, audiam.

In the Imperfect Subjunctive a suffix, -rem, -res, etc., was added. -rem is doubtless a very old modal form of sum diverted from its
original use.

f.

The noun and

adjective

forms of the Present

system were

originally separate formations made from the root by means of noun-suffixes. These forms being associated with the verb became

types for the formation of new ones from the present stem, in cases where no such formation from the root ever existed. Thus regere is originally a dative (or locative) of a noun like genus, generis but as regere seems to be rege -f re, so ara-re was made in the same manner. Gerendus is the noun-stem geron-, i.e. GER + on- (gero, 162. c} + dus; but it seemed to be gere + ndus, and thus -onis,
;

gave
2.

rise to

ama-ndus.

PERFECT STEM.

The

European speech
terminations (see

preterite forms of

Latin inherited from the parent Indotwo kinds :

(perfect with have in English) the proper 118) are added directly to a root-form, which v;as originally a reduplication (doubling) of the root with vowel change. Thus st5, root STA, perfect steti (for fstesti) cf. pungo (root PUG),
a. In the real perfect
;

pupugi
b.

(later

pupugi)

auxiliary

In other inherited verbs the perfect was formed by a verbal (some form of sum) added to the root (or later to the present

Thus dic5, root Die, perfect f die-si (dixi). This auxiliary a complete verb-form, contained, of course, the personal termibeing
stem).
nations.
c.

The remaining

perfects were formed with a suffix -vi, of uncertain

but containing the personal terminations. But these form'ative processes had been forgotten long before the Latin language reached
origin,

we know it. The form in -vi, however, became the type for new Perfects. By the Romans, the first person singular of the Perfect (however formed), losing its final vowel, was treated as a new stem, from which other forms were developed by the use of added
the stage in which
auxiliaries or

by analogy with those already formed.

This stem

is

Origin cuul History of Verb-Forms.

called the Perfect

121

Stem. Thus were formed the Pluperfect and the Future Perfect Indicative, thr Perfect ;ind Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect Infinitive. The terminations of these tenses are parts
of

sum
3.

in

some form

or other, but precisely

how

they are

made

is

uncertain.

SUPINE STEM.

The

Perfect

and Future

Participles

and the

Supine, though strictly noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suffering the same phonetic changes (by which the t becomes s, u. a. 2).

Hence these forms, along with

162. a, 163. b, 164. ni)

several

sets of derivatives (see

Romans

used as nouns or adjectives, were felt by the as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated

\\iththeSupineStem.

Thus,

pingo, pictum, pictus, picturus, pictura, pictor. rideo, risum (for rid-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), risurus,
risio, riser, risibilis.

The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the Root (or verb-stem) and the Personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a developed language like the Latin. All true verb-forms
shown above, of composition ; that is, of adding to the root or the verb-stem either pronouns (personal endings) or fully developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminaare the result, as
tions), or of adding similar auxiliaries to the perfect stem tation of such processes. Thus amabamus is made by
;

or of imi-

adding to ama-, originally a significant word, or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form fbamus, not by inserting ba between ama- and -mus.

122

Etymology:

Particles.

I4a

CHAPTER VII.
Adverbs, PARTICLES.
Prepositions,

Particles.

and

Conjunctions

are

called

In their origin these words are either (i) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and phrases.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions ( 152 and 155), and interjections must be reckoned as particles ( 27).

I.-ADVERBS.
1.

Derivation.

148. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives as

follows
.

adjectives of the first and second declensions, by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -e: as, care, dearly^ from

a From

carus, dear (stem caro-). NOTE. The ending -e is a

b.

relic of

an old ablative

in

-ed

(cf. $

$&/).

From

stem.

adjectives of the third declensisn by adding -ter to the Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as

i-stems.

Thus,

fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave

acriter, eagerly from acer (stem acri-), eager. vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-),
',

prudenter, prudently, from prudens (stem prudent-). aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).
NOTE.
uter, alter
c.

This

suffix is

(p. 49, n. i).

probably the same as -ter in the Greek -repos and in If so, these adverbs are neuter accusatives (cf. d).
first

Some

adjectives of the

and second declensions have adverbs

of both forms (-e and -ter). Thus durus, hard, has both durg and duriter: miser, wretched, has both mis ere andjnj.seriter.
d.

The

neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns

:

is

often used as

an adverb

as,

multum, much;

facilS, easily;

quid, why.

So

(positive acriter)

regularly in the comparative degree : as, acrius, more keenly facilius. more easily (positive^Ssttg). ;

NOTE.

These adverbs are

strictly

cognate accusatives (see

240. a).

148.]
e.

Derivation of Adverbs.
ablative neuter or (less

123
adjectives,

The

commonly) feminine of
;

pronouns, and nouns, may be used adverbially: quickly ; rgcta (via), straight (straightway}

as, ia\&o, falsely ; cit6,

crgbrS, frequently
:

fortS, by chance^ spontS, of one's own accord. f. Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use
plentifully (as if from
(ci.

saepgs, hedge,

as, abunde, fabundus, cf. abundo, abound} saepg, often and saepio, hedge in) propg, almost (as if from
; ;

tpropis). NOTE. Many adverbs and other particles are case-forms of nouns or pronouns. In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful. Examples may be
seen in the following: o. Accusative forms: 5ctQ.tum, quickly ; (comparative of Is), a second time;
last.

n6n

demum

(for

ne Qnum),

(superlative

not; iterum of de, down), at

0. Ablative or Instrumental forms ( 31. t) : qua, where; contra, on the other hand; intra, within ; qul, how; aliqui, somehow; volgo commonly ; frtistra,
,

and pronouns: as, qu5, whither; adeo, to that degree; ultro, beyond; citro, this side (as end of motion) ; retro, back; illoc
(for ill5-ce),
(cf. uls, cis, re-). Locative forms: ibi, there; ubi, where; peregri (peregre), abroad; hie (for fhoi-ce), here; interim, meanwhile (cf. inter) indS, thence ; tamen, yet ; olim (from ollus, old form of ille), once. Also the compounds extrinsecus, outside; hodie (hoi + die), to-day; perendie, day after to-morrow. e. Feminine accusatives: statim, on the spot; saltim, at least (generally

in vain ; foris, out of doors. 7. Datives of adjectives

REMARK.

weakened to illuc, thither. Those in -tro are from comparative stems

5.

saltern), from

nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun and ; verb stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an accusative in -tim as, separatim, separately, from separatus, separate. Some adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are perhaps locative as, palam,
lost

adverbial termination

openly; perperam, wrongly ; tarn, so ; quam, as. C. Plural accusatives: as, alias, elsewhere; foras, out of doors (as end of

motion).
17.

Of uncertain formation:

(i) those in

meaning: as, funditus,_//w the bottom providentially; intus, within ; penitus, within ;
,

ablative

-tus (usually preceded by i), with an utterly ; divinitus, from above, (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do
:

as,

indeed; quondam, once; quandS (cf. donee), when; (3) (probably accusative of time), while; iam (perhaps locative, cf. nam), now. 9. Phrases or clauses which have grown together into adverbs (cf. notwithstanding nevertheless, besides) antea, old antidea, before (ante ea, probably ablative or instrumental) postmodo,/r<?jcv^/y (post modo, a short time after) denuQ.

quidem,

dum

anew (de nov5) prorsus, absolutely (pro versus, straight ahead) quotannis, yearly (quot annls, as many years as there are) quam-ob-rem, eminus at long range wherefore; cSminus, hand to hand (con manus) (ex manus) ob-viam (as in Ire obviam, to go to meet) pridem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem), for some time ; forsan (fors an [est]) perhaps (it's a
;

chance whether) forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance whether); scilicet (scl. licet), that is to say (know, you may); videlicet (vide, licet), to wit (see, you may).
;

I2 4

Etymology: Particles.
2.

Classification.
:

>.

Adverbs are
/a,

classified as follows

ADVERBS OF PLACE.
hither,

hie, here.
ibi, there. is tic, ther-e.
illic, there.

hue,

eo, thither,

hinc, hence. inde, thence.

hac, by this way.

ea, $y that way.
ista, by that

istuc, thither, istinc, thence.

illuc, thither, illinc, thence.

way.

ilia (iliac), "

qua, by what way. quo, whiPher. unde, whence. ubi, where. alicubi, somei&here. aliqu6,/<?,etc. alicunde,/r^w,etc. aliqua, by, etc indidem eadem ibidem, in the-sajne eodem
place. alibi, elsewhere.

alio

aliunde

alia

ubiubi, wherever,
ubivis,. anywhere,

quoquo

quovis slcubi, ifanywhere, siquo

undecunque undique
sicunde

quaqua
quavis siqua

nequo
I,

necunde

nequa

all the
k,

way

to.

citro, to this side.

anywhere. \, nowhere.
i.e.

intro, inwardly. porro, further on.

uJtrp, beyond (or freely,

beyond what

is

required).

quorsum

(for

quo vorsum, whither

retrorsum, backward.

turned?}, to what end?

horsum, this way. prorsum, forward (prorsus,

introrsum, inwardly.
ffc.

utterly},

sursum, upward. deorsum, downward. seorsum, apart. aliorsum, another way.

ADVERBS OF TIME.
;

quaftdo? when? (interrog.) ^im (quom, quum), when (relat.) """ut", when, as. mine, now; tune (twm},then; mox, presently ; iam, already; dum,
while.

respond

hie, ibi, istlc, illlc, and their correlatives, corin signification with the pronouns hie, is, iste, ille (see 102), and are = often equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition as, inde eo, etc.
1

The demonstrative adverbs

ab

the relative or interrogative ubi corresponds with qul (quis) ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis, sl-cubi with siquis (see 104, 105, with the

So

table of Correlatives in

pronouns.

-Uc

106). All these adverbs were originally case-forms of in -bi, -Ic, -inc, and -unde are locative, those in -6 and dative, those in -a and -ac ablative or instrumental (p. 123, note).

The forms

149.)

Classification of Adverbs.

125
after',

primum

(prlmo), first; deinde (postea), next

.

poatrSmum
(after that,

(postrgmo),//;/tf//x; as soon as)

posteaquam, postquam, when

umquam (unquam),
always.

ever;

numquam (nunquam),

never; semper,

aliquando, at some time, at length ; quandoque (quandocumque), ivhcnci'cr ; denique, at last. quotiens (quotiSs), how often; totiens, so often; aliquotiSns, a

number of times.
cotldie (quotldie), every day

nondum,

; in dies, from day to day. not yet; necdum, nor yet ; vixdum, scarce yet; quam primum, as soon as possible; saepe, often; crSbro, frequently ;

iam non, no

longer.

fcv

ADVERBS OF DEGREE OR CAUSE.

quam, how, as; Cam, so; quamvis, however much, although; qu5modo, how. cur, quare, why; quod, quia, quoniam (for quom-iam), because,
eo, therefore.
ita, sic, so;

ut

(uti), as,

how;

utut,

quamquam (quanquam),
even, also.
&.

although,

utcumque, however. and yet; et, etiam, quoque,

INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.

an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether. uonue. annSn, whether not ; numquid, ecquid, whether at all (ecquid intellegis? have you any idea? do you tinderstand at all?},

utrum (num),

-ne, whether; ...

"
"if.

an (annon, uecne),

or.
*4

... -ne

NEGATIVE PARTICLES.
;

non, not (in simple denial) baud (hau, haut), minime, not (in conne, not (in prohibition) neve, neu, nor; njdum, tradiction)
; ;

much
n.S,Jcstj

less.
.

neque, nee, nor; ne

. .
.

quidem, not
.

even.
.

non modo non modo

si

verum
sed ne

Js'ed) etiam, not only

.

but also.
. .
.

but not even. quidem, not only NOT minus, if not; quo minus (quominus), so as not.
. .
.

.cjuin (relat),

A</to;

(interrog.),

wji^notf

so in n^escio, / know not; -qqf;^, / say uBTiJec^fln compos.), not; no (aid, I" say yes) ; negotium, business (nee otium); nemo (nS h8mo), no one; n5 quis, lest any one; necoplnatus, unexpected;

neque

eniro.,for

not.

126

Etymology: Particles.
ADVERBS OF MANNER
(see (see
148).

149-51.

NUMERAL ADVERBS
3.

96).

Peculiar Uses of Adverbs.

Two
'

negatives are equivalent to an affirmative:

hear (nobody
will not hear)
first

as,

nemo non
a.

audiet, every one will

Many compounds
:

of which

non

is

the

part express an in-

definite affirmative

as,

nonnullus, some ; nonnulli (= aliqui), some few. nonnihil (= aliquid), something.

nonnemo (= aliquot), sundry persons. nonnumquam (= aKquotiens), sometimes.

necnon, also (nor not).
b.

Two

negatives of which the second

:

is

non

(belonging to the

predicate) express a universal affirmative

as,

nemo

non, nullus non, nobody [does] not, above, not nobody, i.e. somebody). non, never not,
i.e.

i.e.

everybody [does]

(cf.

nonnemo

nihil non, everything.

numquam
i.e.

always

(cf.

nonnumquam

above, not never,

sometimes).

The

following adverbs require special notice

also, even, is stronger

(et iam), usually precedes the emphatic word, while

than quoque, also, and

follows
it
:

quoque

as,

non

verbis solum sed

etiam

vi (Verres

ii.

64), not only by words, but also

by force.

hoc quoque maleficium (Rose. A.

b.

117), this

crime

too.

Nunc

(for
is

fnum-ce) means

definitely

now, in the immediate

present, and

not used as in English of past time. Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached.
It

may be used of any

Turn, then,
is

time.

correlative to

With negatives it means (no) longer. cum, when, and may be used of any
is

time.

Tune,
cf.

then, at that time,

a strengthened form of turn

(ftum-ce,
ut
si

nunc).

Thus

iam iam

I have already said before. Amer. 149), if he had atque roboris haberet (Rose. attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will by
antea dixi, as
satis aetatis

and by).

non

est

iam

lenitati locus, there is

no longer room for mercy.

151, 152.]

Prepositions.

\2J
to be

quod iam

crat instiliitum, ichiJi

had come
fldrebat

a practice (had now been

ibHshed).

nunc quidem

dclrta

est,

tune

(Lacl. 13),

now

('tis

true)

sAe

[Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory. turn cum regnabat, at the time when he reigned.
c.

scio, I

Certo means certainly] certg (usually), at any rate: know for a certainty; ego certS, I at least.

as,

certo

it. Frimum meansyfr.?/, "firstly" {first in order, orfor the'first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prim 6 means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time as,
:

hoc

primum

sentio, this

I hold in

the first place.

-we

aedes primo ruere rebamur, atfirst

thought the house was falling.

In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by turn, then, or by both in succession.

Deinde maybe
primum de

series is often closed

several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The by denique or postremo, lastly, finally. Thus,

genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de imperatore deligend5 (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander.

e. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc. as,
:

hoc quidem videre

THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.] (securitas) specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda (id. 47), (tranquillity) in appearance, 'tis true, attractive, but in reality to
licet (Loel. 54),

be rejected for

Ne

word or

many reasons. [Concessive.] either. quidem means not even or not words must stand between ne and quidem.
.

The emphatic

senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 68), an old man has NOT anything to hope for EVEN. sed ne lugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet EITHER.

II.

-PREPOSITIONS.

152. Prepositions 1 are regularly used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative.
1 Prepositions are not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning, but only specialized in use. Most of them are true case-forms as, the comparative instrumental contra, I-ifra, supra, and the accusatives (cf. $ 88. d) circum. corarn, cum, circiter, praeter (comp. of prae), propter (comp. of prope). Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle of vertC) ad versus is a compound of versus while the origin of the brief forms ab,
: ;
;

ad, de, ex, ob, trails,

is

obscure and doubtful

128
a.

Etymology: Particles.
The
following are used with the Accusative
:

152, 153.

ad,

to.

extra, outside,
in, into.

adversus, against,

post, after. praeter, beyond.

adversum, towards,
ante, before.

infra, below.

inter, among.
intra, inside.

prope, near. propter, on account

of.

apud,

at, near.

secundum,
of.

next

to.

circa, around. circum, around.

circiter, about.
cis, citra, this side,

iuxta, near. ob, on account

sub, under. supra, above.

side.

contra, against.
erga, towards.
b.

penes, in the power, trans, across. ultra, on the further per, through. versus, towards. p5ne, behind.
1
:

The

following are used with the Ablative

in, in.

a,

ab, abs, away from, by. absque, without, but for. coram, in presence of.

prae, in comparison with. pro, in front of, for.

sine, without.

cum,
e,

with.

Ae,from.
ex, out
of.

sub, under.
tenus, up
to,

as far as.

c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Ablative, but with a difference in meaning
:

in, into, in.

sub, under.
super, above.
indicate motion
to,

subter, beneath,

In and sub, when followed by the accusative, when by the ablative, rest in, a place as,
:

venit in aedes, he came into the house ; erat in aedibus, he was in the house. disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam translata esse exlstiis thought to have been discovered in Great Britain brought over to Gaul. sub ilice consederat, he had seated himself under an ilex. sub leges mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world

matur, the system

and thence

under laws).

A,
a.
b.

153. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows 2 ab, AWAY FROM, FROM, OFF FROM, with the ablative.
:

Of place as, ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city. Of time (i) from : as, ab hora tertia ad vesperam, fro m the third hour
evening; (2) just after :
office. 1

till

as,

ab eo magistrate, after [holding] that

For palam,

etc.,

see

261.

3, c.
;

from the object^ but often towards the speaker pare de, down from and ex, out of.
2

Ab

signifies direction
,

com-

153.]
Idiomatic uses:

Prt'posifioHS.

129

from

a reliquis dil'lerunt, they differ fro the others; ah parvulis, curly childhood ; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city ; hluTaiv al>, to set free from ; occisus ab hostc (periit ab hoste), slain
;

by an enemy ; ab hac partc, on this side a republica,y<V the interest of the state.

ab

re eius, to his

advantage ;

Ad,
ii.

TO,

TOWARDS, AT, NEAR, with the accusative

as,

(cf. in, into)

/.

b.
c.

ad urbem venit, he came to the city; ad meridiem, the south ; ad exercitum, with the army ; adhostem, toward the enemy ad urbem, near the city. Of time as, ad nonam horam, till the ninth hour. With persons as, ad eum venit, he came to him.

Of place:

Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia descendant, they resort to punishment ; ad haec respondit, to this he answered ; ad tempus, at the [fit] time ; adire ad

rempublicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace ; ad latera, on the flank ; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc modum, in this way ; quem ad modum, how, as; ad centum, near a hundred ; ad hoc, besides ; omnes ad unum, all to a man ; ad diem, on the day.

Ante, IN FRONT OF, BEFORE, with the accusative

a.

(cf.

post, after}.

Of

place:

as,

ante portam, in front of the gate ; ante exercitum, in advance

of the army.
b.

Of time

as,
:

Idiomatic uses

ante bellum, before the war. ante urbem captam, before the city
(a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth

was taken ; ante diem

quintum

fore the last of the

3d day bemonth); ante quadriennium, four years before or

day

before the Calends (the

ago ; ante tempus,

too

soon (before the time).

Apud,
a.

Of place

AT, BY, AMONG, with the accusative. (rare and archaic): as, apud forum, at
:

the

forum

(in the marketthe

b.

place). With reference to persons or communities

as,

apud Helvetios, among

Helvetians ; apud populum, before the people ; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud se, at home or in his senses; apud Ciceronem, in [the

works

of] Cicero.

a.
b.

circiter, ABOUT, AROUND, with the accusative. Of place circum haec loca, hereabout ; circa se habent, they have with them. Of time or number (circa or circiter, not circum) as, circa eandem horam,
:
:

1 Circum, circa,

about the same hour ; circiter passus mille, about a mile. Especially about, in regard to : circa quem pugna est (Quintil.), with regard to whom, etc.

Contra,

OPPOSITE, AGAINST, with the accusative

as,

contra Italiam, over against Italy ; contra haec, in answer to this. Often as adverb: as, haec contra, this in reply ; contra autem, but on the other

hand ; quod
1

contra, whereas, on the other hand.

Circum

is

an accusative form

circ5,

is

instrumental

circiter, accusative

of a comparative. For the stem, cf. circus. 2 Contra is instrumental comparative of

cum

(con-).

130

Etymology: Particles.
with the ablative.

153.

Cum, WITH, TOGETHER WITH,

a.

Of place Of time
:

as,

vade mecum, go with

me ; cum omnibus

impedimentis, with
light).

all [their] baggage.

b.

as,

prima cum

luce, at early

dawn

(with

first

Idiomatic uses :

magno cum

dolore, with great sorrow ;

cum

aliquo, share something with

some one ;

communicare aliquid cum malo suo, to his own

hurt; confligere

cum

hoste, to fight with the

enemy;
ab,

esse

cum

telo, to

go armed ; cum

silentio,

in silence.
(cf.

De,
a.

DOWN FROM, FROM,

:

with the ablative

away from ; ex,

;

out 0f).

Of

place

as,

de caelo demlssus, sent down from heaven

de navibus

desilire, to
b.

jump down from

the ships.
:

c.

* as, cognoscit de Clodi caede, he CONCERNING, ABOUT, OF learns of the murder of Clodius ; consilia de bello, plans of war. In a partitive sense (compare ex) , out of, of: as, unus de plebe, one ofthe people.

Figuratively,

Idiomatic uses: multis de causis,yi?r

many reasons ; qua de causa, for which reason; de improviso, of a sudden; de industria, on purpose; de integro, anew ; de tertia v\g\\\3.,just at midnight (starting at the third watch) ; de mense Decembri navigare, to sail as early as December.
to in),

(cf.

Ex, e, FROM (the midst, opposed ab and de).

Of place
Of time
:
:

OUT

OF, with the ablative

a.

all parts
b.

ex omnibus partibus silvae evolaverunt, they Jlew out from of the forest ; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain. as, ex eo die quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after) ;
as,

ex hoc &\e,from this day forth. Idiomatically or less exactly: ex consulatu, right after his consulship; ex eius sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequo, justly ; ex improviso,
unexpectedly ; ex tua re, to your advantage; magnaex parte, in a great degree; ex equo pugnare, to fight on horseback; ex usu, expedient; e regione, opposite ; quaerere ex aliquo, to ask of some one ; ex senatus consulto, according to the decree of the senate ; ex fuga, in [their]
flight (proceeding immediately from it); unus e
filiis,

one of the sons.

In, with the accusative or the ablative. i. With the accusative, INTO (opposed to ex).
a.
b.

Of place as, eos in silvas Of time, TILL, UNTIL as,

:
:

reiecerunt, they drove them back into the woods. in lucem, till daylight.

Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, towards the south; amor in (erga or adversus) patrem, love for his father ; in aram confugit, he fled to the altar (on the steps, or merely to) ; in dies, from day to day ;
in longitudinem, in length; in haec verba iurare, to swear to these words; hunc in modum, in this way ; oratio in Catilinam, a speech

in

against Catiline; in perpetuum, for ever ; diem vivere, to live from hand to mouth.
1

in peius, for the worse ;

Of originally had

the

same meaning

as

de (compare

off).

153.]
2.

l^irpositions.
tin-

131

With

ablative, IN, <>\. .\M<

a/,

In very various connections: as, in castns, /;/ the camp (cf. ad castra, to, near the camp} in marl, on the sea ; in urbc esse, to be in to;.
;

or

tcmpi'tv,

/;/

StOUmf

/ have
of this
Infra,
a.

it

in

man ;

scribendo, while writing; est mihi in animo, at anchor ; in hoc hominc, in the case in dubio esse, to be in doubt,
in

mind;

in ancoris,

BELOW, with the

:

accusative.
;

Of

place as, ad mare infra oppidum, by the sea below the town caelum, under the sky.

infra

b.

Figuratively: as, infra Homerum, later than Homer ; infra tres peel is, less than three feet ; infra elephantos, smaller than elephants ; infra intimos

omnes, the lowest of the low. Inter,

inter

BETWEEN

(with two accusatives),

AMONG

as,

me

ScipiSnem, between myself and Scipio ; inter 6s et offam, between the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium tela,
et

amid the weapons of the enemy ;

bibendom, while drinking;
nos, between ourselves.

inter omnes primus, first of all ; inter inter si loquuntur, they talk together ; inter

Ob, TOWARDS, ON ACCOUNT

OF, with the accusative.

:

a. Literally: (i) of motion (archaic) as, ob Romam, towards Rome (Ennius); ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place

b.

Figuratively, IN

as, ob oculos, before the eyes. archaic, probably a word of account, balancing one thing against another): as, ob mulierem, in pay for the woman; ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the

in which,

BEFORE, in a few phrases

RETURN FOR (mostly

like,

ON ACCOUNT OF

(a similar mercantile idea),

;

FOR

as,

ob earn

causam,yfrr that reason

quam ob rem (quamobrem),

wherefore, why.

Per, THROUGH, OVER, with the accusative.

a.

Of motion:
walls.

as,

per urbem

ire, to

go through the

city ;

per muros, over the

b.
c.

Of time

as,

Figuratively, of persons as

as, per homines idoneos, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, you (etc.) may for all me. Hence, stat per me, it is through my instrumentality.
:

per hiemem, throughout the winter. means or instruments

So, per se, in

d.

Weakened,

expressions: speciem, in show, ostentatiously.

in

and of itself. many adverbial

as,

per iocum, in jest; per

Prae, i\ FRONT OF, with the ablative.

a. Literally, of place (in

one's

arms ; prae

a few connections) as, prae si portare, to carry in si ferre, to carry before one (hence figuratively), ex:

fi.

hibit, proclaim, ostentatiously make kn^cn. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front

yO/-)
:

(compare English

as,

prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for

jov.

132
c.
:

Etymology: Particles.

153.

Of comparison as, prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison with their own great size.
Praeter,

ALONG

BY, BY, with the accusative.

1.

Literally: as, praeter castra, by the oculos, before the eyes.

camp (along

by, in front of); praeter

2.

Figuratively,

BEYOND, BESIDES, MORE THAN, IN ADDITION TO, EXCEPT as, praeter spem, beyond hope ; praeter alios, more than others ; praeter
:

paucos, with the exception of a few.

Fro, IN FRONT OF, with the ablative

as,

sedens pro aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor ; pro populo, in presence of the people. So pro rostris, on [the front of] the rostra; pro condone, before the assembly (in a speech) In various idiomatic uses: pro lege, in defence of the law ; pro vitula, instead
.

of a heifer ; pro centum milibus, as good as a [hundred] thousand ; pro rata parte, in due proportion ; pro hac vice, for this once ; pro consule, in place of consul ; pro viribus, considering his strength; pro
virili parte, to the best

of one's

ability.
:

Propter, NEAR, BY, with the accusative

propter
te sedet,

as,
(cf. all

he

sits

next you.

Hence, ON ACCOUNT OF

along of)

as,

propter metum, through fear.

Secundum, 1 JUST BEHIND, FOLLOWING,

1.

with the accusative.

secundum me (Plaut), go behind me; secundum Htus, Literally: as, near the shore ; secundum flumen, along the stream (cf. secundo flumine,
ite

down

stream).

2. Figuratively,

ACCORDING TO

as,

secundum naturam, according to nature.

a.

Sub, UNDER, UP TO, with the accusative or the ablative. Of motion, with the accusative as, sub montem succedere, to come
:

close to

the hill.

Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night; sub lucem, near daylight; haec dicta, at (following) these words.
b.

sub

Of rest, with
:

personified as Jove)

Idiomatically

as, sub love, in the open air (under the heaven, sub monte, at the foot of the hill. sub eodem tempore, about the same time (just after it).

the ablative

2 Super, ABOVE, OVER, with the accusative or ablative

as,

vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; super Indos, beyond the Hindoos. 260. c.} But, super tali re, about such an affair. (See
8 Supra, ON TOP OF, ABOVE, with the accusative
:

as,
:

supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively as, supra hanc memoriam, before our remembrance ; supra morem, more than usual; supra quod,
1 Part,

besides.

of

sequor.

Comp.

of sub.

Instrumental of

superus,

\ 91. 6.

153, 154.]

Conjunctions.

133

a.

Of motion:
iace,

Trans, 1 ACROSS, OVER, THROUGH, BY, with the accusative. as, trans mare currunt, they run across the sea; trans flumen
fcrre, to

b.

Of rest
Ultra,

carry over a river ; trans aethera, through the sky ; trans caput throw over your head. as, trans Rhenum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.

BEYOND (on

the further side), with the accusative: as,

cis

Padum

ultraque, on this side of the Po and beyond ; ultra eum numerum, more than that number ; ultra fidem, incredible ; ultra modum, im-

moderate.
[For Prepositions
in

Compounds, see
:

170.]

NOTE.

Some

adverbs appear as prepositions

III.

as,

intus, insuper.

-CONJUNCTIONS.

154. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They are of two classes
:

a.

(see
1
.

CO-ORDINATE, connecting co-ordinate or similar constructions 1 80. These are a)

. :

Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or opposition of thought as well as of words as, et, and.
:

2.

Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in

thought
3. Causal,

as,

sed, but.

4. Illative,
b.

introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for. denoting an inference : as, igitur, therefore.
clause

with that on which

1.

SUBORDINATE, connecting a subordinate or dependent 180. ). it depends (see These are

:

Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, zf; nisi,

unless.

2.

Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition: as, ac si, as if.

Concessive, denoting a concession or admission
:

3.

as,

quamquam,

although
4.
5.

(lit.

however much

it

may be true that,

as, ut, so that.

etc.).

Temporal :

as,

postquam,
:

after.
:

Consecutive, expressing result

Final, expressing purpose
I.

6.

as, ut, in

order that

nS, that not.

Conjunctions, like adverbs, are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases : as, sed, an old ablative (cf. red, prod) quod, an old accusative dum, an old accusative (cf. turn, cum) vero, an old ablative of vSrus nihilominus, none the less; proinde, lit. forward from there.
; ;

NOTE

NOTE 2. A phrase used as a conjunction qua propter, quO circa, -wherefore.

*

is

called

a conjunctive phrase

: as,

Probably neuter participle,

cf.

terminus.

134

Etymology:

Particles.

155.

155. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accuThe followrately distinguished in Latin than in English. 1 and the common list includes conjuncconjunctions ing
tive phrases
:

1.

Co-ordinate.

a.

COPULATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE.

;

et, -que,

atque (ac), and.

;

et

et

et
. .

-que (atque)

-que

et

-que

-que (poet.),
(item),

both

and.

etiam, quoque, neque

also.

non (necnon), qulnetiam, itidem

. .

cum
qua

turn ; turn . . turn, both . and; not only qua, on one hand . . . on the other hand. inodo . . . xnodo, now . . now. aut . . . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . or. slve (seu) . . slve, whether . . . or.
.

but also.

nee (neque)
et
.

nee (neque)
. . .

neque

nee

nee

neque

(rare), neither
. .
.

nor.
.

nee

neque, both . . and not. nee (neque) . . et -que, neither

;

and.

b.

ADVERSATIVE.
but.

sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqul,

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet,

nihilominus, none the less. at vero, but in truth ; enimver6,/0r in truth. ceterum, on the other hand, but.
c.

nevertheless*

CAUSAL AND ILLATIVE.

nam, namque, enim, etenim,^^. quia, quod, because. quoniam, quippe, cum (quom, quum), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, utpote, since, inasmuch as.
propterea (. . . quod) t>/^r this reason (. that). quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quScirca, unde, wherefore, whence.
.
.

erg5, igitur, itaque, ide5, idcirco, proinde, therefore, accordingly.

NOTE. Of these quia quod, quoniam, quippe, cum, siquidem, often introduce subordinate clauses. As all subordinate clauses have been developed from clauses once co-ordinate (p. 164), the distinction between co-ordinate conjunctions and subordinate is often obscure.
*
list

Some

of these have been included in the classification of adverbs.

See also

of correlatives, \ 106.

155, 156.]

Conjunctions.
d.

135

CONCESSIVE.

quidem,

to be sure, it is true.
2.
e.

Subordinate.
CONDITIONAL.

si, if; sin,

but (f; nisi (ni), unless; if'not ;

si

quod

si,

but

if.

modo, dum, dummodo,

modo,

if only, provided.

dummodo ne (dum

ne,

modo
f.

n5), provided only not.

COMPARATIVE.
velut, veluti, velutsl, as if.

ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as.

tamquam (tanquam),
quam, atque

quasi, utsl, ac

si,

(ac), as, than.

g. CONCESSIVE.

etsl,

etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsl,

quamquam (quanquam),

al-

though.

quam vis, quantumvls, quamlibet, however much. licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom, quum), though, suppose,
whereas.
h.

TEMPORAL.

ubi, ut prlmum, postquam when. (posteaquam), quam, ante . quam, before , non ante prius quam, not
. .
.

cum (quom, quum), cum primum,

.
.

until.
as.

quandS, simul atque (simul ac), simul, as soon

dum, usque dum, donee, quoad,

i.

until.

CONSECUTIVE AND FINAL.

ut (uti), quo, so that, in order that. . not, in order that ne, ut ne, lest (that not)
. .

neve (neu),

nor.

quln

(after negatives),

quominus, but

that (so as to prevent).

156. The following are the principal conjunctions whose meaning requires to be noticed
:

a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses ; -que combines more closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word con-

nected or to the

first

or second of two or more words connected.

Thus,

cum

coniugibus et liberis, with [their] wives

and children.

and sivord. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.] aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of -water andfire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.]
ferro ignique, -with fire

136

Etymology: Particles.

156.

with some emphasis or with some implied reHence it is often equivalent to and on the word added. But these distinctions depend so, and yet, and besides, and then. very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untrans-

Atque (ac) adds

flection

latable

as,

omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable

usus atque disciplina, practice
expected).
(too, without the slightest distinction). and theory beside (the

more important

or less

atque ego credo,

and yet I believe

(for

my

part)

In the second of two connected ideas,

and

not

is

expressed by

neque (nee)

as,
dixit,

neque vero hoc solum

and he

not only said

this.

Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, of comparison and likeness as,
:

is

also used after

words

non secus

(aliter) ac si, not ctherivise

than

if.

pro eo ac debui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought). aeque ac tu, as much as you. haud minus ac iussi faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
simul atque, as soon
b.
as.

Sed and

the

more emphatic verum or vero,

.
. .

but, are

used to

introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after but something else}. At introduces with emnegatives (not this
phasis a

new

point in an argument, but

is

is

also used like the others.

At enim
which
is

almost always used to introduce a supposed objection presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in

this sense.

Autem,

however, now,

is

the weakest of the adversatives,

Atqui, hardly any adversative force perceptible. however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now if, is and often has
used to continue an argument.
to at.

Ast

is

old or poetic and

is

equivalent

concessive is often followed by an adversative either in a coNOTE. ordinate or a subordinate clause as, etiamsi quod scribas n6n habebis, scrlbito tamen (Cic.), though you have nothing to write, still write all the same.
:

c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (probably imperative of volo) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this dis-

tinction

is

sometimes disregarded.

Thus,

sed quis ego

capacity

sum aut quae est in me facultas, but who am I or what special have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negand both
alternatives are excluded].

ative is implied

156.]

Conjunctions.
temri

137

quam

ant

niilla
all.

potius valetudine,

rather none at

what feeble health [he had], or [Here vel might he used, hut would refer only to

aut hibat aut

the expression, not to the fact], aheat, let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses]. quit.

vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria, his life

was such

either in respect to

si

fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it). propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna, if they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect,
for example).

cogniti sunt et aut deorum aut regum filii invent!, sons either ofgods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.] implicati vel usu diuturno vel etiam officiis, entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude

cum

the

first.]

Sive (seu)
names
for the

is

properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either

as,
i.

or if}, but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two

same thing:

sive arridens sive quod ita putaret (De Orat. because he really thought so.

91), either laughingly or

Vel, even, for instance,

vel

is

often used with no alternative force

as,

minimus, the very

least.

and namque,/0r, usually introduce a real reason, formally d. expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim

Nam

enim

(for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you} and its negative introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda.

neque

nam dum sumus in his inclusi compagibus corporis munere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere perfungimur. est enim. animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. Maj. 77). harum trium sententiarum nulll prorsus assentior. nee enim ilia prima vera v~>\.,for of course thatjirst one isn't true.
is used of things proved formally, but often has Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the
e.

Ergo, therefore,

a weakened force.

nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirco, for this reason, on
this account,
is

quia, quod,

si,

as, regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative ut, n6, and refers to the special point introduced by
:

the correlative.

138

Etymology: Particles.

156.

neaegri quidem quia non omnes convalescunt, idcircS ars nulla medicmae est. primura igitur aut negandum est esse decs . . aut qui decs esse concedant eis fatendum est eos aliquid agere idque praeclarum; nihil est autem praeclarius mundi administratione, deorum igitur consilio administrate, quod si aliter est, aliquid profecto sit necesse est non est igitur natura melius et maiore vi praeditum quam deus. deorum praepotens neque excellens, si quidem ea subiecta est ei vel necessitati vel naturae qua caelum maria terrae regantur, nihil est autem
. . .
.

praestantius deo, ab e5 igitur mundum necesse est regl. null! igitur omnem ergo regit ipse est naturae oboediens aut subiectus deus
:

concedimus intellegentis esse deos, concedimus etiam providentis et rerum quidem maximarum. ergo utrum ignorant quae res maxumae sint quoque eae modo tractandae et tuendae an vim non habent qua tantas res sustineant e,t gerant? (N. D. ii. 76.) malum mini videtur mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certe. ergo et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus eventurum est
naturam.

etenim

si

miseri.

mihi

ita videtur.

nemo ergo non

50).

miser. (Tusc.

i.

9.)

meministis
etc.

enim cum
turn igitur

illius nefarii

gladiatoris voces percrebuissent quas,

(Murena

f. Quia, a statement.

because, regularly introduces a fact

quod,

either a fact or
as, since,

Quoniam

(for

quom

iam), inasmuch

when
and

now, now that, has reference to motives, excuses or

the
like.

justifications,

Quando,

since, is

mostly archaic or late.

possunt quia posse videntur, they can because they think they can. locus est a me quoniam ita Murena voluit retractandus (Murena 54), must review the point, since Murena has so wished.

me

reprehendis

(Murena

67),

quod idem defendant (as he had you blame me because [as you

not) say]

quod lege punierim / defend the same

charge which I have punished by the law. reprehendis me quia defendam (as he had) (Sulla, 50). cur igitur pacem nolo ? quia turpis est (Philip, vii. 9), wish for peace ? Because it is disgraceful.

why

then do

I not

non

In the denial of a reason, non quo is used as well as quia, and non quin, but not non quoniam. Thus,

non quod,

non quia

multis debeo

sed quia saepe concurrunt aliquorum bene de

me meritorum
indebted
to

inter ipsos contentiones (Plancius 78), not because

I am

many, but
(Philip,

because, etc.

non quin

pari virtute

et voluntate alii fuerint,

vii.

sed tantam causam n5n

not that there were not others of equal had not so much reason. but and good-will, they courage

habuerunt

6),

g.

Cum

(quom), when,
h. I,

is

always a relative, and

is

often correlative
as
to-

with turn (see

below) ; quando, indefinite: interrogative, relative 'and

when (rarely since), is used as, quando? hodie, when?

day, si quando, if ever.

156.]
/i.

'injunctions

Interjections.

I.

have a correlative
lit

Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, fre(|' in another clause, to which th< md as,
:

semcntrm In nis,

ita inrtrs.

/s

,r<7t'>,

so sliall

VCH redp.

uti initium, sic finis est, as is t/tc bcginning% so is tin- onl. turn cum Catiliiuim cicichain (Catil. iii. 3), at (Jic time -v/ii'ii.
2.

Often the same conjunction

are
. .
.

is

repeated in two co-ordinate

cla

Examples
et

et, both
. .

and.
no-w
.

modo
nunc iam
qua
i.
.
.

modo,

mine, >um>
. . .

iam, now
.

now. now. now.

.

simul
. .

simul, at once (this) and also (that), and, as well qua, both as, alike (this)
. .

and

(that)

The

concessives (etsi,

either a fact or a
relative

quamvls, etc., although} may introduce mere supposition, and are often followed by the cor-

tamen, yet, nevertheless; quamquam is regularly used to introduce an admitted fact and not a mere supposition.

Quamquam
{and
yet,
but,

(and rarely etsi, tametsi), in the sense of though however) are also used to introduce an independent
to limit or correct the preceding

statement
tlvuni)
ille
:

made

(quaniqnam

correc-

as,

volt diu vivere, hie diu vixit,

vita

quamquam,

o di bom, quid est in hominis

ivhat
is

dm?

(Cat.

Maj.

68),

the one wishes to live long, the other has

lived long, though (after all) in the life of man ?

Good Heavens !

there that

is

long

k. Autem, enim, and vero are postpositive, i.e. they always follow one or more words of their clause so generally igitur and often
;

tamen.

INTERJECTIONS.
io,

6, en, ecce, ehem, papae, v5h (of astonishment). evae, evoe, euhoe (of joy).
.

heu, Sheu, vae, alas (of sorrow) heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling)
gia,

st, hist.

euge (Upraise).
attestation
)
:

pro (of

as,

pro pudor. shame !

140

Etymology: Formation of Words.

157

CHAPTER VIII.

Formation of Words.

NOTE. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant elements, and so words) are first juxtaposed, then brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. This gradual process is seen in sea
change\ sea-nymph, seaside. But as all derivation, properly so-called, appears as a combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must date back of inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between noun- and verb-stems had not yet been made. After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the Primitive form, and from this the
other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose.
adjectives,

Thus new

adjectives were

formed from nouns, new nouns from

adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns. In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became con-

new

fused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns. Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many derivatives survive of which the Primitive is lost. Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed.

I.- ROOTS
1

AND STEMS.
:

157. Roots are of two kinds

1.

Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensi-

ble

phenomena). Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction. Stems are divided into (i) Noun- (including Adjective-) stems, and (2) Verb-stems.
2.

NOTE.

Noun- and verb-stems were not

in the consciousness of the

Romans were

originally different (see p. 163), and often confounded, but in general were

treated as distinct.

For the

distinction

between Roots and Stems, see \\

21, 22.

isa-60.]

Primary

Suffixes.

141
:

158. Words arc formed by inflection From roots inflected as stems 1.

:

a.

Without change:
:

as,

due-is (dux), DUG; nec-is (nex)

Sst
(cf. p.

is, id.

So

in verbs
b.

as, eat, fert,

86).

With change of the root-vowel: as, luc-is (lux), LUC; pac-is (pax). So in verbs i-s for feis, from eo, ire fatur from for, fari.
: ;

In these cases it is impossible to say with certainty whether the form But for convenience the above order is ot root in a or in b is the original one.

NOTE.

adopted.
c. With reduplication: as, fur-fur, verbs: as, si-sto (root STA).

mar-mor, mur-mur.

So

in

2.

From

derived stems; see

159.

II.-SUFFIXES.

159. Stems are derived from roots or from other stems

by means
1.

of suffixes.

These are

Primary: added

to the root, or (in later times

by analogy)

to

verb-stems.
158.
2.
,

The

root has either the weaker or the fuller vowel

(cf.

*)

Secondary: added to a noun- or adjective-stem. Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal roots ( 157. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
suffixes, not being origdevelopment of a language. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ka (see $ 160. A) primary, as in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but in pudlcus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary suffix, but also makes forms like

NOTE.

The

distinction

between primary and secondary

inal (see p. 140, head-note), is constantly lost sight of in the

clubbable, salable ; -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddlesome, venturesome.

1.

Primary

Suffixes.

160. The words

root by

in

Latin formed immediately from the

suffixes, are few.

means

of

Primary

a. Inherited

words so formed were mostly further developed by the

addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-some-ish, meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.
b. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation thus
:

142

Etymology : Formation of Words.

160.

mentis, by the suffix on- (nom. -o) gave mentio, being divided into men + tio, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -ti5 (phonetically -sio) as, legatio, embassy. A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like auditorius, of which the neuter is used to denote the Hence torio- (nom. place where the action of the verb is performed.

A word like mens,

this

and

N., becomes a regular suffix ( 164. /. 5). in English such a word as mechanically gives a suffix -ally, making telegraphically, though there is no such word as telegraphical. c. Examples of primary suffixes are :

-torium),

So

Vowel
a,
1

suffixes

found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems, as sonus, ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG). i, less common, and in Latin frequently changed, as in rupes, or lost, as in scobs (scobis, root SCAB). U, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for
fsuadus, cf. ^5us), ten-uis (root TEN in tendo), and remaining alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, sharp, in acer, acies, w/cus), pecu (root PAC, bind, in paciscor).
2.

Suffixes with a consonant

a.

ta (in the form to-) in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus, tectum; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus; and found in a few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf. purus), altus (aid).
ti in abstracts

j8.

7.

and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens. But in many the i is lost. tu in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as

8.

actus, luctus. na, forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, as

magnus (= mactus,
e.

ni, in

nouns of agency and

root MAG), plenus, regnum. adjectives, as ignis, segnis.

T).

Q.

nu, rare, as in manus, sinus. ma with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma. va (commonly uo-) with an active or passive meaning, as in equus,

i.

arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus). ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), usually = pletus), sella passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-que (= plenus
(for sed-la,
cf. e'Spa).

Observe that

it

is

although the nominative these suffixes is given as

the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, The vowel in is here given for convenience of reference. a to avoid puzzling questions of comparative grammar,
the form O, even in the Parent Speech.

though

it

had no doubt assumed

160-62.]
K.

Significant landings.

143

ya (forming
including

many

gerundives in other languages), in adjectives and abstracts, of the first and fifth declensions, as exiraius, audacia,

\.

/tt.

Florentia, pernicies. ka, sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. iraCpos), locus (for stlocus). In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant-stem as, apex, cortex, loquax. an (in-, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as, aspergo, compago
:

(-inis),
if.

ger5 (-onis).
:

man

(men-

also used

in the

form men- as a conscious derivative)

itself:

expressing MEANS, often passing into the action

as,

agmen,
frater

flumen.
.

tar,
(i.e.

forming nouns of AGENCY:

:

as,

pater

(i.e.

protector),

o.
ir.

supporter), orator. tra, forming nouns of MEANS

:

p.

as, claustrum, mulctrum. as (sometimes phonetically changed into er-, or-), forming names of actions as, genus, furor, ant, forming active PARTICIPLES : as, legens, with some adjectives from

roots

unknown

as,

frequens, recens.

suffixes given below, belong to the Indoand most of them were not felt as living forspeech, European parent mations in the Latin.
2.

The above, with some

Significant Endings.

161. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with

more or

less consciousness of their

meaning.
2.

They may
of Action
;

therefore be called Significant Endings.

They form:
3.

i.

Nouns

of

Agency;

Names

Adjectives (active or passive).

NOTE. There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as
nouns
($ 25. b, note).

HI.

-DERIVATION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 1. Nouns of Agency.

162. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or But they include many words in which doer of an action. the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives. Their significant endings are
:

a. -tor (-sor), M., -trlx, p.,

added

to roots or verb-stems to denote

the agent or doer of an action.

144

Etymology : Formation of Words.

162, 163.

cano, sing (CAN, supine tcantum); cantor, singer; cantrix, songstress.

vinco

(vie, supine

victum), conquer: victor, victrix, conqueror

as root, sup.

(victorious).

tondeo, shear (TOND

hair-cutter.

tonsum)
:

tonsor, tonstrix,

peto, seek (peti- as stem, sup. petitum) petitor, candidate. senator (lost verb fseno, -are), senator.

By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs (cf. senator above) as, viator, traveller, from
:

via,

way

(but

cf.

invio).

NOTE i. The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine ending -turn (-sum) (p. 121. 3), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending (see 125). NOTE 2. The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tonstrlx). tor is an inherited termination (cf. NOTE 3. p. 143). The feminine is a further formation in -ca which has lost its final vowel (cf. 160. A).
,

b.

t- (originally ta-, cf.

160. a), c.,

added

to verb-stems

making
:

nouns
as,

in -es (-itis, -etis,

stem

-it-,

-et-) descriptive of a character

miles (verb-stem mile-, as

the crowd).

in mille, thousand},

soldier

(man

of

teges (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover}, a coverer, a mat. comes, -itis (con- and meo, go, cf. trames, semita), a companion.
c.

-6 (gen.

-onis,

stem on-), M., added

:

to

stems conceived as

verb-stems (but perhaps originally noun-stems) to indicate a person employed in some specific art or trade as,

gero (GES

in gero, gerere, carry, but

compare -ger

armiger

{squire}, a carrier. com-bibo (BIB as root in bibo, bibere, drink}, a pot-companion.

This termination is also used to form NOTE. sonal characteristics (cf. 164. q).
2.

many nouns

descriptive of per-

Names

of Actions.

163. Names of Actions are confused, through their with real abstract nouns and nouns denoting means and instruments. They are derived (i) apparently or really from roots and verb-stems (primary) or (2) from
suffixes,

noun-stems (secondary).

163.]
I.

Names of

Actions.

145

Significant endings giving real or apparent primary

:

formations are

a. -or (st. or-, earlier 6s-), M., -6s (gen. -is, st. i-, earlier es-), p., -us (st. 8s-, earlier es- or os-), N., added to roots or forms conceived as

roots: as,

timeo,fear; tim-or, dread. sedeo, sit ; sed-Ss, seat.

decet, // is becoming] dec-us, grace, beauty. ffacino (old form of facio, do) facin-us, a deed. NOTE. Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary facinus above (from a supposed root FACIN).
;

roots

as,

b. -16 (st. ion-), -tio (st. tion-), -tura (st. tura-), F., -tus (st. tu-), M., (phonetically -sio, -sura, -BUS), apparently added to roots or verbstems, making verbal abstracts which easily pass into concretes.

lego,gat/ier, enroll; leg-io, a legion (originally, the annual conscription}. rego, direct i reg-io, a direction, a region.

iiisero (SA), implant

Insi-tio, grafting.

voco, pingo

call; v^ca-tio,
toil;

calling.

molior,

moli-tio, a toiling.

(PIG), paint; pic-tura, a painting. u. a. 2), perception. sentio, /<?/, sen-sus (for sent-tus, fruor, enjoy (for ffruguor) ; fruc-tus, enjoyment, fruit. NOTE i. tio, -tura, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the same phonetic change. Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see p. 121). They sometimes form nouns when there is no corresponding verb in use as, senatus, senate (cf. senex) mentis, mention (cf. mens) fetura, o/spring (cf. fetus) ; litteratura, literature (cf. litterae) cSnsulatus, consulship (cf. consul). NOTE 2. Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. 160. 7) -15 is a compound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) as,' dicio (cf. -dicus and dicis) -tio is a compound formed by adding on- to stems in ti-tura is formed by adding -ra, feminine as, gradatio (cf. gradatim) of -rus, to stems in tu-: as, natura from natus; statura from status (cf. flgura, of like meaning, from a simple u-stem, fflgu-s; and maturus, Matata).
: ;

c.

-men, -meutum, -monium,

N.,

roots or verb-stems to denote ACTS, or

-monia, p., apparently added MEANS and RESULTS of acts.

to

AG, root of ago, lead; 5g-men, line of march. re i-en, rule. regi- (stem seen in rego, direct) ; \
(

regi-mentum,

rule.

So colu-men,

pillar ;

mo-men, movement; no-men, name.

fruor, enjoy ; fru-mentum, grain. testor, witness ; testi-m6nium, testimony.

queror, complain; queri-monia, complaint (but see note).

146

Etymology : Formation of Words.

flo,

163.

Also fla-men (M.), a priest (from

ficial fire).

blow, in reference to the sacri-

REMARK -monium and -monia

:

are also used as secondary, form:

ing nouns from other nouns and from adjectives

sanctity (sanctus, holy}
;

as,

sancti-monia,

matri-monium, marriage (mater, mother). Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. 160. v) -mentum is a NOTE. further development of -men made by adding to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men momentum as, momen, movement (Lucr.) So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the (later). alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men. -monium
;

and -monia are compound secondary suffixes formed from mo-, as in the series almus, fostering; Almon, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last was formed from alo later, when -monia had become established as a supposed primary
d.
suffix.

-bulum, -culum, -bruin, -crum, -trum,

N.,

added

to verb-stems
:

or roots (rarely to noun-stems), to denote

MEANS

or

INSTRUMENT

as,

pasco, feed i pa-bulum, fodder. Bto, stand] sta-bulum, stall. tus (gen. turis), incense ; turi-bulum, a censer. voco, call; voca-bulum, a name, a word.
late 6, hide] lati-bulum, hiding-place.

veho, carry ; vehi-culum, wagon. pio, purify ; pia-culum, an expiation. cerno (crevi) sift ; cri-brum, sieve.
,

blow] fla-bra (pl.)> blasts. candela, a candle] candela-brum, a candlestick.

flo,

ambulo, walk] ambula-crum, place for walking.

sepelid, bury] sepul-crum, tomb.

simulo, pretend] simula-crum, image. claudo, shut] claus-trum, a bar. aro, 1 plough] ara-trum, a plough. A few Masculines and Feminines of the same formation occur as

nouns and adjectives

for, speak
;

as,

f a-bula, tale.

facio,

rideo, laugh] ridi-culus, laughable. make] fa-ber, smith.

lateo, hide] late-bra, hiding-place. tero, bore ; tere-bra, auger.

mulgeo, milk ; mulc-tra, milk-pail. uro, burn] Aus-ter, South wind. These are no doubt compound nominal suffixes, bo- + lo-, CO- + lo-, NOTE. bo- + ro-, CO- + ro-, to- + ro-, but the series cannot be distinctly made out. historical period. They had become fully welded into independent suffixes before the

163.]
2.

Abstract Nouns.

147

stract
e.

Significant endings entirely secondary forming nouns are:

-tudo,
-go,
F.,

Abstems

-ia, -tia (-i5s, -tiSa), -tas, -tus,

added

to adjective

and a few to nouns. and apparently added

So -do and
to verb-stems.

F.,
:

but associated with verbs,

Thus

audax, bold; audac-ia, boldness. So fiduc-ia, prudens, wise; pruden-tia, wisdom. superbus, proud ; superb-ia, pride.
trlstis,

confidence (ffidux).

sad; tristi-tia, sadness.

pauper, poor; pauper-ies, poverty.

segnis, lazy; segni-ties, laziness. bonus, good; boni-tas, goodness.
clvis, citizen
;

civi-tas, citizenship.

senex, old; senec-tus, age.

solus, alone; s51i-tudo, solitude. dulcis, sweet ; dulce-do, sweetness (probably from a lost stem dulcg-,
cf. dulce-sco). cupio, / desire; cupi-do (as
if

lumbus, the loin; lumba-go, lumbago (as plumbum, lead; plumba-go, black lead.
rubus, bramble (red bush)
prurio, itch
;
;

from stem cupl-, cf. cupi-vi). if from flumbo, -are).

rubi-go, rust (redness).

if

pruri-go, itching.

albus, white; albu-go, a disease of the eyes (whiteness, as

from

falbuo). Stems ending in o- or a- lose these vowels before -ia (as superb-ia), and change them to i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as boni-tas, above). Consonant-stems often insert -i before -tas as, loquax (stem loquac-), loquaci-tas but hoiies-tas, maies-tas (as if from old ad:
;

jectives in -es), uber-tas, volup-tas.

;

o after i is changed to e as, II. e). pius (stem pio-), pie-tas socius, socie-tas (see Of these, -la is inherited as secondary (cf. 160. ) -tia is formed NOTE. by adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix as, militia, from miles (st. milit-) molestia from molestus; dementia from Clemens; whence by analogy,
:
; :

-tas is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are mali-tia, avari-tia. found as suffixes in the same sense: as, senecta from senex; semen-tis from semen, -tds is tu- + ti-, cf. servitu-do. -do and -g5 appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy ; but -do is do- + 5n- as, cupidus,
:

albidus, albedo (cf. gravidus, gravedo (cf. grave-sco) albe-sco) formidus, hot, formldS (cf. formldulSsus), (hot flash f ) fear ; -gO is possibly co- + 6n-; cf. vorax, voragS, but cf. Cethegus. -tildo is compounded of-d5 with tu-stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volumen, from volvo): as, c5nsuetil-d5, valetdd5, habita-d6, sollicita-d5 whence servitude (cf. servitus. -tatis).

cupldo;

148

Etymology: Formation of Words.

[163,164.

/. -ium, -tium, added to noun- and perhaps verb-stems, forming neuter abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting OFFICES and

GROUPS:

as,

(gen. hospit-is), a guest ; hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn. servus, a slave ; servi-tium, slavery, the slave class. collega, a colleague ; colleg-ium, colleagueship a college. auspex, a soothsayer; auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen.

hospes

gaudeo, rejoice ; gaud-ium,/0/. benefacio, benefit} benefic-ium, a kindness (but cf. beneficus). de-sider5, miss (from fde-sides, out of place, of missing soldiers) desider~ium, longing. effugio, escape} effug-ium, an escape (cf. profugus). ad verbum, [added] to a verb} adverb-ium, an adverb. inter lunas, between moons} interlun-ium, time of new moon.
regis fuga, flight of a king} regifug-ium,y?^/ of kings.

Vowel-stems lose their vowel before -ium, as colleg-ium, from

collega.
neuter of -ius ($ 164.^-), -ia (cf. e], is an inherited primary suffix used with great freedom as secondary; -tium is formed like as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf. exitus, -tia, by adding -ium to stems with t equites) ; so, by analogy, calvi-tium, servi-tium (from calvus, servus).

NOTE.
160.

ium,
but

(cf.

),

is

g. Less

commonly -nia,

p.,

-mum, -lium. -cinium,

:

N.,

added

to noun-

stems, but confused with verb-stems

as,

peed, cattle} pecu-nia, money (chattels), conticesco, hush} contici-nium, the hush of night augeo, increase} auxi-lium, help. pecu, cattle; pecu-lium, private property (cf. peculor, implying a noun fpeculum).
latro, robber} latro-cinium, robbery
(cf.

latrocinor, rob, implying

an

adj.

flatrocinus).
3.

Adjectives.

164. Derivative adjectives are Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems). Their significant endings are
:

I.

NOMINAL.

a. -ulus (-a, -um) (after a vowel -olus), -culus, -ellus, -illus, making an important class of adjectives, which are usually appropriated to one gender, that of the Primitive, and used as DIMINUTIVE NOUNS : as,

164.]

Nominal
;

Adjectives.

149

rlvua, a brook
gladius,
filius,
fllia,

rlv-ulus, a streamlet.

a sword; gladi-olus, a small sword. a son ; fTli-olus, a little son.

a daughter] flli-ola, a little da*ghterStrium, a hall] 5tri-olum, a little halL homo, a man ; homun-culus, a dwarf.

auris, an ear] auri-cula, a little ear. munus, N., a gift] munus-culum, a little gift.

fpuera (cf. puer, a boy} puella (for fpuer-ula), a girl. codex, a block ; codic-illi, writing-tablets.
;

miser, wretched] mis-ellus, rather wretched.

liber,
(-a, -um) golden. parvus (-a, -um), little \ parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small maior (old mttte), HM&T| maiua-culus, somewhat larger.
, ,

a book] lib-ellus, a little book. aureus (-a, -urn) golden ; aure-olus

NOTE I. These are all formed by adding Jus (originally -rus, cf. 160. ) to various stems, forming adjectives. The formation is the same as that of -ulus in / below. But these words became settled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish, -culus comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and 8- : as, iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Aurunculeius), pris-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the termination, and the whole ending is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and S-stems, in accordance with its origin. NOTE 2. Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt:

deliciolae, wretched man.

as,

little

pet; muliercula, a poor (feeble)

woman; homunculus,

REMARK
but
is

-cio,

added

to

stems in
:

added

to masculines only

as,

n-, has the same diminutive force, homun-cio, a dwarf (from homo,

a man}.
b.

-adSs, M., -Ss, p., -ides, -Ides, M.,

to proper

-is,

-Sis, p., -Sus, -eus,

M.,

added

names, forming PATRONYMICS to indicate descent or

all

relationship.

These, originally Greek adjectives, have almost

in Latin
:

become nouns

as,
:

Tyndareus
:

Tyndar-id6s, Castor or Pollux] Tyndar-is, Helen,

pi.),

daughter of Tyndarus. Atlas Atlanti-ades, Mercury] Atlanti-ades (Gr. Scipio Scipi-adgs, son of Scipio.
:

the Pleiads.

Anchises: Anchisi-ades, sEneas. Theseus Thes-ides, son of Theseus.

:

Tydeus _Tyd-Id6s, Diomedes, son ofTydeus. Ofleus Aiax Oll-eus, son of O ileus.
: :

150

Etymology: Formation of Words.

:

164.

Thaumas
Hesperus

Tfraumanti-as,
:

Iris,

Hesper-ides (from
,

daughter of Thaumas. Hesper-is, -idis),

F.

pi.,

the

daughters of'Hesperus the Hesperides.

-eus -as, -ensis, -acus (-acus), -icus -Snus, -enus, -mus with to shortened -eius, -icius, adjectives -eus), forming (generally the sense of BELONGING TO.
c.
;
;

1.

So from common nouns

as,
.

mons

(st. monti-), mountain; mont-anus, of the mountains vetus (st. veter-), old; veter-anus, veteran. ante lucem, before light ; anteluc-anus, before daylight.

egeo,

lack',

eg-enus, needy (see note below).

terra, earth; terr-enus, earthly.

serus, late; ser-enus, calm (of evening stillness).

coll-mus, of a hill. div-inus, divine. libertus, onfs freedman ; libert-mus, of the class offreedmen.
collis, hill;

divus,y^;

vitulus, a calf; vitul-ina (sc. caro), veal. quis, who? cui-as, of what country? Infimus, lowest; Infim-as, of the lowest rank.

forum, a market-place; for-ensis, of a market-place, or the Forum. merum, piire wine ; mer-acus, pure. civis, a citizen; civ-icus, civic, of a citizen. fullo, a fuller; fullon-icus, of a fuller.
femina, a woman; femin-eus, of a woman, feminine. lact-eus, milky. lac, milk (st. lacti-)
;

plebes, the commons; pleb-eius, of the commons, plebeian.

pater, father ; patr-icius, patrician.

But especially from proper nouns (names of places, peoples, and persons), denoting BELONGING TO or COMING FROM as,
2.
:

Roma: Rom-anus, Roman.

Sulla
:

Sull-ani, Sulla^s veterans.

:

Cyzicus
Liguria
:

Cyzic-enl, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus.

Ligur-Inus, of Liguria.
(cf.

Arplnum: Arpln-as, of Arpinum

-itis,

Samnium: Samnis,

gen.

a Satnnite}.
Sicili-ensis, Sicilian.
(a

Sicilia

Ilium, Troy; Ili-acus, Trojan PlatS Platon-icus, Platonic.

:

Greek form).
Aquileia, a town in
Italy.

Aquila

Aquil-gius, a

Roman name;

164.]
3.

Nominal

Adjectives.

5 1

Many

derivative adjectives with these

endings have by usage

become nouns. Thus, silva, woods ; Silv-anua,

membrum,

limb',
;

Aemilia (g5ns)
f Aufidius

M., a god of the woods. membr-ana, p., shin. Aemili-anus, M., name of Scipio Africanus.

lanius, butcher] lani-gna, F., a butchers stall.

(Aufidus), M.

Aufidi-Snus, a

Roman name.

incola, an inhabitant ; inquil-Inus, M., a lodger.

caecus, blind] Caec-Tna, used as M., a gallua, a cock; gall-ina, p., a hen.
;

Roman name.

ru6,/0// (no noun existing) ru-ina, p., a fall. doctor, teacher^ doctr-ina, p., learning. Of these terminations, -anus, -enus, -inus are compounded from NOTE. -nus added to a stem-vowel as, area, arcanus collis, collinus. The long vowels come from a confusion with verb-stems, as in ple-nus, fIni-tus, tribu-tus, A few nouns occur of similar assisted by the noun-stem in a-: as, arcanus. formation, as from verb-stems in 5- (which were lost in the later language) and in a-: as, colonus (colo, cf. incola), patronus (cf. patro, -are), tribunus (cf. tribuo, tribus), Portunus (cf. portus), Vacuna (cf. vaco, vacuus). d. -alia, -aria, -elis, -His, -ulia, -nus, PERTAINING TO, of various
:
;

modes of relation or possession, but not used as Gentile

natura, nature] natur-alis, natural.

adjectives

as,

populua, a people ; popul-aria, fellow-countryman. patruua, uncle] patru-elis, cousin.

hoatia,

an enemy]

host-ilia, hostile.

currua, chariot; sella cur-ulia, curule chair.

ver, spring] ver-nua, vernal. nus is inherited (cf. 160. 5) and used as secondary. The others NOTE. are weakened forms of ra- ( 160. <) added to various vowel-stems. The long vowel comes partly from confusion with verb-stems, cf. Aprilis (aperio), edulis (edo), and the suffix is afterwards used indiscriminately, as in senilis (senex).
c.

-ter

(-tris),

(-turnua),

BELONGING TO, of places,

-ester (-estris), -timus, -ernua, -urnua, -ternus times, and the like (but some are

general adjectives).

marsh ] palua-ter, of the marshes. pedea, a footman] pedes-ter, of the foot. aex mgnsea, six months ] aemes-tris, semi-annual.
palus, a
finia,

wood] silv-ester, silv-estria, woody. an end] fini-timua, neighboring on the borders. her! (old hesi) yesterday ; hes-ternus, of yesterday.
,

silva, a

diu, long (in time) diu-turnua, lasting. ho die. to-day, hodi-ernua, of to-day.
;

dies, day; di-urnua, daily.

152

Etymology: Formation of Words.

164.

Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, 160) to stems NOTE. t-or d- (phonetically S-). Thus pedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy, -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to S-stems as, diur-nus (for fdius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus (hodie).
in
:

/. -atus, -itus, -utus, PROVIDED WITH, making adjectives with formed from nouns, but in reference to an imaginary verb-stem (cf. the English horned, crested, hooked)*
participial ending,

barba, a beard} barb-atus, bearded.

auris,

an ear ;

aur-itus, long-eared.

versus, a turning} vers-utus, crafty, adroit (full of turns). So -tus, added directly to nouns without reference to any verb

as,

funus, death i funes-tus, deadly. honor, honor} hones-tus, honorable. favor, favor$ faus-tus (for ffaves-tus), favor'able.

BELONGING TO, forming

g. -eus, -ius, -aceus, -icius, -aneus (-neus), -ticus, MADE adjectives of very various meanings as,
:

o^

or

aurum, ?&/; aur-eus, golden. pater, a father } patr-ius, paternal. uxor, a wife ; uxor-ius, uxorious.
rosa, a rose} ros-aceus, of roses. later, a brick} later-Icius, of brick.

praesens, present ; praesent-aneus, operating instantly. extra, without} extr-aneus, external.

sub

salix, willow} salig-neus,

terra, underground} subterr-aneus, subterranean. of willow.

volo,y?j/; vola-ticus,

winged (volatus, a flight}.

house, domestic.

domus, a house} domes-ticus, of the silva, a wood} silva-ticus, sylvan.

ius is originally primitive ( 160. K) -icius and -,ceus are formed NOTE. by adding -ius and -eus to stems in 1-C-, a-c- (suffix CO-, orig. ka-, 160. X) -eus corresponds to Greek -eioy, -eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf. ya-, 160. ). -neus is no- + -eus ( 160. S) -aneus is formed by adding -neus to a-stems. For -ticus, see 159. n.
; ; ;

h. -arius, -torius (-sorius), often fixed as nouns (see /).

BELONGING TO, making many

adjectives

or do, rank, order} ordin-arius, regular. ar gen turn, silver} argent-arius, of silver or money. extra, outside} extr-arius, stranger.

merit us, earned} meri-torius, profitable. de versus, turned aside} devor-sorius, of an inn (cf. i. 5). NOTE. Here -ius ($ 160. *) is added to shorter forms in -ariB and -or:
pecaiiarius (from pecaiiaris), bellatorius (from bellator).

as,

164.]
/.

Nominal
fixed forms of the

Adjectives.
suffixes
as,

153

Many

above adjective
:

make nouns,

more or
1.

less regularly

used in particular senses

-Srius (regular), person employed about anything: as,

argent-arius, silver-smith , broker (from argentum).

2.

-5ria, thing connected

with something:

aren-ariae, F. pi.,

Asin-Sria,
3.

p.,

name of a
,

sandpits (from arena, sand}. play (from asinus, ass).

-arium (regular) place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning) as,
:

aer-5rium,

tepid-arium,

treasury (from aes, copper} warm bath (from tepidus, warm). sud-arium, N., a towel (cf. sudd, -are, sweat}.
N.,
N.,

sal-arium, N., salt money, salary (from sal,

salt}.

calend-arium,
4.

N.,
:

a note-book (from calendae, calends}.

as,

-toria (-soria)

Agita-toria, p., a play of Plautus, The Carter (from agitator), vor-soria, p., a tack (from versus, a turn).
5.

-torium (-sorium)
:

(regular), place

of action (with a few of more

general meaning)

as,

devor-sorium,
audi-torium,
tec-torium,
ten-toriuin, N.,
N.,

N.,

N.,

an inn (as from devorto, turn aside} a lecture-room (as from audio, hear}. a tent (as from tendo, stretch}.
porto, carry, and portus, harbor}.

plaster (as from tego, tectus, cover}.

por-torium,
6.

N., toll (cf.

-He, animal-stall: as,

N., cattle-stall (bos,
st.

bov-ne,

b6vis, ox, cow}.

ov-He, sheep-fold (ovis,

7. -al for -Sle,

ovi-, sheep}.
as,

thing connected with the primitive:

capit-al, N., headdress, capital crime (caput, head}.

penetr-ale (esp. in pi.), N., inner apartment (cf. penetro"). Saturn-alia N. pi. (the regular form for names of festivals}, feast

of Saturn (from SSturnus).

8.

-tum,

N. (cf. -5tus, -fltus, see/), place of a thing: as,

N.,
N.,

querc-gtum,
Argil-etum,

oak grove (from quercus, oak}. The Clay-pit (from argilla, clay}.

154
9.

Etymology: Formation of Words.

i,

164.

-cus (sometimes with inserted genders, with various meanings as,

:

-icus), -icus, in any one of the

vili-cus, M., vili-ca, p.,

a steward (stewardess) (from

villa, farm

house).

a workshop (from faber, workman). M., ox-tender (from bub-ulus, dim., cf. bos, ox). N., song (from cantus, act of singing). rubr-ica, p., red paint (from ruber, red).
fabr-ica,
p.,

bubul-cus, cant-icum,

10.

-eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings

as,

alv-eus, M., a trough (from alvus, the belly). capr-ea, p., a roe (from caper, he-goaf).

flamm-eum,
11.
12. -ter

N.,

a bridal

veil (from

flamma, flame, from

suffix (see

its

color).

-ium, confounded with the primary

163. /").
as,

(stem tro-) and -ter (stem tri-), -aster -ester: Aus-ter, M., South wind (from uro, burn).

eques-ter, M., knight (for fequet-ter, see <?, note). sequ-ester, M., a stake-holder (from derivative of Be<ya.or follow) ole-aster, M., wild olive (from olea) (cf. surd-aster, from surdus).
,

k. -osus, -(o)lens,

-(o)lentus, FULL OF,

billowy.

PRONE TO

as,

fluctus,

wave; fluctu-osus,

forma, beauty ; f orm-osus, beautiful. periculum, peril ; pericul-5sus, full of danger.

pestis, /$/; pesti-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent. vinum, wine i vino-lentus, vin-osus, given to drink.
II.
/.

VERBAL.

PRONE TO, FITTED 1 TO, apparently added to verb-stems, forming adjectives, to express the action of a verb as a QUALITY or TENDENCY, -ax, denotes a faulty

-x,

-idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -Tvus, -tivus),

or aggressive tendency; -tivus

is

oftener passive.

Thus,

pugno, audeo,

to fight$
to

pugn-ax, pugnacious. dare; aud-ax, bold.

cupio, to desire; cup-idus, eager bibo, to drink ; bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth, etc.). protero, to trample; proter-vus, violent, wanton. noceo, do harm} noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious.
capio, take; cap-tivus, captive, M.. a prisoner of'war. reci&o, fall back ; recid-ivus, restored.
1

The forms

felt

as verbal are, like the nominal forms, derived from noun-stems,

and the two are constantly confounded.

164.]

1'crh.il A.ljtrfi.

155

NOTE. Of these, -ftx is a reduction of -acus (stem-vowel ft- + -cue), become independent and used with verb-stems. Similar lorms in -6x, -Ox, -Ix, and -0.x are found or i.nnlLd in derivatives: as, imbrex. M., a rain-tile (from imber);

eenex, old (from seni-s) f er5x, fierce (from ferus) atrSx, savage (from celSx, F., a yacht (cf. cellS) fllx, happy, oi\g./ertile (from fold". cf. also victrlx (from siu -k [?] ) fidxlcia, F., confidence (as from ffldux) victor). So manducus, chewing (from mandS). -idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbi-dus, herb; tumidus, noollen callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum, (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar) tough jlfsh) muci-dus, slimy (cf. mflcus, slime) tabidus, wasting (cf. tabes,
;

ater, black)
;

wasting disease).

But

later

it

was used

-ulus

is

the

same

surrix

form adjectives directly from verb-stems. as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf.
to
;
;

imitor and imago) sedulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. domi-seda, home-staying, and sedo, calm} pendulus, hanging (cf.pondo, abl., in weight; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, an addition) stragulus, covering (cf. strages) legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things

aemulus, rivalling

(cf.

sacred).

But they were thoroughly attached

(cf.

to verbs.

-Ivus and -tlvus have become secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestlvus, of summer (from aestus, heat) ; tempestlvus, timely (from tempus) cf. domes-ticus (from domus).

-vus seems originally primary

160. 0), but

m.

-ills,

-bills, rius, -tilis, (-silis),

:

expressing PASSIVE QUALITIES,

but occasionally active

as,

frango (FRAG), break ;

frag-iliB, </ra& nosco (GNO), know; no-bilis, ivcll known famous. eximo, take out, select ; exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. e-greg-iua)
,

ago, drives ag-ilis, active.

habeo, hold; hab-ilis, handy.

alo, nourish; al- tilis, fattened (see note).
primary, but is also used as secondary (cf. 5 163. /). similis, like (cf. o^uos, Eng. same) \ agilis, active + -lis) ; facilis, easy (cf. bene-flcus) ; (cf. prodigus, (TTpaTTiyos, so ag6tra.gili3,/rai! (cf. foederi-fragus). -bills also is probably bo- + -lis (cf. -bus cf. also -ilis and -tilis); in -tilis in morbus, -bulum, -bundus, -brum, -bris and -silis, -lis is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle: as, fSssilis,
is

NOTE.

Of these, -ius

-ills is certainly

secondary

as,

dug up (from fossus, dug)

;/.

volatilis, winged (from volatus,//^/).

-minus, -mnus.
-/zo/os,

Greek

These endings are properly participial (cl and ama-minl). They form a few nouns in which the
:

participial force is discernible

as,

FE, produce

f-mina, woman

(the producer).

alo, nourish;
o.

alu-mnus, a foster child, nursling. -ndus (the same as the gerund-ending) forms a few
:

active or

r<?-

flexive adjectives

as,

sequor, follow \ secu-ndus, second (the following), favorable. 1 roto, whirl (from rota, wheel) rotu-ndus, round (whirling ).
;

Compare volvendls mensibus,

in the revolving

months (Virg.).

156
NOTE. This armiger), gero

Etymology : Formation of Words.

suffix
(st.

[164,165.

is no doubt on-+-dus: as, t&erus ( s t. ger5-, cf. geron-), fgerondus (cf. -bundus and -cundus; and

turunda, a paste-ball).
p. -bundus, -cundus, with a participial meaning, but denoting con* tinuance of the act or quality.

iocus, a jest \ iu-cundus, pleasant

vito, shun
;

(cf. iuvo, -are). vita-bundus, dodging about*

tremo, tremble; treme-bundus, trembling. morior, die; mori-bundus, at the point of death.
for, speak
;

f a-cundus, eloquent.

FE, produce; fe-cundus, fridtful.

(cf. Tra-scor). These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red bush; rubidus (but no frubicus), red; Rubicon, Red River (cf. Minio, a river of Etruria ; Minius, a river of Lusitania) rubicundus (as in averrunSo turba, commotion; tur1 6, a top; turbidus, roily; cus, nomun-culus)

So

ira,

anger ; ira-cundus, irascible

NOTE.

etc.

Cf.

apexabo, longabo, gravedo, dulcedo.

III.

IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES.

q* The primary suffix on- (nom. -6) is used as secondary to form nouns denoting POSSESSED OF (originally adjectives), and so expressing a character, and often used as proper names:"1 as,

epulae, a feast; epul-o, a easier. nasus, a nose; nas-6, with a large nose (also as a proper name). -volus (in bene-volus), wishing; vol-ones (pi.), volunteers.
frons, forehead; front-6, big-head (also as a proper name). So curia, a curia ; curi-o, head of a curia (also as proper name).
restis,

a rope;

resti-6,

a rope-maker.

fvespertllis, of the evening; vespertlli-o, a bat.

r. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used in their compound form as,
:

ad-verb-ium, adverb ; ad,

to,

and verbum,

verb, but without the

intervening fadverbus.

lati-fund-ium, large estate; latus, wide, fundus, estate. gu-ove-taur-Hia, a sacrifice of a sheep, a swine, and a bull; sus, swtne, ovis, sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin, though such formations are

common

in Sanskrit.

IV.

-DERIVATION OF VERBS.

165. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.

l

This

suffix is the

same

as in

162. c t but not

connected with a verb.

165,166.]
1.

J) -rn',i/it>u of
t

/vAv.

157

Primitive verbs are those inherited by the Latin from

the parent speech. 2. Derivative verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin as a separate language. They are of

two main classes

a.
b.

DENOMINATIVE VERBS, formed from nouns

or adjectives.
167).

Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs (see

1.

Denominative Verba.

166. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun- and adjective-stem.
a.
i.

Verbs of the

first

conjugation

are
:

formed directly from

as,

5-stems, regularly with a transitive

meaning

fuga, flight

fugo,

put

to flight.

No doubt originally particular forms of stem formed particular conNOTE. jugations of verbs, but from changes of stem and from various cross-analogies the Thus relation between conjugations and stem-forms became entirely confused. poeua should make fpunare, but it really makes punire, in accordance with an
i-stem, as in
2.

impuni-s

servus makes servare

in

one sense, servire

in another.

Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-stems, changing the o- into a-. These are more commonly transitive. Thus,
stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-) stimulo (-are), incite. aequus, even (stem aequo-) aequo (-are), make even. hlbernus, of the winter (stem hiberno-) hiberno, pass the winter. albo (-are), whiten. albus, white (stem albo-)
;

pius, pure (stem pio-)

pio (-are), expiate.

few verbs, generally neuter, are formed by analogy from con3. sonant- and u-stems, adding a to the stem as,
:

vigil, awake ; vigilo (-are), watch. exsul, an exile ; exsulo (-are), be in exile. hiemps (stem hiem-), winter-, hiemo (-Sxe),pass aestus, tide, seething; aestuo (-are), surge, boil.

the winter.

levis (stem levi-), light

b.

levo (-are),

lighten.

A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems, but most are inherited, or
the primitive noun-stem
1

is

lost

as,

few verbs of the

first

directly
(2)

from a root ending formed with -yami (see

These are (i) formed conjugation arc inherited. a vowel, as dare (DA), stare (STA), nare (NA) or (3) uncertain, as amare. p. 86), as vocare
in
;

58

Etymology : Formation of Words. [166,167

(cf.

albus, white; albeo, be white

albo, -are, whiten, under a.

swell.

2).

canus (stem cano-), hoary; caneo, be hoary. tumulus, hill (implying f tumus, swelling) turned, pro-vidus, foreseeing} pro-vide5 foresee. But moneo, remind; cf. memini, remember.
;
,

algeo, be cold;

cf.

algidus, cold.

conjugation has undoubtedly been formed partly through the agency of stems like those of the fifth declension in e-, originally es-: as, fsordes, -is, filth; sordeo, be dirty, cf. Eng. swart; tabes, -is, wasting;

NOTE.

The second

tabeS, waste away

language.
C.

(cf.

also

pubes, pubesco)

res, thing;

But the traces of the original formation of these verbs are almost

reor, reckon. lost from the

Some

where probably an

verbs in -u5, -uere are formed from noun-stems in ui has been lost : as,
;

status, position

statuo, set up.

(old form of in), in, on induo, put on. So, by analogy, exuo, doff, from ex, out of. NOTE. Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in U: as, flu5, fluere; so-lvo, solvere. Some roots have a parasitic U: as, loquor, locutus.
d.
as,

indu

Many

verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from i-stems

moles
finis,

(-is), mass; molior, -iri, end; finio, -ire, bound.

;

toil.

sitis, thirst

sitio, -Tre, thirst.

stabilis, stable; stabilio, -ire, establish.

Some

arise

by confusion from other stems treated as

-ire, boil.

if

i-stems: as,

bulla, bubble; bullio,

condus, storekeeper ; condio, -ire, preserve. insanus, mad; insanio, -ire, rave. gestus, gesture; gestio, -ire, show wild longing.
custos, guardian ; custodio, -ire, guard. NOTE. Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, ordior, begin, cf. ordo and exSrdium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -io of the third
conjugation (p. 100).
2.

Verbs from Other Verbs.

167. The following classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with
their terminations.

167.]

Derivation of Verbs.

,-59

NOTE. These classes are all really denominative In their origin, but had become so associated with verbs that nrw derivatives were often formed directly
from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.
a.

verbs.

INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES add -sco to the present stem of They denote the beginning of an action. Of some there is no
Thus,

simple verb in existence.

caleo, be warm ; cale-sco, grow warm. labo, totter i laba-sco, begin to totter.
scio,

know; sci-sco,

determine.

cupio, desire ; con-cupi-sco, conceive a desire for.

a\o,feed; ale-sco, grow.

So Ira-scor, get angry ; cf. Ira-tus. iuvene-sco, grow young] cf. iuvenis, young man. mite-sco,nra/ mild; cf. mitis, mild.
vesperS-scit,
it is

getting late ;

cf.

vesper, evening.
:

NOTE. Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect and supine systems of simple verbs as, calesco, calui proflciscor, profectus.
;

b.

INTENSIVES or ITERATTVES end in -to or -ito (rarely -so), and

:

denote a forcible or repeated action

iacio, throw; iac-to, hurl.

as,

dico, say; dict-ito, keep on saying. quatio, shake; quas-so, shatter.

They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative, derived from the participle in -tus (stem to-).
like
as,

NOTE. But they were originally denominatives from a noun of agency in -ta, nauta, sailor. Hence some are formed from a stem different from the supine : ago, agito (not facto) so, dictitS, not fdictato, from dicto.
;

c.

Another form of Intensives

ends in -esso (rarely -isso). verbs of practice tain energy or eagerness of action as,
:

sometimes called Meditatives, or These denote a cer-

capio, take; cap-esso, lay hold on. facio, do; fac-esso, do (with energy). peto, seek; pet-isso, seek (eagerly).

These are of the

supine of the fourth
:

third conjugation, usually having the perfect

as,

and

lacesso, lacessgre, lacessivl, lacessltum, provoke.

d.

end

in -illo,

DIMINUTIVES (derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns) and denote a feeble or petty action as,
:

160

Etymology : Formation of Words.

[167,168,

cavilla, raillery $ cav-illor,^$/, canto, sing i cant-illo, chirp or warble.

e.

ing.

Desideratives end in -turio (-surio), and express longing or wishThey are of the fourth conjugation, and only three are in common

use

emo, buy\ emp-turio, want to

edo, eat i e-surio, be hungry.
pario, bring forth
;

buy.

par-turio, be in labor.

Others are used by the dramatists.

NOTE.
formation.

Desideratives are derived from

from emptor, buyer.

Vis5, go

to see, is

some noun of agency: as, empturiS, an inherited desiderative of a different

3.

Compound
is

"Words.
is

Compound Word

one whose stem

made up

of

two or more simple stems.

ever, often

Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. becomes attached to a verb.

preposition,

how-

168.
a.

New stems are formed

part
is

by composition as follows
first
:

1
i

The second

simply added to the

as,

su-ove-taurllia (BUS, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a hog, sheep,

and bull
b.

(cf.

164. r).

septcn-decim (septem, decem),

seventeen.

The

first

part modifies
:

the
as,

second as an adjective or adverb

estate.

(Determinative Compounds}

lati-fundium (latus, fundus), a large landed

c.

The

first

part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal

force (Objective
1

Compounds}',

as,

In these compounds only the second part receives inflection. This is most the proper inflection of the last stem ; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis; lucifer, -feri; ifldex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as, animus, exanimis; n5rma, abnormls (see note, p. 30). In composition stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, igni-spicium, in divining by fire. But O- and S-stems weaken the final vowel of the stem to i-, as ali-pes (from ala, st. ala-) ; and i- is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, foederir

commonly

fragus

(for t* oeder-f

ragus

f oedus, ff ragus), treaty-breaking.

168-70.]

Compound Words.

161

agri-cola (ager, fcola akin to colo"), a farmer. aimi-ger (arma, fger akin to gero), armor-bearer. corni-cen (cornu, fcen akin to cano), horn-blower. carni-fex (car 6, ftex akin to facio), executioner.
d.

Compounds of the above

kinds, in which the last

word

is

a noun,
quality

acquire the signification of adjectives,

meaning possessed e/the

denoted (Possessive Compounds}:

all-pea (ala, pes), wing-footed.

as,

magn-animus (magnus, animus), greai-souled.

con-cora (con-, cor), harmonious. an-cepa (amb-, caput), double (having a head
NOTE.
at

both ends).

of the above classes appear only in the form of some Latin (cf. $ 164. r). further derivative, the proper compound being impossiblejn

Many compounds

169. In many apparent compounds, complete words not stems have grown together in speech.
are called Syntactic

compounds in the etymological sense. They Compounds. Examples are a. Compounds of facio, facto, with an actual or formerly existing noun-stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are CAUSATIVE
strictly
:

These are not

in force: as, consue-faciS, habituate (cf. consue-sco, become accustomed} cale-facio, cale-facto, to heat (cf. calg-sco, grow warm). b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb as, bene-dico (bene
; :

dico), to bless; sat-ago (satis ago), to be busy enough. c. Many apparent compounds of stems: as, fide-iubeo

(fidei

lubeo), to give surety ; man-suetus

(flus-pater)
d.
;

(manui sugtus), tame; luppiter

:

Marci-por (Marcl puer), slave of Marcus.

into the ordinary inflections of nouns
as,

A iw phrases forced

pro-consul, proconstil (for pr5 consule, instead of a consul). trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virorum). septen-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triones, The Seven Oxen).

Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixa Particle to some other part of speech ing
170.
:

a.

pounds the prepositions

1

In these comPrepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives. retain their original adverbial sense * as,
:

The prepositions sometimes, however, have their ordinary force as prepositions, ad, in, circum, tr5ns, and govern the case of a noun as, transire flumen, to cross a river (see 239. b. Rem.).
especially
:

62
a. ab,

Etymology: Formation of Words.

9

170

ad, TO,

AWAY: au-ferre (ab-fer6), to take away, TOWARDS af-ferre (ad-fero), to bring.

:

ante, BEFORE: ante-ferre, to prefer $ ante-cellere, to excel.

circum, AROUND: circum-munire, to fortify completely. com-, con- (cum), TOGETHER or FORCIBLY: con-ferre, to bring
together ; col-locare, to set firm. de, DOWN, UTTERLY de-spicere, despise ; dSstruere, destroy. S, ex, OUT: ef-ferre (ec-fer5), to carry forth, uplift. in (with verbs), IN, ON, AGAINST : In-ferre, to bear against.
:

inter,

BETWEEN, TO PIECES : inter-rumpere, to interrupt. ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET: of-ferre, to offer} ob-venlre, to meet. sub, UNDER : sub-struere, to build beneath.

super, UPON, OVER

AND ABOVE:

super-fluere, to overflow $ su-

perstes, a survivor,

NOTE. In these compounds short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before two: as, facio, conflcio, confectus; iacio, eicio, eiectus. But long a is retained as, peractus.
:

b.

cles,

Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable which do not appear as prepositions in Latin
:

parti-

amb- (am-,
dis-, di-,

an-), AROUND: amb-ire, to go about (cf. d//,<', about). ASUNDER, APART: dis-cedere, to depart (cf. duo, two)
.

por-,

FORWARD

por-tendere, to hold forth, predict

(cf.

porro,
to

forth).
red-, re-,

BACK, AGAIN : red-ire, to return ; re-cludere,

open

(from claudo, shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make-again), sgd-, s-, APART: se-cerno, to separate (cf. sed, but).

sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix. commonly prae), very j sub, somewhat*, in-, are regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjective as,
c.

An

Adjective

is

Of these, per

(less

not^

per-magiius, very large. sub-rustictis, rather clownish.

prae-longus, very long.

in-finitus, boundless.

NOTE.
terreo,
prefix.

in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs: as, perIn ignosco, in- appears to be the negative terrify; sub-rldeo, smile.

Per and sub,

d.

Many

verbs to which they correspond. per-f uga, deserter ;

cf.
;

Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the Thus,

cf.

tradux, vine-branch

per-fugio. trans-ducfl.

PART SECOND.

USE OF WORDS

(SYNTAX).
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
THE study
of formal

grammar

and deals with language as

fully

arose at a late period in the history of language, developed. The terms of Syntax correspond

accordingly to the logical habits of thought that have grown up at such a period, and have therefore a logical as well as a simply grammatical meaning. But Syntax
as thus developed
is

not essential to language.

form of words

like

puerum

express a thought, and in some languages might even be a sentence while it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what we call a sentence at all.

pulcrum! oh!

beautiful boy
;

may

were no doubt significant just as to an infant the name of some familiar object will stand for all it can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, two simple roots put side by side l made a rudimentary form of propoas a child might say fire bright \ horse run. With this begins the first form sition

At a very

in themselves,

early period of spoken language, Roots and constituted the whole of language,

of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there is no distinction between noun and verb either in form or function. Roots were presently
specialized, or modified in meaning, by the addition of other roots either inal or verbal, and Stems were formed ; but the same stem could still

pronombe either

nominal or verbal. In this period composition is the only form of syntax. Still by combination chiefly of different pronominal elements with verb-stems and with noun-stems Inflections were developed to express person, tense, cose, and other grammatical relations,2 and we have true parts of speech. Not until language reached this last stage was there any limit to the association
later

manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by custom, particular forms came to be limited to special uses, or were produced to serve those uses and rules were established for combining words
of words, or any rule prescribing the
;

These rules are in part general laws or forms of thought (Logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar) and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language
in
call

what we now

Sentences.

(rarticular
1

Grammar), and making what

is

called the Syntax of that language.

In most languages there still remain traces of the unorganized forms of expresas, for example, the nominative or accusative in Exclamations ( 240. d), and the omission of the Copula (<J 206. c). These are sometimes wrongly regarded as cases of Ellipsis. Compare also the use of Interjections generally.
sion
:

Sometimes
19,

called accidents
i
;

hence the
;

"

accidence
note.

"

of the language.

Com-

pare pp.

note

78, note i

119-21

$ 118.

164

Syntax: Introductory Note.

In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the SENTENCE l that is, the completed state;

and Predicate. Originally every sentence is simple. But two simple sentences may be used together, without the subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than can be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). In time two sentences, thus habitument, with
its

distinct Subject

ally

used

in connection,

come

to

relations, as parts of

one

logical idea,

be regularly associated with each other, in certain and the one is felt to depend upon the other.

is syntaxis (arrangement together). In this way, through various courses of development, which correspond to the growth of our habitual forms of thought, there are produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus timeo ne id accidat was originally two simple sentences: Ifear. Let that not happen! and

This

these,

becoming attached, formed the complex sentence: I fear

(lest)

that

may

happen.

The

results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of

Syntax as

shown
I.

in the

annexed Outline.
or

A SENTENCE may be either Simple

SIMPLE-

Compound
(

viz.,

a single ( Containing
Predicate)
a.

statement (Subject and

180).

Containing two or more Co-ordinate Clauses

(

2.

COMPOUND:
b.

180. a).

Modified by Subordinate Clauses (complex)

(

180. V).

II.

The
i.

Essential Parts of the Sentence are

consistf a.

The SUBJECT:
ing of

Noun

or

its

equivalent

174. i).
(

1 b.

Pronoun contained
Neuter

in verb-ending

174. 2).

(intransitive)

Verb

175. a),
(

b.

Copula with Predicate Noun or Adjective

172.

note). {a. Verb with Object

c.

(\\ 175. b, 177).

:

III.

The

Subject and Predicate

may be MODIFIED as follows a. Noun in Apposition ( 184). f

b < Adjective or Participle
c.
(

i.

The NOUN
Object)

(Subject or

186).

by
d.
e.

Noun

in

Oblique Case

(\ 178. a,

Preposition with its case ( Relative Clause ( 180. c).

260).

f a.

Adverb or Adverbial Phrase

Predicate Adjective
(
(

179, 207).

2.

TheVERB(/mfrVa&)by
{

-j

b.

191).
180. b).

I c.

Subordinate Clause

IV Hence "

'

Rules of

( b.

Rules of

AGREEMENT (the Four Concords') (\ 182). GOVERNMENT (Construction of Cases') ( 213

ff.).

1 The meaning of Sentence is "Thought" (sententia from sentire). The grammatical form of the sentence is the form in which the thought is expressed

171-73.]

Subject

ami

Predicate.

165

CHAPTER I.-- The

1.

Sentence.

Definitions.

171.
a.

SKNTKNCK

is

a form of words which contains a

Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a

Command.
DECLARATIVK

A
A

sentence in the form of a Statement

:

is

called a

SENTENCE
b.

as,

equua

currit, the horse runs.

SENTENCE
c.

sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTERROGATIVE as, equusne currit? docs the horse run?
:

A sentence
!

in the
as,

form of an Exclamation

is

called
!

an EXCLAMA-

TORY SENTENCE:
horse runs

quam

celeriter currit

aquus

how fast

the

d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an IMPERATIVE SENTENCE as, currat equus, let the horse run ; I, curre per Alpes, go, run across the Alps.
:

172. Every
Predicate.

sentence
of

consists

of

Subject and a
or thing

The SUBJECT
spoken
Thus
of.

sentence
that which

is

the person

The PREDICATE
in

is

is

said of the Subject.

equus

currit, the horse runs,

equus

is

the subject, and

currit the predicate.

NOTE. Every complete sentence must contain a subject ( 174) and a verb. The verb itself is usually the predicate, but when any form of sum is used simply
to connect a noun or adjective as an attribute with the subject, such word is called is known as the copula (or connective) the predicate noun or adjective, and Thus in Caesar consul erat, Ccesar was consul, Caesar is the ($ 176. a).

sum

subject,

consul

the predicate noun,

:

But

sum

in the sense of exist

as,

and erat the copula. makes a complete predicate

alone.

It is

then

called the substantive verb

2.

sunt

viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men.

Subject and Predicate.

is

173. i. The Subject of a Finite verb NATIVE CASE as,

:

in the

NOMI-

equus
2.

currit, the

horse runs.

regina sedet, the queen

is

sits.

The Subject

of

an Infinitive

in

the

ACCUSATIVE
Imperative.

240. /). (see A finite verb is a verb in the Indicative, Subjunctive, or NOTE. These are called finite moods to distinguish them from the Infinitive.

66 174.
i.

Syntax: The Sentence.

174-76.

The Subject
est errare, to

of a sentence

is
:

usually a

Noun

or

some word
humanum
quaeritur
venit,

or phrase used as a
err
is

Noun

as,

human.
the question is

num mors malum

sit,

whether death
is

is

an

evil.

incertum est unde, he came, where from

uncertain.

2.

But

mination of the verb (see

sede-mus, we
sit.

in Latin the subject may 206. a, b)

curri-tis,

be implied in the
:

ter-

as,
inqai-t, says he.

you run.

175. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.

a.

An

Intransitive (or Neuter)

as,
falling).

verb contains in

itself

an entire

statement:
cado,

I fall (am
sun

is shining. sunt viri fortes, there are brave men.

sol lucet, the

b.

complete

Transitive (or Active) verb has or requires a Direct Object to its sense (see 177) as,
:

fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother.

NOTE i. Among transitive verbs FACTITATIVE VERBS are sometimes distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed fecit, he made a table by the word which completes their sense. Thus percussit, (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from

mensam mensam

he struck a table (which already existed). NOTE 2. A transitive verb may often be used absolutely without any object expressed: as, arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, quid, what? agrum

suum,

his land.
3.

Predicate Noun.
is

1 76.

An

intransitive verb

often followed

by a noun or
is

adjective to describe or define the subject.

This

called

a Predicate
mortuus

Noun

or Adjective

as,

cecidit,

he fell dead.

Quintus sedet iiidex, Quintus sits as judge. Caesar victor incedit, Casar advances victorious (a victor).
a.

tive (

be

especially is used with a predicate noun or adjecSo also verbs signifying to become, to be made, to 172. note). named, to appear, whence these are called COPULATIVE (i.e.

The copula sum

coupling) verbs. A noun NOTE.

Predicate

in

agreement with some part of the predicate

is

sometimes a

Noun

(see

\ 185. c).

176,177.]
b.

Object.

1'V

A
is

verb

in the
est

Predicate noun or adjective after the copula sum or a copulative same case as the subject (see 185. a).

Roma
stcllae

patria nostra, Rome is our country. lucidae erant, the stars were bright (cf.
est,

stellae lucebantj.

consul creatus
dicit

he was fleeted consul.

esse beatos, he says that not all good
4.

inors finis esse videtur, dealh seems to be the end.

non omnes bonos

men are happy.

Object.

177. The person

action of a verb
is

or thing immediately affected by the called the DIRECT OBJECT.

person or thing indirectly affected is called the INDIRECT OBJECT. Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an
Indirect Object
transitive verbs

may be used
(

with both transitive and

in-

225, 226).

Thus

pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son. milii (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me a field.

mini

(ind. obj.) placet,

it is

pleasing

to

me.

between transitive and intransitive verbs is not fixed, but most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive ($ 237. 3).

NOTE.

The

distinction

a.

When

a transitive verb

voice, the Direct Object inative case : as,

is changed from the Active to the Passive becomes the Subject and is put in the nom-

Active : pater filium vocat, the father calls [his] son. Passive: filius a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father. Active : lunam et stellas videmus, we see the moon and the stars. Passive : luna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).
b. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the Objective.

Thus:hominem
video, I see the man (ACCUSATIVE). homini servio, I serve the man (l).vriVK, see 227). hominis misereor, I pity the matt (GKMTIVK, see 221. a). homine amico utor, I treat the man as a friend (ABLATIVE, see
c.

249).

verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by an intransitive verb with a preposition as,

Many

petit aprum, he aims at the boar. laudem affectat, he strives after praise. curat valetudinem, he takes care of his health.

68

Syntax: The Sentence.

177-80.

NOTE. One or more words, essential to the grammatical completeness of a sentence, but clear enough to the mind of a hearer, are often omitted. This omission is called ELLIPSIS, and the sentence is called an ELLIPTICAL SENTENCE:
as,

adest, he

is

here;

quis?

(sc.

adest), who? miles

(sc.

adest), the

soldier.

5.

Modification.

178. Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a Phrase or a Clause,
see
179,
1

80).

The modifying word

or group of words

may

itself

be

modified in the same way.

a. single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive ( 184), or the oblique case of a noun. Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man bears patiently, the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter,

patiently, modifies the predicate fert, bears. b. The modifying word is in some cases said to LIMIT the

word

to

belongs. Thus in the sentence pueri patrem video, I see the boy's father) the genitive pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).

which

it

179.

PHRASE

is

predicate of its own,

a group of words, without subject or which may be used as an Adjective

or an Adverb.

Thus

in the sentence vir fuit

the highest nobility, the words nobilitate, of the highest noble (or nobilissimus, are used the for nobilis, nobility, adjective very noble), and are called an ADJECTIVE PHRASE. In the sentence

summa n6bilitate\ summa

he

was a man of

magna

celeritate,

celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words magna with great speed, are used for the adverb celerrter,

quickly (or celerrime, very quickly),

and

are called an

ADVERBIAL

PHRASE.

ISO. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.

sentence containing a single statement

is

called a

SIMPLE SENTENCE.
sentence containing more than one statement is called a COMPOUND SENTENCE, and each single statement in it is
called a

CLAUSE.

180.]
a. If to

Modification.
one statement
is

169

be CO-ORDINATE.
(

They
;

simply added to another, the clauses are said are usually connected by a Co-ordinate
is

Conjunction

154. a)

but this

sometimes omitted

208. b).

Thus

divide et impera, divide

vcni, vidl, vici,
b.

I came,

and conquer. But, I saw, I conquered.

one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be SUBORDINATE, and the clause modified is called the MAIN CLAUSE. This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a
If

Subordinate Conjunction or a Relative ( 154. fr) as, oderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear. servum misit quern secum habebat, he sent the slave -whom he had with him.
:

sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses

is

sometimes

called

COMPLEX.

NOTE.
clause.
c.

A subordinate clause
clause introduced

may

itself

be modified by another subordinate

is

by a Relative pronoun or adverb

is

called

a RELATIVE CLAUSE.

clause introduced

by an adverb of time

called a

TEMPORAL

CLAUSE.

Thus

dum

tacent clamant, while they are silent they cry aloud. homines aegri morbo gravi cum iactantur aestu febrique, si aquam gelidam biberint primo relevari videntur, men suffering with a severe sickness, when (hey are tossing with the heat of fever> if they drink cold water,

seem atjirst
d.

to be relieved.

clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if, or some sentence containing equivalent, is called a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE.

a conditional clause

is

called a

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE.

Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, prlmS relevari videntur (cf. c above) is a Conditional Sentence, and si ... biberint is a Conditional Clause.
e.

clause expressing the Purpose of an action

is

called a

FINAL

CLAUSE.
edo ut vivam,
misit legates

I eat to

live (that I

may

live).
to

qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors

say (who should say).

called a

clause expressing the Result of an action

is

CONSECUTIVE
away

CLAUSE. 1
tarn

longe aberam ut
that I didn't see).

non

viderem,

I was

too far

away

to see (so far

single clause

in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is and subordinate usually subordinate, and may be at the same time conditional clauses may be co-ordinate with each other.

Observe that the classes denned

may

170
f.

Syntax: The Sentence.

180-84.

Sentences or clauses are regularly connected by means of CONbut frequently in Latin more rarely in English independent sentences are connected by Relative Pronouns or Adverbs. In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by a con-

JUNCTIONS

junction with a demonstrative

201. e, 336. b. Rem.): as, (cf. cum and when he had come there (whither when he had come). venisset, quo quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so.

AGREEMENT.
181.
is

word

is

said

to agree with

required by Case, or Person.

usage to be in the

another when it same Gender, Number,

182. The following are the general forms of Agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords
:

1.

The agreement of the NOUN in Apposition

or as Predicate

184,

185).
2.
3.

4.

The agreement The agreement The agreement

of the ADJECTIVE with its Noun ( 186). of the RELATIVE with its Antecedent ( 198).
of the

VERB

with

its

Subject

204).

word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied ad sensum in that word. This use is called SYNESIS, or construct
a.

(construction according to sense)

I.-NOUNS.

183.
the

A noun used to describe another, and denoting same person or thing, agrees with it in CASE as,
:

Servius rex, Servius the king.

ad urbem Athenas, to the city [of] Athens. Cicero consul creatur, Cicero is chosen consul.

The
cate

descriptive
(

noun may be
1.

either

an Appositive

184) or a Predi-

noun

185).

Apposition.

184. The descriptive noun, when in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an APPOSITIVE, and is said to be in APPOSITION as,
:

184, 185.]
extcrnus timor,

Agreement of Nouns.

I/I

maximum concordiae vinculum, iungebat animos (Liv. ii. 39), their hearts. fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united [Here the descriptive noun belongs to the subject.] / saw here four qnattuor hie primum 5men equos vidi (/Kn. iii. 537), horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate] litteras Graecas senex didici (C. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man.
[Here senex, though
viz.,

in apposition, really states

etc.,

something further

the time, condition,

of the act (Predicate Apposition}.']

a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word including the parts, or vice versa : as,

Gnaeus
b.

et Publius Scipiones,

Cneius

and Publius,

the Scipios.
it

An
as,

appositive generally agrees in

GENDER and NUMBER when

can:

sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lsel. 19), they follow nature, the best
guide.

omnium doctrinarum

inventrices Athenas

(De Or.

i. 1

3),

Athens, discoverer

of all learning. NOTE. But such agreement

useless log
c.

is

often impossible: as,

olim truncus eram ficulnus inutile lignum,

/ once was a fig-tree

trunk, a

(Hot.

Sat.

i.

8. i).

A common

noun

in apposition with a Locative (

:

258. c)

is

put

in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in

as,

Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous city. Albae constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a fortified town.

possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun ( 197. e) as,
d.
:

in nostro

omnium

fletu (Mil,, 92),

ex Anniana Milonis

domo

(Att.

amid the tears of us all. iv. 3) [= ex Ann! Milonis domo],

out of

Annius Mile's
e.

house.

2I4-/).

genitive is sometimes used instead of an appositive (see So also a dative in certain constructions (see 231. ).
2.

Predicate Agreement.

The
with
it

Predicate noun

may

by the copula or a copulative verb

agree (i) with the subject, being connected 176. a), or (2) with the (

direct object of a verb.

185.
called a

descriptive

noun used

to

form a predicate

is

PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

(or other case,

according

to the construction).

72
a.

Syntax: The Sentence.

The

185, 186.
is

the

same as

case of the predicate after the copula and copulative verbs that of the subject ( 176. b) as,
:

(Ligar. 28), / have always been an adviser ofpeace. quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis constantia videri potest (Marcel. 31), what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.

pads semper auctor fuT

eius mortis sedetis ultores (Milon. 79),

you

sit

habeatur

vir egregius

Paul us

(Catil. iv. 21), let

as avengers of his death. Paulus be regarded as an

advocate.
is

extraordinary man.

ego patronus
b.

exstiti (Rose.

Amer.

predicate noun

referring to

5), I have come forward as an two or more singular nouns

in the

plural: as,

consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C.

elected consuls.
c.

iii.

i), Ccesar

and Servilius are

For Predicate Accusative, see under that

II.

case,

239. a*

-ADJECTIVES.

3-_Rulea of Agreement.

186. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with theirnouns in Gender, Number, and Case.
vir fnrh's,
n.

hrm* man.
woman.
cities,
T

illamulier, that

urbium magnarum r af^great

cum

duceqtis militibus -with 200

soldiers*.

imperatofc-vietus

cst^^i general was

beaten.'

NOTE. nouns and

All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective proto participles.

ectivcs arejither AttrjfyjriV^ or Predicate. ^ Adj

An Attributive adjective simply qualifies its noun without the fo) intervention ot a verb, or participle, expressed or implied.
bonus iinperator. a good commander.
stellae lucidae. bright stars.

All other adjectives are called Predicate adjectives. A^ predicate adjective, like a predicate with the subject by esae or a copulative verb expressed or implied (see
\fy

i.

176. a): as,

stellaelucidae erant. the stars were bright.
2. After verbs of naming, calling, making, etc., an adjective may be used as a predicative accusative like a noun (see 239. a) 3. A predicate adjective may be used in apposition like a noun (see
.

c,

below).

186, 187.]

Agreement of Adjectives.

173

Predicate adjectives in apposition follow the rules of agreement

of other adjectives (see

ScipioiR-m

186, above)

as,
(lit.,

vivum

vicJL

I saw

Scipio in his lifetime

living).

fi With twn nr rnnrft^ nonn? the adjective is regularly plural, but sometimes agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive). Thus,
Nfcns pt J'.uryalus primi (/En.
Caesaris
v.

294), Nisus
fr

and Rurvalus
i.

first.

and
NOTE.
plural: as,

gratia et_"p'hns resources.

omni

et

'lP^

Fam

9),

I enjoy all

Ca'stuc* s

favor

An

adjective^ referring

to

two nouns connected bv

cum
|

is

occasionally

luba cum Labi en o capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba

and Labienus were

in

taken.

more
.

adjective may belong nouns of different genders.

In such cases,

One

sense to two or

An

attributive adjective agrees with the nearest

laboris.

as,

multae operae ac
vita
sj res, si vir, si

of much trouble

and toil.
(Mil. 19), if

moresqne mei.

my

life

and character.
fuit

nllum .dip[rmm tempus man, if any- time was Jit.

predicate adjective
:

any

thing, if

any

2.

may

agree with the nearest,

;

if

the nouns

form one connected idea

factus
est strepitus et

as,
i.

admunnuratio CVerr.

45),

ft

noise of assent

was

made
NOTE.

(noise and murmur).

is

This

only

when

the

Copula agrees with the nearest subject

will

($ 205. d).

/^

But generally, a predicate adjective

genders mean living beings ;
!Th"ri ninplflYi ( T ir

different

be masculine, if nouns of neuter, if things without life: as,

ii.

40), then his wife

and

children

evibraced him.

labor

(\\.~\

(N.) (id. v. 4), labor alliance.

voluptasque fr.V societate qu^lani inter^seVaturaltsunt iuncta and tleligKtare bound togetnerby^certain natural

without

If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things a predicate adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural as.
life,
:

NOTE.

Hna pfofecti
set out together.

(Liv. xxi. 50), the

i'pg

and the

royalfleet

iTniPA simt ITKpra rTvitn^ ct rex (id. xliv. 24), by nature a Jr^e state

and a king are

hostile.
-

legates sortr*T 1p " r -^ r 'lll fiypppfi^ n4 &g ( icl v l $)> and the replies of the oracle should be waitedfor.
-

thflt the

ambassadors

174
Jd.

Syntax: The Sentence.

[187,188.
predi-

Two

or

more

abstract nouns of the

same gender may have a

189. c)
:

cate adjective in the neuter plural (cf.

stultitia et

as,
.

temeritas **

iniiigritia

gnnf

rashness,

and injustice

are [things]

to be

(Fin. fngri^^ shunned.

ff

iii.

39), folly,

A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender ( ana number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals
implied (Sy nests,
182. a)
:

as,

v. 108), a part ready to contend. gars certare parati (JEn. duo milla relicti ^Liv. xxxvii. 39), tivo thousand were left. colomae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.

magna

pars raptae (id. i. omnis aetas currere obvil

9),

(id. xxvii. 51),

a large part [of the women] were/fated. [people of] every- age ran to meet

them.

of the superlative in the predicate sometimes takes the gender it is limited : as, which pamtive genitive by
yflwissim"
qnimaliiim felphinns est (Plin.Y the dolphin
is

the swiftest

[creature] of creatures.
2.

Adjectives used Substantively.

,

188. AdjectiveTare otten used as INouns (substantively) f f or people in general us.\in11y to d *r\n\ *^men of ...that-kind, the feminine women, and the
tkg rnafrculine
omnes^a// men (everybody). maiores, ancestors.
omnia, all things (everything). minorgs, descendants. barbari, barbarians.
Sabinae. the Sabine wives

ETomam Romans.
r

a freedwoman. sapiertg, a sage (philosopher).

liberta,

boni, the goo/d (good people)

amicus, a friend. bona, goods, property.

REMARK.
in this use.
cally

plural of adjectives^ pronouns, and participles ThesTBgular is rare except in a few words which have

The

pecome

practi-

nouns.

See below and

189. a.

Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often

modified by other adjectives. Thus, tnflg vi^Tlllfi p rn " TTmg iMur next-door neighbor.
' i
i

prppmqui meus aegualis, a

familiaris tuus,
b.

ceteri. his other relatives.

man of my own age. an intimate friend ofyours

(cf.

218. ^/).

any ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an be added. Thus, adjective, a noun must

When

188,189.]

Attjccth'cs

used Substantively.
hut,

175

boni, the good; omnia, everything (all things);

poTentia

omnium rerum, power

att men.~\

over everything,

[omnium

alone would

mean
/-<

Many

adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or

is

with the added meaning of some noun which from constant association as,
Ihc'plur.il,
:

understood

Africus [ventus], (he south-west wind. vitulma [caroj, veal (calfs flesh),
fera [bestia], a wild- beast. paTria [terra], the fatherland.
(

'.aFia [terra],

Gaitl (the land of the Galli).

hiberna [castra], winter quarters. trireme. tmemispTavTs], a thjee~banked galley, argentariusTfaber] , a silversmith.
regia [domus], the palace.

Latinae [tenae], the Latin festival. TUSCl [fundij, a Tuscan estate.

NOTE.

These are

specific in

meaning, not generic

like those in \ 188,

above.

noun is sometimes used as an momfied by an adverb as,

:

A (#!)

adjective,

and may then be

victor exercitus, the victorious anxny. servum pecus, a servile trogp.

admodum
magis
/^,
1.

puer, quite a boy (young)

more of a man (more manly). few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives.
vir,
:

Such are

obviam

as,
to

.fit

obviam, he gofs

meet (becomes in the way of).

adjective,

2.

contra, contradicting some previous

it
:

and so

in

manner repeating
alia
(

as,
ii.
.

probabilja, contra alja djcimus (Off. probable^others the opposite (not probable)

7),

we

call some (fangs

palam
4.
crl

res est, the thiangis all out.

So

also, rarely,

by a Greek construction

semper
ness.

lenitas (Ter. Anclr. 175),

my

masters constant (always) gentle-

189. Neuter adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an
:

abstract quality

as,

Syntax: The Sentence.

rapto vivere,
in_arido',
to live by plunder. on dryzraundl. honestum, an*/toJRrnrble crct, or virtue as a quality. opus est maturato, there is need of haste (cf. impersonal

189, 190.

passives,

146.

</).

used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea as,
b.

The

neuter plural

is

hqnesta. honorable deeds (in general).

praeterita, the past (lit., bygones). omnes tortia laudant, all men praise
c.

bravery (brave things).

neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. 187. c} as,
:

est tiyrpitiido pgins

quam dolgr

^Tusc.

ii.

31), disgrace

is

[a thing] worse

than pain.
triste

varium

lupus stabulis. the -wolf is a grievous thing for the sheepfold. et mutiabile, Rf>Tn pfii; f6 m i n;\i woman is ever a changing
videtyr e^se
.

andJickle
an
evil

thing.

malum mini
d.

mors (Tuscul.

i.

9), death

seems

to

me

to be

(a bad thing)

neuter adjective
:

is

used in agreement with an

" not to be"

Infinitive or

Substantive Clause
istuc

as,
i.

ipsum non esse (Tuscul.

est errare, to err is

12), that

very

human um

human.

aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aluid nolle misereri (Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Ccssar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.
3.

Fossessives.

19O. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are often used in Latin where the English has the possessive case, or a noun with a preposition (compare 184. d,
197. a): as,
piiffna

Cannensis the fight at Canna. ^",rn ani ; Caius Blossius of Cumce. aliena domus. another man's house. Caesarina celeritas^ (Att. xvi. 10), despatch like Ccesar's (Caesarian quickr

1'

ness).

a. Possessive
tiyely to

and other derivative adjectives are often used substandenote some special class or relation (see 197. d}: as,

ntrl, our countrymen or men of our party. SullanT, the veterans of Sulla's army.
11,

the partisans of

Pomp ey.

190-93.]
b.

Comparatives and Superlatives.

177

possessive or derivative adjective sometimes appears to be used

217. a.

for the Objective Genitive, see

4.

Adjectives with Adverbial Force.

adjective, agreeing with the subject or object often used to qualify the action of the verb, having the force of an adverb as,
is
:

191.

An

nullus dubito,

primus venjt. he came first (was the I no -way doubt.

first

to

come).

were glad to hear. laeti_a\jdiie, they erat Romae frequens (Rose. A. 16), he
serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od.
5.
i.

was often at Rome. 2), may'st thou return late to heaven.

Comparatives and Superlatives.

qualities of

192.

When two

an object are compared,

:

both adjectives are in the comparative

as,

Iqngior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was broad (or, rather long than broad).
a.

was longer than

it

Where magis

is

used, both adjectives are in the positive: as,

clari magis
b.

quam honestl (Jug. 8), more renowned than honorable. comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes

connected by
~old.

quam

as,
iv.

claris maioribus

quam vetuatia (Ann,

61), of a family

more famous than

vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good heed.

NOTE.

This use

is

rarer

and

less elegant

than those before noticed.

193. Superlatives (and more rarely comparatives) dealso medius, ceterus, relinoting order and succession
quus
of
it, is

usually designate not

what

object,

but what part

meant

as,

summusmonv& e toP
in

of the

hill.

ultima platea^ at the end of the place. prior actio, the earlier part of an action.
reliqui captlyi. the rest

of the prisoners.
24),

in_colle_medio^ (B. G.

i.

halfway up
in

the hill (on thu middle of the hill).

level.

inter ceteram pjanitiem_(jug. 92), in

a region elsewhere

NOTE.
late at night.

A similar use is found

But

medium

such expressions as *ffirfr ^rmijt.g.^ nrr>t. viae. the middle of the way; multum dii, ~ muck
|

of the day, also occur.

*~~

"""""

178

Syntax: The Sentence.

III.

194, 195.

-PRONOUNS.
some person or
thing without either

NOTE.
describing

A pronoun
it.

indicates

naming or

Pronouns are derived from a

distinct class of roots,

have denoted only ideas of place and direction (\ 157. 2), verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out. Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are PERSONAL PRONOUNS. They stand
syntactically for

which seem to and from which nouns or

Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Others designate class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. Others are used in both ways and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender
a particular object of a
;

of the object indicated.

1.

Personal Pronouns.
in general, the

194. The Personal Pronouns have,

constructions as nouns.
a.

same

The

personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for

346.

distinction or emphasis (compare

te voco,

d}

as,

/ call you ;

but

quis
b.

me vocat? ego te voco, -who is calling me ? I (emphatic) am calling you. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural,
being used partitively
213. 2)
:

that in -urn
objectively (cf.

216),

and that

in -I oftenest

as,

maior vestriim, the elder ofyou.

ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) ofyou and forgets (is forgetful of) himself. pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us. nostri melior pars animus est (Sen.), the better part of us (i.e. of man) is
habetis
the soul.

NOTE.

"

One
(

of themselves
217):
(Cat.
as,
iii.

"
is

expressed by

ex

se), or

unus suorum. The

genitives

unus ex suis nostrum, vestrum

or ipsis (rarely are occasionally

used objectively
c.

cupidus vestrum

custos vestrum

29), the guardian

(Ver. Hi. 224), fond of you ; ofyou (your guardian).

The

the reflexive (se).

tive (

Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or a Relae).

i8o./, 195, 201.

2.

Demonstrative Pronouns.

195. Demonstrative pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively.

As adjectives, they follow the rules for the of adjectives ( 186, 187).

agreement

195.]

Demonstrative Pronouns.

179

As
nouns.
of
1.

substantives, they are equivalent to personal proThis use is regular in the oblique cases, especially

is.

Thus:
:

Personal

-ar et exercitus

ercitum
si

suum

dimisit, Cirsar

ems, Ca-sar and his army (not suns). [But, Caesar disbanded his [own] armv.]

ex-

obsides ab els darentur, if hostages should be given by them (persons just

spoken of).
his Caesar
ille
ita

respondit, to them

C&sar thus

replied.

had very little power, on account of his vottth. hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi, they (those just mentioned) are the Jirst [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
minimum
propter adolescentiam poterat, he (emphatic)
2.

Adjective

hoc proelio

facto, after this battle was fought (this battle having been, etc.). proelio, in the same battle. eius rel perltl, men acquainted with that business.

eodem

[For special significations of the demonstratives, see

a.

102.]

are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned as,
:

The demonstratives

nullam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28), virtue wants no other reward except that [just spoken of] ofpraise.
b.

But the demonstrative as a pronoun of reference

is

commonly

omitted, or

some other construction

to

is

preferred

as,

memoriae artem quam

memory

oblivionis malo, I prefer (like more) the art oj (than) [that] of forgetfulness.

Caesaris exercitus

Pompeianos ad Pharsalum

vicit, the

army of Casar

de-

feated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.

c. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing as,
:

vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat.

7), imprisonment, legionem neque earn plenissimam despiciebant (B. G. the single legion, and thai not a very full one.

iv.

and that perpetual.

iii.

2), they despised

to be sure,

tuus dolor
but, etc.

humanus

is

quidem

sed, etc.,

your grief is human,

per
Ti.

single slave,

unum servum et euro, ex gladiatori5 ludo (Att. i. 16. 5), by means of a and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
Gracchus regnum occupare conatus est, vel regnavit is quidem paucos menses (Lael. xii. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power%
or rather he actually reigned a few months.

i8o.

Syntax: The Sentence.

[195.

d. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers

(cf.i 99 ):as,_
hie labor hoc opus
est,

this

is

the

toil,

this the task

[namely, revocare

gradum, which would rerum caput hoc erat, hie

things, this the source.

regularly take a neuter pronoun], fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), this was the

head of

earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo [for id ... quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] which no man ever yet attained.
e.

est consecutus
to

be

wisdom

Idem,

the same,

is

often equivalent to an adverb or adverbial

phrase

(also, too, yet, at the

same time) eadem in

witty
too.

as,

oratio splendida et grandis et

brilliant, able,

prlmis faceta (Bru. 273),

an

oration,

and very

cum

says

[haec] dicat, negat idem in Deo esse gratiam (N. D. 1.121), when he this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
this case the

NOTE. This is really the same use as in c, above, but in cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.

pronoun

/. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns or a noun for the sake of emphasis as,
:

turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Cic.), even

graceful. id ipsum, that very thing.

to

me

(to

me

myself)

it

seemed dis-

quod ipsum, which of itself alone. in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.

REMARK. The emphasis of ipse mere, etc. (see above examples).

is

often expressed in English

by Just,

very,

g. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as an emphatic pronoun of the third person as,
:

satis, ipsis non satis (Cic.), enough for me, not for themselves. omnes bom quantum in ipsis fuit (id.), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves), beatos illos qul cum adesse ipsis non licebat aderant tamen (id.), happy they who, when it was not allowed them to attend in person, still were

mihi

there.

di capiti ipsius

generique reservent (^n.

viii.

484),

may

the gods hold in

reserve [such a fate] to fall on his

h.

own and his

son-in-law's head.

Ipse

is

subject of the

often used alone, substantively, to emphasize an omitted first or second person as,
:

vobiscum ipsi recordamini (Cic.}, remember in your own minds (yourselves

with yourselves).

195, 196.]

RcJli.ni'C Pronouns.

l8l

i. Ipse, used substnntively, sometimes refers to a principal personage, to distinguish him from subordinate persons: as,

ipse dixit

(cf.

aurbs fya),
erat super
table].

HE

(the Master) said

(I lor.),

it.

Nomentanus
himself
k.

ipsum

Nomentanus was above

[the host]

\rt.

Ipse

is

often, is rarely,

used instead of a

reflexive.

See under

Reflexives,
/.

196.

/.

is in

Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the English on a reflexive in the predicate as,
:

real

emphasis

me

ipse consoler,

/ console

myself.

[Not

me

ipsum, as the English would

lead us to expect].

m. For adverbs used instead of a demonstrative pronoun, see

3.

207. a.

Reflexive Pronouns.

196. The Reflexive pronoun (se), 1 and usually its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause
:

as,
virtus se novit, virtue

knows

itself.

pr5misit se venturum [esse], he

promised that he would come.

16), Ccesar decided

Brutus amicum

Caesar

statuit

suum occidit, Brutus killed his friend. sibi Rhenum esse transeundum (B. G. iv.
cross the

that he

must

Rhine (the R. must be crossed by himself).

a.
is

In a subordinate clause of a

compound sentence there

to refer to the subject of its

a double use of reflexives.

i.

The

Reflexive

may always be used

:

own

clause (Direct Reflexive)

as,

ex quo iudicari potest quantum habeat in se

bom

constantia (B. G.

i.

40),

from which
in itself).

it

can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has

[Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, ne German! e suis finibus transirent (B. G. i. 28), Catsar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.
si

qua significatio virtutis eluceat ad quam se similis animus adplicet et adiungat (Laelius 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a
similar disposition

may

attach

itself.

(Skr. sva

This seems to have been originally the personal pronoun of the third person and Gr. o^tij), but it came by use to be purely reflexive.

82
2.

Syntax: The Sentence.

If the subordinate clause expresses the

196.

words or thought of the

subject of the

main

clause, the reflexive

:

is

regularly used to refer to that

subject {Indirect Reflexive)

as,
i.

petierunt ut sibi liceret (B. G.

30), they begged that

it

might be allowed

them (the petitioners). Iccius nuntium ad eum mittit,

6), sends

him a message

quern salutem
to

suam

nisi subsidium sibi submittatur, etc. (B. G. ii. that unless relief be furnished him (Iccius), etc. crediturum sibi (Q. C. iii. 8), who should trust his safety

him (Darius) ?

[Caesar] his uti conquirerent et reducerent, si sibi purgati esse vellent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), Ccesar ordered them (the Gauls) to hunt up and

bring back [the fugitives] if they (the Gauls) wished to be free from fault towards him (Caesar), hostium se habiturum numero confirmat, si aut Ambiorigem aut eius legates finibus suis recepissent, [Caesar] said that he should treat [them] as enemies if they received either Ambiorix or his envoys into their
territories.

decima legio

ei gratias egit, quod de se optimum iudicium fecisset (B. G. 41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed

i.

si

high opinion of them. obsides ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Gesar, who is the speaker) darentur, se (Caesar) cum eis pacem esse facturum (B. G. i. 14), [Caesar said] that if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
dixisse ferunt se intellexisse

Tarquinium

quos fidos amicos habuisset,

etc.

etc.

(Laelius 53), they say that

Tarquin said that he understood,

is
(cf. *)
:

NOTE.

Sometimes

is or

ipse

used as an Indirect Reflexive either from

as,

careless writing or to avoid ambiguity

qui se ex his

minus timidos existimari

vellent,

non se hostem

vererl, sed

angustias itineris et magnitudinem silvarum quae intercederent inter ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum . timere
. .

dicebant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.

audistis

nuper dicere legates Tyndaritanos Mercurium qui sacris anniverapud eos coleretur Verris imperio esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away, etc. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eos colebatur, a remark of his own, and apud se coleretur, the words of the legatt.
sariis

eos does not

strictly refer to the

ambassadors, but to the people

the

Tyndaritani.]
3.

If the subordinate clause

does not express the words,

etc.,

of the

main

subject, the reflexive is not regularly used,

though

it is

occasionally

found.

Thus

196.]
sunt
ita

Reflexive Pronouns.

183

multi ut eos career capere non possit (Catil. ii. 22), they are so that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used.] ibi in pruximis villis ita bipaitito fuGrunt, ut Tiberis inter eos ct pons interesset (Catil. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest

many

farmhouses, in two dn'isions, in stick a manner that the 7'iber and the [Here inter se might be bridge were between them (the divisions). used, but it would refer to a purpose of the soldiers.] non fuit eo contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Leg. Manil. 25), he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his
hope.

Compare
fors

qui

fit

Maecenas
ilia

ut

nemo quam

sibi sortem seu ratio dederit seu

i.

obiecerit

contentus vivat

lot which choice has ALccenas, that nobody lives assigned him or chance has thrcnun in his way ? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]

(Hor. Sat. I. contented with that

i),

how comes

it,

But,

Metellus in els urbibus quae ad se defecerant praesidia imponit (Sail. Jug. 61), Metellus posted garrisons in those cities which had revolted to him. [The author vacillates between the thought of Metellus and his

own.]
b.

The

reflexive in a subordinate clause

sometimes

refers to the

subject of a suppressed
Paetus,

main clause
quos
frater

as,

omnes

libros

Patus gave me
his brother
c.

all the books

suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. i), which (as he said in the act of donation)

had left him

(cf. 0).

The
:

reflexive

may

refer to

any noun

in its

own

clause,

which
(cf.

is

so emphasized as to
as,
elves

become

in a

manner

the subject

of discourse

the note)

Socratem

sm

interfecerunt, Socrates

was put

to

death by his

own fel-

low-citizens.

qui poterat salus

sua cuiquam non probarl (Milon. 81), how can any one

fail to approve his own safety ? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change to the passive.] hunc si secuti erunt sui comites (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions follow him.

NOTE.
sorbed
:

Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs

is

ab-

as,
ii.

studeo sanare sibi ipsos (Catil.

17),

I am anxious

to

cure these
is

men
too

for their own

benefit (i.e.

ut sani sibi sint).

suo sibi gladio (Plautus), with his indefinite to be supplied.]

d.

own sword.

[Here the clause

as,

The

reflexive

may

follow a verbal

noun or adjective

sui laus, self-praise. impotens sui (Q. C.), without self-control. homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. i. 5),

mtn

with slaves like themselves.

84
e.

Syntax: The Sentence.

The
reflexive

196, 197.
infinitive or

may

refer to the subject implied in

:

an

verbal abstract used indefinitely

as,
// is

bellum

est

sua

vitia

nosse (Cic.),

cui proposita vation.

sit

conservatio sul (Fin. v. 37), one whose

a fine thing to know one's own faults. aim is self-preser-

f. Inter se,
cal action: as,

among themselves,

is

regularly used to express recipro-

cohaerentia inter se, things consistent with each other.

g. Sims is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in
it: as,

suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fidentz with its own fires [Cf. Catil. i. 32.] (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively).

h. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) are used (see p. 63) as,
:

morti me obtuli (Milon. 94), I have exposed myself to death. hinc te reginae ad limina perfer (^En. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold. quid est quod tantis nos in laborious exerceamus (Archias 28), what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils ? singulis vobis novenos ex turmls manipulisque vestri similes eligite (Liv.
xxi.

$$,for
is

each of you pick out

from

the squadrons

and maniples

nine
i.

like yourselves.

Ipse

avoid ambiguity

often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, to and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the ;

direct reflexive (cf. a. 2

virtute aut

and

3)

as,

de ipsms diligentia desperarent (B. G. i. 40), why cur de sua (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ? x. 5), we found one qui mortuo Dare5 ipsas tueretur repperisse (Q. C. death of Darius. (said she) to protect us after the

omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populates (id. iii. 5), [they they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste.
4.

said that] either

Possessive Pronouns.

197. The Possessive pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not that of \h& possessor: as,
Caesar uxorem suam repudiavit, Ccesar put away his wife. haec sunt mea ornamenta, these are my jewels, [mea is neut. the speaker is a woman.]
pi.,

though

197.]

Possessive Pronouns.
ordincs,

185
mine are
the rows,

mei sunt
the

mea

descriptio (Cat.

M.

59),

mine

arrangement, [mea is fern., though the speaker is Cyrus.] multa in nostro collegio praeclara (Cat. M. 64), [there are] many fine

Mings in our
to.]

college,

[nostro

is

neut. sing.,

though

men

are referred

a.

The

possessive pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a

personal pronoun. 1. Always instead of the Possessive Genitive: as,

pater noster, our father.

[Never domus mei.] [Never pater nostri.] patrimonium iuum,your inheritance. [Not tui.]

domus mea, my

house.

NOTE i. In different languages the ideas associated with possessives are not always the same, and hence idiomatic uses differ. Thus my eulogist may, in Latin, be laudator nostri (Att. i. 14, 6), or, like the English, laudator noster (see Att. i. 16, 5), with a different conception of the relation. NOTE 2. The Possessive cuius, -a, -um, is rare : as, ctlium pecus? whose flock f The genitive ciiius is generally used instead.
2. Rarely instead of the Objective Genitive Thus, regularly:
(

217,

cf.

note

i,

above).

am

despiciens, disdainful of himself.

non solum sui deprecatorem, sed etiam accusatorem mei, not only a mediator for himself, btit an accuser of me (Att. xi. 8).

But occasionally,
ea quae faciebat, tua se fiducia facere dicebat (Ver. v. 176), what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance). neque negligentia tua, neque id odio fecit tu5 (Ter. Phorm. ioi6),from neglect or hatred of you.
b.

to,

The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar or favorable or propitious towards the person or thing spoken

of: as,
[petere] ut sua dementia ac mansuetudine utatur, they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.

tempore tuo pugnasti, did you fight at a fit time? (lit., your own). ignorant! quern portum petal nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71), to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).

NOTE.
sessive,

This use
often

is

and may

merely a natural development of the meaning of the posbe rendered literally.

c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) they are plainly implied in the context as,
:

when

amicum
tive,

gratulatur, he greets his friend, [amlcum suum would be distinchis friend (and not another's); suum amicum, emphatic, his

own friend.]

86

Syntax: The Sentence.

190. d)\ as,

197.

d. Possessives are often used substantively (

iiostri,

our countrymen, or men of our party.

i.

sups continebat (B. G.

15), he held his

men

in check.

flamma extrema meorum^ (;En. ii. 431), last flames of my countrymen. NOTE. There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see 188).
e.

A
(

possessive representing a genitive

184.

may have

a genitive in appo-

sition

d)

as,

mea

soli us

causa,/0r

my sake

only.
all.

nostra

omnium
ipsius

patria, the

country of us

suum

regnum, his own kingdom.

possessive representing a genitive may serve as an antecedent f. to a relative (see 199. b. note). g. For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see 196.
5.

Relative Pronouns.

NOTE. A Relative pronoun is propejrly^ an Adjective, in agreement with some word expressed or implied either in its own "clauseTor (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. The full construction would require the antecedent to be expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative
to

which the
jter in

relative

would

refer: as,

ea loca facere
iv. 7),

coepit,
to

G.
the

he began
were.
is

march

quibus in locis PSSP Qermafrns (B. into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard
omitted.

an^W

Germans

But one of these nouns

commonly

The

antecedent

is,

in Latin, very

frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but Hence relatives serve two uses in the antecedent clause. 1. as Nouns (or adjectives) in their own clause : as,
:

more commonly

2.

Alesiae obsidebantur. those ejjjni as Connectives as,

:

who were

besieged at Alesia.

T^Balventio, qui superiore anno primum pilum dux^ggj:. ^Titus Balventio, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
In this
latter

use they are often equivalent merely to a demonstrative with a conita gjnt (

junction: as,
qflfrft

mm

pf

Him

Oft itn lint),

[and]

sitffe these^

things are

so.

This connective force does not belong to the relative originally, but is developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. The clauses were Thus, qui quietus animo est, is est sapiens originally co-ordinate. That [man] is a sage. originally meant, Who is undisturbed in soul?

clause and

Relative pronoun indicates a relation between its own some substantive. This substantive is called

the Antecedent of the relative.

198,199.]
Thus,

Relative rronouns.

187

in the sentence

cum

nihil delectabat,

quod

fas esset.
its

nothing pleased him which was

right,

antecedent nihil with the predicate fas esset, indicating a relation between the two.the relative

quod

connects

198. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in GENDI.K and NUMBER but its CASE depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands as,
;
:

puer qui venit abiit, the boy who came has gone away. liber quern legis metis est, the book you are reading is mine. via qua ambulnt clucit ad urbem, the path he walks in leads to the

city.

This rule applies to all relative words so form: as,.gualis, quantua. quicumque.
NOTE.

far as they are variable in

The

relative

may be

the subject or object of

its

own

clause, or

modifier of either: as,

egs

elves pugna ilia sustulcratquibus ejiirn toribus incolumis et fjnr^ng rTwifoc^ci

non modo

vivis sed etiam vic-

a. If a relative

has two or more antecedents,

(

it

follows the rules for

:

the agreement of predicate adjectives

fllium et filiarn, qno3_valde dilexit,

186, 187)

as,

a son and a daughter at tfie same time, whom he dearly loved. prandes natii mitres et parvuli llb'eri. quorum utrorumque aetas miser icordiam nostram requirit (Ver. v. 129), aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion. uno tempore
amjsit, he lost

otium atque divitiae quae prima mortales putant (Sail. Cat. 36), idleness ' and weatth 'Which men CdunTthe first (objects of desire),
eae fruges et fructus quos terra gignit (N. D. which the earth produces.
ii.

37), those fruits

and crops

199. relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or

number

(cf.

195.

d)

as,

mare etiam quern Neptunum

ew

HirFhas (N. D.
.

iii.

52), the sea, too,

which which

you said was Neptune.

Tk.'K^
is

[Not quod.]
xlii.

ipcQ P| g lin the chief city

d HnpnMaf raput fift (i,i v of Boeotia. [Not quae.]

is

44), even Thebes,

NOTE.

This rule

occasionally violated

as,

f i~m/-n qnQfl ftppellatur Tamcsisu (JJ. G.

v.

n), a river which

is

called the

Thames.

88
a,

Syntax: The Sentence.

199, 200.

A relative
:

occasionally agrees with

its

antecedent in case (by at-

traction)

as,

sijiliQuid agas

eornm quorum.

consuesfr (Tarn,
to do,

v.

14), if you should do

something of what you are used

b.

[For eorum quae.]

A relative
as,

may
.
.

agree in gender and

number with an implied ante-

cedent:

. quartum genus qni acre vetere alien 5 yacillant CCat. ii. 21), a fourth class, that are staggering under old debts. unus ex eo numero qui parati erantjjug. 35), one of the number [of those] who were ready. coniuravere de qua [i.e. coniuratione] dicam (Sail. Cat. 18), a pauci . few have conspired ... of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
. .

NOTE.
(cf.

So

regularly

when

the antecedent

is

implied in a possessive pronoun

197- /): as,

nostra qui adsumus salus, the safety of us w]w are present. agrees with the nostrum implied in nostra].

[Here qui

2OO. The antecedent noun sometimes appears clauses but usually only in the one that precedes.
;

in

both

Some-

times
a.
as,

it is

wholly omitted.

Thus
in the relative clause:

The antecedent noun may be repeated

loci natura erat haec quern Iqcujn nosfrT dplpgpffmt- (B. G. nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b.

ii.

18), the

The antecedent noun may appear only

in the relative clause:

as,

quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hie versibus (Arch. 28), he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship. urbem quam statuS vestra esL/yEn. i. $73), yours is the city which I am
founding.
In this case a demonstrative antecedent clause as,

NOTE.
istos

(is, ille,

or hie) usually stands in the

captiVOS duos, heri quos emi de praeda ... his no), those two prisoners that put fetters OH them.
.

jfiHitn

catenas singula-

riasL(Plaut. Capt.

bought yesterday,

cjyitatis ^calamitatem populo intulerat, qnaejpar.8 " poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the stafe which

Romano

ea princeps

had

brought

disaster

on

the

Roman people was

the first to

pay

the penalty.
first

In a sentence of this class the relative clause usually stands ao i. c), as in the example.

in Latin (cf. $

200, 201.]
c.

Relative Pronouns.
entirely omitted, especially if
it

189
is

The antecedent may be

:

in-

definite

as,

qui decimae
the eagle

qm
d.

V'fli'l"'* agnilnm .fercbat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] ivho bore of ike tenth legion. cognoscetcntinlsit^id. i. 2i\/ie sent [men] to reconnoitre (who should,

etc.).

antecedent in gender and number

as,

predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with its may stand in the relative clause
:

vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most [Nearly equivalent to beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]
e.

The phrase id quod

or

quae res
:

is

used (instead of

quod
id
to

alone)

to refer to a

group of words or an idea [obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique
verius? (Manil. 57), an affront is offered shall or to Pompey ? or which is truer to both ?
.

quod

est

say

Gabinius

multum sunt in venationibus quae res vires alit (15. G. iv. i), they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength. [Cf.
.
. .

B. G.

ii.

5.]

NOTE.

But

quod

alone often occurs:

as,

Cassius noster,
10),

quod mihi magnae

our friend Cassius driven back the enemy.

fuit, hostem reiecerat (Fam. ii. which was a great satisfaction to me had

voluptati

2O1. In the use of

be observed:
a.

relatives, the following points are to

The

relative is never omitted in Latin, as

it

often

is in

English.

Thus,
quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me. sum qui semper fui, I am the same man I always-was. eojnloco est cle quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you
liber
is

of.

b.

relative clause in Latin often takes the place of

;

some other

construction in English noun of agency as,

:

particularly of a participle,

an appositive, or a

leges quae

Caesar qui GallianT

Gaul).
iiittta

nunc sunt^/^ existing laws (the laws which now exist). viciL. Cicsar the conqueror of Gaul (who conquered
is] the fruit

qui
illc

legit,

nut friiphyj mrtnt^/ri/s irfary [which a reader (one who reads). the pLiintijf (he who sues). qinj>etit,

glnrin qiiqp

of vi

Syntax: The Sentence.

c.
first,

201
comes

In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually 200. b) often containing the antecedent noun (cf. as,
:

-mala,

m^ nrinUTi patirnnf)

fti\

n^frifi l*>"i^rg virjprjfin^

the evils

we

suffer

[in

common] with many, seem

to

us lighter.
such
in

NOTE.
contains
clause
:

In colloquial language, the relative clause in a demonstrative pronoun which properly belongs

cases

often

the antecedent

as,

ille

qui consulte

cavet. diutine uti ei

is

bene

licet

narfnm hene (Plaut.

y

Rud. 1240), he who

d.

on his guard, he

may

enjoy

etc.

The antecedent noun, when

it, is

with some word of

in apposition with the main clause, or put in the relative clause as,
:

firml amici. cuius generis est magna penuria. steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class).
'

e.

relative

may

tive)

at the beginning of a sentence or clause,

(

stand (even with another relative or an interrogawhere in English a

demonstrative must be used

iSo.f)

as,

quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things). quae cum ita smt,~and since these things are so. quorum quod simile factum (Cat, iv. 1 3), what deed of theirs like
relative adverb f. i. in the Locative case : as,

this ?

is

regularly used in referring to an antecedent

mortuus Cumis quo se contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cumce, whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas.]
2.

relative

So, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal pronoun (cf. whence, whereto, wherewith) as,
:

locus

which (whither) there was no access. erat, qu5 regna, unde genus dugis, the kingdom from which you derive your race. unde petitur. the defendant (he wherefrom something is demanded, cf.
aditus

non

a place

to

207. a).

g.

The

relatives qui, quails,

1

quant us, quot^etc.,

:

are often rendered

simply by AS

in English (

106. b)

as,

idem auod semper, the same as ahvays. talis dux qualem Jiannibalem novimus, such a chief as
[to have been]. tanta dTtniVStin quanta,
tot

ive

know Hannibal

mala quot

sidera, as

numquam fuit, many troubles

is strictly

such a Jight as never was before. as stars in the sky.

The

English as in this use

relative,

though invariable

in form.

201, 202.]
h.

Indefinite Pronouns.
rnnstriirtinn nf relatives
as.
is

191
found in clauses intrn.

Thejreneral ducrd 3yreJative or temporal adverbs:

ubi. quo, unde,

cum.
and

NOTE. For the use of the Relative in idiomatic clauses of Characteristic Result (est qul, dignus quisquam qul, etc.). see 6 ^ao._ FoF'the use of Interrogatives, see $ 210.
6.

Indefinite Pronouns.

2O2. The Indefinite pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what
one.

NOTE.
a.

For the meanings of the compounds of qul and quis, see

the particular indefinites

105.

meaning some or any (quis, qiiispiam, nescio quis, aliquis, quidam), the simple quis is least definite, quidam most definite as,
:

Of

dixerit

quis (quispiam), some one

may say.

aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so-, [quidam would mean certain particular persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hie
\i.e.

quaedam

mulieres pauperculae, some poor

of;

women

live here

some women he knows

some women or other would be aliquae

or nescio quae].

In a particular negative aliquis (aliqui) is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam (subst.) or ullus (adj.) would be
b.

required: as,
iustitia

nunquam nocet cuiquam qui harm to anybody who possesses it.

earn habet (Cic.), justice never does

[alicui would

mean

to

somebody who

possesses it.]

sine aliquo metu, [you cannot do this] without some fear. sine ullo metu, [you may do this] without any fear.

cum aliquid n5n habeas

NOTE.
sentences
si
(

(Tusc.

i.

88),

when

there

is

something you have

in conditional

not.

These pronouns are used

105. K)
:

in like

manner

and other

as,

quisquam,
forces

dum
si

sapiens fuit (Lsel. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was. praesidia ulla fuerunt (Rose. A. 126), while there were any armed
ille
(till

they ceased to be).

quid

peccavj (Alt. iii. 15, 4), if I [in any particular case (see a, above)].
in
te

have done wrong towards you

c Of the general indefinites, qulvls and quHibet (any you wll), utervis (either you will, of two), are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and ullus (any at all) in clauses where a nega.

tive is either

expressed or implied

as,

1 92

Syntax: The Sentence.

man

202.

cuiquam potest, -what can happen to any [one] can happen to any man [whatever], non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum, it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth, [non cuiquam would mean not any man's.] minus habeo virium quam vestrum utervis, I have less strength than either of you. [For the form utervis, see 83.]
cuivis potest accidere quod quidlibet
thing.

modo aliquid

(Cic.),

anything you

-will,

provided

it

be some-

cuiquam misl prius, why did I send to anybody before [you]? quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any man is timorous, I am he. cum haud cuiquam in dubio esset (Liv. ii. 3), when it was not a matter of doubt to any one. si tempus est ullum Sure hominis necandi (Milon. 9), if there is any
cur
si

occasion whatever, etc.

-The use of these indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them often depends merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.

NOTE.

d.

The

distributives

quisque (every
2): as, bonus

quisque (every), uterque (each), single one), are used in general assertions.

and unus

They

are
c.

equivalent to a plural,

and sometimes have a

plural verb (cf.

205.

liber melior est

better

(each good book

to his

amb5

exercitus

the larger a good book is, the same measure] as it is larger). suas quisque abeunt domos, both armies go away, every

quisque quo maior,

is

better [in the

man

home.
erat exercitus in conspectu, each

uterque utrique

army was in
your

sight of the

other (each to each),

ponite ante oculos kings.

e.

unumquemque

regum,

set before

eyes each of the

Quisque

is

regularly placed in a dependent clause,

the

if

there

is

one

quo quisque
keener-witted a

est sollertior,
is, is

man

hoc docet iracundius (Rose. Com. more impatiently he teaches (as each is so,
Thus,

31),

the

etc.).
to every

NOTE.

Quisque

generally post-positive.

suum

cuique,

man
1

his own.

f.
.

Nemo, no
As a
fit

one, is
:

used
as,

substantive

nemo
2.
vir

repente turpissimus, no one suddenly becomes absolutely base.

As an

adjective

pronoun
ii.

as,

nemo bonus

(Leg.

41),

no good man.

NOTE.
tion: as,

Even when used

as a substantive,

nemo may take a noun in apposi-

nemo

scriptor,

nobody [who

is]

a writer.

203.]

ALIUS and ALTER.

7.

193

Alius and Alter.

alter
.
.

2O&. The expressions

otJtcr,

alter, tJie
y

one

the

aliua

alius,

one

anotJier

may

be used in
reciprocity of

pairs to denote either division of a

group or

action

as,

alii gladils adoriuntur, alii fragment!!

saeptorum (Sest.

79),

some make an

attack with sivords, others with fragments of the failings. arma ah aliis posita ab aliis erepta sunt (Marcel. 31), arms were laid

down by some and were snatched from others. duobus Rosciis Amerinis 'quorum alterum sedere in accusatorum subselliis video, alterum tria huiusce praedia possidere audio (Rose. Amer. 17), two Roscii of Ameria, one of whom I see sitting on the benches of the
prosecution; the other, I hear, is in possession, etc. alter! dimicant, alter! victorem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, the other fears the victor.
hi fratres alter

alterum amant,

these brothers love

other.

one another.

alius alium percontamur,

we ask each

a. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number) ; alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; ceteri and reliqui, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two. Thus,

quid aliud agis, what else are you doing (what other thing) ? cum etiam hi quibus ignovisti, nolint te esse in alios misericordem (Lig. 15), when even those whom you have pardoned are unwilling that you should be merciful to others.
iini epistulae respond!, venio ad alteram answered, I come to the other.

(Fam.

ii.

17, 6),

one

letter

I have

anus atque item

number, but

[Of an indefinite [likewise] another. only to the second.] alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class. iecissem ipse me potius in profundum ut ceteros conservarem (Sestius, 45),
strictly referring

alter, one

and then

/ should have
horum
utro
iitl

rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest. nolumus, altero est utendum (Sestius, 92), whichever of the two we do not wish to have, we must take the other.
iii.

Servilius consul, reliqu!que magistratus (B. C. and the rest of the magistrates.

21), Servilius the consul

cum

sit

necesse alterutrum vincere (Fam.

vi.

3),

when

it

must

be that one

of the two should prevail.

b.

Alius and alter are often used

:

to express one as well as another

as,

(the other) ot the objects referred to

alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare (Cic.),

it

is

one thing

to

slander,

another

to accuse.

194

Syntax: The Sentence.

203, 204.

c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses shortly a double statement as,
:

alius aliud

petit,

one

man

seeks

one thing, one another (another seeks

i.

another thing),
alius alia via civitatem

auxerunt (Liv.

21), they enlarged the State, each

to

in his

own way.
fodere (Liv. xliv. 33), he ordered different persons

iussit alios alibi

dig in

various places.

definite

NOTE. Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly as,
:

to

an

in-

qui alterum incusat probri eum ipsum se intueri oportet (PI. True. 159), he who accuses his neighbor of wrong ought to look at himself (the other, there being at the moment only two concerned). dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. Sat. i. I. 40), so long as another is not
richer than you.

non

ut

magis alter, amicus (Hor. Sat.

is

i.

5.

33), a friend such that no

other

more

so.

IV.-VERBS.
1.

Verb and Subject.

its

2O4. A Finite verb agrees with and Person as,

:

Subject in

Number

ego statuo, / resolve.

senatus decrevit, the senate ordered.
silent leges inter

arma, the laws are

dumb

in time of war.

NOTE.

In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the

subject in gender

and number

186)

as,

oratio est habita, the plea

was

delivered.

bellum exortum

est,

a war arose.

a. having a relative as its subject takes the person of the exor implied antecedent as, pressed
:

A verb

adsum
b.

qui feci CvEn.

ix.

427), here

am I who did it.

verbas,

The verb sometimes agrees in number, a participle in the form in number and gender, with an appositive or predicate noun
amantium
lovers are the

irae amoris redintegratio est (Ter. Andr. 555), the quarrels of

non omnis

error stultitia est

renewal of love. dicenda (Div.

est,

ii.

90), not every error should

is

be called folly.

Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctum

Corinth, the light of Greece,

put

ottt.

205.]

Double Subject.
2.

195

Double Subject.
in the

2O5.
plural
:

Two
as,

or

more singular subjects take a verb

his father

pater et avus

mortui aunt,

and grandfather
:

are dead.

NOTE.
the subject

So
is

rarely (by a construction according to the sense, $ 182) attached an ablative with as,

when

to

cum

dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. eral chiefs are taken.
a.

xxi. 60), the general

and

sev-

When

subjects are of different persons, the verb

is

in the first
:

person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third
as,
si

tu et Tullia valetis

ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is zlsojirst in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule ; see 187. b, c.

NOTE.

for predicate adjectives

b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives, or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular as,
:

quern neque fides neque iusiurandum neque ilium misericordia repress!! (Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him. Senatus popul usque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman Senate

and people

understand.
xi.

mus (Fam.
c.

But, neque Caesar neque ego habiti esse20), neither C. nor I should have been considered.

collective

noun commonly takes a verb

in the singular: as,

Senatus haec intelligit (Catil. i. 2), the Senate is aware of this. ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
1.

But the plural

is

often found with collective nouns

when

individ-

uals are thought of: as,

cum

pars praedas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. tanta multitude lapides conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd

NOTE.

was throwing stones. The point of view may change

.
. .

in the

course of a sentence:

as,
i.

quern habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. equitatum omnem he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).

15),

2. Quisque has very often a plural verb, but may be considered as 202. </) as, in apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. his sibi quisque habeant quod suura est (Plaut. Cure.), let every one keep own (kt them keep every man his own).
:

196
d.

Syntax: The Sentence.

205-7.
it

may

a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, with one and be understood with the others as, agree
:

When

intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
3.

i.

2),

Antony and

Incomplete Sentences.

206. The subject of the verb is sometimes omitted. Thus:

a.

A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic.

I speak.
But, ego loquor,
it is

Thus,
loquor,
b.

I that speak.
perhibent (they say) ; 93), one says (referring

An

This

indefinite subject is often omitted. is usually a plural, as in dicunt, f erunt,

i.

but sometimes singular, as in inquit (Tusc. to a class of reasoners just spoken of).
c.

is often omitted. Thus, Dico, facio, ago and other verbs in familiar phrases: quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at? 1.

The verb

as,

ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will knoiv a lion by his claw. quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much?) quid? quod, what of this, that, etc.? (what shall I say of this, that, etc.?) [A form of transition.] Aeolus haec contra (-$n. i. 76), sEolus thus [spoke] in reply.
turn Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta. di meliora [duint], Heaven forefend

unde [venis]
2.

et

(may the gods grant better things) quo [tendis], where are you from and where bound?
in the indicative
:

The copula sum, very commonly

(except by

and

infinitive,

rarely

late authors) in the subjunctive

as,

tu coniunx (J&a. iv. \\$),you [are] his wife. omnia praeclara rara (Lsel. 79), all the best things are rare.

potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honestis utrum

two honorable actions, as to any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.] hear what is first to be accomaccipe quae peragenda prius (^En. vi. 136),
honestius (Of.
is the
i.

152), a comparison of

which

more honorable.

[Here,

if

plished.
Cf., for

[Direct:

quae peragenda prius?]

omission of a Subjunctive,
i.

cum

ille

ferociter

ad haec [diceret]

(Liv.

48), upon his replying with insolence

to this, that, etc.

V.- PARTICLES.
1.

Adverbs.

20 7. Adverbs

are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives,

and other Adverbs.

207.]

Adverbs.
i.

197

classification of adverbs, see $ 148, 149. functions of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as, celeriter Ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their naiuo (adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see 163.7).
2.

NOTE NOTE

For the derivation and

The proper

also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described .is manifested: as, splendide mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs as, nimis graviter, too severely.

They

adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see \ 25. h. note).

NOTE 3.
a.

Many

and

Demonstrative or Relative adverb

is

corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see

often equivalent to the 201. f): as,

eo (= in ea) imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils. eo milites imponere (B. G. i. 42), on them (thereon) he puts the soldiers.

apud eos quo (= ad quos)

se contulit (Verr. iv. 38),

among those

to

whom

(whither) he resorted. qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rose.

Am.

71), one -who should

have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth). 6 miseras condiciones administrandarum provinciarum ubi [= in quibus] severitas periculosa est (Place. 87), oh! wretched terms of managing
the provinces, -where strictness is dangerous.

The adverbs propius, near] proxime, next (like the adjectives pridie, the day before] postridie, the day propior, proximus)
b.
;

after, are

sometimes followed by the accusative (see 261. a}. The adverbs palam, openly ; procul, afar ; simul, at the same time, 261. b}. are sometimes followed by the ablative (see
NOTE.
Pridie and postridie are
of,

Clam,
itive
(<J

without the knowledge

261. c).

may

often used with the genitive ( 223. e.n. 2). take the accusative, the ablative, or the gen-

perfect participles used as nouns regularly retain the adverb which modified them as participles as,
c.

Many

praeclare factum, a glorious deed (a thing gloriously done).

d.

Very

idea(cf.

rarely adverbs are 188. </): as,

used with nouns which contain a verbal

populus late rex (^En. i. 21), a people ruling far hinc abitio (Plaut.), a going away from here.
quid cogitem de meet [him].
e.

and wide.
I think about going to

obviam

[Perhaps

itione (Att. xiii. 50), what felt as a compound.]

For adverbs used as

adjectives, see

188.

e.

In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun (as in 188. e), or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in $ 188. d).

NOTE.

198

Syntax: The Sentence.

2.

208.

Conjunctions.

NOTE.

For the

classification of conjunctions, see \\ 154, 155.

similar constructions,

2O8. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect and are regularly followed by the
:

same case or mood that precedes them

as,

scrlptum senatui et populo (Catil. iii. 10), written to the senate and people. ut eas [partis] sanares et confirmares.(Milon. 68), that you might cure and
strengthen those parts.

neque mea prudentia neque humanis consiliis fretus (Catil. ing neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.
a.

ii.

29), rely-

Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tanquam, quasi) also

similar constructions
:

commonly connect

as,

his igitur quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers ? hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter.), a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. 247. a). ut non omne vinum sic non omnis natura vetustate coacescit (Cato Major, 65), as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature. Cf. perge ut instituisti (Rep. ii. 22), go on as you have begun. in me quasi in tyrannum (Philip, xiv. 1 5), against me as against a tyrant.
b. Two or more co-ordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, 346. c): as, omnes di, homines, all gods and men. summi, medii, infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.

liberi, servi,
1.

freemen and

slaves.

Where

there are
all,

tion, if

used at

more than two co-ordinate words, etc., a conjuncmust be used with all (or all except the first) as,
:

aut acre
vi.

alien5

aut magnitudine tributorum aut

iniuria

potentiorum (B. G.

13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the

fide et constantia

part of

the

powerful.

summa
2.

et

iustitia,

with perfect good faith, [and] consistiustitia, as in English.]

ency,

andjustice.

[Not fide constantia et

But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it): as,
propudium
illud et

num

(Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch abomination of all men.

portentum, L. Antonius insigne odium omnium homiand monster, Lucius Antonius, the

utrumque
77),

egit graviter, auctoritate et offensione animi

non acerba
loss

(Lael.

he acted in both cases with dignity, without and with no bitterness of feeling.

of authority,

208,209.]
3.

Conjunctions; NtgOtiv* ParticleS.

is

199

The

series,

enclitic -que even when there

sometimes used with the

last

member

of a

is

no grouping apparent

as,

vulni iiultuque (Brut, no), by voice, expression, an-; curam cunsilium vigilautiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and

vigi-

lance

mult5 sudore Iab5re

vigiliisque (Caecil. 72), with

much

fatigue,

toil,

and

quorum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fam. whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.

i.

7, 2),

c. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction as,
:

multae et graves causae,

d.

many

weighty reasons.

Many words properly adverbs may be used

become conjunctions, Such are, 107).

correlatively, and so partly or wholly losing their adverbial force (see

cum
turn

turn, while
turn,
. .

so also (both

and}.

modo
simul

qua nunc
Thus,

now. now. simul, at the same time now. qua, now now. nunc, noiv
. . .
.
.

now modo, n<nv

.
.

at the same time (at once ... as well as).

cum

difficile est,

turn ne aequum quidem (Laelius 26), not only

vitia

is it

diffi-

cult,

but even unjust.

erumpunt saepe

amicorum turn

in ipsos

amicos turn in alienos (Lsel-

ius76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, friends themselves, now against strangers. modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes,

now

against their

simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. same time congratulates him.

vi.

7), he thanks

now no. him and at

the

qua maris qua feminas

e.

(Plaut. Mil. 1113), both males

and females.

conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together, for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at vgr5, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque

Two

ergo, accordingly then;

course
f.
(

namque, for; et-enim,

for, you

see,

fir of

156. d).

For conjunctions introducing subjunctive

3.

clauses, see

Chap. V.

Negative Particles.
$

NOTE.

For the

list

of negative particles, see

149.

e.

2O9. In the use of the Negative points are to be observed

:

Particles, the following

2OO
a.
(

Syntax: The Sentence.

209.

Two

negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, as in English

150): as,
1.

nemo non
ne
.

But a general negation

videt, everybody sees. is not destroyed

. .

By a

following

quidem, not

even, or

non modo,

not only:

as,

numquam

quidem nisi nefarium conhave you never desired repose, but you have never desired any "war except one ^vh^ch was infamous.
tu

non modo
i.

otium, sed ne bellum

cupisti (Catil.

25), not only

2. By succeeding member as,

:

negatives each introducing a separate subordinate

eaque nesciebant nee ubi nee qualia essent (Tusc, where or of what kind these things were.
3.

iii.

4), they

knew

not

By neque

introducing a co-ordinate

member

as,

nequeo

satis mirari

neque

conicere (Ter. Eun. 547),

/ cannot wonder

enough nor conjecture.

b. The negative is frequently joined to some other word. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many

expressions.

Thus,
.
.

neque (nee) (not et non), and not, biit not (neither nor). nee quisquam (not et nemo), and no one (nor any one). null! or neutrl credo (not non credo ulli), / do not believe
.

either

(I believe neither). nego haec esse vera (not dico that these things are true).

non

esse),

say this

is

not true (I deny

sine ullo periculo (less commonly

cum

nullo), with no

danger (without

any danger),
nihil

unquam

audivi iucundius,
I

never heard anything more amusing

(nothing more amusing have

c.

ever heard).
its

statement

is

often

made emphatic by denying

contrary

{Litotes}-, as,

(^En. ii. 777), these things do not occur without the will of the gods. haec ndn nimis exquiro (Att. vii. 18, 3), not very much, i.e. very little.

non haec sine numine divom eveniunt

NOTE.
d.

Compare nonnullus, nonnemo,

particle

etc. (\ 150. a).

The

immo.

nay,

is

used to contradict some part of a

preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo be-

comes nearly equivalent

to yes

(nay but, nay rather}

as,
the cause then not

causa igitur non bona est? immo optima (Att. a good one ? on the contrary, the besf.

ix. 7), is

209,210.]
e.

Questions.
less

20

Minus,
minus

minime",
si

least, often

(especially with al, //, have a negative force.

qu5, in order that}, and

Thus,
319.
f,

possunt, if they cannot.

[For quo minus, see

331.

r.~)

audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minime (Rose. of them all? by no means (not at all).
[For do not in Prohibitions, see

Am.

2),

am I

the boldest

269. a.]

VI.-QUESTIONS.

21O. Questions are either Direct or

1.

Indirect.

Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker: as,

is

quid est? what

2.

it?

Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted It depends on a to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted.

An

verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like

rogavit quid nescio ubi sim,

as,

esset, he asked

what

it

was.

[Direct
[Direct
:

I know

not where

I am.

quid est, what is it ?~\ ubi sum, where am //*]

Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of
words, as in English.
NOTE.
a.

For the

list

of Interrogative Particles, see

\ 149. d.

question of simple fact, requiring the answer YES or NO, formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word as,
:

is

tune id veritus es (Cic.), did vou/ear that?

hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Milon. anywhere but in his native land ?
b.

104), shall'THIS

man

die

The

interrogative particle -ne

is

sometimes omitted

as,

patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. i), do are manifest? (you do not see, eh?)

you not

see that

your schemes

NOTE.
tion,

and

it* is

In such cases no sign of interrogation appears except in the punctuaoften doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical

statement.
c.

When

the

enclitic

-ne

is

added
is

to

a negative word,

as

in

an affirmative answer gests a negative answer. Thus,

nonne.

expected.

The

particle

num

sug-

nonne animadvertis (N. D.

niun dubium
est

iii.

89), do you not observe?

is

(Rose. A. 107), there

no doubt,

is

Hurt?

2O2

Syntax: The Sentence.

210, 211.

d. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nonne as, meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. 7), don't you remember my say:

i.

ing in the Senate ?

rectene interpreter sententiam tuara
interpret your

(Tuscul.

iii.

37),

do

not rightly

meaning?
;

This was evidently the original meaning of -ne but in most cases the and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no ? shades off into eh f REMARK. The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether; anne, or; quantane (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 317), how big f quone malo (id. 290), by what curse ?

NOTE.

negative force was lost

e.

prefixing to the sentence as in English as,

:

question concerning some special circumstance is formed by an interrogative pronoun or adverb ( 106),

quod iam amplius exspectes (Cat. i. 6), what is there for you look for any more? quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6), whither then is all this tending? Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus, where are you?
quid
est

to

REMARK.
mitates pass!
f.

inflection of the voice: as,

!

question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the qualis vir erat! what a man he was! quot cala-

sumus how many misfortunes have we suffered I

The

particles

nam

(enclitic)

and tandem may be added

emphasis
:

to inter-

rogative pronouns

and adverbs

for the sake of

as,

quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.] ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we? in qua tandem urbe h5c disputant (Milon. 7), in what city, pray, do they
maintain
this ?

NOTE.
ain

Tandem is

sometimes added
21),

to verbs: as,

don't say so! (say you so, pray?) itane tandem, quaeso, est (Ter. Heaut. 954), ifs so, is it then? itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipb.5 (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh ? Antipho's
ix.

tandem (Fam.

you

got married?

The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct ; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions regularly takes the Subjunctive ( 334). loses its peculiar force ( 210. c). In indirect questions

REMARK.

num

Double Questions.

211.
one.

as to which of two or

Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry more supposed cases is the true

211, 212.]

Questions.

203

or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, in the first member; an, anne, or; annon, stands whether, or in the second ; and usually an in the third, if necne, not, there be one as, -

In

Double

utrum

nescis,

titou'y

an pro nihilo id putas (Fani. or do you think nothing of it ?

x.

26), is

it

that you don't

quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves utrum hostem an v5s an fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis
10, 6), is it the

or free.
(Liv. xxi.

enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of

in direct questions,

tfie

two peoples,
in indirect.

that you do not knmuf REMARK. AnnSn is more common

necne

a.
in

The

interrogative

particle is

often omitted in the

first

member
:

which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second as, Gabinio dicam anne Pompei5 an utrique (Manil. 57), shall I say
Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both ? sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not?
b.

to

Sometimes the
tu miseros

first

member

alone asks the question,

is omitted or implied, and an (anne) usually with indignation or surprise: as,

an
c.

putas

illos

(Tusc.

i.

13),

what! do you think

those

men

wretched?

may ask a
utrum
d.

Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum question to which there is no alternative as,
:

in clarissimis est civibus

is,

quern

(Flacc. 45), is he

among the

noblest citizens,

whom,

etc. ?

The
:

following table exhibits the various forms of alternative

questions

utrum ... an ... an utrum annon

. . .

-ne
-ne -ne

... an (anne) ... an

.
.

-ne,

necne

iieciie

-ne

Question and Answer.

212. There

is

no one Latin word

in

common

use mean',

ing simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated ; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with n5n or a similar negative : as,

2O4

Syntax: The Sentence.

212.

valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well), eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no (he was not) numquidnam novi there is nothing new, is there ? nihil sane, oh ! nothing.
.

a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause times used to answer a direct question thus,
:

is

some-

For YES

vero, in truth, true, no doubt, yes.

ita vero,

certainly (so in truth), etc.

etc.

etiam, even
ita, so,

so, yes, etc.

sane quidem, yes, no doubt,

ita est, it is so, true, etc.

true, etc.

sane, surely (soundly), no doubt, doubtless, etc.

certe, certainly,

most assuredly, unquestionably,

etc.

factum, true
2.

(it

was done), ifs afact,yotfre

right, etc.

For NO:
nullo

non, not [so],

modo, by no means.
cf.

minime, not at all (in the smallest degree,

209. e).

minime vero, no, not by any means ; oh ! no, etc. non quidem, why, no ; certainly not, etc. non hercle veto, why, gracious, no (certainly not, by Hercules)

Examples are
aut etiam aut

quidnam? an laudationes?

n5n

ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so. respondere (Academ. ii. 104), to answer (categorically)

yes or no. estne ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361), is [she] as say she is (is her beauty as it is said) ? oh! yes.

handsome as

they

fugisne hinc? ego ver5 ac lubens (Ter. And. 337), will you clear out from here ? indeed I will, and be glad to.

miser ergo Archelaus? certe si iniustus (Tuscul. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched then ? certainly, if he was unjust. haec contemnitis? minime (De Orat. ii. 295), do you despise these things ? not at all.
volucribusne et feris?
beasts ?

minime vero

(Tuscul.

i.

104), to the

birds

and

ex

tui

why, of course not. animi sententia tu uxorem habes? non hercle, ex mei animi sen-

tentia
b.

(De Orat.

ii.

260),

Lord !

no, etc.

tive,

In answering a double question, one or some part of it, must be repeated : as,
it you

member

of the alterna-

ego [eram], it was I. be distinguished those must (alternative') questions which are in themselves single, but of which some detail only is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus,
tune an frater erat, was

or your brother?

REMARK.

From double

quaer5

num

iniuste

aut improbe

fecerit (Off.

iii.

54),

I ask

whether he acted

unjustly or even dishonestly.

Here

there

either of the

The only inquiry is whether the is no double question. two things supposed, not which of the two he did.

man

did

Construction of Cases.

205

CHAPTER

II.

Construction of Cases.

NOTE. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations is by mere juxtaposition of roots or stems. From this arises in time composition, the growing together of stems
by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armo-gero- comes to mean arm-bearing; fldi-cen-, Later, Cases are formed by means of suffixes to express playing on the lyre. more definitely such relations, and Syntax begins. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly
developed languages.
Originally the family of languages to which Latin belongs had at least seven But in Latin the Locative and Instrumental were cases, besides the Vocative. lost except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as

cases)

and

their functions

were divided among the others

($
is

224, 242).

The Nominative,

Accusative,

and Vocative express the

oldest forms of case-

relations {Direct Cases, 31. g. note). and the -S in which it generally ends

The Nominative
is

the case of the Subject,

thought to be a demonstrative pronoun The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative ( 32, n. 2). never had a suffix of its own. The Accusative, most frequently ( \ 33. a), perhaps formed by the suffix -m (doubtless another demonstrative), originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or adjective (see page 235, head-note). The other cases were formed by combination with various pronominal suffixes,

and

first probably expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, Indirect Cases, $ 31. g. note). But these original meanings have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable either in form or meaning. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from

at

WITH:

its

confusion with the Dative and Ablative

is

and

its

function was often performed

(

by the Ablative, which

cate relations of place

freely

used to express the place where

258. /).

To

indi-

more precisely, Prepositions (originally Adverbs) gradually became necessary. These by degrees rendered the case-endings useless, and so have finally superseded them in all modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-forms. It is to be noticed that cases in their literal use tended to adopt the preposition, and
in their figurative uses to retain the old construction.

(See Ablative of Separation,

and Time, $ 254, 256.) The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek irruxris, a falling away (from the erect position). The term irruxris was originally applied to the Oblique Cases ($ y.g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called opOr) (casus rectus). The later name Nominative (casus nominat'ivus) is from nomino, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive (casus genetlvus) is a translation of yeviKTj [TTTUHTIS], from ytvos (doss), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (casus dativus, from do) is translated from Sort/cr;, and means the case of giving. Accusative
243; Ablative of Place
(accusativus, from accuse) is a mistranslation of amcm/cTJ (the case of causing), from alria, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (yocat'ivus, from VOCO) is translated from ffXrjTi/cV; (the case of calling.

The name

Ablative (ablativus, from ablatus, aufero) case the Greek had lost.

means taking from.

This

206

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

I.

213.

-GENITIVE.
noun
it

regularly used to express the relation of one it is sometimes called the another. adjective case, to distinguish the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases. Its uses classified as follows

NOTE.

The Hence

Genitive

is

to

from may be

1.

2.
I.

GENITIVE WITH

3. 4.

NOUNS

Of Possession ( 214). Of Source developed into Material ( 214. e). Of Quality (215). Of the Whole, after words designating a Part
$

(Partitive,

216).

5.

With Nouns of Action and Feeling ($217).

Relative adjective (or Verbal) (218.
a, b).

II.

GENITIVE WITH
ADJECTIVES:

f i.

j 2.
i.

III.

GENITIVE WITH VERBS:

(2.

Of Specification (later use) ( 218. c}. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. ($ 219, 221-23). Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (220).

I.

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.

noun used to limit or define another, and not the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive. meaning
213.
This relation
sition
is

most frequently expressed

in English

by the prepo-

OF:

as,

libri Ciceronis, the books

of Cicero. talentum auri, a talent ofgold.

vir

summae virtu tis, a man of the greatest courage. pars militum, a part of the soldiers.

cultus deorum, worship of the gods. vacatio laboris, a respite from toil. victor omnium gentium, conqueror of all nations.

In most constructions the genitive

or Objective.

is

either Subjective

1. The Subjective genitive denotes that to which the noun limited belongs, or from which it is derived ( 214). 2. The Objective genitive denotes that toward which an action or

feeling

is

directed

(
is

217

ff.).

by the following example. The phrase patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father a fathers love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective
This distinction
illustrated

amor

',

genitive).

belongs,

NOTE. The genitive seems to have denoted originally that to which something and hence it was originally subjective. The objective genitive is a later development, through such expressions as mei laudatores, my admirers, in which
first

the admirers are

me

(cf.

217. note).

conceived as belonging to me, and afterwards felt as admiring For this reason the distinction between the subjective and
is

the objective genitive

very unstable and constantly lost sight of

(cf.

197. a).

214.]

Possessive Genitive.

207

214. The Subjective (lenitive is used with a noun to denote (i) the Author or Owner, (2) the Source or the
Material, (3) the Quality.
1. a.
i.
:

Possessive Genitive,

The
as,

Possessive Genitive denotes the author or

owner

lihri Ciceronis, the books of (written by) Cicero. Alexandri equus, Alexanders horse.

2.

is

For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective often used, regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal
(

pronouns
liber

190, 197. a): as,

meus,

my

book.

aliena pericula, other men's dangers. Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla.
b.

[Not liber mei.] [But

also aliorum.]

[Oftener Sullae.]
:

The noun

limited

is

understood in a few expressions

as,

ad Castoris [aedes],

to the

Hectoris Andromache

[temple] of Castor. (^n. iii. 319), Hector's [wife]

Andromache.

Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.

c.

The

possessive genitive
:

is

often in the predicate, connected with

its

noun by a verb
haec domus
tion.

as,

est patris mei, this house is my fathers. tutelae nostrae [eos] cluximus (Liv.) , -we held them [to be] in our protec-

compendi

facere, to save
to

lucri facere,

(make of saving). get the benefit 0/~(make of profit).

scis

iam me Pompei totum esse

(Fam.

ii.

i$},you know

I am now
examples

all for

Pompey

(all

Pompey's).
relation to the
184, 185). in $ 213

REMARK.
that a predicate

These genitives bear the same noun bears to an appositive ($$

d.

An

infinitive or a clause,
:

when used

as a noun,

is

often limited

by a genitive in the predicate

as,

neque sui iudici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment). cuiusvls hominis est errare (Cic.), it is any man's [liability] to err. negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres (Ver. ii. i. 66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.

2o8
timidi
est

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

optare

214, 215,

necem (Ov. M.

iv.

115), it is

for the coward to wish for

ii.

death.

stulti erat sperare, suadere

effrontery to urge (it

impudentis (Phil. was the part of a fool,

est

23), it

was folly

to

hope,

etc.).

sapientis (not sapiens)

to

pauca loqui,

it is

wise (the part of a wise

man)

say

little.

REMARK. This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
NOTE.

this construction,

derivative or possessive adjective maybe used for the genitive in and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun : as,

mentiri non est

meum

(not mei),

it is

not for

me

to lie. to

liumanum

(for

hominis)

est errare, it is

man's nature

err (to err

is

human).
2.
e.

Genitive of Material.

genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (compare 216, 244) : as,
talentum auri, a talent oj gold.
flumina
lactis,

The

rivers of milk.
is strictly

NOTE.
ofgold,

This
244. c).

a genitive of source

(cf.

ex aur5 factum, made

[out]

limiting genitive is f. sition ( 183): as,

sometimes used instead of a noun in appo-

nomen insaniae (for nomen msania),

ofAntioch.
g.

the

word madness.
the regular form), the city
cf. c.~\

oppidum Antiochlae {for oppidum Antiochia,

[A

very wide use of this genitive,

For the genitive with the ablatives causa, gratia, for the sake of;

ergo, because of; and the indeclinable Instar, like; also with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as, see
223. e. h. For the genitive of the

Gerund and Gerundive, see

298.

3.

Genitive of Quality.
is

215. The genitive

used to denote Quality, but only

:

when the
vir

quality
virtutis,

is

modified by an adjective

as,

summae magnae est

man

of the highest courage.

[But not vir virtutis ]

deliberationis, it is
laboris, the

magni formica ille autem sui

iudici

an affair ofgreat deliberation. ant [a creature] ofgreat toil. (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his

own) judgment.

215, 216.]

Partitive Genitive.
Ablative of Quality ($ 251).

209

NOTE.

Compare

genitive or the ablative

may

often be used indifferently: as,

;

dentift vir, a

man of

surpassing wisdom

In expressions of quality, the praestantl prflmaxim! animl (Cic.), a

hom5

the greatest courage. But in general the Genitive is thus used rather of The Genitive of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.

man of

Quality was no doubt originally subjective.

a.

The The

genitive of quality

is

found in the adjective phrases eius

;

modi, cuius modi (equivalent

b.

to tails, such

qualis, of what sort}.

is
:

genitive of quality, with numerals,

used to define measas,

ures of length, depth, etc. {Genitive of Measure)

fossa trium

pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth], murus sedecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high],

c.

For Genitives of Quality used

to express indefinite value, see

252. a.
4.

Partitive Genitive.

tive of the
a.
1.

216. Words denoting a Part are followed by the geniWhole to which the part belongs.
Partitive words, followed

by the

genitive, are

Nouns

or Pronouns

as,

pars militum,/ar/ of the soldiers. quis nostrum, "which of us (cf. e, below) ?

nihil erat reliqui, there
2.

was nothing

left.

Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and

:

Pronominal words

like alius, etc.

as,

alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes (cf.

c,

below).

plurimum

totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest in cavalry

of all Gaul.
octavus sapientum (Hor.), the eighth wise

Hispanorum

alii

vigilant alii student,

man (eighth of the wise men). of the Spaniards some arf on the

watch, others are eager.

maior fratrum, the elder of the brothers. animalium fortiora, the stronger [of] animals.
3.

Neuter adjectives and pronouns, used as nouns:

as,

tantum

aliquid id loci (or locorum), that spot ofground. id temporis, at that time ( 240. b}. plana urbis, the level parts of the town.

much [of] space. nummorum, a few pence (something

spati, so

of coins).

quid novi, what news (what of new)

2io
REMARK.
partitively.

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

The
genitive of adjectives of the third declension
is

216.

rarely used

Thus
;

nihil nihil

novi (gen.), nothing new

but

memorabile (nom.), nothing worth mention.

[Not nihil memo-

rabilis.]

4.

Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place

as,

pecuniae, parum oti, not

satis

money enough (enough of money).

much

ease (too

little

of ease).

next in order (thence of place). turn temporis, at that point of time (then of time). eo miseriarum (Sail.), to that [pitch] of misery.
inde
loci,

ubinam gentium sumus, where in

b.

the

world are we (where of nations)

The

poets and

later writers often use the partitive genitive after

adjectives, instead of a

noun

in its proper case

as,

sequimur te sancte deorum (^En. iv. 576), we follow thee, O holy deity. [For sancte deus.] nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N.viii. \<y$))black wools. [For nigrae lanae.]
electi

iuvenum (Liv.

xxx. 9), chosen youths.

cunctos

hominum

(Ov.), all men.

[For elect! iuvenes.] [For cunctos homines, compare

e.~\

c. Cardinal numerals regularly take the Ablative with e (ex) or de instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam commonly, and

other words occasionally

as,

tribunis, one of the tribunes. [But also, unus tribunorum.] minumus ex illis (Jug. ir), the youngest of them. medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.

unus ex

quidam ex

militibus, certain of the soldiers.

hominem de
d.

comitibus meis, a

man

of my companions.

and quisque, each, with Nouns Uterque, are used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns always take a
both (properly each},
partitive genitive
:

as,

uterque consul, both the consuls ; but, uterque nostrum, both of us. unus quisque vostrum, each one of you.
e.

Numbers and words of

quantity including the whole of any thing,

partitive genitive.

take a case in agreement,

and not the

is

So

also

words

denoting a part

when

only that part

thought

of.

Thus,

nos omnes, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostrum.] quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there ? cave inimicos qui multi sunt, beware ofyour enemies, who are many. multi milites, many of the soldiers. nemo Romanus, not one Roman.

217,218.]

Object ire Genitive.

5.

211

Objective Genitive.
is

The Objective
and Verbs. 217. Nouns

Genitive

used with Nouns, Adjectives,

of action, agency,
:

and feeling govern the

genitive of the object

as,

(IGsiderium 5ti, longing for rest.

vacatio muneris, relieffrom duty. gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness.

fuga malorum, refuge from disaster.

precati5 deorum, prayer to the gods. contentio honorum, struggle for office.

opinio

virtutis,

reputation for valor.

NOTE. This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive GenThus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Ccesar, the hate in a passive itive).
sense belongs to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. $ 213. note). Hence the expression of such ideas often varies; see a and c below.
t

a.

The

objective genitive

is

sometimes replaced by a possessive or

197. a. 2)
:

other derivative adjective (see

as,

mea

my meus laudator, my
invidia,

unpopularity (the dislike of

which

am

the object).
1

eulogist caedes Clodiana (Cic.), the

(one

who

praises me).
).

metus

hostilis (Jug. 41), fear

murder of Clodius (the Clodian murder of the enemy (hostile fear).

NOTE.
b.

These possessives

really represent possessive genitives (see note

above).

Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive as, animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind's traversing of
:

many
c.

things.
is

noun with a preposition

-

often used instead of the objective

genitive: as,

in Caesarem, hate of Ccesar. [Cf. odium Caesaris, note above.] merita erga me (Cic.), services to me. auxilium aclversus inimicos (id.), help against enemies. impetus in me (id.), attack on me.

odium

excessus e vita (id.), departure from

life.

[Also, excessus vitae, Cic.]

(cf.

NOTE.

So

also in late writers the dative of reference

II.
i.

226. b)

as,

longS bello materia (Tac.

II.

89), resources for a long war.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

218. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the objective genitive.

1

As we

"
say,

The Nathan murder."

212
These are
itive

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

218.

Adjectives,

called Relative Adjectives (adiectiva relativd) or Transand include the following :

Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites as,
:

a.

avidus laudis, greedy ofpraise.

iuris peritus, skilled

fastidiosus litterarum, disdaining letters. in law. [So also the ablative, iiire, cf.
'.

253.]

sui oblitus, forgetful oj'himself rationis et orationis expertes (Off.

i.

50),

devoid of sense

and speech.

rei militaris imperitus, unskilled in

military science.

vostri

memor, mindful ofyou.

plenus h&z\, full ofgoodfaith. egenus omnis spei, destitute of all hope. potens tempestatum, having sway over the storms. impotens irae, ungovernable in anger.
particeps coniurationis, sharing in the conspiracy. affinis rei capitalis, involved in a capital crime.

insons culpae, innocent ofguilt.

b.

Verbals in -ax
i.e.

adjectives,

164. /) ; also participles in -ns when used as ( to denote a disposition and not a particular act: as,
iii.

iustum et tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od.

fast
cibl
to his purpose.

3),

man just and stead-

populi (Ov.), a circus big enough to hold the people. (Liv.), a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine). si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. i. i), if you have become acquainted 'with any one more fond ofyou. multitude insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war.
circus capax

vmique capacissimus

sitiens

sanguinis, thirsting for blood

i.

(i.e.

habitually bloodthirsty).

NOTE

governed by

Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly the verb to which they belong as,
:

Tiberius sitiens

sanguinem

(Tac.), Tiberius [then] thirsting for blood.

NOTE
note
i)

2. Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see even when they express a disposition or character: as,

virtus

quam

alii

ipsam temperantiam dicunt

esse, alii

obtemperantem temiv.

perantiae praeceptis et earn subsequentem (Tuscul. of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
c.

30), observant

The

adjective, to

poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any denote that with reference to which the quality exists
:

{Genitive of Specification}
callidus rei militaris (Tac.

as,
ii.

H.

31), skilled in soldiership.

pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. n), scant of water. notus animi paterni (id. ii. 2. 6), famed'for a paternal spirit*

218,219.]

Genitive with

Verbs.

213

fessi rerum (/lui. i. 178), weary of foil. integer vitae scelerisque purus (Ilor.), upright in

lift,

and unstained by
$

guilt.

NOTE NOTE

I.

For the Ablative of

Specification, the prose construction, see

is

253.

2.

The

Genitive of Specification

only an extension of the construc-

tion with relative adjectives. Thus callidus denotes knowledge ; pauper, want ; purus, innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a.

RKMAKK.
(really locative,

Adjectives of feeling are followed by the apparent genitive

cf. $

animi

223. c)

as,

aeger animi, sick at heart, confusus animi, disturbed in spirit.

So by

imitation
et

sanus mentis

audax ingenii
d.

animi (Plaut. Trin. 454), (late), bold in disposition.

etc.,

sound in mind and heart.

For adjectives of likeness,

234. d.
III.

with the genitive, apparently ob-

jective, see

GENITIVE WITH VERBS.

is

The Objective Genitive

1.

used with some verbs.

Remembering and Forgetting. 219. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting take the
Genitive of the object
act : as,
1.

when they

are used of a continued

state of mind, but the Accusative

when used

of

a single

Genitive:
iv. 19),

recordans superioris transmissionis (Att.

crossing.

remembering your former

remembers
(it

animus meminit praeteritorum (Div.

venit mihi in

i.

63), the soul

mentem

illius diei,

bethink

me of that day
i.

comes

the past. into

my mind
slaughter

of that day).

obliviscere caedis atque

incendiorum

(Cat.

6),

turn your

mind from

nee unquam
2.

conflagrations. obliviscar illius noctis (Plancius

and

101),

and I shall never for-

get that night.

Accusative:

totam causara oblitus

pueritiae

memoriam

est (Bru. 217), he forgot the whole case. recordarl (Arch, i), to recall the memory of childhood.

a. The Accusative is almost always used of a person or thing membered by an eye-witness as,
:

re-

memineram Paullum
b.

(Loci. 9),

I r-emembered Paulus.
is

denotes a single act and almost always followed by the Accusative as,
recollect, recall,
:

Recorder,

therefore

214
recordare

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

consensum
ilium theatri (Phil.
i.

[219,220.
unanimous

30), recall that

iii.

agreement of the [audience in the] theatre. recordamini omnis civilis dissensiSnes (Cat.
wars.
c.

24), recall all the civil

Verbs of reminding take with the accusative of the person a

;

genitive of the thing except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which 238. b}. put in the accusative (cf.
Catilina

is

admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity. unum illud monere te possum, / can remind you of this one thing.

So admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio, commonefio.

But

moneo
note).

with the genitive

is

found only in

late writers (cf.

238. b.

NOTE.

All these verbs often take

is

de

with the ablative,

:

and the accusative

of

nouns as well as of pronouns

saepius te

sometimes used with them

as,

admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4, 5), / remind you again and again of the bond of Sittius. officium vestrum ut vos malo cogatis commonerier (Plaut. Ps. 150), to be
reminded of your duty.
2.

Charge and Penalty.

of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the genitive of the charge or penalty : as,

22O. Verbs

me furti, he accuses me of theft. peculates damnatus (pecuniae publicae damnatus) (Flac. 43), condemned for embezzlement. video non te absolutum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatos esse caedis (Ver. ii. i. 72), / see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that they were condemned for homicide.
arguit

a. Peculiar genitives,
capitis, as in

under

this construction, are

damnare

capitis, to sentence to death.

maiestatis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the State). repetundarum [rerum], extortion (lit. of an action for claiming back money
voti, in

wrongfully taken). damnatus or reus

voti,

bound

[to the

payment] of one's vow;

i.e.

successful in one's effort.

pecuniae (damnare,
b.
i.

iudicare, see note

diipli, etc., as in dupli

under 3, below). condemnare, condemn to pay twofold.

for the
:

Other constructions

charge or penalty are

The

ablative of price

regularly of a definite
(cf.

amount of

fine,

and

often of indefinite penalties

252. note): as,

Frusinates tertia parte agri damnati (Liv. x. i), the people of Frusino condemned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.

220, 821.]
vitia

Gcnitire

with Verbs of

autem hominum atquc fraudcs damnis ignominiia vinculis verberibus exsiliis morte dainnantur (I )i: >.i. I'M)- but the vices and crimes of mot arc punished with fines, dishonor, chains, scourging, exile, death.
<

2.

The

ablative with dS, or the accusative with inter, in idiomatic

expressions: as, de alea, for gambling. de ambitu,yfrr bribery.

inter sicarios, as

an

assassin

(among
i,

the assassins).
21),

de
3.

vi et

maiestatis damnati (Philip,

convictedof assault

and treason.

The

accusative with

ad

or in to express the penalty (late): as,

ad mortem (Tac.),

to death.

ad (in) metalla,

to the

mines.

origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecuniae (Aul. Cell. xx. I, 38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecuniae iudicati essent (id. xx. 1,47), how much money

NOTE.

The

damnare

a mere suit for debt; confess! aeris ac debit! owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be
they were adjudged to pay, iudicati (ibid.), adjudged
in
to

actual crime

used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. E.ng. guilty of death).
3.

Verbs of Peeling.

221. Many verbs of Feeling take the genitive of the Thus object which excites the feeling.
a.

Verbs of

pity, as

missreor and miseresco, are followed by the

genitive: as,
miserescite regis (ALn. viii. 573),/*Vx the king. miserere animl non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures un-

worthy things.

But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative as, communem condicionem miserari (Murena 55), bewail the common
:

lot.

The impersonals miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet pertaesum est), take the Genitive of the cause of the feeling and
b.

(or the

Accusative of the person affected: as,

hos homines infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor. [Cf.
i.

35), these

it
.

rcpcnteth

him of the

evil.~\

me
me

quidem miseret parietum ipsorum

very walls.
civitatis

(Phil.

ii.

69),

for

my part 1 pity the

sick

morum

piget taedetque (Sail. Jug. 4),

state.

I am

and disgusted
tired of the

with the ways of the

decemvirs.

decemvirorum vos pertaesum

est

(Liv.

iii.

67),

you became

2l6
c.

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

[321,222.

An

infinitive,

a clause, or the accusative (possibly nominative) of

:

a neuter pronoun may be used with these impersonal verbs (except miaeret) instead of the genitive of a noun as,

me
d.

paenitet haec f ecisse,

nihil

quod

paenitere
etc.,
:

/ repent of having done this. possit (Cic.), nothing that may cause

repentance.

Miseret,
te

are sometimes used personally with a neuter pro-

noun as subject
nonne

as,
these things

haec pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not

4.

shame you?

Interest and Refert.

222. The impersonals interest and refert take the genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected : as, Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 56), it -was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die.
faciundum esse aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur (Jug. in), that something must be done which seemed to be more for their interest than his own. video enim quid mea intersit, quid utrmsque nostrum (Fam.vii.23),/0r 1
see

what

is for

my good and for the good of us

both.

subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause. a. Instead of the Genitive of a Personal Pronoun the corresponding Possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or

The

refert: as,
quid tua id refert? magni (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. [See also the last two examples above.] vehementer intererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13), it would be very much to your advantage, y oil who are fathers.
b.

The

accusative with

ad

is

used with interest and refert to exis

press the thing with reference to which one

interested

as,

magni ad honorem nostrum

to

interest

(Fam.
i.

xvi. i), it is

ofgreat consequence
difference as to

refert

our honor. etiam ad fructus (Varr. R. R.

16, 6) it

makes a

the crop.

NOTE. Very rarely the Person is expressed by ad and the Accusative, or (with refert) by the Dative (probably a popular corruption) : as,
quid id

ad me

aut

ad

meam rem

refert (Plautus,

Persa 513), what dif-

ference does that make to me or to my interests ? quid referat intra naturae fines viventi (Hor. Sat. i. 1. 49), what difference does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire? So, nil referre dedecori (Tac. Ann. xv. 65), that it makes no difference as
to the disgrace.

223.]

Genitive with Verbs of Plenty,

5.

<

217

Verbs

of Plenty

and Want.

iiu;*.

Sonic verbs of Plenty and

Want govern

the geni-

tive

as,

quid est quod defensidnis indigeat? (Rose. Am. 34), "what is there that needs defence ? satagit rerum suarum, he has his hands full with his (nun affairs.

NOTE.
$

But verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see
.),

243. a, 248.

except

ege6, indige5, satago.

6.

Other Verbs.

genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potiri rgrum, to be master of affairs. Thus,
a.
illius

The

regni

potiri

(Fam.

i.

7,

5), to become master of that

kingdom.
126), Cleanthes

Cleanthes solem dominari et

thinks the sun holds

rerum potiri putat (Acad. ii. sway and is lord of the universe.
249).
:

But potior usually takes the ablative (see

b.
1.

Some By
no

other verbs rarely take the Genitive 221 analogy with those mentioned in
sis veritus

as,

neque huius
2.

feminae prlmariae

(Ter. Ph. 971),

and you had

respect for this highborn lady.

:

As

akin to adjectives which take the genitive

as,

[Cf. fastidiosus.] (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. studet till (quoted N. D. iii. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiosus.]
fastidit

mel

3.

In imitation of the Greek

as,
xi.

iustitiaene prius mlrer, belline laborum (^En. admire [his] justice or his toils in war ?

126), shall

rather

neque ille sepositi ciceris nee longae invldit avenae (Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 84), nor does he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.] abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath (but cf.
223,_2 43 ./ Rem.).

laborum

clecipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes. nee sennonis fallebar (Plaut. Ep. 239), nor did I miss the conversation. me laborum levas (Plaut. Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles.
c. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with a 218. c. Rem.) few verbs of feeling and the like (cf. as,
:

Antipho

me excruciat animi (me in my mind).

(Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures

my mind

animi pendeo (PI. Merc. 127), 7 am in suspense. me animi fallit CT,ucr. i- 022), my mind deceives me. So, by analogy, desipicbam mentis (PI. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.

218

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

IV.

["

22a

PECULIAR GENITIVES.
rarely in Exclamations, in
:

d.

genitive occurs

imitation of the

Greek {Genitive of Exclamation)

di immortales,

as,

mercimoni

lepidi (Plaut. Most. 912),

iv. 7.

good heavens ! -what a

charming bargain. foederis heu taciti (Prop.

e.

21), alas for the unspoken agreement.

often used with the ablatives causa, 1 gratia, for genitive the sake of ; ergo, because of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also
is

The

with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far

as: as,
honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor). verbi gratia, for example. eius legis ergo, on account of this law.

equus instar mentis (yn. ii. 15), a horse like (the image of) a motmtain. laterum tenus (^En. x. 210), as far as the sides.

NOTE
($ 214.

i.

/).
2.

Of these the genitive with causa The others are of various origin.

is like

that in

no men insaniae

In prose of the Republican Period pridie and postridie are thus pridie (postridie) eius die!, the day before (after} that (cf. the eve, the morrow of that day}. Tacitus uses the construction with other words as, postridie insidiarum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see 261. a. Tenus takes also the ablative ( 260. e).

NOTE

used only
:

in the expressions

II.

-DATIVE.

Dative seems to be closely akin to the Locative (cf. ofaoi, at home, with ofap, to a house) , and must have had the primary meaning of to or towards. But this local meaning appears in Latin only in the poets ( 225. b. 3) and in some adverbial forms (as eo, illo, thither, cf. 148. note, 7). In Latin the Dative has two classes of derived meanings I. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, he gave the boy a book, or fecit mini iniuriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the

NOTE.

The

boy receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons or things with personal attributes are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things.2 See examples under \ 224. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or Hence verbs of similar meaning (to an English existing in the mind of the writer. mind) often differ in the case of their object (see $ 227. a and b} 2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see 233). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action. the English for his sake, on my account. Spanish the dative is used whenever a person yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man.
1

Compare
So
in

is

the object of an action;

224, 225.]
Those two

Dative with Transitive*.

approach each other
in

219
some
:

classes of Datives

cases

and are

occasionally confounded, as in \ 234 (cf. especially \ 234. b). Tlu- uses of the Dative, arranged practically, are the following
i.

As iMMKKtT OBJECT
(general use)
:

f i.
(

2.
1.

2. 2.

Special or Idiomatic

With Transitives ($ 225). With Intransitivcs (<$ 226-28, 230). Of Possession (with esse) ( 231). Of Agency (with Gerundive) ($ 232).

Uses:

3.

4. 5.

Of Purpose or End (predicate use) Of Fitness, etc. (with Adjectives) ($ Of Reference (dat'ivus commodi) (

($ 233).

234).
235, 236).

224. The Dative by an action.

is

used of the object indirectly affected

usually denoted in

This is called the Indirect Object ( 177). English by the Objective with to or for. Thus, dat librum puero, he gives a book to the boy.

It is

cedite temporl, yield to the occasion. provincia Ciceroni ohtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero. inimicis non credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
sic

clvitatis saluti consulite, consult for the safety mihi videtur, so it seems to me.

of the
to

State.

indicavit mihi Pansa,

Pansa has made known

this.

me.

hoc

tibi

spondeo, I promise [to] you

1.

Indirect Object with Transitives.

225. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see as, 177)
:

do tibi librum, I give you a book. illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. *]},this I assure you. commendo tibi eius omnia negotia (Fam. i. 3),

I put

all his affairs in

your hands.
dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (Dei. 40), you will surely grant to mercy what y'ou refused to wrath. litteras a te mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam.ii. 17), delivered to me a letter.
a.

Many

note).

verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use ( 177. These take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the
:

Dative alone

as,
tibi

hanc pecuniam
in
b.

hac re

tibi

cred5,

credo, I trust this money to you. [Transitive.] I trust you in this. [Intransitive.]

the Dative of the Indirect Object

Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between and the Accusative of the End of
(

Motion

258. b).

Thus

22O
1
.

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

Some
as,

225.

instead of the

verbs take the Accusative (with or without a preposition) Indirect Object, when the idea of Motion prevails

(258):
litteras

quas ad Pompeium scrips! (Att. iii. 8), the letter which I have written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. non quo haberem quod tibi scrlberem (Att. iv. 4), not that I had anything to write to you.~\

litterae

extemplo

KSmam scriptae

(Liv.

xli.

16),

letter

was immediately
[Cf. ut

written [and sent] to Rome. hostes in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), he puts the enemy to flight. dem fugae (Att. vii. 23), to take to flight^

me

[addressed] to me. nullas eis praeterquam ad te et ad Brutum dedi

letters

cur saepius written

ad me

litteras dedisses

(Fam.

iv.

4),

why you had several times

litteras (id.
iii.

7),

I have

given

to

them (the messengers) no

letters

except (addressed) to you, etc.

omnes rem ad Pompeium deferri volunt (id. i. i), all wish the matter to be put in the hands of Pompey. an iterum se reddat in arma (.^En. x. 684), or should throw himself again
into thejight (only poetic).

the other hand, many verbs usually followed by the Accusative or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea as,
2.

On

with

ad

nee quicquam quod non mini Caesar detulerit (Fam. which Ccesar did not communicate to me.

iv.

13),

and

nothing

mini

litteras mittere

(Fam.

vii.

eum

librum tibi

nrisi (id. vii. 19),

12), to send me a letter. I sent you that book.

Catonem tuum mihi mitte (id. vii. 24), send me your Cato. cures ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4, 5), take care that they be conveyed to me. cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another. quibus (copiis rex Deiotarus) imperatSribus nostris auxilia mitteret (Deiot.
22),

with

which (troops) king D. might send reinforcements

to

our

generals.
3.

(see

In poetry the 258. note i).

End

of Motion

is

often expressed

by the dative

c. For the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing after verbs of threatening and the like, see 22j.f. d. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the

person and the Ablative of the thing

as,

donat coronas suls, he presents wreaths to his men; or, donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths. vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), to shake off the leash (from himself). omnes armis exuit (B. G. v. 51), he stripped them all of their arms. aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 88), to sprinkle the altar with blood.

arae sanguinem adspergere,

to

sprinkle blood upon the altar.

225, 226.]

Dative with Intransitive*.

221

Such arc dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo, inspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, prohibeS, intercludo, and in poetry accingo, implico, and similar verbs.

NOTE i. luterdlco./orttid, takes either (i) the dative of the person and the accusative of the thing, or (2) the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing :
as,

interdixit

histrionibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors). [Cf. interdictum est mare Antiati populo (Liv.viii. 14), the sea was forbidden
people of Antium.~\
7), shall

to the

feminis (dat.) purpurae usu interdicemus (Liv. xxxiv. women the wearing of purple ? aqua et igni alicui interdicere, to forbid the use offire

we forbid

and water.

NOTE 2. The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs oi preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and AblaIntercludo and arceo sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in tive.
prose:
as,

hisce omnis aditus ad Sullam intercludere (Rose. Amer. no), to shut these men offfrom all access to Sulla (close to them every approach).
[Cf. uti
tc

frumento commeatuque Caesarem

intercluderet (B. G.

i.

48).

shut Cicsar offfrom grain

and supplies^

hunc (oestrum) arcebis pecori (Georg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away from the flock. [Cf. ilium arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. 37), he excluded him from Gaul.~\ solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the summer heat from the
flock.
e.

Verbs which

in the active voice take the accusative in the passive

:

and dative

retain the dative

when used

as,
:

haec nSbis nuntiantur, these things are told us. [Active haec [quidam] nobis nuntiat.] Crasso divitiae non invidentur, Crassus is not enviedfor his wealth. [Active : CrassS divitias non invidet.] decem talenta oppidanis imperantur, ten talents are exacted of the townspeople.

[Active

imperat oppidanis decem talenta.]

2.

Indirect Object with Intransitives.

226. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used

with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows
cedant arnui
tou,;u: (Phil.
ii.
:

as,

20), let

arms give place

230).

to

the

gown.

Caesar! respondet, he replies to Ccesar. Caesar! respondetur, Ccesar is replied to (see

credimus nuntio,

we

believe the messenger.

is believed.

nuntio creditur, the messenger

222

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

ii.

226, 227.
the heaviest

respond! maximis criminibus (Phil.

charges.
ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 119), that

36), so

/ have answered
turn
oitt to

it

may

each.
Indirect Object,

NOTE
NOTE

i.

Intransitive verbs

have no Direct Object.

cf.

The

therefore, in these cases stands alone (but

2.

225. a).

Ced6

t< y*Wd?,
:

sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with

(Milon.
to

the Dative of the person

as,

cedere alicui possessione hortorum

possession of a garden.

75),

give

tip

to

one the

a.

Many

a copulative verb are equivalent

of indirect object
(cf.
to

phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or to an intransitive verb and take a kind
235)
:

as,
(cf.

auctor esse alicui,

is finis

advise or instigate one

fuit

persuadeo).
witness) to this fact?
the raids.

quis huic rei testis est (Quinc. 37), -who

testifies (is

populationibus
dative
is

(Liv.

ii.

30), this put

an end to

b.

The

sometimes used without a copulative verb

227. d, 235. a)
:

in a sense

approaching that of the genitive (cf. legatus Caesari, a lieutenant to Ccesar

as,

(i.e. a man assigned to Caesar), heres fratri suo, his brother's heir (heir to his brother), ministri sceleribus, agents of crime.

NOTE. and $ 235

to

The

cases in a

in that the dative is

and b differ from the constructions of more closely connected in idea with some

227. note 2,

single

word

which

it

serves as an indirect object.

3.

Dative with Special Verbs.

Many

verbs of apparently transitive meaning in English correspond

to verbs intransitive in Latin.

Thus

227. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries also to believe, persuade, command, 1 obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take
;

the dative
cur

as.

mini invides, why do you envy me ? mihi parcit atque ignoscit, he spares and pardons me.
ignosce patrio dolori (Liv.
iii.

48), excuse a father' s grief

iv.

sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam.

13),

I was

able to help the guilty.

to

non omnibus servio (Att. xiii. 49), I am not a servant cum ceteris turn mihi ipsi displiceo (Fam. iv. 13),
people
1

every man.
dissatisfy other

and myself too.

These include, among others, the following: adversor, credo, faveS, ignosco, impero, invideS, irascor, suscenseo, resisto, noceo, parco, pareo, placed, servio, studeo, suadeo (persuadeo), tempers, (obtempero), dicto audiens sum.
fldo,

227.
1

Dative

witli

Special Verbs.

22$

sic

non parcam operae (id. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains. mihi persunsl (Cat. M. 78), so I kav* persuaded mytelf. mihi Fnhius I^MOSCITO dchchit si niitius eius famae parccre videbor cjuam ante consului (Tull. 3), l:abius will have to pardon me if I scent to
spare
//is

reputation

less

than, etc.
i.

huic legion! Caesar confidebat maxime (B. G.

trusted most.

40), in this legion Casar

In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. to emy, was originally to look askance at one ; servire is to be a slave to ; suadere is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to one. NOTE 2. Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such are
i.

NOTE
:

Thus

invidere,

praesto esse, be on

morem
gratum
clicto

gerere,
facere,

hand (cf. adesse). humor (cf. morigerari).

(cf.

do a favor

gratificari).
(cf. confidebat). Such are

audiens esse, be obedient (cf. oboedire). cui fidem habebat (E.G. i. 19), in whom he had confidence
also

So

many

phrases where no corresponding verb

exists.

bene (male, pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, to be well iniuriam facere, do injustice to.

(ill, etc.) off.

diem

dicere, bring to trial

(name a day

for, etc.).

agere gratias, to express one's thanks. habere gratiam, to feel thankful,

opus

referre gratiam, to repay esse, be necessary.

a favor.
injury.
to.

damnum

dare, inflict
to

an

acceptum (expensum)

ferre (esse), to credit (charge).

honorem habere,
a.

pay honor

Some

verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.

Such

are

iuvo,

adiuvo, helps laedo, injure] iubeo, order;

Thus,
laedit, this dust hurts

dfificio./tf//;
hie pulvis

delecto, please.

oculum meum

my

eye.

[Cf. multa oculis

nocent,
b.

many

things are injurious to the

eyes.~\

Some

verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransi"

tively with the Dative without perceptible difference of

meaning.
dative),

Such are adulor (generally accusative), aemulor (rarely comitor, despero, praestolor, medeor, medicor. Thus,
adulatus est
adulari
c.

Antdnio (Nep.

Neronem

Att. 8), he flattered Antony. (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero.

Some

verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransi-

tively with the Dative with a difference of

meaning.

i See Lexicon under convenio, cuplo. Insists, recipid, renxintio, solvo, succedo, caved.

maneo, praeverto,

224

Syntax: Construction^/ Cases.

227.

cum

parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens, te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you. metuens pueris (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children. nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also
timeo.]
prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), have regardfor the State. prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv.iv.49), to provide a habitation

for old age.

:

[So also provided.]

NOTE.
legionis

Fido and confido,

trust,

take either the Dative or the Ablative

i.

as,

decimae cui quam maxima confidebat (B. G. legion, in which he had the utmost confidence.

42), of the tenth

multum natura
the strength

loci confidebant (E.G. i. 9), they had great confidence in of their position (the nature of the place).

d.

Some

verbal nouns

as insidiae,

amhush; invidia, envy

:

take the dative like the verbs from which they are derived

as,

invidia consuli (Sail.), ill-will against the consul (cf. invide5). obtemperati5 legibus (Leg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero).

responsio (De Or. iii. 54), an answer to himself'(cf. responded). NOTE. In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force 226. a and b} of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf.
sibi ipsi
.

e. 1.

The Dative is also used With the impersonals

,

libet (lubet),

it

pleases]

licet,

it

is

allowed : as

quasi tibi
2.

quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 8, 3), what most pleases me. non liceret (Fam. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted.

With verbs compounded with

satis,

bene, and male

as,

mihi ipse numquam satisfacio (Fam. i. i), I'never satisfy myself. optimo viro maledicere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man. pulchrum est benefacere reipublicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to
benejit the State.

NOTE.

as such by the

These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently Romans. Thus
:

felt

satis officio meo, satis illorum voluntati qui a me hoc petiverunt factum esse arbitrabor (Verres v. 130), that enough has been done for, etc.

the following gratificor, gratulor, haereo probS, studeS, supplied, excello plaudo, permitto,
3.

With

(rarely),
:

nubo,

as,

haerentem capiti coronam (Hor. S. i. 10), a wreath clinging to the head. PompeiS se gratificari putant (Fam. i. i), they suppose they are doing Pompey a service. tibi permitto responclere (N. D. iii. 4), I give you leave to answer. gratulor tibi, mi Balbe (Fam. vi. 12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus. mihi plaudo ipse domi (Hor. S. i. i. 66), I applaud myself at home.

227,228.]

Dative with Compounds.

i.

22$
you

cur tibi hoc nun gratificcr ncscio (Kam. in this I don't know.

10),

why

I should not gratify

cum

inimici

pinqui suppliccnt vobis (Fnntrius 35), while

tfius are threatening yon and the and rclatires arc beseeching you.
ut voluerint

M. Fontei vobis ac populd Kfmiano ni'mentur, amici atht- t-nctnies of M.

/-<>i-

Roman
\K r
-

people
ii-

too,

while his friend*

they wished to

make
NOTE.

populo supplicare (Leg. supplication to the people.

tS),

when

MisceS and iungO sometimes

take the dative (see

\ 248. a.

Rem.).

Haereo

usually takes the ablative, with or without in.

f. Many verbs ordinarily intransitive often have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. 225. a) : as,

cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tus. i. 102), when the king threatened him -dnth the cross. imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts of the townspeople ten talents.
cui

omnia

sibi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon one's self everything. Crasso divitias non invideo, / do not envy Crassus his wealth.

4.

Dative with Compounds.

228. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum,
are followed

by the dative

of the indirect object

as,

neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. \$)ifor I do not agree with them. tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), it is a point of skill to yield to the
weather.

omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Of.i. 105), so far as man's
nature is superior to brutes. nee unquam succumbet inimicis (Dei. 36), he will never yield to his foes. illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 26), they put their own name
to those

papers.

cur

meis commodia officis et obstas (Rose. A. 112), why do you offer yourself to me, and then hinder and withstand my advantage ?

mihi

te offers, ac

the

In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on in its acquired meaning. Hence if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains or some different construction arises. Thus in convocat suos, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interflcere, to make way with a man But in praeflcere imperatorem bell6, to put a man as commander(kill him). in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an
i.

NOTE

compound verb

indirect object (see also

a and c, and

237. d).

226
NOTE
object
:

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

2.

228, 229.

as,

Some of these verbs being originally transitive take also a direct ne offeramus nos perlculis (Off. 83), that we may not expose ouri.

selves to perils.

NOTE 3. The construction of 228 is not different in its nature from that of 225 and 226; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. 237. d) :* as, nos oppugnat (Fam. i. i), he opposes us. quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), ivho would dare encounter a man well attended?

munus
b.

obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty.

The
ille

adjective
:

obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take

to

the dative
si

as,

obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending

venisti

get

in his way.

mihi obviam
c.

(Fam.

ii.

16),

you came

to

meet me.

in

distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned 228 regularly take a noun with a preposition, instead of the dative as, in visceribus inhaerere (Tuscul. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals. homini coniunctS mecum (Tullius 4), to a man iinited to me. convenit mihi cum adversario (Tullius 23), my adversary and I agree (it
:

When //<* or motion is

Eum. 4, i), with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together). quae a ceterarum gentium more dissentiunt (Fonteius 30), which differ from the custom of all other nations. inserite oculos in curiam (Fonteius 43), fix your eyes on the senate-hotise.
ignis qui est ob 5s offusus (Univ. 49), thefire which is diffused before the sight. obicitur contra istorutn impetus Macedonia (Fonteius 44), Macedonia is
set to
5),

cum h5c

agrees to me with my adversary). concurrit ipse Eumenes (Nep.

withstand their attacks.

[Cf. si quis

vobis error obiectus (Csec.

se iniecturos vobis causam if any mistake has been caused you. deliberandi (Caecina 4), that they would give you occasion for con-

sidering^ in segetem flamma incidit (^n. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn. NOTE. But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word in the same sense. The dictionary must be consulted for each verb.

of taking away* and the like take the Dative (especially of a person} instead of the Ablative of 3 as, Separation ( 243)
:

229. Many verbs

Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenio, ineo, obeo, offendo, oppugno, subeo, praecedo.
1

The
is

and
8

dative in these constructions represents the action as done to the object, thus more vivid than the ablative.
of

Such verbs are compounds of ab, de, ex, and a few

ad.

<;

229-31.]
mulieri anulum
bi'iia

Dative with Compounds.

detraxit,

22J

milii

vitain

he took a ring from (he woman. yon have robbed me of my gains. adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 71), violence deprives young men of
;ilistulisii,
i.

life.
5, b),/or age has robbed you, etc. nee mihi hunc errorem extorquerl volo (C. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me.

nihil eniin tibi dctiaxit senec tus (1-um.

a.

The

distinct idea of motion,

and, in general, names si things,

(

require the ablative with a preposition

ilium

258. a)

as,

ex periculS

eripuit (B. G.

iv.

12), he

dragged him out of danger.

b. Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb as,
:

victoriam eripi sibi e manibus,

that victory should be ivrested from his

hands
c.

(cf.

243. 6).
is

The

dative

often used

would

in prose require a
(

by the poets in constructions which noun with a preposition. So especially with

:

verbs of contending
contendis

248. b)
(Prop.
i.

as, 3),

Homero

7,

you

vie with

Homer.

[In prose:

cum

Homero.]
placitone etiam pugnabis amori (J&&. a love that pleases you?
tibi certat (Eel.
differt
iv.

38), will you strttggle even against

v. 8), vies with you. [tecum.] serraoni (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [a sennone, 243.] solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide heat from the

Jlock.

[a pecore.]

later! abdidit
260.
a.~]

ensem (/En.

ii.

553), buried the

sword in his

side,

[in latere,

[For the Dative instead of

ad

with the Accusative, see

225. b. 3.]

230. The passive of intransitive verbs that govern the dative can be used only impersonally ( Such 146. d}. verbs retain the dative in this use (cf. 225. e).
cui parcl potuit (Liv.
xxi. 12),
illi

who could

be spared ?

aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 45), that age (youth) is not only not envied, but is even favored. tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occainvidetur

non modo non

sion (the time).

5.

Dative of Possession.
is

231. The Dative

denote Possession
:

used with esse and similar words to

as,

228

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

similitude est (Cic.),

231, 232.

nomini cum deo to man, etc.).

est

man

has a likeness

to

God

(there

is

qiiibus opes nullae sunt (Sail. Cat. 37), [those]

who have no
at home.

wealth.

mihi domi pater

(Eel.

iii.

33),

I have a father

REMARK. The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession : as, liber est meus, the book is mine (and no one's else) est mihi liber, I have a book (among other things). The latter is the usual form to denote simple possession, since habeo, have, generally signifies hold, often with some secondary meaning as,
;
:

legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he kept with him. domitas habere libi dines (De Or.), to keep the passions under control.
a.
as,

Compounds of esse

take the dative (except abesse and posse)

deest mihi pecunia, / lack money. quid mihi proderit? in what will
b.

After

nomen
fuit

est,

it help me (what will it profit me) ? and similar expressions, the name is usually
:

put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person

cui

as,

Africano

cognomen

(Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to

i.

whom) surname was

name Egeriuswas
;

Affieanus.
puero ab inopia Egeri5 inditum nomen (Liv. given the boy from his poverty.
c.

34), the

The name may

also be in apposition with

(cf.

nomen

or in later

Latin in the genitive

cui
is

2i4./):

as,

nomen Arethusa (Ver. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa (to which the name Arethusa). puero nomen est Marcus (Marci), the boy's name is Marcus (to the
boy, etc.).

Q. Metello Macedonia! nomen inditum

the

est (Vel. Pat.

i.

n),

to

Q. Metellus

name of Macedonicus was given.

6.

Dative of the Agent.

232. The Dative of the Agent is used with the gerundive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests
:

as,
haec vSbis provincia est defendenda (Man. 14), this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you). mihi est pugnandum, I have to Jight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me; compare mihi est liber, I have a book, 231. Rem.).

NOTE. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation ( 113. d. i). But when a dative is expressed governed by the verb itself, and rarely at other times, the agent is denoted by the Ablative with ab ( 246) to avoid ambiguity; as,

232, 233.]

Dative of the Agent.

a vobfs consulendum (Leg. Man. 6), for whom it must be consulted by you).
(k;il>ir.
.}),

229
whom you must
that the matter
con-

quibus

est

sult (for

rem ab omnibus vobls prdvidendam

must

be attended to by all of you. (Cf.isti prlncipes et sibi et ceteris popull

Romanl

rendum

esse fateantur (Leg.

Man.

64), let these leading

QniversT auctoritatl pamot admit that

both by them and by everybody else the authority of the .Roman people as a whole must be obeyed. [Mere there was no danger of ambiguity.]
a.

The

dative of the agent

is

common

after perfect participles

(especially parts of the verb

when used
:

in

an adjective sense), but rare after other

as,
et

constitutum est (Leg. Ag. i. 25), / have deliberated has been deliberated by me). mihi res tota pr5visa est (Verres iv. 91), the matter has been fully provided for by me.

mihi dellberatum

and

resolved

(it

sic dissimillimls bestolis

by very different creatures food

b.

communiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. is sought in common.

ii.

123), so

after

The dative of the agent is used by the poets and later writers almost any passive verb as,
:

neque cernitur

tilll

(^n.

felix est dicta sorori

c.

i. 440), nor is seen by any. (Ov. Fast, iii.), she was called happy by her

sister.

The

dative of the person

as,

who

sees or thinks is regularly

used

after

videor, seem:

it seems (or seems good) to me. visum [est] (yn. ii. 428), it seemed otherwise to the gods. videor mihi perspicere ipsius animum (Fam. iv. 13), I seem (to myself) see the soul of the man himself.

videtur mihi,

dls

aliter

to

The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a NOTE. Dative of Reference ( 235), which has become so firmly attached that it is retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent as,
:

haec sententia

et illl et

nobis probabatur (Fam.

i.

7, 5), this

view met both

acceptable both to him and to me). mihi egregie probata est oratio tua (Tuscul. iv. &),your discourse was very
his approval
satisfactory to me.

and mine (was made

7.

Dative of the Purpose or End.

is

233. The Dative

End.

used to denote the Purpose or

remains

This construction, once apparently general in

a few constructions.

its use,

in only

Thus

23
a.

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

The
dative of an abstract

233,

234

noun

is

used to show that for 'which a

:

thing serves or which it accomplishes (Dative of Service), often with another dative of the person or thing affected 1 as,
rei publicae

cladi sunt (Jug. 85), they are ruin to the State (for a disaster),
nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it

magno usui

was of great service

to

our men
a

(for great use), tertiara actem nostris subsidio misit (id.i. 52), he sent the third line as relief to oiir men.

omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. iv. 29), all things were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships. evenit facile quod dis cordi esset (Liv. i. 39), that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).

NOTE.
cogis me

The word frUgl used

satis fortes et

as an adjective

is

a dative of

this

kind

as,

dicere inimicum frugl (Cic.), j0# compel me to call my enemy honest.

homines

plane frugl

(Verr.

iii.

67),

men brave enough ana

something?)

tfioroughly honest.
(Cf. ero frugl
b.

bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468),

I will be good for

is
:

The Dative of Purpose of

to

concrete nouns

used in prose in a
as,

few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry

receptui canere,

sound a

retreat.

locum castris capere, to select a site for a camp. optavit locum regno (^En. iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingdom.

NOTE.
Gerundive
(

The

construction of purpose or end

is

found in the dative of the

299. b}

and
8.

after Adjectives (

234).

Dative with Adjectives.

denote that
it

234. The dative is used after adjectives or adverbs, to to which the given quality is directed, for which towards or which it tends. exists,

1 The following characteristics have been observed in the use of the Predicate Dative (dative of Service) : I. the noun is semi-abstract ; 2. it is so used only in the " " singular 3. it is used predicatively ; 4. generally with esse 5. rarely qualified a phrase 7. but few nouns are used in this or a or 6. an adjective by genitive by way 8. the use and its limitations appear to be governed by custom, not by any Of It is common with about 40 nouns, and is found with 185 in all. principle. these dono, munerl, vitio, are not used with esse. The verbs with which it exists are habeo, do, dico, duc5, pono, verto, with esse and its equivalents, as fieri, etc. The nouns most commonly found in this construction are, aditi; ; ; ;
;

mento, auxiliS, cordi, crlmini, curae, darano, decorl, dedecorl, don6, exemplo, exitio.fraudl (damage), honori, indicio, invidiae, impediments, laudi, ludibriS, malo, morae, odi5, oneri, ornamento, praedae, praesidio, probro, pudori, receptui, remedio, saluti, subsidio, terror!
VitiS,

voluptatl,

iisui.

Roby's

L,atin

Grammar,

ii.

xxxvii. seq.

234.]
a.

Dative
dative
is

ivith Adjectives.

231

The

used with adjectives

and a few adverbs) of///

nothing
is so

nearness* likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites

nihil est tain
nihil difficile

naturae aptum

(Lael. 17),

fitted to nature.

amanti puto (Or. 33), / think nothing hard to a lover. pompae quam pugnae aptius (id. 42), fitter for a procession than for
battle.

r5bus

ipsls

par et aequalis oratio

(id. 123),

a speech equal

and

level with

the subject.

locum deligit (B. G. i. 49), a suitable place for a camp. tribuni nobis sunt amlcl (Q. Fr. i. 2), the tribunes are friendly to us. cupidis rerum talium odiosum fortasse et molestum est carere (Cat.
castris idoneum

Major 47), to those who are desirous of such things, it is perhaps hateful and disagreeable to do without them. aut invisum deo aut neglectum a de5 iudicemus (Nat. D. nee eum ii. 167), and let us not deem him either hateful to God or disregarded
. .
.

by God. esse propitius potest

est

nemini (Nat. D.
prosperus

i.

24),

he can be gracious

to

nobody.

(Repub. vi. \y),that radiance is favorable and beneficial to the race of men. ceterae res quae expetuntur opportunae sunt slngulae rebus singulls
(Lael. 22), all other things that are sought after are suitable each to some particular thing. magnls autem viiis prosperae semper omnes res (Nat. D. ii. 167), but to great men everything is always favorable. sedes huic nostro non importuna sermon! (De Orat. iii. 18), a place not unsuitable for this conversation of ours. adversissimi navigantibus ventl (13. C. iii. 107), winds most adverse for

hominum generi

et salutaris ille f ulgor

those

who

sail.

sed non quicquid tibi audlre utile est, id mihi dlcere necesse est (Offic. iii. 52), but not everything that is useful for you to hear is necessary

for me

to say.
to

cui fundo erat afflnis M. Tullius (Tullius 14), was next neighbor.

which

estate

M.

Tullius

convenienter naturae vivere (Offic. nature (6fMO\oyovfj.^vws rrj 0&m).

iii.

13), to live in

accordance with

congruenter naturae (Finib. iii. 26), in harmony with nature'. NOTE i. So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem as,
:

invitum qul servat idem facit Occident! (Hor. Ars. P. 467), he a man against his icill docs the same as one who kills hint.

who

sares

NOTE

2.

Adjectives of likeness are often followed by

atque

(ac), as.

So

also

the adverbs

aeque, pariter, similiter,

Thus,

etc.

The pronoun

idem

has regularly

atque
si

or a relative.

parem sententiam

hie habet ac formam (Plant. Mil. 1251) if he has sense equal to his beautv (like as his beauty).

te suspicor

suspect you are disturbed by the

eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri (Cato Maj. same things by which / am.

i),

232

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

234.

b. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end but regularly the Dative si persons : as,
;

aptus ad rem militarem,y?//0r a soldier's duty. locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place Jitter for lying in wait. nobis utile est ad hanc rem, it is of use to us for this thing.
c. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like Accusative with in or erga as,
:

may

take the

comis in ux5rem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), kind to his wife. dlvma bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men. de benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Offic. i. 47), in regard
to

each man's good will which he has towards

us.

gratiorem

me

esse in te

(Fam.

xi.

10), that

1 am more grateful to you.

d. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, 1 ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive.

Thus,
ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit ... optare debetis (Leg. Man. 48), which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Roman! (Manil. 32), this was once

quod

the peculiar characteristic of the

id

quod reo maxime necessarium

sis

Roman people. est (Caecil. 38), a thing

(Att. ix. 7, A), since

which

is espe-

cially necessary for the defendant.

cum utrique
cially

maxime necessarius
to both.

you are

espe-

bound

procurator aeque utriusque necessarius (Quinctius 86), an agent equally closely connected with both.

NOTE.
possessive

The
(cf.

genitive in this construction

is

not objective like those above, but

214. a).

1. The Genitive is especially used with these adjectives are used wholly or approximately as nouns. Thus,

when they

amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero ; and even, Ciceronis amlcissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
Creticus et eius aequalis
the

Paeon (Orat. 215), the Cretic and

ii.

its

equivalent

Paeon.

hi erant affines
2.

istms (Verr.

36), these

were

this

marts fellows.

After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero uses the genitive of living objects, and either the genitive or dative of things : as,

domini

similis es (Ter.)

you're like your master (your master's like).

i Such are aequalis, af finis, amicus, cog-natus, communis, consanguineus, dispar, familiar-is, finitimus, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius (regularly genitive), similis, superstes, Vicinus, alienus, contrarius, sacer.

234, 235.]
ut

Dative of Reference.

233

defcrum similes essemtis (Nat.

>nnia

I), i. f)\},that we might be like the gods. quam similis turpissima licstia nobis (Nat. I>. '17, (juoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape!
i.

si

enim h5c

ill!

simile

sit,

est illud

huic (Nat.

I),

i.

f)o),for if this is like

that, that is like this.

fllius

patri similis (Finib.

v. 12),

est similis
e.

maiorum su5m

a son like his father. (Ter. Ad. 411), he^s like his ancestors.

The

propius,

adjectives propior, proximus sometimes, and the adverbs proxime more commonly, take the accusative, as if preposi-

tions, like

prope (see

261. a).
i),

propius perlculum (Liv. xxi.

the gods.

nearer

to

danger.

proxime deos accessit Clodius (Milon.

59), Clodius

has come

-very

near

proximus Pompeium sedebam (Cic.), / was sitting next to Pompey. proximus mare oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean. NOTE. These words take also the ablative with ab* (cf. 260. ).
9.

Dative of Reference.
is

often required not by any particular the but word, general meaning of the sentence as, by
:

235. The Dative

tibi aras (PI. Merc. 71), you plottgh for yourself res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods to yourself. laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me;
.

laudawould imply no such motive). meritos mactavit honores, taurum NeptunS, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo (^En. iii. 1 1 8), he offered tJie sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune; a bull to
vit fratrem

meum

thee,

beautiful Apollo.
viii.

Curioni nostro tribunatus conglaciat (Fam.

tribuneship
is

6),

our friend Curio's

frozen up (the tribuneship

is

is

frozen

up

for Curio).

NOTE.

The

dative in this construction

often called the Dative of Advantage

or Disadvantage (datlvus commodi aut incommodi), as denoting the person or The thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed. meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
a.

The Dative

of Reference

is

often used to qualify a whole idea,

instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single

word

as,

iterPoenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. Maj. 75), to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.). se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. v. 86), he put himself in sight of tht sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
i

This comes from their original meaning of of, as we say o/ Newport.

234

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

my

-[

235, 236.

versatur milii ante oculos(id. 123), it comes before before the eyes).
b.

eyes (it

comes

to

me

The

dative

is is

ation or direction

used of the person from whose point of view a denned.

situ-

The person
plural: as,

This construction answers to the English as you go in, and the like. is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the

oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Eplro (B. C. iii. 80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.). laeva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the
gulf(\.o those entering).
est urbe egressis

tumulus (^n.ii. 713), there

is,

as you come out of the

city,

a mound

(to those having

come

out).

c. The dative of reference is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by nolens, volens, participles of nolo, volo, or by some similar word as, ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat (Tac. An. i. 59), as each
:

might receive the

ut militibus labos

war

reluctantly or gladly.

volentibus esset (Jug. 100), that the soldiers might

is

assume
d.

the task willingly.

The

dative of reference

used idiomatically without any verb in

:

colloquial questions

and exclamations
i.

as,

quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. unde mihi lapidem (Hor. Sat. quo
e.

5.
7.

12), of what use to

me

is

fortune?

tibi, Tilli

(Hor. Sat.

i.

116), where can I get a stone? 6. 24), what use for you, Tillius?
ii.

The

dative of reference

is

sometimes used

after Interjections:

as,

vae

victis,

woe

em

tibi, there,

to the conquered. take that (there, for you)

[Cf.

236.]

hei mihi, ah,

me !
10. Ethical Dative.

236. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated * as, :

quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), /ray/ what is Cclsus doing? suo sibi servit patri (Plaut. Capt. Prol.), he serves his oivn father. at tibi repente venit mihi Cominius (Fam. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden

comes

to

me Cominius.
hark ye, a talent of silver. do you wish for yourself) ?
It is

hem

tibi talentum argent! (PI. True. 60), quid tibi vis, what would you have (what

This construction
"
I'll

is

called the Ethical Dative (dativus ethicus).

really only a special case of the dative of reference.

i

Compare

rhyme you so

eight years together."

As You Like It.

236, 237.]
RF.MARK.
the ablative with

Acctisative of Direct Object.

235
of,

To

meaning express TOR pro must be used ;is,

:

instead of in defence
t

In behalf

of

pro patria niori (I lor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one's country. pro re.^e, lei^e, ijre^e (prov.),y^r king, law, people. ego ibo pro te (Plaut. Most.), I will go instead of you.

III.-ACCUSATIVE.
noun loosely with the by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Probably its earliest use was to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative From this it would be a short step to' the (run a race, fight a battle, see 238). Factitative Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a
originally served to connect the

NOTE.

The Accusative

verb-idea, whether expressed

hole,

cf.

175. note i).

From

this last

could easily come the

common

accusative

(of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see $ 237). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use

of stems in composition

(cfc p.

205, head-note).

The
i.

uses of the accusative

i.
'

may be

classified as follows
(

PRIMARY OBJECT:

Directly affected by the Action

Effect of the Action
}
(

237).

2.

( i.

2.

Two

ACCUSATIVES

\ [

2.

3.
1.

n S Produced ( 237). Cognate Accusative ( 238). Predicate Accusative (of Naming, etc.) ( 239. a). Of Asking or Teaching ( 239. c). Of Concealing ( 239. d).

Adverbial

240. a, b).
(

2.

3.

IDIOMATIC USES:

3.

4. 5.

Of Specification (Greek Accusative) Of Extent and Duration ( 240. e). Of Exclamation ( 240. d).
Subject of Infinitive
(

240. c).

240. /).

1.

Direct Object.
is

237. The Direct Object of a transitive verb

the Accusative
(

put in

177).

accusative of the Direct Object denotes (a) that which is directly affected, or () that which is caused or produced by the action of the

The
:

verb

as,

(a) Brutus
(/>)

Caesarem
facere, to

interfecit,

Brutus killed Casar.

aedem

make a

temple.

[Compare proelium pugnare,

to

fight a battle,

238].

is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely.

NOTE.

There

from

intransitive.

Compare anniger,
lyt r-/>/<mv,

cen,

hanc

armor-bearer, with arrna g-erere, to bear arms; fldiwith fldibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also tactio (IMaut.), the [act of] touching her, with hanc taugere, to touch her.

236

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

237.

is transitive in the sentence inimlcum timeo, I fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in noil timere, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as, Helvetica superaverunt Roman!, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superabat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs usually intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change in their meaning as, rides, you're laughing at me. rides, you are laughing; but

Thus time5, 1 fear,

me

a. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes as, subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative ( 177. a)
:

its

Brutus

Caesarem
aedificat,

interfecit,

Caesar a Bruto

interfectus est,

Brutus killed C<zsar. Casar was killed by Brutus.

building (being built).

domum
domus
b.

he builds a house.

aedificatur, the house is

Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive as,
:

meum casum luctumque

and sorrow.
si

doluerunt (Ses. 145), they grieved [at]

my calamity

non Acrisium risissent luppiter et Venus (Hor. O. iii. 16. 5), if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed [at] Acrisius. ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed [at] by the whole
assembly.
c.

Verbs of
:

taste, smell,

and the

like

take an accusative of the

quality

as,

vinum redolens (Cic.), smelling [of] wine. herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes
NOTE.
d.

[of] grass.
($ 238).

These are properly Cognate Accusatives

Verbs of motion, compounds of circum and trans, and a few others, 228. d) as, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf.
:

mortem

die (to meet death). consulatum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter
obire, to

upon
one.

the consulship.

neminem conveni (Fam.

si

ix.

14),

I met no

transire flumen (id.

iv. 20), if he should go to the island. 239. ). 23), to cross the river (cf. cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens %vho stand about the

insulam adisset (B. G.

ii.

senate.
e.

The

accusative

is

used after the impersonals decet, delectat,

:

iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit

as,

te non praeterit (Fam. i. 8), it does not escape your notice. ita ut vos decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you. me pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. Sat. ii. i. 28),
(it

my

delight is

pleases

me)
fallit

to

nee

me me

animi

arrange words in measure. (Lucr. i. 136), nor does it escape

my

attention (elude

in mind).

237.]
nisi
iuvit

Accusative of Direct Object.

unless

237

tims litteras profuisse literary studies had profited you.

me fallit, me tihi

I am mistaken (unless it deceives me), (Fam. v. 21), it pleased me that your

So

after latet in poetry

latet

and

post-classical prose
it is

as,

plerosque (Plin.
i.

ii.

82),

unknown

to

most persons.
signifi-

NOTE
cation.

These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic

<f

Hence most of them are also used personally (cf. NOTE 2, Decet and latet sometimes take the dative:

227. a, 239. d).

as,

hostique propinquo

Roma

latet (Sil. It. xii.

614),

and Rome

lies

hidden

from
ita

the foe close by.

it

nobis decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus

befits

us.

NOTE 3.
a
similarity of

Many

meaning with other verbs

verbs usually intransitive are sometimes used transitively from that regularly take the accusative as,
:

multa gemens Ignominiam (Georg.

grace.
festinarc

iii.

226), groaning

much

at the dis-

[Cf. doled,
iv.

237.

b.~]

fugam (^n.
arsit

575),

to

hasten their flight.

9.

comptos

cnnes (Hor. Od. iv. well-combed locks. [Cf. adamo.]

13), she

burned with

[Cf. accelero.] love for his

f. In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative
:

as,
tibi

quid

hanc

tactio est (Plaut.

Poen. 1308), what business have you

to

tango.] mirabundi bestiam (Ap. Met.

[Cf.

touch her ?

4, 16), full

of wonder at the creature.

[Cf.

miror.] vitabundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), trying

to

avoid the camp.

[Cf. vito.]

g. In early usage the impersonal gerundive with ease governs the accusative ( 294. c) as,
:

quam

upon.

nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. Major 6), which (road) we must enter [Here Cicero purposely uses an archaic construction.]
in

poenas

morte timendumst (Lucr.

i.

in), we have

to fear

punishment in

death.
h. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely (p. 234, note), having their natural object in the ablative with dg as,
:

priusquam Pomponius de eius adventu cognosceret (B. C. iii. 101), befor Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. eius adventu cognitd
his arrival being discovered^
i.

For Accusative and Genitive

after Impersonals, see

221. b.

238

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

2.

238.

Cognate Accusative.

238. A neuter verb often takes the accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.
This construction
is

called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of

Kindred Signification.

Thus,

vltam tutiorem vivere (Hor.), to live a safer life. tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cato M. 31), he was

now

living the

third generation of men. coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance. servitutem servire, to be in slavery.
a.
as,

The Cognate Accusative

is

often loosely used

by the

poets:

huic error! similem [errorem] insanire (Hor. Sat. sion like this.
saltare

ii.

3.

62), to suffer a delu-

Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing). Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 3), to live in revellings. Amaryllida resonare (Eel. i. 5), to re-echo [the name of] Amaryllis.

(yn. ii. 693), it thundered on the left. dulce ridentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiling. acerba tuens (Lucr. v. 34), lookingfiercely. [Cf. Eng. "to look daggers"]
intonuit laevum

NOTE.
signification.
b.

In the hist three examples the cognate accusative has an adverbial See Adverbial Accusative, 240. a.
is

neuter pronoun or colorless noun or adjective

(cf.

very

common

as cognate accusative

148.

d?and 240.

a).
i.

Thus,
Empedocles commits

Empedocles multa alia peccat (Nat. D.

other slips. ego illud assentior Theophrasto

29),

many

(De Or.
ii.
i.

184), in this

I agree

with Theodeceived in

phrastus.

multum

te opinio iste fefellit (Ver.

88),

do those things do me ? uredo aut grando quippiam nocuit (N. D. iii. 86), if drought or hail has done any injury (has harmed at all). hoc te moneo, I give you this warning (cf. note below).
si

this expectation (this expectation deceived quid me ista laedunt (Agr. ii. 32), what harm

you were much you much).

id laetor,

I rejoice

at this

(cf.

note).

quae homines

arant, navigant, etc. (Sail. Cat. 2, 7),

what men do in plough-

ing, sailing, etc.

So

in
si

many common
quid
ille

phrases

as,

se velit (B. G. i. 34), if he should should want him in anything).

want anything of him

(if

he

238, 239.]

Triv
vis,
i-;

\ccnsnfir-

239

numquid me
\v;int

of me,

there?).

can I Jo anything mor? for you? (there is nothing you [A common form of leave-taking.]

quid
So,

est

quod,
erat

etc.,

why

is it that,
ii.

etc.?

hoc

quod

(.Kn.

664),

was

it for

this that, etc.

In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in other construction: as,

NOTE.

some

in

hoc eodem peccat, he errs in

this

same point.
: :

bonis rebus lactari, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also in, de, or ex.] de testamento monere, to remind one of the will. [Later genitive, 219.
offici
c.

c.~\

admonere,

to

remind one of his

duty.

[Also

de

officid.]

few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a

forcing of their meaning.

ferire foedus, to strike

Such expressions are

(i.e. to sanction

a treaty

by striking down a victim).

vincere iudicium (sponsionem, rem, hoc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, yEn. vi. 688.] terram navigare (Finib. ii. 112), to sail over the land. [Perhaps quoted

from a poet.] 237. d.~] aequor navigare, to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, maria aspera iuro (yfcn. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas. [The accusative with verbs of s^vearing is chiefly poetic.]
to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep). These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction, cf. the second example under 238.

noctes dormlre,

NOTE.

3.

Two

Accusatives.

239. Some

transitive verbs take a second accusative in

addition to their Direct Object. This second accusative is either

cusative or
(2)

(i)

a Predicate Ac-

a Secondary Object.
a.

Predicate Accusative.

i.

An

accusative in the Predicate referring to the

same

person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative (cf. 185, headnote).
a.
ing,

Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showand the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct
Spartace, quern enim te potius appellem (Phil. for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)?
xiii.

object: as,

22),

Spartacus%

Ciceronem consulem creare, to elect Cicero consul. dictatorem dicere, to name [a man] dictator (eg. Quintus Fabius).

240
me augurem
gratias agebat

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

nominaverunt (Philip,

239.

quod

se

consulem

ii. 4), they nominated me for augur. fecisset (Cic.), he thanked him because he

hominem
ducem
omnes

had made him consul (supported his candidacy). prae se neminem putavit (Cic.), he thought nobody a man
se militibus tuis praebuit (Vat. 33), he a leader.

in com-

parison with himself.

offered himself to

your

soldiers as

Catilinas

Acidinos postea reddidit

predicate accusative

(Att. iv. 3), he has

made

all the

Catilines [seem] Acidini.

NOTE

i.

The

may be an

adjective: as,
et

homines ex

feris et

immanibus mites reddidit

-wild

mansuetos

(Inv. 1,2), has

made men from

and barbarous

[creatures] gentle

and mild.

NOTE
accusative

2.

In changing from the active voice to the passive, the predicate

(

becomes predicate nominative

185)

as,

rex ab

suis appellatur (B. G. vii. 4), he is

calhd king by his [subjects].

b.
2.

Secondary Object.

of the Secondary Object is used direct with the object) to denote something more (along the action of the verb. affected by remotely

The Accusative

b.

Transitive verbs

compounded with
:

prepositions sometimes take

(in addition to the direct object)

a Secondary Object, originally gov-

erned by the preposition

across the river.

as,
traicit

Caesar Germanos flumen

(B. C.

i.

83), Casar throws the

Germans

NOTE i. But with these verbs the preposition or sometimes the ablative is used as,
:

is

more commonly

repeated,

donee res suas trans Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. should get their possessions across the river Halys.

xxxviii. 25), till they

xxi. 56), the army (exercitus) Padd traiectus Cremonam (Liv. across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, 258. g).

was conveyed

NOTE

2.

The secondary
Rhine.

object

may be

retained with a passive verb

ii.

as,

Belgae
the

Rhenum

traducti sunt (B. G.

4), the Belgians

were led over

Sometimes the Secondary Object appears to passive verb ; but this comes from a change of meaning, Direct. See the Remark.
3.

NOTE

become the subject of a and the object is really

REMARK. The double construction indicated in b is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the Direct, and the preposition the Secondary
object.

239.]

Two

Accusdtir

241

But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transiverb of simple moaning. In this case the verb-element loses its power to govern the accusative, and the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its the prepositional part. Thus used the compound can have but one accusative, same which was formerly the secondary >l>j< rt, but which now becomes the direct. So traiciS comes to mean either (i) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to
tive

cross (a river, etc.)

as,

man ivith a sword. [Here iacio and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.] [Here iacio has become simply (2) Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. a verb of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from transeo.]
(1) gladio has lost

hominem
all

traiecit,

he pierced the

transitive force,

In these examples
objects
if

hominem
in

and
its

Bhodanum,
primary

traiecit were used

signification,

which would be secondary have become the direct

the subjects

Hence in the passive construction they objects. in the nominative. Thus,

become

and are put

homo
The
(1)

Rhodanus
poetical

-was pierced with traiectus est gladio, the traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.

man

a sword.

traiectus lora (^En.

:

ii.

273), pierced with thongs,

comes from a

mixture of two constructions

(2)

eum eum

traiecit lora,
traiecit loris,

he rove thongs through him^ and he pierced him with thongs.

direct object of the latter

In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (15ra)
is

irregularly kept,
c.

and the

(eum)

is

made

the subject.

Person (direct

Verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the object}, and the other of the Thing (secondary object): as,

me

sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion. otium divos rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. i), he prays the gods for rest. haec cum praetorem postulabos (Tull. 39), when you demanded

this

of the

prcetor. aedilis populum rogare (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] adiles. docere pueros elementa, to teach children their Os.

AB

verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, peto (ab), quaero (ex, ab, de"),
i.

NOTE

Some

often

postulo (ab), and occasionally others: as, pacem ab Rdmanis petierunt (B. G. ii. 13), Romans. quod quaesivit ex me P. Appuleius (Phil. vi.
asked of me.

they sought peace

from

the

i),

what Publi us Appuleius

NOTE
thing

2.

With the passive of verbs of asking or

as subject
(cf.

teaching, the person or the

may be used

d,

note)

as,

Caesar sententiam rogatus

id ab eo flagitabatur (B. C.
1

est,
i.

71), this

Casar was asked his opinion. was urgently demanded of him.

but
cf.

Perhaps not found in the

active,

traiectO fane (/En.

v. 488).

242
REMARK.
rogo, and
fuerant

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

The
accusative of the thing

239, 240.

may be

retained with the passive of

:

of verbs of teaching,

and occasionally with a few other verbs

as,

hoc

rogati (Gael. 64), they

had been asked this.

poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. Met. vii. 771), I am askedfor my Lcelaps. Cicero per legatos cuncta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero being informed of
everything through the ambassadors.

But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject-nominative, and the person is put in the ablative with a preposition as,
:

ne postulantur quidem vires a senectute (Cat. M. 34), strength expected of an old man (asked from old age).
d.

is

not even

The verb
celavi

celo, conceal,

may

take two accusatives, and the usually

(cf.

intransitive lateo, lie hid,

an accusative of the person

T.

237. e)\ as,

non te

sermonem

Ampi (Fam.
i.

ii.

16),

I did not conceal from you

iviles

the talk

of T. Ampius.
130), nor did the

nee latuere doll fratrem lunonis (yn. escape the notice of her brother.

of

Juno

All the double constructions indicated in c and d arise from the waverNOTE. ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doceo means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person celo, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing rogo, to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. c, note 2, above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called second; ;

ary.

4.

Idiomatic Uses.
:

24O. The Accusative has the following special uses

a.

neuter pronoun or adjective is used as cognate accusative with an adverbial force (Adverbial Accusative, cf. 238. b} as,
:

quid moror, why do I delay ? dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 24), sweetly speaking. acerba tuens (/En. ix. 794), looking cruelly.

torvum clamat
NOTE.

(id. vii.

399), he cries harshly.

This use does not differ from the cognate accusative except that in some cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has faded out so that the words are real adverbs. But no fixed line can be drawn between these two constructions.
b.

The

accusative

is

found in a few adverbial phrases

as,

id temporis, at that time. id (istuc) aetatis, at that age. id (quod) genus, of that (what} sort (perhaps originally nominative).

meam vicem,

on

my part.

maximam partem, for the most part. bonam partem, in a great measure.
virile secus,

of the male sex (probably originally in apposition).

if.

cetera, in other respects. quod si, but (as to which)

240.]
.

Idiomatic

I 'ses

of the Accusative.
-live
is

243
used by the

The

so-railed synecdochical or Gi<

:

poets to denote the part affected

as,

caput ncctentur (/En. v. 309), hound ahout the head),

bloodshot

their

head

shall be

bound (they

shall

be

ardentis oculos suffecti sanguine et i^ni

(id.

ii.

210), their glaring eyes

and blazing with fire

i.

nuda genu

(id.

(suffused as to their eyes, etc.). 320), bare to the knee.

NOTE.

In

many

garded as the

direct object of

apparently similar expressions the accusative a verb in the middle voice ( in. a): as,

may be

re-

inutile ferrum cingitur (/En. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel. nodo sinus collecta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered

in a knot.

umeros

insternor pelle leonis (id.

ii.

722),

cover

my

shoulders with a

lion's skin.

protinus induitur faciem she assumes the shape

d.

and garb

cultumque Dianae (Ov. Met. of Diana.

as,

ii.

425), forthwith

The

accusative

is

used in exclamations:
oh,

fortunatam rempublicam,
(Philip,
xiv. 31), oh,

fortunate republic!
(

[Cf.

fortunata mors

happy death!

241.

c}.~\

me miserum, ah, "wretched me ! en quatuor aras (Eel. v. 65), lo,four altars ! en ilium), there he is ! ellum ( eccos (= ecce eos), there they are, look at them ! pro deum ridem, good heavens (oh, protection of the gods) hocine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), oh, this generation ! huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens !

O me
NOTE
of-ne
in

infelicem (Milon.
i.

102), oh,

unhappy I !

Such expressions depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The use some cases suggests an original question, as in quid ? what? why? tell me.
2.

NOTE
cusatives.

The omission
Such
are:

of the verb has given rise to

some other

idiomatic ac-

salutem

(sc. dicit) (in letters) , greeting.

is

quo mihi fortunam, of what use is fortune? [Here no verb unde mihi lapidem, where can I get a stone?

thought

of.]

me
e.

dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help

me heaven

(the

god of

faith).

Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusa-

tive (see

f.

The

256, 257). subject of the infinitive

mood

is

in the accusative.
telling,

This

is

especially frequent after

words of knowing, thinking,

and per-

272). ceiving (verba senticndi et declarandi, see is sometimes used in apposition g. The accusative in later writers

with a clause

as,

244

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

.
. .

240-42.

deserunt tribunal
their fists,

mantis intentantes,
i.

causam

discordiae et initium

armorum (Tac. Ann.

27), finally they abandon the tribunal shaking a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
influence) of a usage

NOTE. This construction is an extension (under Greek more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as,

Eumenem

prodidere Antiocho, pads mercedem (Sail. Ep. Mith.), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be considered the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]

h.

For the accusative of the End of Motion, see

propior,
etc.,

258

for that

after postridie,

see

261. a.
152. a,
c."\

[For the Accusative with Prepositions, see

IV.

-VOCATIVE.
the case of direct address
ii.
:

241. The Vocative

Tiberine pater, one, I pray.
a.
te

is

as,

sancte precor (Livy

10),

father Tiber,

thee, holy

noun

in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the

is

imperative
audi

mood

sometimes used instead of the vocative

as,

tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba. b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person as,
:

censorem trabeate salutas (Pers.

c.

iii.

29), robed you salute the censor.

The nominative may be used

iv.

in exclamations (cf.
the faith

240. d}

as,

en dextra fidesque (^En.

d.

597),

lo,

and plighted word!

The

vocative

macte

is

esto (virtute), success attend your (valor).

iuberem
te macte virtute esse (Liv. prosper in your valor.
ii.

used as a predicate in the phrase Thus,

12),

macte

/ should bid you go on and

is

NOTE.

As

the quantity of the final

in
I.)

in

macte
est,

not determinable,
like.

it

may

be that the word was an adverb, as

Journal of Philology, Vol.

bene

and the

(See American

V.-ABLATIVE.

242. The Ablative

is

used to denote the

relations
IN,

expressed in English by the prepositions FROM, WITH, BY as,

:

AT,

liberate metu, to deliver from fear,

caecus avaritia, blind with avarice. occisus gladio, slain by the sword.
excultus doctrina, trained in learning.

hoc ipso tempore, at

this

very time.

242, 243.]

Ablative of Separation.

24$

NOTK.

The
'

relation

ablative form contains three distinct cases, the Ablative proper, FK<>M the Locative. \ and thr Instrumental, WITH
;
I

This confusion has arisen partly from phonetic decay (\ 8), by im-ans of which the three cases have become identical in form, and partly from the development by which they have approached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the
:ns of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in -6 of the fifth declension ($ 74. a), and the loss of the original -d in the ablative ( and, 36. f, 62. a) ob causam, for the second, the phrases a parte dextra, ON the rig/it; i-'K< >M which cause ; ad famam, AT (in consequence of) the report.
;

quam

FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison ; or HY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price ; It is probable that, originally, the idea that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. of accompaniment had a separate case, which became confounded with the instrumental before Latin was separated from the kindred tongues. The following are the uses of the Latin Ablative, classed according to the origiThe
relation of

that of

WITH

nal cases which have been

combined
1.

in

it

2.
t.

ABLATIVE (from)

3.

4.
5.
1.

2. 2.

INSTRUMENTAL ABLATIVE (with)

3.
4. 5.

6.

7.

2.

3.

Of Separation, Privation, and Want ( 243). Of Source (participles of origin, etc.) ( 244). Of Cause (g-auded, dignus, etc.) ($ 245). Of Agent (with ab after Passives) ( 246). Of Comparison (THAN) ( 247). Of Manner, Means, and Instrument ($ 248). Of Accompaniment (with cum) ($ 248. a). Of Object of the Deponents utor, etc. ($ 249). Of Degree of Difference ( 250). Of Quality (with Adjectives) ( 251). Of Price and Exchange ( 252). Of Specification ( 253). Of Place where (commonly with in) ( 254). Of Idiomatic Expressions (\ 254. a). Of Time and Circumstance ( 256).
(

{i. 4. Ablative Absolute

1.

255).

Ablative of Separation.
fol-

243. Words signifying Separation or Privation are lowed by the ablative, with or without a preposition.
a.

Verbs meaning to remove

:

',

set free

',

be absent, deprive,

and want,

require the ablative

as,

oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes. legilms solutus, relievedfrom the obligation of laws. omni Gallia interdicit Romams (B. G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.
ei

aqua

et Ignl interdlcitur (Veil. Pat.

ii.

45), he is debarred the use offirt

and water.
voluptatibus carere (Cat. Maj.
7), to

lack enjoyments.

non egeo mediclna (Lcel. 10), I want no physic. magno nu- mctu llberabis (Cat. i. 10), you will relieve me of great fear: Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur.

246

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

243.

levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved from superstition, we are freedfrom fear of death. consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cato M. 17), to be bereft of counsel and
authority.
b. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, ex, take the simple ablative when used figuratively ; but when used literally to denote separation

or motion, they usually require a preposition (see

258).

Thus,

conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt. desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces.
abire magistrate, to leave one's office. abstinere iniuria, to refrain from wrong.

aberrare a proposito (Cic.), to wander from the point. de provincia decedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one's province. ab iure abire (id.), to go outside of the law. ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But
But,

cf.

finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 1 8), they had left their own territory^ a magno demissum nomen lulo (^n. i. 288), a name descended (sent down)

from great
NOTE.
c.

lulus.
229.

For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see

For the ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see 258. a, and note 2. d. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the ablative
:

as,

urbs nuda praesidio (Att.

vii. 13), the city naked of defence. militia (Liv. i. 43}, free of military service. plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes.

immunis

NOTE.
e.

Some

adjectives of

want take the genitive (see

218. a).
1
:

Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the ablative

as,

magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates. nunc viribus usus (yn. viii. 441), now there is need of strength.

NOTE.
out a noun,

With
is

these words the ablative of the perfect participle, with or with(

often found

292. ^)

as,

exprompta memoria atque astutia (Ter. And. 723), I must have your good memory and cleverness set to work. properato opus erat (Mil. 49), there was need of haste. facto usus est, it is desirable to do (there is need of the thing's being done).
opus
est tua

REMARK. Frequently nominative as subject as,

:

opus

is

in the predicate, with the thing

needed in the

properly an instrumental one, in which opus and tisua ablative expresses that with which the work is performed or the service rendered.

This construction

is

mean work and

service,

and the

243, 244.]

Abhithc
i-st

<>f

Source tvnt Mnttrial.

ii.
i>

247

dux
M

nolns et auctor opus

<

(Fain,

a chief and responsible

ry for us).

iji opu-i essd (J'>. '. i. ].\ ), if hf himself wanted anything (if anything should be mvr>s:iry for liiin). quae opus sunt (C'ato K. R. 14, 3), things which are required.
ijiiid

f.
as,

Egeo and

iiidigeo arc often followed

]>y

the genitive

223):

ne quis auxili cgcat (B. G. vi. ll), lest any require aid. quae ad oonsolandum nuiidris ingeni et ad fcrendum singular!* virtutis indigent (Fain. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.
k
r.M ARK.

The
all

the Ablative with

Genitive is by a Greek idiom often used words of separation and want ($ 223. b. 3)
iii.

in poetry instead of
:

as,

abstineto irarum (I lor. Od.

27. 70), abstain from wrath.

toils.

operum

solutis (id. 17.

6),

free from
ii.

desine mollium querelarum (id.

2.

9. 17),

have done with weak complaints.

Ablative of Source and Material.

244. The Ablative with or without a preposition is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists.
These
1.

ablatives
:

commonly

take a preposition

as,

Source

Rhenus

oritur

ex Lepontiis

(B. G. iv. 10), the

Rhine

rises in

(from) the

ab

country of the Lepontii. aliquo serm5 oritur (Laslius

5),

the conversation

is

begun by (arises

from) some one.

cuius rationis vim atque utilitatem

ex

illo caelesti Epicuri

volumine

accepimus (Nat. D. and advantage from

i.

43), of this reasoning we have learned the power tJiat dii'ine book of Epicurus.
59), the sweet-

suavitatem odorum qul afflarentur e floribus (Cato Major ness of the odors whi:h breathed from the flowers.
2.

Material

ex fraucle et mendacio factus (( 'lu. 72), he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood. valvas magnificentiorC-s, ex auro atque ebore perfectiorcs (Verr. iv. 124), more splendid doors, more finely wrought ofgold and ivory. factum de cautibus nntrum (Ov. Met. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks. templum de marmore ponam (C.eorg. iii. i.O. Fll t>n ild a temple marble.
erat totus

of

NOTE NOTE
(cf. $ 214).

i.

2.

In poetry the preposition The Ablative of Material

is is

often omitted.

a development of the Ablative of Source

248
a.

Syntax : Construction of Cases.

Participles denoting birth or origin are followed
1
:

244.

by the Ablative

of Source, generally without a preposition

love natus
et

as,

Maia (N. D.

iii.

56), son

edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. quo sanguine cretus (^En.

I. i),
ii.

of Jupiter and Maia. descendant of kings.

74), born of what blood.

vi.

genitae Pandione (Ov. Met.

666), daughters of Pandion.

is usually expressed with the the mother, and often with that of other ancestors as,

REMARK.

A preposition

(ab, de, ex)

name

of

cum ex utraque having had a

Tros
est

[uxore] filius natus esset (De Orat. i. 183), each wife son (when a son had been born of each wife).

generatus

ab

illo

ex

me
but

hie natus

non

est sed

(Ov. Fast. iv. 33), Tros was sprung from him. ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son,
.

my

Belus
b.

et

omnes a Belo (^En.

brothers (not born from me, etc.) i. 730), Belus and all his descendants.
is

Rarely, the place of birth

expressed by the ablative of source

as,

desideravit C.

he

lost C.

Felgmatem Placentia, A. Cranium Puteolis (B. C. Felginas of Placentia, A. Granius of Puteoli.

tribe is regularly expressed
i.

iii.

71),

NOTE.

The Roman

by the ablative alone

as,

Q. Verrem Romilia (Verres

c.

23),

Quintus Verres of

the Rornilian tribe.

Some

verbs

may

take the Ablative of Material without a preposi-

Such are constare, consistere, and contineri. 2 cSnstare, ex is more common. Thus
tion.
:

But with

domus amoenitas non aedificio sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13), the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods. ex animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body.
vita corpore
d.
fieri,
et spiritu.

continetur(Marc. 2 $),life consists ofbody

<

and spirit.

Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of: as,
faciatis (Ver.
ii. i.

The

quid hoc homine

42),

what are you going to do with

this

man ?
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my dear Tttllia ? quid te futurum est (Ver. ii. 155), what will become of you ?
e.

The

Ablative of

Material with ex, and in poetry without a

preposition, sometimes depends directly

on a noun:

as,

non pauca pocula ex aur5 (Verr. iv. scopulis pendentibus antrum (^n.

62), not
i.

a few cups ofgold. 166), a cave of hanging rocks.

1 Such are natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, cretus, creatus, oriundus. 2 The ablative with consistere and contineri is locative in origin (cf. $

254. *)

244,245.]
f.

249

For '.rnitive of Material, sec 214. e. g. For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see
(

216.

c.

3.

Ablative of Canse.
is

245. The ablative (with or without a preposition)

used to express Cause. 1
nimio gaudio paene desipiebam (Fam.
ii.

9),

I "was

almost wild from too

much

joy.
is

neglegentia plectimur (Lsel. 85), we are chastisedfor negligence. gubernatdris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), the pilot's skill praisedfor its service, not its skill.
certis

de causis, for certain reasons.

ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound. mare a sole lucet (Ac. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun). ex opportunitate loci (Jug. 48, 2), from the advantage ofposition.
a.

without a preposition.
1
.

Certain verbs and adjectives regularly take the ablative of cause These are
:

The

adjectives dignus,

indignus

as,
iii.

vir

patre av5 maioribus

siiis

dignissimus (Phil.

25),

man most worthy

he judges you

te

of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. omnl honore indignissimum iudicat (Vatinius
entirely

39),

unworthy of every honor.

(also with ex), ezsilio, exsulto,

2. The verbs dignor, laboro triumphs, lacrimo, ardeo as,

:

baud equidem tali me dignor honSre (JEn. i. 335), I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor. doleo te aliis malls laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer with
other
ills.

ex aere alieno

laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt (lit., from another's money), exsultare laetitia ac triumphare gaudio coepit(Clu. 14),^^ began to exult in

and triumph in joy. gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), Ijumpedfor joy. lacrimo gaudio (Ter. Ad. 409), I weep for joy.
gladness,
exsilui

delicto dolere (Lid, 90), to grieve for the fault. ardere dolore et Ira (Att. ii. 19), to be onjire with

pain and anger.

NOTE
1

i.

For

gaudeS

and glSrior, see

\ 254. b.

The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, de, ex; but when the accusative with ad, ob is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally, however, it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental Case) or circumstance (which is either the
Locative or the Instrumental).

250
NOTE
2.

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

Dignus and indignus
:

245, 246.

sometimes take the genitive in colloquial

viii.

usage and in poetry

as,

curam dignissimam tuae virtutis (Balbus in Att. worthy ofyour noble character. dignus salutis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety. magnorum baud umquam indignus avorum (^En.
worthy

15),

care most

xii.

649), never un-

my great ancestors.
For the construction of dignus and indignus with verbs, see
influences the mind of the person acting is the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion or propter with the accusative as,
:

NOTE
320.

3.

/
The motive which
by ob
1

b.

expressed by
often

non ob praedam aut spoliandl cupidine (Tac. H.

through lust of plunder. amicitia ex se et propter se expetenda (Fin.
sought of andfor
itself.
:

i.

63), not for booty or

ii.

83), friendship

must

be

NOTE.

But these constructions are often confused

as,

parere legibus propter

fear.

metum (Parad. 34), to obey the laws on account of " [Here metum is almost equivalent to the terrors of the law,"
is

and hence propter

natural.]

used,

though

the

ablative

would be more

causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used with a with a pronoun in agreement as, or genitive preceding,
c.

The

ablatives

ea causa, on account of this ; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose?

mea causa, for my sake ; mea gratia (Plaut.), for my sake. ex mea et relpublicae causa, for my own sake and the republic's. praedictionis causa (Nat. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy.
sui

exempli gratia (verb! gratia), for example. purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.

NOTE.

But gratia with possessives in

4.

this

use

is

rare.

Ablative of Agent.
after a passive verb is put in

246. The Voluntary Agent

the ablative with a or ab
laudatur
:

as,

ab

his, culpatur
those.

ab

illis

(Hor.

Sat.

i.

2.

n), he
i.

is

praised by

these,

blamed by

ab animS tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. by your soul is done by yourself.
i This use of ob was originally mercantile often mince (see p. 131).
cf.

52), whatever is done

ob decem minas,/&/- the price

246,247.]

Ablatirt- of Agent ; of Comparison.

vm-iltus est (Cat.

251
to trial

filiis in iudiciuiu

Major

22),

he was brought

by his sons.
plausus esset multiplex datus (Cat. Major when great applause had been given by the whole aiiiii ne virtus ab audacia vincerctur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be

cum a cuncto consessu

<>.\),

over-

is developed from the Ablative of Source. 1 he conceived as the source or author of the action. RKMARK. The ablative of the agent (which requires & or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition ($

borne by audacity. This construction NOTE.

is

agent

248. f.i).

Thus

occisus gladio, slain by a

a.

sword ;

but, occisus

ab hoste,

slain by

an enemy.

The

ablative of the agent with

:

ab

is

sometimes used

after neuter

verbs that have a passive sense

perire
b.

as,

ab hoste,

to be slain

by an enemy.

The agent, when considered as instrument or means, is expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or
possessive.

Thus,
est

Caesar certior factus

legatis, Cccsar

was informed by

the

ambassadors

per legates, Casar was informed by ambassadors by means of ambassadors), elautae opera Neptiini (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of
(i.e.

But, (in person). Caesar certior factus est

Neptune.

mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn't happened through me (by my exertions). NOTE I. An animal is usually regarded not as the agent, but as the means or Hence the simple ablative is used. But ab sometimes occurs. instrument.
non
Thus.

equo vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.] But,

Lucano cum

sic

lacereris

ab urso (Mart. Ep.

bear.

8), since

you are
\

thus

mangled by a Lucanian

NOTE

2.

For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see

5.

232.

Ablative of Comparison.
is

tive

247. The Comparative degree * as, (signifying THAN)

:

followed by the abla-

Cato

est Cicerone eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero. quid nobis duobus labonosius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with than we two ?
1

toil

This
is

is

thing

compared
;

eloquent"

a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which any" is the starting-point from which we reckon. Cicero is Thus, " but starting from him we come to Cato, who is more so than he"

252
vilius

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

argentum est aur5, virtutibus aurum (Hor. Ep. precious than gold, gold than virtue.
followed by
i.

247.

I.

52), silver

is less

a.
is

The comparative may be

quam,

than.

When quam

used, the two things compared are put in the same case (cf. 208. a). The construction with quam is required when the first of the things
is

compared

in

With

those cases

any other case than the nominative or accusative. its use is optional. Thus,

contionibus accommodatior est quam iudiciis (Clu. 2), Jitter for popular assemblies than for courts. misericordia dlgnior quam contumelia (Piso 32), more worthy of pity than of disgrace. non callidior es quam hie (Rose. Am. ^),you are not more cunning than he.

REMARK.

Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take

:

quam

in this construction, but always the ablative

as,
i.

rex erat Aeneas nobls,

king, than

qu5

iustior alter, etc. (^En.

545), sEneas was our

whom no

other

was more

righteous, etc.

The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose NOTE. construction requires as,

quam

pane egeo iam mellitis potiore plaeentis (Hor. Ep. better than honey-cakes.

i.

10),

I want

bread

b. The idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, dicto, aequo, crdibili, and iusto are used after comparatives instead of a clause as, gravius aequo (Sail.), more seriously than was right. celetius opinione (Fam. xiv. 23), faster than one would think. amnis solit5 citatior (Liv. xxiii. 19), a stream swifter than its wont.
:

serius spe

omnium

(Liv. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the

hope

of
c.

all).

quam, a word
its

After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius without of measure or number is often used with no change in
:

case

as,

plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 were taken. plus tertia parte interfecta (Cses.), more than a third part being slain.

spatium non amplius sexcentorum

pedum

(id.),

a space of not more than

600 feet.

NOTE.
[and]
d.

The noun

the comparative, which

is

takes the case required by the context, without reference to " really in a sort of apposition, seven hundred were taken

more"

Alius
;

is

use 1

in formal prose

sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial it is followed by ac (atque), nisi, quam. Thus,
is

i This has been thought to be an imitation of the Greek, but the construction found also in Sanskrit, and is probably original.

247,248.]

Ablative of

Mm:
(l-'am. xi. 2),

253
nothing the than the

nee quicquam aliucl libertate comniiini common L

alius Lysippo (Hor.), another than I.ysippus. nlium sapicntc Ixmoquc (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 20), other than the wise and good. alid ingenio ac tu (Plaut.), of a different disposition from you. crat historia nihil aliucl nisi annalium cdnfcctio (De Or. ii. 52), history

nil

was nothing else but a compiling of records. aliut nisi quod sibi placet (Plant. Trin. 395), nothing else than what
pleases him.

e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry. Thus, tempus te citius quam oratio deficeret (Rose. Am. 89), time wouldfail you

sooner than words. But, cur Sybaris olivum sanguine viperinS cautius vital (Hor. Od. does Sybaris shun oil more carefully than viper's blood?
6.

i.

8.

9),

why

Ablative of Manner.

Accompaniment, Manner, Means, and Instrument are denoted by the instrumental ablative (see p. 245), but some of these more commonly take a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves never thought of any distinction. Thus in omnibus precibus orabant, they entreated with every [kind of] prayer, the ablative is properly that of means, but cannot be dis-

NOTE.

tinguished from manner.

248. The manner

tive
;

of

an action

is

usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective with the noun. Thus, cum celeritate venit, he came with speed. But,

denoted by the Ablais used

summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed. quid refert qua me ratione cogatis (Laelius 26), what difference does make in what way you compel me ?
NOTE.
tive
:

it

But

cum is often used

even when the ablative has a limiting adjec-

as,

quanto cum periculo id fecerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this. non minore cum taedio recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17, 3), they recline with no
less

weariness.

With such words of manner as mod5, pacts, ratione, rltu, Via. and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silentiO is very rare. Thus, Iniuria),

REMARK.

cum

apis Matinae
style

more modoque carmina fingo (Hor. Od. and manner of a Afatinian bee Ifashion songs.
manner
often omits
i.

iv. 2.

28), in the

So

in poetry the ablative of

cum
'*

as,

mons aquae
a mass.

sequitur
[Cf.

cumulo

(/En.
(id.

105).

mountain of wafer follows in

(id.

murmure

124); rimis

123).]

254

Syntax : Construction of Cases.

7.

248.

Ablative of Accompaniment.
is

Accompaniment with cum as,

a.
:

denoted by the ablative, regularly

cum coniugibus ac Ifberis vestris, with your wives and children. cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgress! (B. G. 19),
ii.

having

crossed the river with the archers

and s lingers.

quae supplicatio si cum ceteris conferatur (Catil. iii. 1 5), if this thanksgiving be compared with others. quae [lex] esse cum teld vetat (Milon. n), the law which forbids [one] to go armed (be with a weapon). si secum suos eduxerit (Catil. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates.

[For secum, see

99.

<?.]

NOTE.

The

ablative is used without

:

cum
ii.

in military phrases,

and here and

there by early writers

as,

subsequebatur omnibus copiis (B. G.

forces.

19), he followed close with all his

hoc praesidio profectus

est (Ver.

ii. i.

86), with this force he set out.

with their compounds, and confundo may take either (i) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative as,

REMARK.

Misceo and iungo,

:

mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. $6),flteasure mingled with pain. cuius animum cum sud misceat (Laelius 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own. fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. Met. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood. Caesar eas cohortes cum suo exercitu coniunxit (B. C. i. 18), Cccsar united those cohorts with his own army. air coniunctus terris (Lucr. v. 562), air imitedwith earth. humano capiti cervicem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. i), to join to a human head a horse's neck.
b.

hoste certare, to fight with the enemy in arms. llbenter haec cum Q. Catulo disputarem (Leg. Man. 66), I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catuhis.
armis

Words cum

of Contention and the like require

cum

as,

NOTE.

But words of contention may take the Dative

8.

in poetry (see \ 229. c).

Ablative of Means.
is
:

c.

i.

The

Ablative

used to denote the means or

unguibus, morsu denique (Tuscul.

in-

strument of an action
fighting with

as,
v.

certantes pugnis, calcibus,

fists, heels,

77),

nails,

and even

teeth.
iii.

cum pugnis

et

calcibus concisus esset (Verr.

their fists

56),

when he had been

pummelled with

and heels.

248, 249.]

Abl.itirt'

of Menus.

2$$

meis labdribus
:

intcritu

rempiiblieam liberavi (Sulla, 33), by

my

toih

I have

the state ffcrn ruin.

nuiltae istarum
those trees
2.

arhorum mea manu sunt satac (Cat. Major were set out with tny own hands.
of

59),

/;/..

The Ablative

Means
:

is

used with verbs and adjectives

ofy?/////r,

abounding^ and the like as, u us bonis omnibus explevit

I

mundum (Univ. 9), God has filled the -world unlh all gt'i'J things. aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches with earth ami fascines.
totum niontem horainibus complevit mountain with men.
(id.
i.

24),

he filled

the

whole

opiums praeda (Ver.

vita plena et conferta

ii.

i.

132), rich -with spoils.

(Sest. 23),

voluptatibus

life filled

and crowded

with

delights.

Forum Appi
Ri idiom.

diffcrtum nautis (Hor. Sat.

i.

5.

4),

Forum Appii crammed

with bargemen.
In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words by a Greek MARK. But compleo, impleo, plenus and refertus often take the genitive in
(cf. $

prose

223).

Thus,

omnia plena luctus et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief a nd /no urn ing. 611am denariorum implere (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here
evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]

convivium vicinorum compleo (Cato Major 46, in the mouth of Cato), Ifill up the banquet with my neighbors.

249. The deponents

utor, fruor, fungor,

potior,

vescor,
as,

with several of their compounds, 1 govern the ablative:

utar vestra bemgnitate (Arch. 18), / will avail myself of your kindness. sagacitate canum ad utilitatem nostram abutimur (N. D. ii. \$\},wetake advantage of the sagacity of dogs for our own benefit. ita mihi salva republica vobiscum perfrui liceat (Catil. iv. 1 1), so may I
enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous. auro heros potitur (Ov. Met. vii. 155), the hero takes the gold. Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), Numidians fed mostly on milk and ginne. fungi inani munere (^in. vi. 885), to perform an idle se>
.

the

NOTE. This is really an Ablative of Means and the verbs are really in the middle voice ($ in. a). Thus titor signifies / employ myself, or avail myself by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving
the construction as

we

find

it.

These are abutor, deutor, def ungor, defruor, perfruor, perfungor.

256

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

[249,250.

a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to get control or be master of affairs ( 223. a) as,
:

totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. get possession of the whole of Gaul.
b.

i.

3), they hope they

can

In early Latin, these verbs are often transitive, and take the ac:

cusative
ille

as,
estate.

commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral functus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc.
patria potitur

NOTE.

The Gerundive

of these verbs
cf.

is

used personally

in the passive as

if

the verb were transitive (but

294. c)

as,

Heraclio omnia utenda ac possidenda tradiderat (Verr. ii. 46), he hadgiven over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and
possessed).
9.

Ablative of Degree of Difference.

25O. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference
:

as,

plures, two thousand more (more by two thousand), quinque milibus passuum distat, it is Jive miles distant (it stands off by

duobus milibus
miles).

five

aliquot ante annis (Tuscul.

aliquanto post suspexit (Rep.

multo

me

4), several years before. 9), a while after he looked up. vigilare acrius (Cat. i. 8), that I watch much more sharply
i.

vi.

(more

sharply by much),
nihilo erat ipse Cyclops

quam aries prudentior (Tuscul. Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
. .

v.

115), for the

(hoc)

REMARK. This use is tanto quanto

;

especially frequent with the ablatives

(cf.

quo

. .

eo

106. c)

as,
less

quo minus

cupiditatis,

eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the

greed, the

more weight (by what the less, by that the more). quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur (E.G. v. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.

To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quo and with a comparative even when they have ceased to be felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause: as,
NOTE.

eo

eoque

me minus

paenitet (Nat.

D.

i.

8),

and for

that reason

regret

less, etc.

(by so much the

less I regret).

a. The Ablative of Comparison ( 247) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are often used together with the same adjective as,
:

multo

divitior Crasso,

much

richer than Crassus.

251,252.]

Ablative'of Quality ; of Price.

10.

257

Ablative of Quality.

251. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with a Modifier (either an adjective or limiting genitive).
This
is

called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative

gladiatores (Catil.
ii.

of Quality.
are of a

animo meliore sunt

better

26), the gladiators

mind.
civitas aequissimo iure ac foedere (Arch. witk perfectly equal constitutional rights.
ii. i.

quae cum esset

a
city

6),

as this

was

mulierem eximia pulchritudine (Ver.

beauty.

(^},awoman of extraordinary

Hortensius memoria tanta fuit ut, etc. (Brutus, 301), Hortensius had so good a memory that, etc. (was of so great memory), quam elato animo est (Theramenes) (Tuscul. i. 96), how lofty a spirit

Theramenes
Aristoteles, vir

displays.

summo

ingenio, scientia, copia (Tuscul.

i.

7), Aristotle,

man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression. quam tenui aut nulla potius valetudine (Cato Major 35), what feeble
a
health he had, or rather none at all ! de Domitio dixit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. ing Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.
25), concern-

stantive

Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality) modifies a subIt is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be it. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are either attributive or predicate. equivalent to adverbs. Compare,

NOTE.

The

by describing

mulier pulchra, a beautiful ivoman.

mulier

magna

pulchritudine, a

woman

ofgreat beauty, with

mulier pulchritudine Tr5iam delevit, by her beauty a woman destroyed Troy. mulier excellens pulchritudine ( 253), a woman preeminent in beauty.
a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the

Ablative (cf.

215, note): as,

have long hair. capill5 sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they ut capite opertS sit (Cato Major 34), /<? have his head covered (to be of
covered head).
11.

Ablative of Price.
:

252. The Price

agrum
vendiclit

of a thing is put in the ablative sestcrtium sex milibua, he sold the landfor 6000
vii.

as,

sesterces.

Antonius regna addixit peciinia (Philip, money.

15),

Antony

sold thrones for

logos ridicu*los: qui cena poscit (PI. Stich. 221), jokes: who wants them for (at the price of) a dinner? magnd illi ea cunctatio stctit (Liv. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear.

NOTE.

To

this

head

is

to

be referred the Ablative of the Penalty,

220. 6.

1.

258

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

252.

a. Certain adjectives of

Quantity are used in the Genitive to denote

tanti,

indefinite

value.
as,

Such are magni, parvi,

quanti, pluris,

minoris
est

mihi tanti (Cat.

mea magni
illud

ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of so interest, it is ofgreat consequence to me.

much).

parvi

Verresne

tibi

refert (Manil. 18), this is of small accottnt. tanti fuit (Ver. ii. i. 77), was Verres of so

much account

to

you ?
tantone minoris decumae venierunt (Verr. so much less ?
ut te redimas
:

iii.

106), were the tithes sold for

captum quam queas minimo si nequeas paululo, at quanti to ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheapest rate you can; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.
queas (Ter. Eun. 74),

NOTE.
b.

These are

really genitives of quality (^ 215. ^).

is used in the same way. a farthing ; flocci (a lock of wool), a

The

genitive of certain colorless nouns

Such are
straw.

nihili, nothing'; assis,

Thus,
flocci facio (Att.
xiii.

non

50),

I care

not a straw.

utinam ego istuc abs te factum nihili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), oh! that I cared nothing for this being done by you! ego non flocci pendere (Ter. Eun. 411), I did not care a straw.
c.

With verbs

in

exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. commutare, permutare, vertere. Thus,

of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given Such are: mutare,

fidem suam et religionem pecunia commutare (Cluentius his faith and conscience for money.
vertere funeribus triumphos (Hor. Od.
the funeral-train

129), to barter

i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to (exchange triumphs for funerals), exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q, C. iii. 7), he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land), velox amoenum saepe Lucretilem mutat Lycaeo Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. i), nimble Faunus often changes Lycccus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at the price ^/"Lycaeus, i.e. he goes from Lycseus to Lucretilis.]

With verbs of exchanging NOTE. conception of the action as,

:

cum

is

often used, perhaps with

different

aries

cum

his fleece for [one

d.

croceo mutabit vellera luto (Eel. iv. 44), the dyed with] the yellow saffron.

ram

shall change

With verbs of buying and

must be used, except

as,

selling the simple ablative of price in the case of tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris
:

quanti earn emit? vili quot minis? quadraginta minis (PI. Epid. 51), what did he buy her for ? Cheap. For how many mince ? Forty.
. . .

253.]

Ablative of Specification.
12.

259

Ablative of Specification.
of
is

The Ablative
to

which anything
i.

Specification denotes or is !onc : as,

t

that

/;/

lame of one foot. lingua haesitantes, voce absuni (De Orat. i. 115), hesitating in
Aj^-s. 8),

virtute praecedunt (P>. (.1. claudus altero pede (Nq>.

i), they excel in courage.

speech,

harsh in voice.

cam non sensu nostro sed salute ipsius tuciianmr (Tusc. i. 90), such is our love of country that we measure it nut by our own feeling, but by her cnvn -welfare. sunt enim homines non re sed nomine (Offic. i. 105), .for they are met. not in fact, but in name.
tanta caritas patriac est, ut

maior natu, older ; minor natu, younger (of. 91. c). TnfTrmus mollisque natura (Laslius 75), weak and yielding by nature. paulum aetate progress! (Cat. Major 33), somewhat advanced i* age.

corpore senex esse potuit animo nunquam erit (Cat. Major 38), he may have been an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart. non solum re et sententia sed verbis quoque hoc interdictum ita esse

compositum
substance

and effect,

(Coecin. 86), this prohibition but also in language.

was

so conceived not only in

hom5 mea sententia

very wise.
.

prudentissimus (Caecin. 22), a

man, in my opinion,

equitatu pulsi erant (B. G. vii. 68), they had been beaten in the cavalryJight. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative NOTE. expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done. But as the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the abHence the ablative of specification is closely akin to that of manner, and to lative. many ablatives which have been developed from other fundamental ideas. Thus,

meo iure, with perfect right; but, meo modo, in my fashion. mea sententia, /;/ my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea
[Here the sense
second, source. ~\
is

sententia.

the same, but the

first

ablative

is

specification; the

propinquitate coniunctos atque natura (Laelius 50), closely allied by kindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, but no doubt is a development of means.'] qui vincit viribus (I.xlius 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior.] neque enim ulla alia condicione bella gesserunt (B. G. vii. ^^),for on no other terms did thcv carry on wars.
a.

The Supine

in

-ii,

used chiefly with adjectives,

1

is

equivalent to an

ablative of specification (cf.

mirabile dictu, marvellous to

14.

303)
and

as,

tell.

N<>TF.

In this use of the supine, dative

ablative constructions have,

no

doubt, been confounded.

260

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

13.

254, 255.

Ablative of Place.

Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place). But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was, no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated with in in most cases.

NOTE. where and

The

254. The Ablative

is

used to denote the place where

258.
is

(usually with the preposition in, a. The ablative of the place where
expressions
(cf.

c).

retained in

many
:

idiomatic

259. a)

which have

lost the idea of place

as,

pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of'mind'(in our minds), socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), / will present -with you> a

companion in dangers. premit altum corde dolorem (^En. L 209), he keeps down
his heart.
b.
I.

the pain deep in

Several verbs are followed by the locative ablative.

These are:

acquiescS, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nltor, sto, maiieo, fido (confido), consists, contineor. For dat.with (con)fido, see 227.
nominibus veterum
ancients.
gloriantur (Orat. 169), they glory in the names of the [Also, de divitiis (in virtute, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriari.]
9), to rely
i.

spe

niti (Att.

iii.

prudentia fidens (Off.

2.

on hope. 81), trusting in prudence.

The

verbals fretus, contentus, and laetus take the locative

ablative: as,
fretus gratia Bruti (Att. v. 21), relying laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty.

on the favor of Brutus.

contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly abl. of cause.] The ablative with the above verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fido in is late) : as.-

REMARK.

in quibus causa mtitur (Gael. 25),

on whom

the case depends.

is

With

several of these verbs the neuter accusative of pronouns

often found.

14.

Ablative Absolute.
1

255.

A
:

noun or pronoun, with a

as,

participle,

may be

put in the ablative, to define the time or circumstances of

an action
1

In this construction the noun was originally in the Locative Case^and denoted circumstance considered as place or time. Afterwards a participle was added to modify the noun, and the two words became fused in a single idea equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause (cf. ab urbe condita, from the founding of the city, lit. from the founded city). After the construction was established, other ablatives not locative no doubt became confounded with the real ablatives absolute.

255.]

Ablative Absolute.

261

vocatis ad se undique mercatSribus (P.. G. iv. 20), having called to him the traders from all quarters (traders having been called;. quibus rebus cognitis Caesar apud militcs rontionatur (B. C. i. 7), having learned this, ( \csar makes a speech to the soldiers.
ac
si illo

and if I thought that with

etc.

sublato depelli a vobis omne periculum iudicarem (Catil. ii. 3), his removal (her being removed) all danger,

nondum hieme confecta

(B. G. vi. 3), the winter not yet over. compressi conatus nullo tumultu publice concitato (Catil. i. attempts were put doii.ni without exciting any general alarm.

ii), the

ne vobis quidem omnibus re etiam turn probata( Catil. ii. 4), since at that time the facts were not yet proved even to all ofyou. imprudentibus nostris atque occupatis in mumtione castrorum (B.C. v. in the fortification 15), while our men were off their guard and busy

of the camp.
fugato omni equitatii (B. G.
vii.

interfecto Indutiomaro (B. G. vi. 2),

68), all the cavalry being put to flight. upon the death of Indutiomarus.

a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the particil as, ple in the Ablative Absolute construction :

exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining). M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), in the consulship of Messala

and
b.

regular

Piso (Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso being consuls). way of expressing dates, see 259. e.~\

[The

ablative absolute with

A_j)hjase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as a participle or an adjective as,

:

incerto quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
the

it

was uncertain what

i.

they should

compertS vanum esse formldinem (Tac. Ann.

66),

when

it

was found tha

alarm was groundless.

This construction belongs to later Latin.

NOTE.
c.

or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive as,
:

A participle

consulto et cogitato (Off. 27), on purpose and with reflection (the matter having been deliberated and thought on),
i.

sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky

(it

[being] clear),

nee auspicato nee

sacrifice.

litato

(Liv.

v.

38), with

no auspices or favorable
Ep. 85, 29), in good

tranquillo, ut

aiunt,

quilibet gubernator est (Sen.

weather, as they say,

1

any man's a

pilot.

The

participle of
in English.

ease, wanting

in Latin

{\ 119. a), is

used

in Sanskrit

and

Greek as

262
d.

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

The
Ablative Absolute in
its

255,

developed form often takes the

In such cases the noun is equivalent place of a Subordinate Clause. to a subject, and the other word to the predicate. So may be replaced
1.
:

Temporal clauses
patre interfecto,

322.

ff.)

as,
killed,

[his] father

having been

[This corresponds to
killed.'}

cum

pater interfectus esset, when his father had been

vii.
I.

recentibus sceleris eius vestigils (Q. C.

crime were fresh.

2.

[Cf.
:

dum

while the traces of the recentia sunt vestigia.]

i),

Causal clauses

321)

as,

at el qui Alesiae obsidebantur

praeterita die qua auxilia suorum exspec-

taverant,

consumpto omni frumento, concilio coacto consultabant (B. G. vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia since the time, etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a
[Cf.

council (see 5 below), consulted together.

etc.]

cum

dies praeteriisset,

Alexander, desperata pace, ad reparandas vires intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6, i), Alexander, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to
recruiting his forces.
3.

[Cf.

cum pacem
as,

desperaret.]

Concessive clauses
at

313):

eo repugnante fiebat (consul), immo vero eo fiebat magis (Milon. 34), but though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected
consul ; nay, rather,
etc.

4.

Conditional clauses
occurrebat

304)
et

as,

debilem praeturam futuram suam, consule ei, Milone (Milon. 25), it occurred to him that his praetorship would be maimed andfeeble, if Milo were consul, [si Milo cdnsul esset.]
(regione) subacta licebit decurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3), if we shall be free to run down into that sea.
28), if this be taken away.
:

mancam

qua

this region is subdued,

qua quidem detracta (Archias

5.

Clauses of accompanying circumstance

as,

ego haec a Chrysogono mea sponte, remoto Sex. RosciS, quaero (Rose. A. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (S. R.
being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus. nee imperante nee sciente nee praesente domino (Milon. 29), without their master's giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.

NOTE. As the English case absolute (the nominative) is far less common than the ablative absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered by a relative
clause with
active participle in English.

when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect These changes may be seen in the following ex-

ample

255-57.]
"At
dentil':
ill!,

Time
sf<i/i,~>.

,nt,/

/Y^r.
"lint they, having

263
paused a
space,

////V/w/rv.'i

iwprut

nmiiit;
:nt;

in occiiptitu :m, siibit'i M- \ silvts

aUjur

erant
acritcr

iti

/w/V/Viquc in cos _/</< t<'>, qtii st;iti'"'M<: pi" castlft COllodUT,

trrisris
cc>/n>rtil<:

.busied in 1m tilyini; the camp, suddenly threw tlu-mselvrs out of the woods then making an a/tack upon those who \v
;

pugnaverunt; ditabusijue
uc,
loci

subsidio

cum
spatio

hue
inter

(pfrf. \ijini

interims.

so)

cun.stitissi-nt,

novo

genere

piignat' perterrit'is nostris, per medios audacissime perruperunt, seque inde incolumes receperunt." C/ESAR, B. G.
v. 15.

camp, tlit-y fought and, though two cohorts had been sent reinforcements, afterthesehad taken their position (leaving very little space of ground between them), as our men were alarmed by the
guard
fiercely;
1

in front of the

strange kind of fighting, they dashed most daringly through the midst of

them, and got off safe." [For the Ablative with Prepositions, see
152.]

VI.-TIME AND PLACE.

1.

Time.
is

256. Time when, or within which,

time
1
.

put in the Ablative

how

long in the
:

Accusative

as,

Ablative

constituta die, on the appointed day ; prima luce, at daybreak. quota hora, at what o'clock ? tertia vigilia, in the third watch.
tribus 2.

proxumis annis (Jug. n), within the

:

last three years.

Accusative

dies continues triginta,/<?r thirty days together. cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he

had marched three

days.
;

NOTE.
accusative
is

The
the

ablative of time

is

locative in

its

origin ($ 254. head-note)

(\ 257).

the

same as

that of the extent

of space

a.

The

Ablative of time within 'which sometimes takes in, and the

Accusative of time

how

long,

per

for greater precision

as,

in diebus proximis
in brevi spatio

decem

(Sail.), -within the

i.

next ten days.

(Ov. Met.
dies (Cat.
is

411), within a brief space (of time).

20),

ludi per
b.

decem

iii.

games for

ten days.

Duration of time

occasionally expressed

milites

quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (H. C. tained the jightJive hours.

by the Ablative as, i. 47), the men had sus:

NOTE.
act
is

In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period.
2.

Space.

257. Extent

of space

is

pur

in

the Accusative

as,

264
fossas

Syntax : Construction of Cases.

qumdecim pedes

257, 258.

in

omm vita

latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches fifteen feet broad. sua quemque a recta consckntia transversum unguem non oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one's life, one should not depart a naiVs breadth from straightforward conscience.

NOTE.
a.
as,
vallo

takes place, and

This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (cf. 258).
is

Measure

often expressed by the Genitive of Quality

(B. G.
30), in a

215. b)

pedum duodecim

ii.

rampart of twelve

feet (in

height).
b.

Distance
;

cusative
(

when considered as extent of space is put in when considered as degree of difference, in the

the Ac-

Ablative

250): as,
quinque clierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days' march, triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below

that place (below by thirty miles).

3.

Place from

Which and End

is

of Motion.

258. The place from which 1

with ab, de, or ex
;

the place

to

denoted by the Ablative which (the End of Motion)

:

by the Accusative with ad or

I
.

in

as,

Place from which

a septentrione, from the north. a vobis discessero (Cat. Maj. 79), when I leave you. de provincia decedere, to come away from one's province.

cum

de monte, down from the mountain.

negotiator ex Africa (Ver.
influxit e
ii.

I. 14),

a merchant from Africa.

Graecia rivulus (Rep. ii. 34), there Jloived in a rill from Greece. ex Britannia obsides miserunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain. Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in the Vosges mountains. quas (navis) ex Pictonibus et Santonls reliquisque pacatis regionibus convenire iusserat (id. iii. n), the ships which he had given orders should
collect

from

the [country of the] Pictones

and

the

Santoni and from

the other

conquered regions.

1 Originally all these relations were expressed with all these words by the cases alone. The accusative denoted the end of motion as in a certain sense the object of the action (cf. petiit), and the ablative in its proper meaning of sepa-

Romam

ration denoted the place from which. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were added to define more exactly the direction of motion, as in to us -ward, toward us,

and by long association became indispensable except

as indicated above.

258.]
2.

.nd of Motion. Place from \Vliich; I :

:

265

Place to which

ad fines Hyrcaniae penetrat (Q. C. vi. 4), he penetrates to the borders of Hyrcania. acliham ad istuin fuiuluni (Caec. 82), I -was going to that estate (cf. 237. d). in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa.
in Italian) profectus,

gone

to Italy.

legatum in Treveros inittit (15. G. iii. n), he sends his lieutenant into the [country of the] Treveri. in Piraea cum exissem (Att. vi. 9, i), taken I had landed at the Piraus. [Admitted by Cicero himself to be wrong, the Piraeus being a town
(see
b,

below).

The passage

is

discussed by
is

him

in Att.

vii.

3.]

NOTE
it

I.

In poetry the end of motion

as,

often expressed

by the Dative

(225.^.3):

clamor caelo (^!n.

2.

v.

451), a shout goes up

of a country,

to the sky.

to the borders ; in, into denotes away from the outside; ex, out cf the interior. Thus ad Italiam pervenit would mean, he came to the frontier, regardin Italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to less of the destination Rome, for instance. So ab Italia profectus est would mean, he came away from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point ex Italia, he came

NOTE

With

the

name

ad

denotes

the country

itself.

Similarly

ab

from

Italy\

from within, as from Rome,

for instance.

a. The names of towns or small islands from 'which, as also and rus, are put in the Ablative without a preposition as,
:

domus

Roma profectus, having set out from Rome. rure reversus, having returned from the country. Roma abesse, to be absent from Rome.
domo
abire, to leave home.
i.

NOTE
from
ut a

With names

of towns,

etc.,

ab

is

often used,

commonly

to denote

the vicinity of: as,

Mutina discederet

(Phil.

xiv.

4),

that he should retire

from

Mutin-.i

(which he was besieging), erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. a vino into the camp.
profecti a

vii.

45), there

was from about G.

domo
to

(Liv.

xl.

33), setting out

from home.
viii.

loca quae a Brundisio propius absunt (Att.

14), places which are

nearer

Brundisiiim (nearer from).

ablative without a preposition
:

NOTE
which

2.

The

is

used to denote the place from

in certain

idiomatic expressions

as,

cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he -would have left his country. patria pellcre, to drive out of the country.

maim

mittere, to emancipate (let

3.

go from the hand).

where
it

NOTE
prose:

The

poets often omit the preposition

would be required

in

as,

minis Acheronte remisso*

266

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

also
as,

258.

b. The names of towns or small islands to which as and rus, are put in the Accusative without a preposition
:

domus

Romam
Delo

rediit,

he returned to Rome.

Rhodum navigare, to sailfrom Delos to Rhodes. rus ibo, I shall go into the country. domum iit, he went home. [So, suas domos abire, to go
In this use genitive. When otherwise modified,
i.

to their

homes.]

NOTE

domum maybe modified by a possessive pronoun or a domum requires the preposition in. Thus,
to the king's house.

domum
in

regis

(Dei.
i.

17),

domum
NOTE
2.

(Cat.

8), to

M.

domum magnam
With
the

venire, to

[But also in Laca's housed} But, come into a large house.

M. Laecae

names

of towns, etc.,

ad may

be used

in the sense of

towards, to the neighborhood of! as,

ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (B. G. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia. ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (come through ad Athenas navigare, to set sail for Athens (landing in the harbor).

to).

NOTE 3.
NOTE
NOTE

The

in either construction (to

urbem Romam, Romam ad urbem, ex urbe Roma.

4.

general words, urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition which or from which) : as, ad urbem, ab urbe, ad
or

Two
The

more nouns

are sometimes expressed after one verb as limits

of motion (see
5.

259.

<&).

poets often omit the preposition with any noun: as,

Italiam Laviniaque venit litora

(^n.

i.

2), he

came

to Italy

and the Lavin

ian shores.
finis Italos mittere (id.
iii.

440),
ii.

you

shall be allowed to reach the Italian

boundaries.

terram Hesperiam venies

(id.

7Si),j<?# shall come

to the

Hesperian land.
($ 302)

REMARK.
exsequias

The
ire, to

preposition

is

omitted with the supine in

-um

and

in

the following old phrases:

pessum

ire, to

go to the funeral. go to ruin.

Infitias ire, to resort to denial.

pessum dare,

to

ruin

(cf.

perdS).

venum venum

dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vendere.j ire, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence venire.] foras (used as adverb), out: as, foras egredi, to go out of doors.

4.

The Place Where.

I. The place where is denoted by the Ablative with c. the preposition in (Locative Ablative] as,
:

in
si

hac urbe vitam

degit, he passed his life in this city.

iv.

in Gallia remanerent (B. G.

dum

haec in Venetis geruntur

in insula

(id.

8), if they should stay in Gaul. iii. 17), -while this was going on

among

the Veneti.

oppidum

positum

(id. vii. 58),

a town situated on an island.

258.]
2.

The /Ymr

\\licre.

267
in

But names of towns and small islands arc put

the

Locative Case.
This has in the first and the second declension singular the same form as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative or Ablative as,
:

Kluxli, at l\hodes

Komae, at Rome (Roma). (Rhodus).

Athenis, at Athens (Athcnae). Lanuvi, at I.anuviiim.

Cypri, at Cyprus. Curibus, at Cures.

Sami, at Santos. Tihurl or Tihure, at Tilntr

Philippis, at Philippi.

Capreis, at Capri (Capreae).

Ri'.MARK. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and not as a locality are treated like names of countries: as,
in Sicilia, in Sicily. in

Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N., cf. 256. rt), in Ithaca hares "when carried there die. [ Ulysses lived at Ithaca, would require

Ithacae.]

ad

NOTE i. With all names of places AT, meaning near (not in), is expressed or apud with the Accusative. In the neighborhood of may be expressed circa with the Accusative among, by apud with the Accusative. Thus,
;

by by

piigna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae. conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore), ad (apud) inferos, in the world below (near or among those below), ad fores, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door.
.

apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud Solos (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli.

apud me, at my house. circa Capuam, round about Capua.

is

NOTE
ioork t iu.

2.

In citing an author,

apud

regularly used; in citing a particular

Thus,

in

apud Xenophontem, in Xenophon. But, Xenophontis Oeconomico, in Xenophorfs CEconomicus.

d.

The

Locative Case

is

also preserved in the following

common

domi
belli,

(rarely

domui), at home.
ruri,
;'//

militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service.

the ground:
the country.

hum!, on

foris, out-of-doors.

terra marique, by land and sea.

These are used

also,

like

names of towns, without a

preposition.

So

her! (-e), yesterday. infelici arbor! (Liv.

vesper!
i.

(-e), in the evening.

.

26), on the ill-omened

268

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

258, 259.

e. The locative domi may be modified by a possessive adjective or a limiting genitive but, when it would be otherwise modified some other construction is used instead of the Locative. Thus,
;

domi domi

Caesaris, at Ccesar's house.

suae vel alienae, at his

own

in Marci Crassi castissima

Crassus.
[Cf.

domo

or another's house. But, (Caelius 9), in the chaste home of Marcus

184.
d.~\

ex Anniana Milonis domo,

f. The place where is denoted in several constructions

:

by the Ablative without a preposition

parte
as,

Regularly in

many

indefinite words, such as loco,

1

quibus loco positls (De Or. iii. qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 1

53),

1),

on

these are set in position. the side where they were beaten.

when

But,

exercitum castris continuit (B. G.

[Here the construction

2.

is

48), he kept his influenced by means.~]

i.

army

in camp.

Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu-

larly

when totus

is

used)

as,
city.

media urbe (Liv.

i.

33), in the middle of the

tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily). tota Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina (cf. c. 2. Rem.).
3.

So,

Freely in poetry

as,

Htore curvo (^En. iii. 16), on the winding shore. antro seclusa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave. Epiro, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.
g.
as,

The way by which

is

put in the ablative without a preposition

via breviore equites praemisi shorter road.

(Fam.

x. 9),

sent

forward

the cavalry by

Aegaeo man
NOTE.

traiecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14),

iii.

he crossed by

way of the Aegean

Sea.

provehimur pelag5 (yn.

In this use the

506),

we
is

sail forth over the sea.

way

by -which

conceived as the means of passage.

5.

Special Uses of Time and Place.

259. The
served
:

following

special

uses require to be ob-

a. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when, where in English the main idea is rather of place: as,

pugna Cannensi (or apud Cannas), in

the Jight at ludls Romanis, at the Roman games. omnibus Gallicis bellis, in all the Gallic wars.

Canna.

259.1
b.

Special Uses of Time

ami Place.

269

In

many
used.

or

sub

is

idiomatic express'ons of time, the accusative with ad, in, Such are the following
:

supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas lanuarias, the \st of January.

a thanksgiving was voted for

convenerunt ad diem, they assembled at the [appointed] day. ad vesperum, //'// evening; sub vesperum, towards evening. sub idem tempus, about the same time. sub noctem, at night-fall.
c.

Time during which

noun

or within which

ace. or abl. of a

in the singular, with

may be expressed by the an ordinal numeral as,

:

quinto die, within [justf/our days (lit., on the counted both ends, see 376. d.~\

fifth

day).

[The Romans
is

regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years (he now the sixth year).

reigning

But
d.
as,

also,

regnavit iam sex annos, he has already reignedfor six years.

is

Distance of time before or after anything

variously expressed

post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertium post annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno ( 250), three years after. tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (postquam eiectus est), three years
after his exile.
his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years.

a few years hence. abhinc annos tres (tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago. triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since.
paucis annis,

octavo mense
e.

quam

(see

262. note 2), the eighth

month

after.

ordinal alone,

In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and the
itself

phrase

may
is

also be governed

by a preposition.
:

expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, often without a conjunction ( 255. d) as,
is

The year

dies erat a. d.

qulntum Kalendas

Aprilis L. Pisone A. Gabinio consulibus

(B. G. i. 6), that day was the $th before the calends of April (March 28), in the consulship ofPiso and Gabinius. in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the $th day before the calends of November (Oct. 28).
xv.

Kal. Sextilis, the i$th day before the calends of [Full form: quinto decimo die ante Kalendas.]
///),

August (July

1 8).

f. For AT, meaning near (not

see

258.

c.

note
258.

i.

NOTE.

For TO and FROM with names of places, see

270

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

259, 260.

g. When motion to a place is implied in English, though not expressed* the accusative with or without a preposition must be used in Latin as,
:

coniurati in curiam. convenerunt, the conspirators (came together into the Senate-house),

met in

the Senate-house,

concilium
h.

domum

suam convocavit, he

called a council at his

own

house.

two or more names of place follow a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction. Thus,
quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Volaterras defertur (Rose. A. 20), within four days after this was done, the matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla's camp AT
Volaterra.

When

VII.

-USE OF PREPOSITIONS.

26O. Some Prepositions are used with the Accusative, some with the Ablative, 1 and a few with both.
NOTE.
a.

For the

list

of Prepositions, see

\ 152.

Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the construction

of the place in which.

Such are:

pono and

its

compounds
etc.

(except

impono), loco,

colloco, statuo, constituo,

qui in sede ac

place
statuitur

domo collocavit (Paradox. 25), -who put [one] into his and home. eques Romanus in Aproni conviviS (Verr. iii. 62), a Roman
is

insula Delos in

brought into a banquet of Apronius. AegaeS marl posita (Leg. Man. 55), the island of Ddost situated in the Aegean Sea.
knight
(id.

si

in iino Pompeio omnia poneretis depend on Pompey alone. Position

is

59), if

you made everything

b.

frequently expressed by the Ablative with

2
'

ab

(rarely

ex), properly meaning from:'

a tergo, in the rear.

as,

a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey. a sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.] ex altera parte, on the other side.

magna ex
1

parte, in

a great degree (from,

i.e.

in, a great part).

The

force lies strictly with the Case,

and the preposition only indicates more

clearly direction QI place.

2

Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes.

260. 261.]
c.

Use of Prepositions.
in the sense of concerning takes the Ablative
;

2f I
in all other

Super
it

senses

takes the Accusative: as,

hac super re (Cic.), concerning this thing. super tali causa missi (Ncp. Pans. 4), sent on stick an errand. sed hac re super nimis (Alt. x. 8), but more than enough on that point. super culmina tecti (/Kn. ii. 695), above the house-top. super vallum praecipitari (Jug. 58), to be hurled over the rampart. super lateres curia inducuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are drawn over the bricks.
super Numidiam (Jug. 19), beyond Numidia. super terrae tumulum (Legg. ii. 66), on the mound of earth. super vinum (Q. C. viii. 4), over [his] wine.

NOTE.

The

ablative

is

used

in poetry with

super
i.

in other senses: as,

ligna super foco large reponens (Hor. Od.

9. 5),

piling logs generously

on thejire. nocte super media (yEn.

d.

ix.

61), after midnight.

Subter
togam

takes the Accusative, except sometimes in poetry.

(Liv.),

Thus,

subter

under his mantle.

But,

subter litore (Catull.), below the shore.

e. Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Ablative, but sometimes the Genitive ( 223. e). Thus,

Taur5 tenus (Deiot.

36), as far as

Taurus.

capu!5 tenus (yn. ii. 553), up to the hilt. Corcyrae tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra.

NOTE. Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun, making an adverbial phrase: as,
hactenus, hitherto
;

quatenus, so far as.

this

de hac re hactenus, so much for that (about

matter so far).

261.

Many words may be

Adverbs
:

construed either as PreposiproximS, 1 usque propior and proximus may be

:

tions or as
a.

thus,
postridie", propius,

The adverbs pridie,

also (less frequently) the adjectives

followed by the Accusative

(cf.

207. b, 234. e)

as,

(Cic.), the day before the Nones of June (June 4). pridie postridie ludos (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games. ipse propior montem suos collocat (Jug. 49), he stations his men nearer

Nonas lunias

the hill.

proxime Pompeium sedebam

(Att.

i.

14)

I sat next to Pompey.

[Cf. proxi-

mus Pompeium sedebam.]

i Cf.

prope,

152. a.

272

Syntax: Construction of Cases.

iv. 28),

261.

pars Insulae quae est propius sdlis occasum (B. G. island which is nearer the west (sunset),

the part of the

terminos usque Libyae (Just.), to the bounds of Libya. NOTE. Pridie and postridie take also the Genitive ( 223. e. note 2). Propior, propius, proximus, and proxime, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with at). Usque is commonly followed by ad. Thus,
propius Tiber! (Nep.), nearer the Tiber. propius ab urbe (Plin.), nearer the city.

usque ad mare,

to

the sea.

b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions and take the ablative (so perhaps intus, 1 as, 53, note) rem creditor! palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt in the
:

presence of the people.

baud procul castris in far from the camp,

the barbarian.

modum

built tip like

municipii exstructa (Tac. a town.

v. 10. 29),

H.

iv. 22),

not

simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr.

close

among

us dwells

NOTE.
Thus,

in classic use;

But simul regularly takes cum procul is usually followed by ab and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
;

procul a marl, far

from
the

the sea.
ourselves.

nobiscum simul, at
c.

same time with

is

found with the Accusative or Ablative, with the Genitive or Dative as, rarely clam matrem suam (Plaut), unknown to his mother.
:

The adverb clam

clam mihi (id.), in secret from me. clam patris (id.), without his father's knowledge. clam vobis (B. C. ii. 32), without your knowledge.
d.

Prepositions often

retain

their

original

meaning as adverbs.

So
1
.

especially

Ante and post

in relations of time

as,
etc.

quae pauld ante praecepta dedimus (Cic.), a little while ago, post tribus diebus, three days after (cf. 259. d}.
2.

Adversus, contra,

circiter,

prope

as,

adversus resistere, to hold out in opposition. Aeolus haec contra, thus ALolus in reply.
circiter pars quarta, about the foitrth part.

3.

prope exanimatus, nearly lifeless. In general those ending in -a:

forte fuit

as,
to be

iuxta tumulus, there happened

mound close
170.]

by.

NOTE.

Clam and versus are by many

excluded from the

list "of

prepositions.

[For the use of Prepositions in Composition, see

262, 263.]

f'sr <'f J^n'positiivts.

273

12<2.

Some

prepositions or adverbs which imply

like

Com-

parison arc

may

comparatives, by quam, which be separated by several words, or even clauses.

followed,

neque ante dimisit eum quam fulem declit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did h: let him go until he gave a pledge. post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it.

NOTE i. Such words are ante, magis and prae in compounds: as,

prius, post, pridie, postridie;

also

Cato ipse iam servire quam pugnare mavult (Alt. this time would rather be a slave than fight.
si

vii.

15), Cato himself by

iam principatum Galliae obtinere non

possint, Gallorum quam Romanorum imperia praeferre (13. G. i. 17), if they can no longer hold the chief rank in Gaul, [they] prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
2.
:

NOTE
same way

The

ablative of time

256)

is

sometimes followed by quam.

in the

as,

octavo mense

quam

(Liv. xxi. 15), within eight

months

after, etc.

263. For a or ab with the Ablative

246.

of

Agent, see

NOTE. The following prepositions sometimes follow their nouns ad, citra, circa, contra, de, e (ex), inter, iuxta, penes, propter, ultra, tenus
:

(regularly),

and occasionally others:

as,

[usus] quern penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendl (Hor. A. P. 72), custom, under ivhose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech. cuius a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (C. M.
84),
(lit.

whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary contrary to which} mine should have been burned by him.

274

Syntax: The Verb.

CHAPTER
L

III.

Syntax of

the

Verb.

MOODS AND TENSES.

The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods NOTE. (expressing the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (expressing the time of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense. The moods, except the infinitive, are only specialized tenses ; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes
have modal
significations (compare indicative in apodosis, 311. c\ future for imperative, $ 269. /) ; and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future conditions, 307. , and notice the want of a future subjunctive

no.

a).

parent language, besides the imperative mood, had two distinct forms with the Subjunctive, expressing an action as willed or vividly conceived; and the Optative, expressing an action as wished for or vaguely conceived. Of these, the Subjunctive was developed from a Present Tense, by which an action continued in present time was represented as future : compare in English, the army marches to-morrow. Such an action came to be conceived on the one hand as command: compare the military order, the regiment will advance; and on the other as a possibility or a mere conception : compare anybody will under-

The

modal

signification

stand that.

The Optative has had a similar development. It was originally a tense-form compounded with YA, and probably denoted past time (cf. Eng. should and would) but like the subjunctive, it has acquired the two meanings of conception and command.
\

It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the subjunctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by

this process the

mood

used comes to have

it

in

each case a special meaning, which

is

afterwards habitually associated with

analysis

in that construction.

expression I would do this has become equivalent to it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact ( 308) if I were you, etc. By further analysis, I would go is seen to have meant, originally, / should have wished (or / did wish} to go. In Latin., the original subjunctive and the optative became confounded in form and meaning, and were merged in the present subjunctive. Then new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed by composition 1 and to these the original as well as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see 265). All the
:
;

Thus in English the a mild command; while by

independent uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen in every case from the employment of some independent subjunctive construction in co-ordination'with a main statement. In time the two clauses have so grown together as to form a single
l

For the

signification of these tense-endings, see pp. 120, 121.

264.]

The Indicative

J,

to have assumed subordinate meaning peared, and a new meaning has arisen by implication. Thus, mi3it legates qul 1 dlcerent, he sent ambassadors to say (i.f. who would .\,iy in case). Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc oplniSnem, IQctum sustuleris (remove this notion, you will have doi!'
is felt

compound sentence, and the subjunctive member

relations toward the other clause.

The

origin. il

<

..

with grief:

i.e.

ifyou remove, etc.).

is

The infinitive void videre, lit.

see?
;

a verbal noun, modifying a verb like other nouns wish for-seeing": compare English what went ye out for to But in Latin it lias been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for iid some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for
originally
:

"

other moods. The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various ways, which are treated under their respective heads below. The proper verbal constructions may be thus classified
:

i.

INDICATIVE: Direct Assertion or Question ($.264). Wish, Exhortation, Command, Question

265. a).
i.

($

Purpose (withut. ne)

($ 317).

2.

SUBJUNCTIVE:

2 - Result (with ut.'ut

3. b.

non) ($319).

Dependent
"{L"nap.v.J~:

4.
5. 6. 7.

Time

Characteristic (Relative Clause; ($ 320). ^wiih cUmj (,$325).

Conditions f (.

Future

(le"ss

vivid}

($307^^).

Contrary to fr'actj j 308). Intermediate (indirect Discourse) (341). Indirect Questions or Commands ($$ 334,
339)(often subjunctive) (J 269).

I.

Direct

Commands

IMPERATIVE:

\ 2.
{ 3.

Statutes.

a.
b.

Laws, and Wills ($ 269. d). Prohibitions (early or poetic use) ($ 269. note). Subject of 6886 and Impersonal verbs ($ 270).

INFINITIVE:

Objective Constructions:

Complementary
2.

Infinitive ($ 271).

Indirect

Discourse (with subjeet-accusa-

{i.
1.

jBve) ($ 272).
($

Idjornatic

Purpose (poetic or Greek use) ($ 273). 2 Exclamation Jwith subject-accusative)

.

Uses

275).

I.

-MOODS.
!

I.

Tin:
is

^^
mood

2G4. The Indicative

questions when there except that of time.
is

the

of direct assertions or

no modification of the verbal idea

a. The Tenses of the Indicative generally denote time, as/; past, orfitturt-, with reference to the speaker ( 276 ff.).

Compare

note on the development of syntaxis from parataxis, p. 164.

276
NOTE.
clauses,

Syntax: The Verb.

Time
323.

[264,265.
See uses of temporal

thus denoted

is

often called absolute time.

b.

The

Indicative

is

sometimes used where the English idiom would

suggest the Subjunctive: as,

longum

est, it

satius erat, it

would be tedious [if, etc.], would have been better [if, etc.],

persequi possum,
c.

I might follow up
Indicative
is

[in detail].

The Future The

sometimes used

for

the

Imperative
306,

269.7).
d.

indicative

is

used in some kinds of conditions (see

is

308).
e. The place of the indicative in narration the Historical Infinitive ( 275).

sometimes supplied by
its

f. In Indirect Discourse a narrative clause has

tive (see

verb in the

Infini-

272, 336).
II.

THE

SUBTUNCTIVE.

265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modification 1 such as is expressed in English

by
(

auxiliaries,

by the

infinitive, or

by the rare subjunc-

tive

112. b).

The
ent
(cf.

uses of the subjunctive are independent or dependhead-note, p. 274).

Subjunctive
is

a. Tr^e
1.

used independently to express

An

Exhortation, Concession, or

Command

(Hortatory,

266).

2.

3.

A Wish (Optative. S 267). A Question of Doubt or Deliberation

(Deliberative^

268).

These constructions (with the exception of some forms of Deliberative Subjunctive) are merely different phases of the same use.

NOTE.

tive is

In the conclusion (apodosis) of Conditional Sentences, the subjuncgrammatically independent, though logically it depends on some condition expressed or implied ($ 304). The so-called Potential Subjunctive comes under

REMARK.

this

head (see

311. a).
is

b.

The

subjunctive

used in dependent clauses to express

its

These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had

own

special development (compare introductory note, p. 274). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (see clauses of Result and Time), where the

English does not modify the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly ; but in these cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action, and has developed its construction differently from the English.

265, 266.]
1.

Hortatory Subjunctive.

277

2.

Purpose (Final, 317). Result (Consecutive, 319).

Characteristic
(

3.

320).

4.

325). Indirect question ( 334). 6. Condition : future or contrary to fact (

5.

Time (Temporal,

307.

c,

308).
(

c.

The

subjunctive

is

also used with Particles of

Comparison
336).

312),

and

in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (

l.\

Hortatory Subjunctive.
is

The Hortatory Subjunctive

on, a

used to express

ai

command, a

concession, or a condition.

The

Present tense refers to future or indefinite time

the Perfect, to past time or completed future time ; th Imperfect, to present or past time ; the Pluperfect, to completed past time
:

as,
vii.

hos latrones interficiamus (B. G.

58), let us kill these robbers.

(Of.
i.

caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae shun excess and cherish modesty.

Epicurus hoc viderit (Ac.
ii.

122), let

them

19), let

Epicurus look

to this.

subjunctive of exhortation and command takes the presthe perfect. The Perfect represents an action as coment tense, pleted in future time ; but in most cases is hardly to be distinguished from the Other tenses are used in some varieties of this construction (see c. Present.

NOTE.

The simple less commonly

note

and

e).

REMARK.

The

negative particle used with the hortatory subjunctive

is

is

n.

&

The Second Person

prohibition, in early Latin,

iniurias fortunae,

and

used only of an indefinite subject, except In in poetry (cf. Thus, 269. b).

quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tus. v. 118) wrongs offortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by Jlight. exoriare aliquis ultor (/En. iv. 625), rise, some avenger. isto bono utare clum adsit, cum absit no requiras (Cat. Maj. 33), use this
the

blessing while it is present ; when it is wanting, do not regret it. ne conferas culpam in me (Ter. Eun. 388), don't lay the blame on me. nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), pardon nothing. doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas (/En. vi. 109), show us the way and lay open the sacred portals.

(X

common

In Prohibitions addressed to a definite person, the perfect than the present (cf. 269. a) : as,

is

more

278
hoc
facitS:

Syntax: The Verb.

h5c ne feceris (Div.
ii.

266.

127), thou shalt

do this; thou

shall not

do that.
tu ne quaesieris (Hor.), do not inquire. nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say that
tew

to

me.

The

SION,

hortatory subjunctive is especially used to express a CONCESsometimes with ut, ne, quamvis, quamlibet, or similar words

fuerit

aliis

others,

tibi quando esse when did he begin to

:

coepit (Ver.
be to you ?

ii. i.

37), suppose he

was [so]

to

ut rationem Plato nullam afferret QTusc.

reasons.

i.

49), thottgh Plato

adduced no

nemo
ne

is

unquam
:

fuit

ne fuerit
(let there

(Or. 101), there never

was such a one [you

ii.

will say] sit

granted

not have been).

certe est (Tus.
it is

summum malum
is

dolor,
evil,

malum
at least

14),

granted that

pain

not the greatest

an

evil.

scelerati illi fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might have been. quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. So), amiable as he may have been in keeping his friendships (let him have been as amiable as

quamvis

you

please).

In this use the Present refers to future or indefinite time, the Imperpresent or past time (the concession being impliedly untrue), the Perfect to fast or completed future time, the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (the concession being usually untrue). NOTE 2. The Indicative is often used in concessions (see $313).
i.

NOTE

fect to

REMARK.
ft

313. c)
'Of.

Concessions with si and its compounds belong to Protasis (see those with licet, to Substantive Clauses (see 313. b).

The

hortatory subjunctive

may be used

to denote a

PROVISO (see

3H).
\g.

The

Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive denote

:

an

unfulfilled obligation in past time

as,

moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post. 29), he should have died, you will say. potius diceret (Off. iii. 88), he should rather have said. ne poposcisses (Att. ii. \),you should not have asked. saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have
taken something from the
zveight.

REMARK. This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from its use in apodosis (potential, 311. a). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought (not would or might).
NOTE.
clearly representing the time for action as

In this use the Pluperfect differs from the Imperfect only in more momentary or as/aj/.

267.]
^
I

Optative Subjunctive.
2\

279

Optative Subjunctive.
is
'

used to express a Wish. The / as possible, the knpc. rfprt ns tense denotes the wish preSeTTt in ttnaccomplishcd present time, the pluperfect as unaccom- jjCu^c^ in time. Thus, past plished

pG7\ The Subjunctive

ita

ne

vlvam vivam

si

(Alt. v. 15), J0 may I live (as true as I live). scio (id. iv. 16), I wish I may not live if I know.

perduint (Dei. 21), the gods confound thee ! valeant, valeant, cives mei; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 93), farewell
di te
di

[he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be sec tire from harm. facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me to be without a father (but they do not)
!

a.

The

Perfect in this use

is

antiquated

as,

male

faxint (Plaut. Cure. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief. quod omen di averterint (Philip, xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the gods avert this omen.
di tibi

b.

The Optative Subjunctive

utinam, o
si
:

is

often preceded

by the

particles uti

(ut),

as,

ut pereat positum robigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. i), may the weapon unused perish with rust. falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), I wish 7 may be a false prophet. utinam. P. CISclius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive.

utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q.

ji-sL angulus
ille

Fr.
Sat.

i.

3),

would you had seen me

dead.

accedat (Hor.

ii.

6. 8),

oh! if that corner might

only be added.

NOTE
how may
note)
si
;

i.
I,

The
(

subjunctive with uti,

etc.,

was

originally deliberative,

meaning

etc.

si alone

is

subjunctive with 6 si (poetical} is a protasis ($ 312. sometimes used to express a wish in the same way: as,
268).

The

nunc se nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat (/En. golden branch ~uould only shcnu itself to us !

vi.

187), if

now

that

NOTE 2. The subjunctive of Wish without a particle is rarely found in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse ( 286):
as,

ac venerata Ceres
rect
c.

ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. Sat. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [Di:

ita surgas.]

Velim and vellem, and

equivalent to

their

infinitive, are often

compounds, with a subjunctive or an optative subjunctive as,

:

dc Mcneilemi" vellem verum fuisset, <le regina velim verum sit (Att. xv. MtiU&mm I wish it had been true ; about the queen 1 4), iihout
hope
it

may

br.

280

Syntax: The Verb.

267-69.

nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), I wish the time never had come. mallem Cerberum metueres (Tus. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid
of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared C.). NOTE. Velim, etc., in this use, are strictly apodoses with the protasis omitted 311. b). The thing wished is really a substantive clause used as object of the
(

verb of wishing

331. b).

[For Concessive Subjunctive, see

313; for Potential Subjunctive, see

311.]

|j3.\

Deliberative
is

268. The Subjunctive

(i) doubt,

indignation, or (2)
:

used in questions implying an impossibility of the thing

being done

as,

quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini eius invenias (Verr. ii. 40), what are you to do with this man ? whatfit penalty can

you devise for his wantonness? an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come? quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say? mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 94), could 1
quis

think that the defence ofgood men would everfail me ? enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame ?

REMARK. This use is apparently derived from the Hortatory Subjunctive: quid faciamus? = faciamus laliquid], quid? let us do what? Once estabquid f aciam? what AM / to do ? lished, it was readily transferred to the past quid f acerem? what WAS / to do ? Questions implying impossibility, however,
:

cannot be distinguished from Apodosis

(cf.

311. a).
is

NOTE.
tenses, see

The
266.

Deliberative Subjunctive

sometimes called Dtibitative.

For

III.

THE
is

IMPERATIVE.

269. The, Imperative

treaties: as.

used

inCommands and En-

c5nsulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves. die Marce Tulli sententiam, Marcus Tutfijts, state your opinion.
te

ipsum concute, examine yourself

ii.

K^^F
ii.

vive, valeque (Hor. Sat.

5.

no), farewell,

miserere animi non digna

deserved woes.

ferentis (^En.

bless you (live and be well) ! 144), pity a soul bearing un-

NOTE.

ne

is

In Negative Commands {prohibitions) the Present Imperative with used by early writers and the poets as,
:

ne time (Plaut. Cure. 520), don't be afraid. nimium ne crede color! (Eel. ii. 1 7), trust not too much equo ne credite (,/En. ii. 48), trust not the horse.

to

complexion.

[For the Future Imperative with ne in laws and formal precepts, see

d. 3, below.]

269.1 J

The Imperative; Prohibition* 4

is

fa

Prohibition

regularly expressed in classic prose:

rv *
.

V
ne

[41115 with Jjie second person of the Perfect Subjunctive; as,

territus fueris (V:\c.
1

1.

i.

id),

</<>//'/ /;

alarmed.

Y\JZ.
i.

ne vos quidem iudices ei qui me absolvistis mortem timueritis (Tusc. 98), nor must you fear death, you judges that, etc.
2.

\iSv*A>-V

By noli

with the infinitive

as,

rWV ^J)^

noli putare (Fam. xiv. 2), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose), nolite cogere socios (Ver. ii. 1.82), do not compel the allies.

NOTE.
ing
(cf. $

The
:

poets frequently use instead of noli other words of similar meanas,

273. c)

parce

manus (^n. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands. cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 7), forbear to say the rest.
pias scelerare
i.

fuge quaerere (Hor. Od.

3.

9. 13),

do not inquire.

By cave with or without n6

(

(colloquially fac
:

nBVwith

or Perfect Subjunctive 1

th e Prej^nf^

266. b}

as.
1

9 j&* <*

cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don't think. cave dixeris, don't say so.

\~**\
else.

^ JL.
{^

cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), don't do, it. fac ne quidaliud cures (Fam. xvi. n), see that you attend to nothing

NOTE.

Other negatives sometimes take the place of ne

as,

^n_on dubitaveris (Sen.

nibil ignoveris

Q. N. i. 3, 3), you mitst not doubt. (Mur. 65) grant no pardon (pardon nothing).
,

Prohibitions addressed to no definite person are regularly expressed by the Present Subjunctive with ne (cf. c, below) as,
:

(0\ General

denique isto bono utare dum adsit cum absit ne requiras (Cat. Maj. ^3). in short, ttse this good while present ; when wanting, do not regret it.
:

NOTE.
with

The

poets and early writers sometimes use the Present Subjunctive

:

ne

in prohibitions not general

sis (Plaut.

as,

molestus ne

Most. 771), don't be troublesome.

ii.

ne

sis

patruus mihi (Hor. Sat.

3.

88), don't be a
is

\ harsh]

uncle to me.
:

fo The third person of the imperative

ollis salus

antiquated or poetic

popull suprema lex esto, the safety of the people shall be their first law. iusta imperia sunto, eisque elves modeste parents (Leg. iii. 6), let there be lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.

^NOTE.

In_prose the ^ortatory Subjunctive

is

commonlyjised instea J?j 266)! as,

let this

haec igitur lex in amicitia sanqmtur down in case offriendship.

'

(Lsel. 40),

law thetTte laid

1 In prohibitions the Subjunctive with ne is hortatory; that with object clause (originally hortatory, cf. $ 33i./,~ Kcm.).

cave

is

an

282
faL

Syntax: The Verb.

The Future jmperative
is

269.

used in commands,

etc.,

where there

is

futurejinm: viz., 1. In connection with some form that marks a condition precedent (as a future, a future-perfect, or an imperative}. Thus,
Phyllida mitte mihi, meus est natalis, lolla;
ipse venito (Eel.
iii.

(uJtinct reference to

cum

faciam vitula pro frugibus

it is

76), send Phyllis to me,

my

birthday, lollas

[shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come^ourself. die quibus in terris, etc., et Phyllida solus habeto (id. m. 107), tell in

when I
what

lands, etc.,

and hdve

. Phyllis for yourself

2.

With adverbs

or other expressions of

Time

as,
it

eras petito, dabitur (PI. Merc. 769), ask to-morrow [and]

3.
\^.

shall be given.

general directions, as Precepts, Statutes,

and Wills:

as,

cum

you have attended

is iuris civilis

valetudini c5nsulueris, turn cSnsulito navigati5ni (Fam xvi. 4), to your health, then look to your sailing.

when

custos esto (Leg.

iii.

8), let

him

(the praetor) be the guardian

xviii.

of civil right. Borea flante, ne arato, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. north wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.

77),

when

the

\k The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider), Present : as, regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the
filiol5

me auctum

scitS (Att.

i.

2), learn that

I am
it,

blessed with

little

boy.

sic

habeto, mi Tiro""(Tam.

xvi. 4), so

understand

my good

Tiro.

de palla memento, amab5

(PI. Asin.),

pray, dear, remember about the

gown.
r

The Future
as,

Indicative

is

sometimes used
Indicative

for the imperative

and

quM
si

(why not?} with the Present

may have

the force of a

command:

quid accident novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8),^<? will let if anything new happens. ? here, take it (why not take it?). quin accipis (Ter. Heaut. 832)
-.

me know

Instead of the simple Imperative^cura, factor yelim. followed he subjunctive with or without ut ( 331. /. R.) is often used, as, especially in colloquial language
:

2), take care to be at Rome. (Att. fac cures ut ores (Ter. Eun. 500), do try to induce [him]. fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your health. fac, amabo (Ter. Eun. 533), going into the [Cf. rus e5.

cura ut Romae

sis

i.

Pm

country.

Do,

please.

domi

adsitis facite (id. 506), be at

home, do.

eum mihi velim

mittas (Att.

viii.

n), I wish you would send it to me.

269, 270.]
V/.

The

Injlniti
all

283

In the Indirect Discourse

imperative forms of speech arc rep339). the force of a Conditional Clause

resented by the Subjunctive (see

1^

The Imperative sometimes has

310. b}.

(see

IV.

THE

INFINITIVE.

properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abIt differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points stractly. (i) it admits in many cases of the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited

NOTE.

The

Infinitive

is

to special constructions.

The

Latin Infinitive

is

the dative for lorativel rase of such a

noun and was

originally used to denote Purpose ; but it has in many constructions developed into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.

In

its

use as a verb, the Infinitive

is literally,

may

take a Subject-Accusative ($ 240. /),

Infinitive
(cf.

originally the object of another verb

on which the

depended. Thus iubeo

330).

te valere

I command you for being well

1.

substantive clauses,

Tjifinitive, as.

Subject, etc.

Infinitive, with or without a subject-accusaused with est and similar verbs (i) as the be tive, may in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Subject, (2)

27O. The

Predicate Nominative.
1.

Thus,

Subject: as,

dolere

malum

est (Finib.

v.

bellum

est sua vitia

nosse (Att.
rei

84), to suffer pain is an evil. ii. 17), iCs a fine thing to know one's
3), it is

own
to

faults.

pulchrum

est

benefacere

publicae (Sail. Cat.

fluctus (./En.
i.

a noble thing
to

benefit the state.

mot5s praestat componere

troubled waves.

135),
ii.

it is better

calm the

hoc facere ilium mihi quam prosit nescio (Att. his doing this benefits me.
2.

6),

1 dorft know how

In Apposition with the Subject

as,

proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperio uti (Sail. Cat. 12), to commit injustice, were to use power. [Here facere just as if this t
is

in apposition

with id.]
:

3. Predicate Nominative

as,
iv.

id est convenienter naturae

vivere (Finib.

41), that

is to lire

in con-

formity with nature.

[Cf. uti in the last example.]

NOTE i. An infinitive may also be used as Direct Object in connection with Predicate Accusative, or as Appositivc with such Direct Object as,
:

284
istuc

Syntax: The Verb.

ipsum non esse cum

270.

fueris miserrimum puto (Tus. i. 12), for I think very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. miserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant
this

(Tuscul.

iii.

7),

to

feel pity, envy, desire, joy,

all these things the

Greeks call diseases.

NOTE

2.

An

these constructions

Appositive or Predicate noun used with an infinitive in any of is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject ex-

pressed or not.

Thus,
(Parad. 51), to be free from desires (not to be

non

esse

cupidum pecunia
is

desirous)
a.
I.

money in hand.
not

The

infinitive as subject is

common

except with est and

similar verbs.

(See examples above.)

infinitive is

NOTE.

In this use the abstract idea expressed by the

represented

as having some quality or belonging to some thing.

2. But occasionally, especially in less careful writers and in poetry, the infinitive is used as the subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning as,
:

quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere in unum coegit 3 1 )* all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the (J u same things has united into one.
-

ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores (Ov. ex P. ik fully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners.

9.

48), faith-

posse loqui eripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away. non cadit invidere in sapientem (Tuscul. iii. 21), the sage is not liable to envy (to envy does not fall upon the sage). istuc nihil dolere non sine magna mercede contingit (Tuscul. iii. 12-), that apathy is not to be had except at great cost (does not fall to one's
lot).
b. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and expressions, partly as subject and partly as complementary infinitive ( 271). Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet,

piget, necesse est,

id

opus

est, etc.

primum
poets.

in poetls cerni licet

(De Or.

iii.

27), this

may

be seen first in be said.

reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Bru. 215), he found

what needed to
i.

haec praescripta servantem

observes these precepts

licet

magnified vivere (Off.

92),

one who

may

live nobly.

Cato negat ius esse qui miles non sit pugnare cum hoste (Off. i. 37), Cato says it is not right that one who is not a soldier should fight with
the

enemy.

necesse est

mori (Tusc.

ii.

2), it is

necessary

to die.

270, 27i.]

Complementary

Infinitive.

285

quid attinet gloriose loqui nisi constanter loquare (Kinib. ii. S<)), -nhat good docs it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently ? non lubct cniin niihi deplorare vitam (Cato Major 84), for it does not
please me to lament my life. neque me vixisse paenitet (id. 84), / do not feel sorry to have lived. lain pridem gubernare me taedebat (Alt. ii. 7, 4), I had long been tired of

being pilot.
i. These are not generally real cases of the infinitive used as subject, but approach that construction. NOTE 2. For the subject of such infinitives, and for predicate nouns or adjectives agreeing with the subject, see 271. c, 272. a.

NOTE

c.

Rarely the
as,
alii

infinitive

is

used exactly

like

the accusative of a

noun:

beate vivere

life different

quam multa
etc.

in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Finib. ii. 86), a happy [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure. facimus causa amicorum, precari ab indigno, supplicare

(Laslius

57) ,

how many

things ive do for our friends' sake, ask

favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc. nihil exploratum habeas, ne amare quidem aut amari (Laelius <)i},you have nothing assttred, not even loving and being loved. NOTE. Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusative use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the examples under c. Thus,
avaritia

superbiam, crudelitatem, deos neglegere, omnia venalia habere edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, and to hold everything at a price.
. . .

2.

Complementary

Infinitive.

271. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the infinitive without
a subject-accusative: as,
hoc queo dicere (Cat. Maj. 32), this I can say. mitto quaerere (Rose. Am.), I omit to ask. vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear
face (one who is present). oro ut matures venire (Alt. iv. i), oblivisci non possum quae volo

to

praise a

man

to his

I beg you
(Finib.

will
ii.

make

haste to come.

104),

/ cannot forget

that

which I wish.
desine

me

id docere (Tuscul.
to say.

ii.

29),

cease to teach

me

that.

audeo dicere, I venture

loqui posse coepi (Cic.),

I began

to be able to speak.

Such are verbs denoting

get, be

to be able, dare, undertake,

accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn,

like.

remember, forknow how,

fegr,

and the

286
NOTE.
objects

Syntax: The
The mark
of this construction

Verb.

271.

in general admissible or conceivable.

is that no Subject of these infinitives is But some infinitives usually regarded as can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no

subject expressed.
thing,

Thus volo dicere and volo

latter is

me

dicere mean

the

same
is

not apparently different in origin and construction from que5 dicere {complementary dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially difinfinitive) and again volo
to
,

I wish

speak; but the

object-infinitive, while the

former

eum

ferent from either.

a.

Many

infinitive,

verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying

willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, and the like (cf. as, 331)
:

command,

prohibition^ effort*

student excellere (Of. i. 116), they aim to excel. cum statuissem scribere ad te aliquid (Off. i. 4), address something to you.

when I had
he

resolved to

istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose. deprive him of the inheritance.

Am.

52),

had

it

in

mind to

NOTE
subject of

i.

With some

be used as

object, taking the place of the infinitive and that of the

of these verbs an infinitive with subject-accusative may a complementary infinitive. In this use the

main verb are of course the same.

i.

Thus,

cupio

me
2.

esse clementem (Cat.

(cf.

4)

cupio esse clemens,

desire to be

merciful

331.

b,

note).

NOTE

Some

verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are

as,

identical in

meaning with others which do:

i.

qu5s tueri debent deserunt (Of.

protect.

28), they forsake those

whom

they should

non

lubet fugere aveo

away,

Pm

pugnare
to

(Att.

ii.

18, 3),

/ have no

desire to

run

anxious

Jight.

b. Some verbs nf tppgp rfapsps JlfoeQ and veto regularly may take (as object) the infinitive with a subject 1 different from that of the main verb (see 331. a) as,
:

signa inferri iubet (Liv.

Pompeius

rem

anxioiis to
c.

xlii. 59), he orders the standards to be advanced. ad arma deduci studebat (B. C. i. 4), Pompey was have matters come to open war.

Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb as,
:

fierique studebam eius prudentia doctior (Laelius more ^vise through his wisdom.

i),

I was eager

to

become

l This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses under 271 is the infinitive strictly Subject or Object but its meaning is developed from the original one
;

of purpose

(cf.

273. a).

271, 272.]
scio

Infinitive with Subject-Accusative.

occupatua (Fam.
xvi.

287
busy you

quam

solcas cssc

21),

7 know how
I struggle

usually are (are wont to be). brevis cssc laboro obscurus fio (I lor. A. P. 25), become obscure.

to be brief,

NOTE.
or adjective

If the
is

construction of the main verb

is

impersonal, a predicate noun

in the accusative (but for licet, etc., see $ 272. a. 2).

Thus,
(Of.
i.

peregrlni officium est

it is the

minime

in aliena esse republica

to be

curiosum

125),
state.

duty of a stranger

by no means curious in a foreign

ftf

d. Fnr_thfl infirptivp iry poetry instead

,

Qiihcfniiiiirft

rHii^p O f

see

331.^.
3.

Infinitive

with Subject- Accusative.

272. The Infinitive, with Subject- Accusative, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking,
telling,
dicit

and perceiving (Indirect Discourse,

:

336)

J
:

as,

as,

Subject of the same verb in the passive as, Caesarem adesse nuntiatum est, it was reported that Ccesar -was present ;^^,. the Predicate Nominative (or Appositive) with words like fama, rumor, etc.N-ks, rumor erat Caesarem
:

ab hostibus tenerl (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held [Direct mons ab hostibus tenetur.] by the enemy. Infinitive The Clause maybe fiNhe Direct Object of the verb: fiF.M^RK. Caesarem adesse nuntiavit, he reporte$~4hat Ccesar was present ;)^i\\z

montem

adesse,
<T^
action
1.

there

was a

report that Ccesar

was

treseiiTtd.*

JE n.

iii.

2cjjT!\

i.

With

certain impersonal verbs

(

anoexpressionf that take the

),

infinitive as

2.

may By a dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase or, By an accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive. Thus,
:

an apparent subject be expressed

270.

the personal subject of the

rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. to do this.

si licet

i.

7), they ask that it be allowed

them

vivere

eum quem

man

to live

Sex. Naevius non volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allowed against the will of Sextus Nicvius (whom S. N. does not

wish).

quid est tam secundum naturam

what

is

so

much

in

<7<ro/v/(/;/<v

quam senibus emori (Cato Major with nature as for olii men to
</.

71),

exstingul horaini suo tempore optabile est man to die at the appointed time.

(id.

85),

/'/

is

desirable for

</

2. With licet regularly, and other verbs occasionally, a predicate noun or adjective following the infinitive may be in the dative as,
:

1 The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb except number and person.

288
licuit esse

Syntax: The Verb.

otioso Themistocli
(it

272, 273.

(Tuscul. i. 33), Themistocles might have was allowed to T. to be inactive), mihi neglegenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), / must not be negligent. [But also neglegentem.] cur his esse liberos non licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not alloived these men

been inactive

to be

non

est

free? stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc.

to

33), it is not necessary

speak standing. expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter.

for all

Heaut.

388), it is

for your advantage

to

mediocribus esse poetis non homines non di concessere (Hor. A. P. 372),

neither gods nor

men have granted to ordinary men

is

to be poets.

NOTE.

When the subject

a predicate noun or adjective must be

not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody) , in the accusative (cf. as, 271. c. note)
:

vel pace vel bello clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), one either in peace or in war.

can become

illustrious

In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in (fy the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main

verb

as,

vir

bonus

et

sapiens

ait

esse

paratus (Hor. Ep.

i.

7),

a good

and wise man

[In prose: ait se esse paratum.] sensit medios delapsus in hostes (^En. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the foe. [In prose se esse delapsum.]
says he
is prepared, etc.
;

P.

4.

Infinitive of

Purpose^
its

Lg73.j

Iq^Jew cases
of Purpose.
infinitive is

the -Irjfinitive retains

original

meaning
>&.

The

used

after

habeo. 46,
:

Tflinjstrn^ in

isolated

passages instead of a subjunctive clause

tantum habeo polliceri (Fam.
the
ut lovi

as,

i. [Here 5), so much IJjaveto promise. more formal construction would be quod pollicear.] bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), towrvj Jove with wine (to drink).

meridie bibere dato (Cato R. R. 89), gipe\\.o) drinjt at nogftday.

f^L

Faratms, suetus and

their

compounds (used
:

as adjectives) take
as,

theMnfinitive, like the verbs

id

from which they come

quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 8), that which they are ready to do. adsuefacti superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered.
curru succedere sueti (yEn.
chariot.
iii.

541), accustomed to being harnessed

to

the

copias bellare consuetas (B. Afr. 73), forces used to fighting.

273.]

Infinitive of Purpose.
Th<".'-

NOTK.
Thus,

words i;;ir (.oiuumnly

ff.)

in prose takrMlir
(

construction ($ 296

eitlu-r in tin; D.itivt-, th<-

li-nitivc,

pcruml or gerundive or the Accusative with ad.

alendis liheris sueti (Tac. insuctus navigandi (B. C.

Ann.
iii.

xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children, 49), unused to making voyages.

(id.
i.

corpora insueta ad oncra portanda burdens.

ft. In poetry
tive, after the

78), bodies

unaccustomed to carry

and

later writers

almost any verb

literal

may have

the infiniit

analogy of verbs of more

(Hor. Od.
(

meaning
to

that take

in

prose:

as,
i.

furit te reperire

15. -27),

he rages

Jind

thee.

[A

forcible

way

of saying cupit

271. a}.]
i. 200), he rages to blot out the name. 269. a. 2. note), 13) forbear to ask (cf.

saevit exstinguere

nomen (Ov. M.
i.

fuge quaerere (Hor. Od.

9.

parce scelerare
wf.

(yn.

iii.

42), forbear to pollute.

Many
as,

adjectives take the infinitive in poetry following a

Greek

idiom:

i. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse. cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose: qui cantetur.] fortis tractare serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents. periti cantare (Eel. x. 32), skilled in song.

durus componere versus (Hor. Sat.

faciles aurem praebere (Prop. ii. 21. 15), ready to lend an ear. nescia vinci pectora (^En. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield. te videre aegrSti (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.

The

purpose when there

wear.
in
to see

poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express is no analogy with any prose construction as,
:

loricam donat habere viro (^!n.

v.

262), he gives the hero a breastplate

to

[In prose
what,

habendam.]
:

videre quid agat (Ter. Hecyra 345), the son then went etc. [In prose the supine visum.] n5n ferr5 Libycos populate Penates venimus (^n. i. 527), we have not
filius turn introiit

come

to

lay waste with the

sword the Libyan homes.

NOTE.

So

rarely in prose writers of the classic period.

^C

For the

infinitive

used instead of a substantive clause of purpose,

est abire, see
is

seel 331. a-g.

NOTE.
For

tempus

298, note.

l^arcjyjn poetry the infinitive

used to express result: as,

etc.

fingit equum tencra docilem cervice ma^ister ire viam, 2. 64) , makes the horse gentle so as I

(Hor. Ep.
ii.

i.

hie levare

pauperem labdrilms vocatus

as
to relieve, etc.

audit (Hor.

Od.

18.

38), he

when

called, hears, so

290

Syntax: The Verb.

273-75.

NOTE. These poetic constructions (c-g) were no doubt originally regular and belong to the Infinitive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (p. 283, head-note). They had been supplanted, however, by other more formal constructions, and were
afterwards restored through Greek influence.

^.

In late or poetic usage the infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure

adjective
:

noun limited by a possessive or other

nostrum vivere (Pers.
scire
Sat.
i.

as,

9),

our

life (to live).

tuum

(id. 27),

your knowledge

(to

know).
Infinitive.

5.

Exclamatory

The

Infinitive,

with subject-accusative, 1
240. d)
:

may be
you

used in Exclamations

(cf.

as,

te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. i), alas ! that should have fallen into such grieffor me.

mene

inceptS desistere victam (/En.

i.

37),

what ! I beaten

desist from

my

purpose? The Present and the NOTE.

Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction

with their ordinary distinction of time.

6.

gistpricaLInfinitive.
is

2757/The
:

Infinitive
j

often used for

rra1^ rm IndTcatiy^ in np native as,

q"cl talcps a subject in

the nomi-

turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers).

ego instare ut mihi responderet (Ver. answer me.

pars cedere,
alii

ii.

188),

kept urging

him

to

insequi;

neque signa neque ordines servare;

ubi

ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque elves permixti; nihil consilio neque imperio agi; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), a part give way, others press on ;

quemque periculum

they hold neither to standards nor ranks

where danger overtook, there

weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled in confusion; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance ruled all.
each would stand

and f-ght ; arms,

is

NOTE. This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and never used to state a mere historical fact.
1

This construction

is elliptical

that

is,

the thought

is

course, though no verb of saying, etc., appears, or perhaps the French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad

quoted in Indirect Disis thought of (compare

rem natam miseram

me memorabo

(Plaut.

Rud. 188)? point

to the origin of the construction.

276.]

Tenses.

igi

II.-JENSES.
of possible Tenses is very great For' in each of the three times, Present, l';ist, ami Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated as defined in time or indefinite as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself .v) so determined but as relative to some time which is determined; and the past and
;
.

NOTE.

The number

future times

may be near or remote. Thus a scheme

of thirty or

more

tenses might

be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme :
i.

DEFINITE
:

(fixing the time of the action).

2.

INDEFINITE.
NARRATIVE.

INCOMPLETE.

COMPLETE.
5.
c.

PRESENT
PAST
:

a.
/3.

FUTURE:

y.

/ am writing. / was writing. I shall be writing.

/ have -written. / had written. I shall have written,

TJ.

/ write.

6.
i.

I wrote. I shall write.

Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express a and r?, a Perfect to express 5, an Aorist to express 0, a Future to express 7 and *, and an Imperfect to express /3. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (the Perfect scrips!), thus losing all distinction of

form between 5 and

and probably

in

a great degree the distinction of

The nature of this confusion may be seen by comparing dixl, dicavl, and didid (all Perfects derived from the same root, Die), with eScja, Skr. adiksham, 5e5eix a Skr. dideca. Latin also developed two new forms, those for c (scrlpseram) and C (scrlpsero), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in
meaning.
,

5-

The

lines

between these

six tenses in Latin are not

hard and

fast,

nor are they

precisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding to I have written (5) is used for those corresponding to / am writing (a) and / -write (T?) in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to / had

written (e) is used in like manner for that corresponding to / was writing (8). Again, the Latin often uses the form for / shall have written (C) instead of that for 1 shall write (i). Thus novl, I have learned, is used for / kn<no ; cSnstiterat,

he had taken his position, for he stood; be aware.

I.

COgnSvero, I shall have learned, for

/ shall

TENSES OF INCOMPLETE ACTION.

1.

Present (General Use).

(i)

in

27O. The Present Tense denotes an action or state as now taking place or existing; and so (2) as incomplete present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no parThus,
i.

ticular time, but denoting a general truth.

senatus haec intelligit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. Senate kno-MS this, the consul sees it, yet this man
.

2),

the

etiani

mine me ducere are expecting, etc.

istis

dictis

postulas (Ter. And. 644), even

now you

292
tibi

Syntax: The Verb.

276.

cSncedo meas sedes (Divin. i. 104), I give you my seat (an offer which may or may not be accepted). exspecto quid velis (Ter. And. 34), / aivait your pleasure (what you
ille

wish). tu actionem Instituis,

aciem instruit (Mur.

22), you

arrange a

case,

he arrays an army.
ment.^

[The present

is

here used of regular employ-

di neglegunt (Nat. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [Of a general truth.~\ obsequium amic5s, veritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains [General truth.] friends, truth hatred.

minora

a.

diu,

The Present, with expressions of duration of time, especially iam iam dudum, denotes an action continuing in the present, but
(cf.

begun in the past

277.

):

as,

iam diu ignoro quid agas (Fam. vii. <)},for a long time I have not known what you are doing. te iam dudum hortor (Catil. i. 12), I have long urged you. patimur iam multos annos (Verr. v. 126), -we suffer now these many years. [The perfect would imply, we no longer stiffer.~\ anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 82), it is now eight years
that this case has been in hand.

annum iam audis Cratippum

Cratippus.

(Off.

i.

i},for a year you've been a hearer of

NOTE r. In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect in English. The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers) with h still suffers (and has suffered) long. indicates that NOTE 2. Similarly the Present Imperative with iam the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the
:
>.

dudum

Perfect Imperative in Greek)

as,
ii.

iam dudum sumite poenas (^En.

b.

103), exact the penalty long delayed.

The Present sometimes denotes an

all

present time, but never completed at

as,

action attempted or begun in (Conative Present, cf. 277. c)

:

iam iamque manu tenet (^!n. grasp him.

densos fertur in hostis
foe.

ii.

530),

and nozv,
to

even now, he attempts

to

(id. 11.511),

he starts

rush into the thickest of the

xiv.

decerno quinquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. [Cf. senatus decrevit, fifty days' thanksgiving.
c.

29), I move for the senate ordained.'}

is

The

Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry,

:

often

used for the Future

as,
17), shall

Imusne sessum (De Or. iii.

we

take a seat? (are

we going

to sit ?)

276.]

Present Tense.

293

to change it (I am not trying to change). quod si fit pereo fumlitus (id. 244), if this happens, f am utterly undone. hodic uxorcm duels (id. 321), are you to be married to-day ?

baud muto factum (Ter. And. 40), / do not wish

abin hinc
si

in

pereo hominuin inanibus

nudain rein (id. 317), will you be off? go and be hanged ! periisse iuvabit (.En. iii. 606), ;/ I perish,
(cf.

it

will be pleasant to perish at the hands of men

307. a, note),

ecquid
in ius

me adiuvas

voco te. I won't go.

non eo. non You won V J

.

(Clu. 71), -won't you give me a little help? Is (PI. As. 480) ? / summon you to the court.

and its compounds are especially frequent in this use. (Cf. -where are you going to-morrow? and the Greek efyu in a future sense.) RKMARK. For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions ($ 307), cum ($ 328), antequam ($ 327. a), dum ($ 328), and the De-

NOTE.

E6

liberative Subjunctive ($ 268).

2.

Historical Present.
used for the Historical

d.

The Present

in lively narrative is often

:

Perfect {Historical Present)

affertur nuntius Syracusas;

as,

quam nox
(Verr.
v.

quarters ; he shuts himself up at home.

curritur ad praetorium; Cleomenes, quamtamen in publico esse non audet; includit se domi 92), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to headCleomenes, though it was night, does not venture to be abroad ;
erat,

NOTE. This usage, common in all languages, events as going on before our eyes (repraesentatio)
.

comes from imagining

past

takes the Present Indicative in reference to IDumj-a;////^, regularly past events! In translating, the English imperfect must generally be used.

p>-\ e.

3.

Present with dum.

*

\
>^-i

Thus,

v.

haec

dum

91), while this was going on, Cleomenes to the coast at Elorutn.

aguntur, interea Cleomenes iam ad Elori litus pervenerat (Verr. meanwhile had come down

hoc

dum narrat, forte audivi (Ter. Heaut. 272), while she was telling it.
A
past tense with

I happened to hear

this

NOTE.
by
contrast.
is

dum

(usually so long as)

contrast

But a few irregular cases of intended. Thus,

dum with

makes the time emphatic a past tense occur where no

nee enim dum eram vdbiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. Maj. 79), while Iii'.; lUtldrft sci' my so nl. [Here the time when he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]

294

Syntax: The Verb.

276, 277.
47), a conflict

coorta est pugna, par dum constabant ordines (Liv. began, well matched as long as the ranks stoodfirm.
But,

xxii.

dum

oculos hostium certamen averterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the

struggle kept the eyes of the

enemy turned away.

55),

dum unum

adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in periculum (Mur. while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger.
is

f. The present extant: as,

regularly used in quoting writers

whose works are

Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tus.

ii.

17),

apud ilium Ulixes lamentatur

in vulnere (id.

but Epicurus says such things. 49), in him (Sophocles)

v.

Ulysses bewails over his vvound.

Polyphemum Homerus cum

Homer

ariete colloquentem facit (Tuscul. brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.

115),

277. The Imperfect denotes an action or a

continued or repeated in past time
:

state

as

as,

hunc audiebant antea (Man. 13), they used to hear of him before. Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought

so

(habitually), and so he spoke (then), prudens esse putabatur (Laelius 6), he was (generally) thought wise. [The perfect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of
things.]

iamque rubescebat Aurora (^n. iii. 521), and now the dazvn was ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vii. i), an old altar stood there.

blushing.

NOTE. The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as in progress or a state of things as acti4ally observed. Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rex erat and rex fuit may often be used indifferently but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite.
;

Thus

Aedui graviter ferebant, neque legates ad Caesarem mittere audebant (B. G. v. 6), the sdui were displeased, and did not dare, etc.

[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus pleased, etc. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vicosque

was

dis-

habebant

(id. iv. 4), they

had buildings and villages.

REMARK.
Hence
action,
all

The

Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to past time.

details below).

the

meanings which the present has derived from the continuance of the

belong also to the imperfect in reference to past time (see

a.

The Imperfect

is

used in descriptions:
.
. . .

as,
i.

erant omnino itinera duo mons altissimus impendebat (B. G. a very high mountain overhung. there were in all two ways
. .

6),

277.]

Imperfect

Tense.

295

b. With lam difl, iam dfidum, and other expressions of duration of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but as, 115. a. 2) begun at some previous time (cf.
:

iam diidum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time. copias quas diu comparabaut (Fam. xi. 13), the forces -which they had long
been getting ready.
In this construction NOTE. I'oK-ct. Compare the Present in
the Imperfect
is

rendered by the English Plu-

similar phrases ($ 276. a).

c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (inceptive Imperfect}, or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect}

(cf.

2 7 6.):

as,-

in exsilium
ii.

14),

eiciebam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam (Cat. was I sending (i.e. trying to send) into exile one who I saw had
diem
sibi

already gone into ivar ?

hunc

igitur

proponens Mil5, cruentis manibus ad

ilia

augusta

centuriarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming likely that he would come), etc.?
si

(i.e.

was

it

licitum esset

veniebant (Ver. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed (they were on the point of coming, and would have done
if,

so

etc.).

NOTE.

To

this

head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the

:

beginning of an action or state

as,
vi.

iamque

arva tenebant ultima (yEn.

477),

and now

they were just

getting to the farthestfields.

d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the present discovery of a fact already existing as,
:

tu

quoque hie

aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), oh

you are here

too.

ehem

pater mi, tu hie eras (Plaut.), -what! you here, father? ah miser! quanta labdrabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it]
!

often used in dialogue by the comic poets where later writers would employ the Perfect: as,
e.
is

The Imperfect

ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (Plaut. Trin. 956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property. praesagibat animus frustra me ire quoin exibara domo (Plaut. Aul. 222), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.

NOTE.

So
:

also,
as,

in

conversation, the imperfect of verbs of saying

(cf.

as 1

was a-saying)
at medici

quoque, ita cnim dicebas, saepe was what you were haec mihi fere in mentem veniebant (id.
that
.<

falluntur

(Xat.

I),

iii.

i$)

for

occurred

to

me,

etc.

ii. 67, 168), this is abou: [In a straightforward narration this would be

venerunt.]

296

Syntax: The Verb.

277-79.

f. For the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis contrary to fact, see

308. b.

g.

The

Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the

English auxiliary could or

would :

as,

itaque (Damocles) nee pulchros illos ministratores adspiciebat (Tuscul. v. 62), therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves, [In this case did not would not express the idea of continued prevention of

enjoyment by the overhanging sword.] nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cato Major 79), for, you know, while I zvas with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Perfect would refer only to one moment^}
h.

For the Epistolary Imperfect, see

5.

282.

Future.
state that will

278. The Future denotes an action or

occur hereafter.
a.

The Future sometimes has

The Future
is

the force

of

an

Imperative

(see

269.7).
b.

where
as,

in English futurity is sufficiently expressed

often required in a subordinate clause in Latin by the main clause

:

cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. 325. c}. sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish
(cf.

307. a).
II.

THE TENSES OF COMPLETED ACTION*

1.

Perfect

279. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed (Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some
undefined point of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect).

Thus,(1) ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. Maj. 26), as

I have
an

done, who have learned Greek in my old age. diuturni silenti finem hodiernus dies attulit (Marc, i), this day has put

end to my long-continued

silence.

(2) tantum helium extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit (Man. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the

NOTE.

end of winter, undertook in early spring, andfinished by midsummer. The distinction between these two uses of the perfect, which is repre-

sented by two forms in most other Indo-European languages, was almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction in English (see also 115. c).

279.]

/ \-rjcct Tense.

297

a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a ^, thing or condition of things that once existed no longer
fait ista

quondam

in line re piiblica virtus (Cat.

i.

3), there -was once such

virtue in this commonwealth.

habuit, nun luibet (Tusc.

filium habeo
.
.

i.

87), he had, he has

immo habui;

Heaut. 92), I have a son, no,

not
is

no lor. mine habeam necne incertumst (Ter. I had one ; whether I have one now or
325),

uncertain.
ii.

fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (/En. Troy is no more.

b.

we have

ceased

to

be

Trojans,

The
(

truth

Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general 276), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause refer-

ring to time antecedent to that of the

qui
in

main clause

as,

compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soliiti sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the move more slowly. fetters of the body, even when released haec morte effugiuntur, etiam st non evenerunt, tamen quia possunt evenire (id. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have
i.

not [yet] happened, etc. simul ac mihi collibitum est, praesto est imago (N. D. have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes.

108), as soon as

NOTE.

This use of the perfect

(

is

especially

common

in the protasis of general

conditions in present time

c.

309. c).

The

perfect

is

sometimes used of a general truth, especially with

Perfect)-, as,

negatives

{Gnomic

qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who aims to reach the goal, Jit st bears and does many things.

non

aeris acervus et aurl

of brass

and gold removes

deduxit corpore febres (id. Ep. not fever from the frame.

i.

2,

47), the pile

NOTE.
that

The gnomic
the English

something which never did happen

will (cf.

never

"

perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use implies in any known case, never does happen, and

tive that

what has once happened

Perfect
is

Faint heart never won fair lady"} or without a negawill always happen under similar circumstances.
;

d.

The

often used in expressions containing or implying a

negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect

would be preferred:

as,

dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison:

compare the use of quisquam, ullu>. ne after comparatives and superlatives.]

e.

12. c),

and the French

The completed

tenses of

some verbs
meaning.

are equivalent to the incom-

plete tenses of verbs of kindred

298
Such are the

Syntax: The Verb.

preteritive verbs odi,

279-81.

novi, I know; consuevi,

Thus,

I hate; memini, / remember , accustomed,^ with others used preteritively, as venerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.) (see 143, note).

I am

maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), ally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make). cuius splendor obsolevit (Quinct. 59), whose splendor
qui dies aestus

which day generis

now

all

faded

(has become old).

REMARK.

Many

other verbs are occasionally so used

as,

dum

oculos certamen averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest

eyes (kept

had

turned their

them turned).
2.

[Here averterat

tenebat.]

Pluperfect.
is

280. The Pluperfect

used

(i)

to denote

an action or

state completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, brt prior to some past time

referred to
(1)
loci

as,

natura erat haec,

this

was

the

quem locum nostri castris delegerant (B.C. ii. 18), nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a
imperi tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae defeceViridovix held the chief command of all those
revolted.

camp.
Viridovix

summam
(id.
iii.

rant
tribes

17),

whifh had

(2) neque vero

cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done.

but

quae si quand5 aclepta est id quod el fuerat concupitum, turn fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 35), if it (desire) ever has gained ivhat it had [previously] desired, then it produces joy.
a.

For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see

3.

282.

Future Perfect.

281. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future ut sementem feceris,
:

as,

ita

metes (De Or.

ii.

65), as

you sow

(shall

have

sown), so shall you reap. carmina turn melius cum venerit ipse canemus (Eel. ix. 67), then shall ^ve sing our songs better, when he himself has come. si illius insidiae clariores hac luce fuerint turn denique obsecrabo (Mil. as clear as day6), when the plots of that man have been shown to be
light, then,

and not till then,

i Cfc

shall

I conjure you.

detestor, reminiscor, scio, soleo.

281-84.]
ego certe

Epistolary Tenses;
oflkimn praestiter5
(/.<.

Tenses of Subjunctive.
(!>.(',.
iv.

299
'"

meum mv liuty
to

25), T
.

,il

l<f

T,-/
I

when
it,

the tiur

>n

up

the matter,

\\ill

be found
Ri

have done

whatever the event).

MARK.

than

in English,

The Future Perfect is used with much greater exactness in Latin and may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of
:

the Latins for representing an action as completed

as,
ii.

quid inventum
qui

sit

paulo post videro (Acad.

76),

what has been fottnd

out I will see presently.

whoever

Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum confecerit (Fam. x. 19), erusJies (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have
a most loathsome war.
in future conditions, see \ 307. c.

finished)

NOTE.

For the future perfect

III.

EPISTOLARY TENSES.

282. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as if the letter w.ere dated at the time it is supposed to be received: as,
neque tamen, cum haec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere (Fam. v. 12), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down. ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att ix. 10), 7 [have]

cum quod
NOTE. The
is

ansiuered all your letters yesterday. scriberem ad te, nihil haberem, tamen has dedi
16), though

litteras (Att. ix.

I have nothing to write you,

still

I write

this letter.

In this use these tenses a re called the Epistolary Imperfect and Pluper-

fect.

tion

epistolary tenses are not used with any uniformity, but only when atten(So especially scribebam, particularly directed to the time of writing.
etc.).

dabam,

IV.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

in

283. The tenses of the Subjunctive

Independent

Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time,
future
the Imperfect to either/^/ or present, the Perfect to either past, the Pluperfect always to past.

tive

In Dependent Clauses th of the Subjuncwere habitually used in certain fixed connections determined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together.

300
NOTE.

Syntax: The Verb.

The

285, 286.
Dependent

tenses of the Subjunctive were originally used in

clauses (as in Independent), each with its own time in relation to the point of view of the speaker ; but in consequence of the natural tendency of language to refer all
the parts of a

the complex sentence to one time, namely, that of the speaker, connections in which these tenses were used became fixed. Hence the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These are by no means rigid, but allow many varieties, as is
natural from their origin,

Sequence of Tenses.

285. The tenses

of

the Subjunctive in

Dependent

clauses follow special rules for the SEQUENCE OF TENSES. With reference to these rules all tenses when used in

Independent clauses are divided into two classes,

primary

and secondary,
The primary tenses include all forms that express 1. PRIMARY. present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present
and Future Imperative. The Perfect Definite NOTE.
2.
is

sometimes treated as primary, but see

287. a.

SECONDARY. The secondary tenses include all forms that refer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinitive.

NOTE

i.

To

these

may be added

certain forms less

commonly used

in Inde-

pendent Clauses. Such are: (i) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see $ 287. a. note). NOTE 2. For the Historical Present, see 287. <?; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis, see 287.^.

286. The following is

clause

the general rule for the

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main is followed by the Present or Perfect in the depend-

ent clause, and a secondary tense by the Imperfect or

Pluperfect
scribit ut
: as, nos moneat, he writes to warn us. scribet ut nos moneat, he will write to warn us. scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us. scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he hadforgotten. scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten. rogo quid facturus sis, I ask what you are going to do.

us.

NOTE. The beginner must observe that the rule affects only the tenses of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses. The tenses of the other moods and those of the Subjunctive in independent constructions (as in apodosis contrary to fact, $ 308) are not affected by the sequence of tenses. (But cf. 338. a. note 2, 339. note 2.)

286, 287.]

Sequence of Tenses.

the main verb

In applying the rule for the sequence of tenses, observe (i) whether (a) primary or (6) secondary, (2) whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete (i.f. present or future with reference to the main verb). Then
is

REMARK.

it

(a) If the leading verb \sfrtmary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed action. () If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action.

Thus,

he writes (primary) to warn (incomplete) us, scribit ut nos moneat. / ask (primary) what you were doing (now past), rog5 quid fcceris.
to),

Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect

Thus,

I ask what you will have accomplished, rog5 quid perfeceris. he asked what he would have accomplished, rogavit quid perfecisset.

287. In the Sequence of Tenses some special points are to be noted

:

a.

The

Perfect Indicative

is

allows the primary sequence

writer's

when

ordinarily a secondary tense, but the present time is clearly in the

mind.

Thus,
ii. 26), provision has been made [Secondary sequence.]

ut satis

esset praesidi provision est (Cat.

that there should be ample guard.

adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), / have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to
foreign nations. [Secondary sequence.] est enim res iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter eorum causas qui dimicant, tamen inter victorias non multum interfuturum putem (Fam. v. 21, 3), for affairs have been brought to
such a pass that, though there
those
is

a great

difference between the causes of

who are fighting,

still

I do

not think there will be

much

difference

[Primary sequence.] ca adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitiosissimam naturam excolere possit (Q. Fr. i. I, 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the [Primary sequence.] faultiest nature.

betiueen their victories.

NOTE.

The

Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the

same

rule: as,

adeon rem redisse patrem ut extiinescam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father.
b. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, I.

Perfect Definite: as,

thai all

non dubito qum omnes tui scripserint (Fam. v. 8), I do not doubt yourfriends have written. [Direct statement scrlpserunt.]
:

3O2

Syntax: The Verb.

287

quare non Ignor5 quid accidat in ultimis terns, cum audierim in Italia querelas civium (Q. Fr. i. I, 33), therefore I knoiv well what happens at the ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens. [In a direct statement, audivi.]
2.

Perfect Historical

as,

me autem hie laudat quod retulerim, non quod patefecerim (Att. xii. 21), me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I brought it to light. [Direct statement retulit.]
:

3.

An

Imperfect: as,
ceciderint turn intellegitur

si forte

quam fuerint inopes amicorum (Lael. by chance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor [Direct question : quam inopes erant?] they were in friends. qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedi scire poteris ex C. Tidio Strabone (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question qui erat?]
15, 53), if
:

quam

cams fuerit maerore funeris indicatum est (Laslius n), how dear he was to the State has been shown by the grief at his funeral.
civitati

[Direct question: quam carus erat?] ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Plat5nis auditor (Or. 15), it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of
Plato.

[Direct question:

quam

frequens erat?]

the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect DefinNOTE. ite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive to express well.

Thus

continued action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fecerit may mean (i) I wonder what he has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist, perf.), or (3) / wonder what he was doing.
c.

In clauses of Result, the Perfect subjunctive

:

is

very often (the

Present rarely) used after secondary tenses

as,

Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim (Bru. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man. Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in

antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Ver. i. 12), for three years Verres racked and ruined Sicily, that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the Present is used in describing a state of things
so

actually existing.]

videor esse conseciitus ut non possit Dolabella in Ttaliam pervenire (Fam. xii. 14), / seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot

come into

Italy.
result; the regular construction

REMARK.
subordinates
it.

This construction emphasizes the

NOTE.

There

is

a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a

Perfect Indicative.

Thus,

287.]

Sequence of Tenses.

303

Thorius crat ita nun supcrstitiosus ut ilia pliirima in sua patria et sacrilicia et fana contemneret; ita non timid us ad mortem ut in acic sit ol> r<-m publicam interfectus (Finih. ii. 63), Thorius was so little supersti~
tious that he despised [contemncbat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timorous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the State.

Zeno nullo modo is crat qui nervos virtutis incident (cf. 279. d} scd contra qui omnia in una virtute pSneret (Acad. i. 35), Zeno ivas by no means one to cut the sinews cf virtue ; but one, on the contrary, who made everything defend on virtue alone, [incidit ponebat.l erant enim nobis pcrirati, quasi quicquam de nostia salute decrevissemus quod nun idem illls censuissemus aut quasi utilius rei publicae fuerit
;
.

eos etiam ad bestiarum auxilium confugere quam vel emori vel cum spe vivere (Fam. ix. 6, 3), for they were very angry with us, just as if we

had voted for anything in regard to our own preservation which we had not advised them also, or as if it were more advantageous to the
state

hope. d.
as,

for them to fly for help to brutes than either to die or to live in [Without quasi, decreveramus and fuit would have been used.]
after

A general truth

a past tense follows the sequence of tenses

ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8), from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant she is. [Direct: mutabilis est.]
ibi

quantam vim ad stimulandos anim5s Ira haberet apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct
:

habet.]

NOTE.
e.

In English the original tense

is

more commonly
is

kept.
felt

The

Historical Present

276.

d}

sometimes
it

as a primary,

sometimes a& a secondary tense.

ary.

followed by either the primary or the secondary sequence, more commonly by the second-

Accordingly

is

Thus,

ut curet quod dixisset (Quinc. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken oj. castella communit quo facilius prohibere posset (B. G. i. 8), he strengthens the forts that he might more easily keep them off.

rogat

NOTE.

After the historical present,

cum temporal with the subjunctive

to

must

follow the secondary sequence.

/.
(

The

Imperfect and

308) are not affected

by

Pluperfect in conditions contrary the sequence of tenses : as,

ii.

fact

quia tale sit, ut vel si Ignorarent homines, etc. (Finib. is such that e-'cn if men ,in(, etc.
g.
(

49), because it

The
is

Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to fact

regularly followed by the secondary sequence: as,

308)

304
si
alii

Syntax: The Verb.

287, 288.

consules essent, ad te potissimum, Paulle, mitterem, ut eos mihi

quam amicissimos redderes (Fam. xv. 13), if there -were other consuls, I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as friendly to me as possible.
si

eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperes (Tusc. wretched who must die, you would except no one. i. 9), if you called those

h.

The Present
si

is

sometimes followed by a secondary sequence,

is

seemingly because the writer

sed

thisiking of past time (Synesis)

as,

res coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selicio nee mihi displicebat; ut neque iacere rem pateremur, etc. (Fam. i. 5. a}, but if the

case shall

demand, there

is

a third [course] which neither Selicius nor

[Here Cicero is led myself disapproved, that we should not alhw, etc. by the time of displicebat.] sed tamen ut scires haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, I write thus. [As if he had used the common epistolary imperfect scribebam ( 282).] cuius praecepti tanta vis est ut ea tribueretur (Leg. i. 58), such

ascribed not to
old one.]

any man, but

to

non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo force of this pretept, that it was the Lielphic god. [The precept was an
is the

ble.

The rules for the sequence of tenses must not be regarded as inflexiNOTE. They were often disregarded by the Romans themselves, either from careless-

ness or purposely for one reason or another.

When a clause depends upon one already dependent, the sequence becomes secondary as soon as the time is thrown back into the past by any form that represents past time as,
/".
:

sed tamen qua re acciderit ut ex meis superi5ribus litteris id suspicarere nescid (Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my previous letter, I don't know. tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vinceremur (Nat. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in fulness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. beate vixisse videor quia cum Scipione vixerim. (Laelius 15, / But,

seem

to

have lived happily in that

I have

lived with Scipio

(who had

just died).

NOTE.

For the application of this

rule to Indirect Discourse, see

336. B. note.

V. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

288. The tenses

they depend
nostros
:

of the Infinitive denote present, past,

or future time, relatively to the time of the verb on which

as,
intellexit (B.

non esse inferiores men were not inferior.

G.

ii.

8), he ascertained that

our

[Direct

sunt.J

2Sa]
quam luno
is

Tenses of the Infinitive.

305

ferfur terris magis omnibus coluisae (/En. i. 15), which Juno said to have cherished above all lands. [Direct colebat.J sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Ld. 79), they hope they shall
:

receive

tfie

greatest advantage.

[Direct: capiemus.j

of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility (as potui, dgbuT, and oportuit) the present infinitive must be rena. After past tenses

dered by the Perfect

qui videbatur

infinitive in

English

as,

scire potuit (Milo, 46), he might have

that] ought not to
b.
c.

known.
17),

omnin5 mori non debuisse (Arch.

have died at
all.

who seemed [one

336. A.

For the tenses of the

Except

infinitive in Indirect Discourse, see

in indirect discourse, the

infinitive in

common use.

the only tense of the It has no distinct reference to time. Thus,

Present

is

est adulescentis
to

maiores natu vereri (Of.

i.

122), it is [the duty]

of a youth

reverence his elders.

d. After verbs of 'wishing, necessity,

infinitive is often

and the
:

like,

the Perfect Passive

used instead of the Present

as,

nollem factum,
apology.]

/ regret

it

(I could wish

it

not done).

[The Latin form

of

domestica cura te levatum [esse] vo!5 (Q. F. iii. 9), / wish you. relieved of household care. quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), which ought to have been done long -..go (cf. a, above).

NOTE. The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or without esae) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly be distinguished from that construction cf. maturate opus est, there is need of haste ($ 092. b) and I pray thee have me excused.
;

REMARK. In early and late Latin, and in poetry, rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active infinitive is also used instead of the Present, and even after other
verbs than those of wishing and the
like
:

as,

commisisse cavet (I lor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing. baud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59), I would
not by crushing another exalt myself. sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those
touch.

who would not

statim vicisse debeo (Rose. Am. 73), regarded as having won it),

ought

to

win my

case (I must be

nollem dixisse (Ver.

e.

iv.

43),

I would not say

is

feeling the Perfect infinitive the poets, to denote a completed action.

oil
i

After verbs

used, especially by

Chiefly void, nolo,

m&16, oportet, decet.

3 o6

Syntax: The Verb.

288, 289

So also with satis est, satis habeo, melius est, conteiitus sum, and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important.
Thus,

non paenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fain,

sorry to have

xvi. 21),

I was

not

made a

respite of -writing.

pudet me non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to have shown. sunt quos curricu!5 pulverem Olympicum collegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. I. 3),
there are those

wko

delight, etc.

quiesse
nil

iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet. ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if I should -0 wrong, I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).

erit

melius (Liv.

f.

The Future
(cf.

infinitive is often
;

esse) ut with the subjunctive

supine stem
302.

expressed by fore (or futurum so necessarily in verbs which have no

e).
i.

Rem., 332.

Thus,
82),

spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tus.

I hope that will be o^^r happy lot.

II.

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS.

Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed
1.

The

several
:

Noun and

as follows

Attributive

291 and a).

(

2.

a.

Present and
Perfect
3.
4.

Simple Predicate

291. b).
(

Periphrastic Perfect (passive) Predicate of Circumstance ($

291. R.).

92)0

5.
i.

PARTICIPLES
b.

ri.

Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) ($292.*?). Periphrastic with esse ($ 293. a).

Periphrastic with ful (= Pluperfect $ubjunctive) (\ 293. c).

Future

2.

c.

1.

Descriptive Adjective ($ 294. a). Periphrastic with esse ( 294. b). certain verbs (294.^?). [3. Genitive as Objective Genitive ( 298).

r i.
I

As

Gerundive

2.

Of Purpose with

2.

2.

3. 4.

Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs ($ 299). Accusative, with certain Prepositions ( 300). Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions
(5 301).

3.

SUPINI

1.

Former Supine

2.

(in -urn), with Verbs of Motion ($ 302). Latter Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives ($ 303.)

I.

-PARTICIPLES.

289. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective; but has a partial distinction of tense, and may govern a case.

289, 290.]

Distinctions of Tense in Participles.

307

NOTE. Thus the participle combines ;ill tin: functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. As an adjective, it limits substantiv them in gender, number, and case ($ 186). As a verb, it has distinctions of time ($ 290), and often takes an object.
1.

Distinctions of Tenae.

29O. Participles denote time as present, past, or future

with respect to the time of the verb in their clause. Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress
at

the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, and the Future as still to take place.
a.

The Present

Participle has several of the special uses of the

Present Indicative.
1.

Thus

it

may denote:
the

An

action continued
:

in

present but begun

in

the

past

276. a)

as,
iv.

quaerenti mihi iamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
2.

13),

Attempted action

276. b)

as,
resisted

C. Flaminio restitit

agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. n), he Flaminius when attempting to divide the Picene territory.
Futurity or Purpose
(

3.

276.

<:):

as,
ii.

Eurypylum scitantem oracula mittimus (VEn.

to consult the oracle.

114),

we send Eurypyliis
is

b. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs the sense of a Present.

;

used nearly

in

Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus commonly, fisus, ausus, aecdtus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers. Thus,
cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encoiiraging the men, he showed. iratus dixisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.
oblitua auspicia (Phil. i. 31), forgetting the auspice*. insidias veritus (B. G. ii. li), fearing ambuscade.

imperio potitus (Liv.

xxi. 2),
(id. iv.

pugnam congress! rem incredibilem rail

c.

ail

holding the command. 10), meeting in fight.

(Sail. Cat. 48),

thinking the thing incredible.

Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum, rarely

The

by the participle

in -diia (cf. p. 314, foot-note)

as,

nullis evidentihus caul's obiere

dura calceantur niatiitino duo Caesares (Plin. X. II. vii. 181), from no obvious cause two t'tesars dud white having their shoes put on in the morning.

308
meque

Syntax: The Verb.

290, 291.

ista delectant cum Latine dicuntur (Academ. i. 18), those things please me when they are spoken in Latin. crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire

(in flames).

NOTE.
ple might

The

constructions with
:

dum and cum are often used when a particidum

sanctis patriae legibus

be employed

as,

die, hospes, Spartae,

nos

te hie vidisse iacentes,

obsequimur, tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here obedient to our cotmtry's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a translation of the Greek present participle irfi.Q6p.evoi."]

dum

[Ulixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, while securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek:

d.

The

Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice.

is

The

deficiency
1.

supplied
its

In deponents by the perfect passive form with

:

regular active

meaning

as,

nam
2.
(

singulas [naves] nostri consectati expugnaverunt (B. G. iii. 15), for our men having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.

255. d, note) or

In other verbs, either by the ablative absolute with a change of voice by a clause (especially with cum or dum): as,

itaque convocatis centurionibus rmlites certiores facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so, having called the centurions together, he informs tJie soldiers (the centurions having been called together).

cum venisset
NOTE.

animadvertit collem (id.

hill.

vii.

44), having come

(when he had
either active

come), he noticed a

The

perfect participle of several deponent verbs

(

may be

or passive in meaning

135. b).

2.

Adjective Use.

291. The Present and Perfect participles are used sometimes as attributive, nearly like adjectives as,
:

cum antiquissimam
signa

sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. once most ancient and well approved.

i.

n), a view at

nunquam

fere

ementientia

(id.

5),

signs hardly ever deceitful.

auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 27), they use forced auspices.

a. Participles often

become complete
Thus,

adjectives,

and may be com*

pared or used as nouns.

qu5 mulieri esset res cautior (Caecina n), that the matter might be more secure for the woman. in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Orat. i. 217), pre-eminent in those
arts.

291, 292.]
sibi

Predicate Use of Particip/

et corpori

309

indulgentes

dgservientes (Leg.

i.

39), the self-indulgent,

.

and slaves
ought
to

ing the body). body (indulging themsd\ 1C debcnt (I'.ir.id. jj), right deeds (things rightly done) be like in value (see 207. f).
to the

male parta male dilabuntur

acquired, etc.).

(Phil.

ii.

65),

ill got,

ill

spent (things
in health.

ill-

consuctudo valentis
b.

(1 >e

<

>r. ii.

i<S(>),

the habit

of a

man

may be

As such they Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. 186. b, joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see
divisa (B. G.
i.

176. a): as,

C.allia est

i),

Gaul
i.

is

divided.

locus qui

nunc saeptus

est (Liv.

8), the place

which

is

ncnu enclosed.

operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens(C. M. 26), you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something. nemo adhuc convenire voluit cui fuerim occupatus (Cato Major 32), nobody hitJurto has fever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have
vidctis ut senectus sit

predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing ,i of past time : as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit., he is having-been-killed (i.e. already slain). In the best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with ful, etc., r'-t.iins its proper force; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as amatus

REMARK.

"engaged" From this

sum

or ful) are often used indiscriminately to form the tenses of the perfect system
:

in the passive

as,

[leges]
55),

cum quae latae sunt

the laws, doth those

compound perfect. The publishing, of posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by the participle promulgatae, and fuerunt is the perfect of the copula.] arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), the
the walls were found upon the ground. occupati sunt et fuerunt (Off. i. 57), are and have been engaged. The difference between this and arma quae, etc., is, that occupatus in this sense is used only as an adjective.]
[(
f.

published. sunt is a

turn vero quae promulgatae fuerunt (Sest. which were proposed, and those which were [The proposal of the laws was a single act : hence latae

arms which had been fastened on

3.

Predicate TJse.

as a predicate,

292. The Present and Perfect participles are often used where in English a phrase or clause would
In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion,

be usual.
condition, concession, characteristic (or description),

manner,

W, attendant circumstances.

Thus,

3IO
volventes

Syntax: The Verb.

292.

hostilia cadavera amicura reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), while rolling over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.] paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (Sail. Cat. 59, i), after delaying a little while, he orders to give the signal. [Time.]

longius prosequi veritus, ad CicerSnem pervenit (B. G. v. 52), because he

feared to follow further\ he came to Cicero. [Cause.] quo sciret laxas dare iussus habenas (^En. i. 63), who might know how
give them loose rein when bidden.

to

[Occasion.] damnation poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment must overtake him. [Condition.]

salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21), which we did not hope. [Concession.]

you have

restored

safety

Dardanius caput ecce puer detectus (^n.

his

x.

133), the Trojan boy with

[Description.] nee trepides in usum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. n. 5), be not anxious for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic.] incitati fuga monies altissimos petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight [Manner.] they made for the highest mountains.
milites sublevati
alii ab aliis magnam partem itineris conficerent (B. C. i. 68), the soldiers helped up by each other, etc. [Means.] hoc laudans, Pompeius idem iuravit (B. C. iii. 87), approving this, Pom-

head uncovered.

pey took

the

same

oath.

[Attendant circumstance.]
(Tuscul.
i.

aut sedens aut

ambulans -disputabam

7),

1'conducted

the dis-

cussion either sitting or walking.

[Circumstance.]

REMARK.

These uses are

A co-ordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle

instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit
the lines,
(Sail. Cat. 59),

especially frequent in the ablative absolute ($ 255. d).

:

as,
t<p

he drarvs

and leads them

to level ground.

ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), thai he might carry them over put them to death.

and

NOTE
English
is

i.

participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in given by without and a verbal noun : as,
est nihil

miserum

prSficientem angi (N.

D.iii. 14), it is

wretched

to

vex

oneself without effecting anything.

NOTE 2. Acceptum and referre are book-keeping terms

quas pecunias ferebat to them
a.
els

expensum
:

as

predicates

with

ferre and

as,
ii.

expensas (Verr.

170),

what sums he charged

that the parti-

ciple

A noun and a passive participle are often so united and not the noun contains the main idea J as,
:

ante

conditam condendamve urbem

(Liv. Pref.), before the city

was

built

or building.
1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek " " Grammar, $ 280) and the English, Twas at the royal feast for Persia won
;

(Dryden),

t.e.

for the conquest of Persia.

292.1
illi

/V,v//Vw/V

Us*

<>f 1 \irticip;,

311

libcrtatcm civium

Komanorum imminutam
i
\

ereptam
of t>:
post
\.\\\\

m'k'lc^ctis (M.mil.

),

nf>n tulerunt; vos vitain thcv did not endure the injnn

.il'crty; will you

(I'.rutus,
iii.

f their
city.

life ?

homines natus

a condita urhc (Phil.

ri*C* tk* (Teotion of ma*. 9), even from the founding of the
22.\),

b.

as

perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf.
:

The

243. c)

as,
is

opus factS est viaticd (Plaut. Trin. 887), there

provision.

need of laying in

maturate opus est (Liv. viii. 13), there is need of haste. The omission of the noun in agreement gives rise NOTE.
structions: as,

to

complex conest fieri?

quid opus factost, what must be done? and quo factd opus est ?]

[A mixture of quid opus

c. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) has nlmost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued J as, effect of the action of the verb
:

fidem

quam habent spectatam iam et diii cdgnitam fidelity, which they hare proved and long known.

(Div. C. ir). HIV

habebat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts stationed in line of battle. nefarios duces captos iam rt comprehensos tenetis (Catil. iii. 16), you
cohortes in acie Ixxx. cdn^titutas

have captured
d.

and hold in

custody the infamous leaders, etc.

verb of effecting or the like

may be used

in

combination with

the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly: as,
praefectos suos multi missds fecerunt their officers (made dismissed).
hie

(Ver.

iii.

134),

many

discharged

transaotum reddet omne

(restore
it

(Plaut. Capt. 345), he will get it all done

finished).

ademptum
illam tihi

tihi

iam faxo
it

omnem metum
taken away).

(Ter. Haul. 341),

I will

relieve

you of all fear (make

incensam dabo
Similarly

(Ter. Ph. 974), 1 u<ill

its

No

K.

vo!5
(cf. $

(with

make her angry with you. compounds) and cupio, with a perfect
)
:

participle without

esse
I

288 d. note
ii.

as,

UK fxciisidiun roHS
!.

(V.
thce

i.

103), I

wish

to be

excused
to

(I

want myself

pray

//</

qui te

conventum

cupit (Plant. Cure. 304),

who wants

meet you (wants

you met).
1 The perfect \\ith Aui'f, in of this use of habeo.

modern languages of Latin

stock, has

growo out

312
e.

Syntax: The Verb.

[292,293.

in

After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of
(

indirect discourse
ut

336), but expresses the action

in

more

vividly

as,

eum nemo unquam

equo sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), one ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.]

so that

no

NOTE.
with the

The same construction is used name of an author as subject as,

:

after

facio, induco, and the

like,

Xenophon

facit

Socratem disputantem (N. D.

i.

31),

Xenophon

represents

Socrates, disputing.

4.

Future Participle.

is

293. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturua) rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by
a.

later writers.

The

future participle is chiefly used with

esse (which
129)
:

is

often

omitted) in the active periphrastic conjugation (see

as,
i.

morere, Djagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tus. for you are not likely to rise to heaven.
sperat adolescens diu se
live long (that

in),

die,

he

victurum (Cat. Maj. 68), the young shall live long),

79),

man

hopes to
not

neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. seem likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.
b. By later writers and the poets the future participle simple agreement with a substantive to express : 1. Likelihood or certainty as,
:

and did

is

also used in

ausus est rem plus famae

habituram

(Liv.

ii.

10), he

dared a thing which

would have more

2.

repute.
:

Purpose, intention, or readiness

leo
to

as,
viii.

cum

regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C.

i),

when a

lion rushed on

attack the king.

rediit belli

casum de integr5 tentaturus (Liv.

xvii.

62), he returned to try

the chances of war anew. disperses per agros milites equitibus

invasuris (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields. [A rare use of the Ablative Absolute.]
ii.

si

periturus abis (JEn.

675), if you are going

away

to perish.

3.

Apodosis

as,
potuit,

dedit mini

quantum maximum

Ep. iii. 21 ), he gave he had been able.

me

as

much

daturus amplius si potuisset (Plin. as he could, ready to give me more if

293,294.]

Gerundive (Future Passive Participle).

313

c. With past tenses of ease, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (see 308. d).

5.

Gerundive (Future Passive Participle).

participle in

NOTE.
tinct uses
:

The

-dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two

dis-

(1) (2)

Its

Its

predicate and attribute use as participle or adjective ($ 294). use with the meaning of the gerund ( 296). This may be caJled

its

gerundive use.

294. The gerundive when used as a Participle or an

Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity or propriety. In this use -of the gerundive the following points are to

be observed (a-d). a. The gerundive is sometimes

participles, in simple

used, like the present and perfect

:

agreement with a noun

(Mil. 104),

as,
to be

fortem

et

conservandum virum

a brave man, and worthy

is

preserved.
b.

The most

frequent use of this form

with esse in the second

:

(passive) periphrastic conjugation (see

129)

as,

non agitanda
agitated?
c.

res erit

(Verr.

v. 179),

will not the thing have to be

The

with an object.
verb.

neuter of the gerundive 1 is occasionally used impersonally The object is in the case regularly governed by the

Thus,
vigilias (PI. Tr. 869),
sit

agitandumst
via

quam nobis ingrediendum

This use
is

(Cat. Maj. 6), the

I have got to stand guard. way we have

to enter.

NOTE.
ablative: as,

regular with verbs which take their object in the dative or

parendum est, die laws must be obeyed. utendum exercitationibus modicis (Cat. Maj.
legibus
exercise.

36),

we must

use moderate

undertake,

d. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, Stave, receive, demand? a gerundive in agreement with the object is used
:

to express purpose
1

as,

Sometimes

called

Nominative of the Gerund. Compare Greek verbal

$

in -T'OI

(Goodwin's Grammar,
2

281).

Such verbs are acciplO, adnOtO, attribuS, conducS. cur5. den5t5, deposc6, dO, dlvid5. d5nO, SdlcS. edoceS. fer6. habe6. Ioc6. mando, oblciO, permlttO, pet6, pono, praebeo, propouo, relinqud, rogro, sus. cipio, tr&dd, voved.

314

Syntax: The Verb.

294-96.

redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular

aedem

construction with this class of verbs.] Castoris habuit tuendam ( Ver. ii. 1. 150), he to take care of.

had the

temple of Castor

naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat that the ships and cargoes should be kept.

(id, v. 146),

he took care

II.

-GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.

295. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun. As a norm the gerund is itself
governed by other words as a verb in the proper case. Thus,
;

it

may

take an object

ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi

(De

Or.

ii.

157),^ art

of discoursing

well,

and distinguishing the

true

andfalse.

The nominative of the gerund is supplied by the infinitive. Thus example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare.
in the

REMARK.

296.

When

the Gerund would have an object in the

is

1 accusative, the Gerundive

generally used instead.

The

gerundive agrees with its noun, and takes the case which the gerund would have had as,
:

paratiores ad

omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed by ad. The construction with the gerund would be, ad subeundum pericula ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing
dangers.
;

the accusative pericula.]

gratia (C. M. 38), for the sake of training the memory. [Here the gerund construction would be memoriam exercendi gratia.] plerisque in rebus gerendis tarditas odiosa est (Phil. vi. 7), in the con-

exercendae memoriae

ducting of most business,

sloth is odious.

1 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The participle in -dus seems to have had a present passive force (as in ante condendam urbem 292. a), rotundus, volvenda dies (Virg.), flammandl (Tac.), 290. c) from (

which the idea of necessity was developed through that of

futurity, as in the

develop-

ment of the subjunctive (see p. 274). Consilium urbis delendae would have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in process of destruction] then about to be destroyed, then to be destroyed, then apian of destroying the city, the two words becoming fused together as in at) urbe condita,
,

296-98.]

Gerund and Gerundive.

in
tli-

315

In tins use the gerund and the gerundive are translated NOTE. way. but have really a different construction. Tin- lintm aguvs with its noun, though in translation we change the %
1

translate vigfiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept] by / must stand gnat d. The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive i:sM imprrsonally, but retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object, as in agritandumst vigilias (\ 294. <:). It may therefore be considered as a noun (cf. opus est
\sr

may

matftrato,

$ 292. b)

with a verbal force

(cf.

hauc

tactio,

p. 235, foot-note).

See

p. 314, foot-note.

The

following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of gerund

:

and gerundive

GEN. cGnsilium { \ DAT.

dat

ur )em ca P ie " di

j urbis capiendae I

I a design of faking

the city.

operam

Ace. veniunt ad { I

m.ihi

parendum |^ pacem petendam J

epistulis
J

come j

to

I to

obey me. seek peace.

letters

ABL.

terit

tempuJI scribendis ~^*

*^f\ he spends time in writing

do

REMARK.
($ 249. b)
:

In the gerundive construction the verbs utor, fruor,

etc.,

are

treated like transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they

as,

in early Latin

expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Of. i. 25), riches are sought for the enjoyment ofpleasures (for enjoying pleasures).
li!)7.

The Gerund and

the Gerundive are used, in the

oblique cases, in

many

of the constructions of nouns.

1.

Genitive.

298. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after nouns or adjectives either as subjective or
objective genitive
neque
consilii
:

as,

habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms.
[Objective.]
i. 1

ne conservandae quidem patriae causa (Of.

59), not even

for the sake

[Sub-

of saving the country.

[Originally subjective genitive.]

it is the best

Vivendi

finis est

optimus (Cat. Maj. 72),

end of living.

jective.] non tarn commutandarum

desirous not so

rerum quam evertendarum cupidos (Off. ii. 3), much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]

NOTE. Ln a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily have the genitive of the Gerund or Cjerunuivc. Thus tempua est ablre, /
time to depart.

316
REMARK.
early

Syntax: The Verb.

The
genitive of the

[298,299.

and
:

late Latin) as
as,

gerund or gerundive is used (especially in a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses

purpose

quae res vertendae reipublicae solent esse (Verr. ii. 132) things which generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. si arborum trunci deiciendi opens essent missae (B. G. iv. 17), in case trunks of trees should be sent down [with the object] of overthrowing the work. [Pred. gen. like quas sui commodi fecerat (v. 8).] Aegyptum proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he
sets out for Egypt to study old times. ne id assentandi magis quam quo habeam gratum facere existumes (Ter. Ad. 270), for fear you should think that I do it more for the sake o/ flattery than becattse, etc.

a.

The

pronoun (especially sui)

direct object
:

genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or in the objective genitive instead of taking a
as,
to see

ems

videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec. 372), eager of her),

her (eager for a seeing

reiciendi

trium iudicum

potestas ( Ver.
iii.

ii.

*]*]},

the power

of challenging three

jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors).

sui colligndi facultas (B. G.
6), the opportunity to recover themselves.

This construction undoubtedly arose from the fact that the gerund, NOTE. with the noun (or adjective) on which it depends, was conceived as a compound noun (or adjective) governing an objective genitive (cf. 217. b). Thus sui colligendl facultas would be literally, a chance of a recovering of theirs. This construction is easily distinguished from that of the gerundive by the fact that the

gerund does not agree with the substantive

b.

in

gender and number.

In genitive constructions the Gerund and Gerundive are about

equally
c.

common. The genitive

This
is

of the Gerund or Gerundive

318).

is

used with causa or

gratia to denote purpose (see

NOTE.

merely a special use under the main head of

298.

2.

Dative.

after adjectives 1

299. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used which take the dative and rarely after nouns ( 234. a) as,
:

The

dative of the gerund

adjectives accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, utilis, inutilis. But the accusative with ad

and gerundive occurs most commonly after the bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, is common with most of these

299, 30O."]
K'nus nrmorum
te

/;/</

an<1 (icrnu<thr.
(Liv. xxxii. 10),

317
a
sort of

aptum tegendis corporibus

armor snitch to the defence of tJic l>,/y. sociam stmlni serfbendia versibus esse (Lucr.
thou (Venus) /v

i.

25),

desire that

my partn/r

in writing verses.
et

rcliqua

tempora dGmetendis fructibus

percipiendls
to

sunt (Cat. Maj. 70), the other seasons are fitted the harvest.

reap
i,

accommodata and gather in

for

perferendis inllitum mandatis idoneus (Tac. Ann. carrying out the instructions of the soldiers.
a.

23), suitable

The

dative

is

used in a few expressions after verbs

r.

l
:

as,

diem

praestitit the work.

operi faciendo(Ver.ii.

i^),/u' appointed a day for doing

praeesse agro colendo (Rose. land.

esse sol vendo, to be able to

Am.
(to

50), to take

charge of cultivating the

pay

be

for paying).

NOTE.

This construction

is

a remnant of a more general use of the dative of

the gerund and gerundive.

b.

The

dative

is

ing the

officers, offices, elections, etc., to

also used in certain legal phrases after nouns meanindicate the function or scope of

office, etc.

as,

comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls. triumvir coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies. triumviri reipublicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a commission of three) for settling the government.
3.

Accusative.

3OO. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (and rarely
in

and
mo

ante);

most frequently
as,

after ad, denoting Purpose

(Cf.

318-*):
vocas

vivis

ad scribendum (Or. 34), yon summon me to ivrite. non ad deponendam seel ad confirmandam audaciam (("'at you live, not to put off, but to confirm voiir </<;;. nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake these things.
inter

agendum

(Eel.

ix.

24), while driving.

of the gerund with a preposition never takes a gerund very rarely. The Gerundive is used
direct

NOTE.
0296).
i

The Accusative

object, the Ablative of the

i:

Such are praeesse,

operam

dare, diem dlcero,

locum capere.

3i8

Syntax: The Verb.

4.

[301,302.

Ablative.

Gerund and Gerundive is used (i) to express Manner, Means, Cause, etc.; and and (3) after the prepositions ab, (2) after Comparatives de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum as,
of the
1
;
:

301. The Ablative

(1) multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises. Latme loquendS cuivis par (Bru. 128), equal to any man in speaking

Latin.
nullis virtutis praeceptis

tradendk

(Off.

i.

5),

witkoztt delivering
.

any

precepts of virtue (by delivering

his ipsis

no precepts)

legendis (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things. obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude. (2) nullum officiura referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), no duty is more important than repaying favors.
(3) in re

NOTE.

gerenda versari (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs, The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used
abstitit

with verbs and adjectives: as,

Appius non

desist from

continuandS magistratum (Liv. continuing his magistracy.

is

ix.

34), Appius did not

REMARK.

The gerund

often found co-ordinated with nominal constructions,

and sometimes even

in apposition with

a noun:

as,

(1) in foro, in curia, in

amicorum periculis pulsandis

(Phil. vii. 7), in the

fortim, in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy. (2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 3), for the most widely different things, obeying and commanding*

lll.-SUPINE.
NOTE.
no
is

The supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth

and

declension
(i)

($

distinction of tense or person,

limited to two uses,

The form

71. a) , having in -urn

the accusative of the end of motion ( 258. b, Rem.). (2) The form in -u is usually dative of purpose ($ 233), though probably the ablative has been confused with it.

302. The Former Supine

of motion to express purpose. the proper case. Thus,
1

(in

-um)

is

used after verbs

take an object in

It

may

In this use the ablative of the gerund

is,

in later writers nearly,

:

and

in mediaeval

writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle

as,

cum una dierum

FLENDO
(Gesta

sedisset,

quidam miles g-enerosus iuxta earn EQUITANDO venit

Romanorum, 66 [58]), as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by. (Compare \ 301, fifth example.) From the gerund used as ablative of manner come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as mandando, espe)

the true participial form

becoming an

adjective in those languages.

302,303."]
quid
(

Sufline.
ctsi monitum venimus now, shall we be seated ? though

319
te,
?.v

cst,

imusnc sessum?
17), //<w

non flagitatura

(I>c

iii.

not

to

en Ir cat you ?
to

nuptum
venerunt

dare (collocate),

give in marriage.
iii.

questum

iniurias (Liv.
in

25), they

came

to

complain of wrongs.
with

RIMVKK.

The supine

-um

is

especially

common

e6; and with the

passive infinitive irl forms the future infinitive passive.

fucre elves qul

Thus,

rempublicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there were 'cent about to ruin the republic (cf. 258. l>, Rcm.) non Grals servitum nuUrilms ibd (.Kn. ii. 786), I shall not go to be a slave to the Grecian dames, si sclsset se trucidatura irl (Div. ii. 22), if ht (Pompey) had known that he was going to be murdered. [For the more usual form of the future
>ts ivlio

infinitive, see

147.

<:.]

3O;*. The Latter Supine (in -u) 1 is used only with a few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, and rarely with verbs, to denote an action /'// reference to which

the quality

is

asserted

as,
(Phil.
ii.

rem non modo visa foedam, sed ctiam auditii

only shocking to
see,

63),

a thing not

but even

to

hear

of.

humanum
si

quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Ver. ii. i. 68), they ask what is best to do. factu aut inceptu (Ter. Andr. 236), a human thing to do or undertake.

hoc

fas est

dictu (Tusc.

videtis nefas esse dictu

you
NOTE.

see it is

a sin

to

lawful to say. talem senectutem (Cato. M. say that such an old age was wretched.
v. 38),
is

if this

miseram

fuisse

13),

pudet dictu (Agric. 32),

it is
is

shame

to tell.

The
$

latter
.

supine

thus in appearance an ablative of specification

($ 253)i l )Ut see

302 head-note.

ki MARK. The supine in -tl is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difflcilis, iucundus, ad with the gerund is

more common.
nee visu
difticilis

Thus,

facilis

for (inv

man

nee dictu adfabilis ulli (/En. to look at or address.

similitudd

iii.

621), he

is

not pleasant
difficult to

ad distinguendum

(Dc

>.

ii.

-12),

a likeness

distinguish.

With

all

these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the

same sense

as,

facilcs

aurem pracbcre (Prop.), indulgent

in

to lei:

1 The only latter supines memoratfl, natxi, visa.

common

In classic use this supine

use are auditii, dictd. factti. inventtl, is found, in all, in

i

lour vcibi.

It

ii>

never followed by an object-case.

32O

Syntax: Conditional

Sentente.

CHAPTER IV.
NOTE.
this, that

Conditional Sentences.
differs

from other compound sentences in is determined in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS), upon the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all compound sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen from putting together two independent statements, which in time became so closely united as to make one modified statement. Thus Speak the word: my servant shall be healed is an earlier form of expression than If thou etc. the word, speak The Conditional Particles were originally independent pronouns : thus si, if, is
the form of the

The Conditional Sentence

main clause (APODOSIS)

a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (si-ce like hl-ce, see footnotes at pp. 65, 67), and has the primitive meaning of in that way, or in some way. In its origin the Condition was of two kinds. Either it was assumed and stated as a fact, or it was expressed as a mild command. From the first have come all
the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (i) the Indicative, expressing the conclusion

as a fact; and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally as and hence more or less doubtful or (2) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subfuture junctive expressing it &->futurum in praeterito}- and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus rides, maiore cacbinno concutitur, you laugh, he shakes with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and

apodosis ; si rides originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so, later, IF you laugh. So roges Aristonem, neget, ask Arista, he would say no, is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis ; si roges would mean ask in some way or other. In si rogares, negaret, the Imperfect rogares

command of roges to past time,2 with the meaning sttpposeyou had asked, and si would have the same meaning as before ; while negaret transfers the the stating future idea of neget to past time, and means he was going to deny.
transfers the

Now

of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact, because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supthen for it would a be in the indicbe and as such would simple fact, put position :

Such a condition or conclusion originally past, meaning suppose you had came to express an unfulfilled condition in asked [yesterday] he was going to deny the present ; suppose (or if) you were now asking, he would [now] deny just as in English ought, which originally meant owed,* has come to express a present obligation.
ative.8
,

past.

in praeterito is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely denotes a future act transferred to the point of view ofpast time, and hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive : thus dixisset, he would have jtfzd?=dicturus fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which
1 It

The futurum

looks towards the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present a tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express a present condition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact. 2 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said ( 266. e). 8 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise as, deciens centena dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15), if you'd
time, such
:

given him a million, there was nothing in his coffers. * "There was a certain lender which ought him
d&le's

five

hundred

pieces."

Tyn-

N.

T.

304.]

Proftt sis

and

Apottos is.
.:

321

i.

SiMiM
($306).

"K PAST CONDITIONS, nothing

RK CONDITIONS:
, ,

implied as to fulfilment

J.

Less vivid

3.

CONDITIONS CONTRARY ( a. TO FACT: U.

($ 307). Present (J 308). Past ($ 308).

4.

GENERAL CONDITIONS: j
(

Indefinite Subject
<J.

309. 309.

).

Repeated Action

^. c).

in clause of Fact,

Wish,

(i.
5.

IMPLIED CONDITIONS:
1.
b.

(310. a). Potential Subjunctive

Subjunctive of Modesty

Protasis Omitted

\
2.

1.

Protasis and Apodosis.

3O4.

complete conditional sentence consists of two

clauses, the Protasis

and the Apodosis.

The
SIS;

clause containing the condition is called the PROTAthe clause containing the conclusion is called the
as,
ii.

APODOSIS:
si

qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], conivere possum [APODOSIS] (Cat.

27),

if any wish
si est

to

depart,

I can

keep

my

eyes shut.

if he

in exsilio [PROTASIS], quid amplius postulatis [APODOSIS] (Lig.i3), is in exile> what more do you ask?
It

NOTE.
a.

should be carefully noted that the Protasis

is

is

the dependent clause.

The

Protasis
its

regularly introduced by the conditional particle

si (IF) or one of

compounds.

These compounds are sin, nisi, etiamsi, etsl, tametsi, tamenetsl (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, $ 155. e g). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause
t

NOTE.

(see
b.

316).

The Apodosis
:

is

often introduced

phrase

as, sic, ita, turn,

by some correlative word or ea condicione, etc. Thus,

ita enim senectus honesta

condition
si

is

quidem me then this would

est, si se ipsa defendit (Cat. Maj. 38), on this old age honorable, if it defends itself. aniarot, turn istiic pro.lesset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved me,

be profitable.

NOTE.

In this use sic and

ea condicidne

are rare.

322
c.

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

304. 305.

but

may

The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence, at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so
:

be in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase

sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex

as,

ing also

to

deprive

him

(Q. C. viii. 2), intendof burial, unless the king had ordered him to be
iussisset

human

interred.

quod

si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione iturum [esse] (B. G. i. 40), but if no one else would follow, he would go with the

tenth legion alone.

si

quos adversum proelium commoveret, h5s reperire posse of a battle alarmed any, they mightfind, etc.

(id.), if the loss

NOTE.

When the Apodosis

itself is in

Indirect Discourse, or in any dependent

first

construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the two of the above examples, see 337).

d. Conditions are either (i) Particular or (2) General. Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts 1.

A A

occurring at
2.

some

definite time.

may

General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
2.

Classification.

3O5. The principal or

sentences
a.
1.
si

may

typical Forms be exhibited as follows

:

of

conditional

SIMPLE CONDITIONS, with nothing implied as

Present, nothing implied.
adest,
1

to fulfilment.

Present Indicative in both clauses.

here, it is well.

bene

est,

if he

is

[now]

2.

Past, nothing implied.

Some

past tense of the Indicative in both

clauses.
si

aderat,

si adfuit,

bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well. bene fuit, if he has been here, it has been well.
(necessarily as yet unfulfilled).

b.
I.

FUTURE CONDITIONS More vivid.

aderit,

(a) Future Indicative in

si

both clauses.
be) here,
it

bene

erit,

if he

is (shall

will be well.

Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodo(J3) sis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins).
1

Cf. the
2.
b. I.
c.

Greek forms:

a.

I.

et irpdo-o'ei

rovro, Ka\ws

I.

rovro, Ka\cas el^ei/. 6a> Trpdo*o-r) rovro, Ka\S>s fc. et ieirpaffffe rovro, Ka\oas tiv el^ev.
ei firpao~o~

ei 67rpa|e rovro, 2. et irpaffffoi rovro

2. 2.

et'

d. I. tdir rts

K\tirry t Kohd&Tai.

elf

ns

firpaf rovro, KoAai KAeVro*,

$ 305.)

Classification.
brnc
erit,

si

adfurrit.

(but
2.

it

will not

be well if he is (shall have been) here, it -will [then] begin to be well until he actually is here).

Less vivid.

(a) Present Subjunctive in

si

both clauses.
it

adsit,

hene

sit,

if he should be (or were to be) here,

would be

well.

(/?) Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apodosis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins).
si aclfucrit,

bene

sit,

// he should Le (should have been) here,

it

would

[then] be well.
c. 1.

CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT.

Present, contrary to fact. Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but he is

si adesset,

NOT

here).

2. Past,
si

contrary to fact. Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well (but he was NOT here).

d.

GENERAL CONDITIONS.
Conditions (a,
:

ticular

b,

and

c)

Usually not differing in form from Parbut sometimes distinguished in the

;

cases following

1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time). (a) Present Subjunctive second person singular in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis.
si

hoc dicas,

creditur, if any

one [ever] says

this, it is

[always] believed.

in protasis, (ft} Perfect Indicative

si

Present in apodosis.
it is

quid

dixit, creditur,

if he [ever] says anything,

[always] believed.

2.

Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time).

(a) Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apodosis.

si

quid diceret, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, believed (= whatever he said was always believed),

it

was [always]

(/:?)

Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect in apodosis.

clixerat,

si

quid

credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it

was [always]

believed.

The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition conis

alive

REMARK. now

is

trary to fact, see me thus

junctive

and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive; if he were to a FUTURE condition less vivid to be expressed by the Present Suband so too, ifyou advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.
is

324
3.

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

Present and Past Conditions

306.

Nothing Implied.

3O6. In the statement of present and past conditions whose falsity is NOT implied, the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis.
Thus,
si

tu exercitusque valetis,
well, it is well.

bene

est

(Fam.

v. 2),

if you

and

the

army

art

haec igitur, si habent (Att.

away
si

si ades, haec negotia sic se 18), this, then, if you are at Rome ; but if you are or even if you are there these matters are as follows.

[Present Condition.] Romae es; sin abes, aut etiam

v.

[Present.]

qul

magms

ingeniis in eo genere exstiterunt,

non

satis

Graecorum gloriae

responderunt (Tuscul. i. 3), if any men have appeared ofgreat genius in that branch, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks.
[Past Condition.]
accepi
et

Roma

Romae

sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo si modo valuisti fuisti Philotimi duc5 esse culpam non tuam (Att. v. 17), 1

have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, provided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and present conclusion.]

quas

litteras, si

Romae

es,

videbis putesne reddendas (Att.

v. 18),

as to
it

this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in [Mixed : Present and Future.] otight to be delivered.
si

your opinion

nemo impetravit adroganter rogo

ceeded in obtaining
it,

(Ligarius

30),

my request is presumptuous.

if no one has suc[Past and Present.]

a.
tive
;

but

In these conditions, the apodosis need not always be in the Indicamay assume any form, according to the sense. Thus,
.

si

placet

videamus (Cato M.
si

fuerit hoc censoris,

si

1 us see. [Hortatory.] 5), ifyou please, let iudicabat (Div. i. 29), s^lppose it was the censor's

duty, if he judged it false.

[Hortatory Subjunctive.]
61),

nondum

satis cernitis,

recordamini (Milon.
iv.

if you do not yet see

clearly, recollect.
si

[Imperative.]
10), if
it.

quid habes certius, velim scire (Att. worthy information, I should like to
esty,

you have any

[Subjunctive of

trust-

know

Mod-

311.

b.-\

NOTE. Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such
implication: as,
nolite, si in nostro

omnium fietu nullam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc minus ei parcere (Milon. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of its all you have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for
that.

<?

306, 307.]
pctimus a
vtlhls,

Future Conditions.
indices,
si

325
commendatio
~uc

qua divina

in

tantis ingeniis

debet
yon,
it to
.

esse, ut

eum

in vcstram accipiatis lidem

(An

ask

there ought to be anything in such genius to recommendation of the gods, that you receive

recommend him under

your protection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause : but the cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers arc to draw the inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been
used.

4.

Future Conditions.

3O7. Future Conditions may be more or less vivid. 1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a
distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis express-

ing what will be the result. 2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, the apodosis expressing what woitld be the
result in the case supposed.
a. In the

in both protasis

more vivid future condition the Future and apodosis as,

:

Indicative is used

sanabimur
quod
si

si

volemus (Tus.

iii.

13),
. . .

legere aut audire voletis

[shall

wish to] read or hear, you

we shall be healed if ^ve wish. reperietis (Cato M. 20), if you will will find.

In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, NOTE. rarely by the future with SHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. $ 276. c) : as,
si

vincimus, omnia nobis tuta erunt;

sin metu cesserinius, eadem

ilia

advorsa fient (Sail. Cat. 58, 3), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield through fear, those same things will become
hostile.

si

pereS hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (./En. iii. 606), if will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men.

I perish,
is

it

b.

In the less vrvuffotun condition the Present Subjunctive

:

used

in

both protasis and apodosis

haec
if
si

as,

tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 19), your country should thus speak with theet ought she not to pre. . .

vail?

quod

si quis deus mihi largiatur i/ seme god were to grant me this,

valde

recusem

(Cat. Maj. 83), but

refuse.

I should stoutly

326

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

307.

REMARK. The present subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the speaker. 1
c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunc-

tive: as,
sin

si

potuero, non venerS, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. come when I can, he will be tmfriendly. non feceris ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), ifyou do not do it,

cum

2), but if I do not

I will excuse you.

REMARK.
condition: as,

The Future

Perfect

is

very often used in the apodosis of a future

vehementer mihi gratum feceris, si hunc adolescentem humanitate tua comprehenderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy.
d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like as,
:

alius finis

constituendus est

si

prius

quid maxime reprehendere Scipio

set

solitus sit dixero (Lael.

59),

another limit must be

if

I first

state

si

what Scipio was %vnt most to find fault with. me praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento, if fate cuts me soon, do you remember that I ordered this (Q. C. ix. 6, 26).

off too

Miloni a Clodio factas, nee deprecaturi sumus nee postulaturi (Milon. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc. non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Ver. iv. 87), / cannot accuse him if I should desire to.
nisi oculis videritis insidias

e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present or even a Future in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as

ilready accomplished: as,

si

hoc bene fixum

in

in

anim5

est,

vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this

is

well fixed

si

your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.] eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered.

f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, without implying that it is contrary to fact ( 308). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : as,
often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not as in " If the sky falls, we shall catch larks," the impossible condition is the proverbial ironically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed
1 It

upon

condition stated by

some one

else.

307,308.]
nun poterat

Conditions Contrary
nisi vrllcl
i'.
'

to

Rict.

327

'.

iii.

.;

tumulus apparuit ... si luce palam iretur li. \\ii. 24), <i hill appeared if they should go openly hy light, the eueinv would prerent. (The first tuo appear like ind. disc., hut arc- n<.t. An observer describing the situations as present ones would say potest si
.
.

The only velit (etc., sec i/), and no ind. disc, would be thought of. difference between these and the third is that in them the forms in J
are used instead of the subjunctive.]

Caesar

si
>'

peteret

r.v/v to ask he

not contrary to
past time.]

ndn cjuicquam proficeret (Ilor. Sat. i. 3. 4), if even would gain nothing. [Here the construction is fact, but is simply si petat non proficiat, thrown into
.
.

5.

Conditions Contrary to Fact.

3O8. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used The imperfect refers to in both Protasis and Apodosis. 1
Present Time, the pluperfect to Past as, quae si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat. Maj. couch would 38), if I coiild not [now] follow tJiis (an active \\fe},yet my [ Present. ] afford me pleasure.
:

nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem should not have recovered it. [Past.]
si

(id.

n),

ttnless

you had

lost

it,

meum
if

essemus, respublica non

my

consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres, nos liberi tot duces et exercitus amisisset (Phil. ii. 37), judgment and authority had prevailed [as they did not], you
be

and the republic would [Mixed Present and Past.] qui nisi revertisset, in e5 conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, quod proxima nocte conruit: ruina igitur oppressus esset; at id neque si fatum fuerat effugisset, nee si non fuerat in eum casum incidisset (Div. ii. 20), //"// had been decreed by fate, he would not have escaped, etc. [The apodosis of fuerat is not effugisset, but the whole conditional senwould this day
not have

a beggar, we
leaders

shotild be free,

lost so

many

and armies.

tence of which effugisset is the apodosis; the real protasis of effugisset is revertisset (cf. 311. </).]
a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to

past

time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still
exist: as,
1

The

implication of

falsity, in this

construction,

is

not inherent in the Subjunc-

Thus the tive; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. time for the happening of the condition has, at the time of writing, already passed; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past
forms implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apodosis in this construction (see d, below, and head-note, p. 320),

328
hie
si

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

308.

mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 50), ifhe were of sane mind, ^vould he have dared to lead out the army ? [Here esset

denotes a continued

non

state, past as well as present.] concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Verr. ii. 3), [the power of Carthage] -would not have fallen, unless that station

had been open

to

our fleets.

[Without the condition, patebat.]

fact that the pluperfect is equivalent to a future perfect in praeteritd, and so represents the action as completed and momentary rather than as continuing.
',

REMARK.

This use necessarily arises from the

b.

the Indicative

In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the Past tenses of may be used to express what was intended, or likely, or
:

already begun
si

as,

licitum esset matres

veniebant (Verr.
(see
305.
c.

v. 129), the

mothers were coming

2). in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Tac. A. xvi. 32), he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed.

if it

had been allowed

iam

tuta tenebam, ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset (^En. vi. 358), / was just reaching a place of safety, had not the Jierce people attacked me.

NOTE.

In such cases the apodosis

may be

regarded as

elliptical.

Thus,

matres veniebant (et venissent) si licitum esset, the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if it had been allowed. [So with paene, prope, etc.]

REMARK.

imperfect subjunctive, subjunctive.

In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time to the and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to the pluperfect

c. Verbs and expressions denoting necessity, propriety, duty* when used in the Apodosis of a condition contrary

possibility,

to fact are

regularly put in the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative instead of the Subjunctive : as,
si ita

so,
si

putasset certe optabilius Miloni fuit (Milon. 31), if he surely it would have been preferable for Milo.

had thought

privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. if he (Pompey) were at this time a private citizen at Rome, yet he ought to be appointed. quod esse caput debebat si probari posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought to be the main point if it could be proved. nam nos decebat lugere (Tuscul. i. 115), for it would befit us to mourn.
50),
1

Romae

Such are possum, decet, oportet, debeo, and the Second Periphrastic
Observe that
all

Thus, decet me [hodie] Ire eras, means it is proper for me Ire hodie, it was proper [to-day] to go to-morrow; and, decebat me [her!], not gone as for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually with the implication that / have / was bound to.

Conjugation. note above).

these expressions contain the idea of futurity

(cf.

308, 309.]

(icncnil Conditions.
it

329
condition

NOTE
dition.-d,

I.

In this construction

is

and not the necessity

itself.

only tlir thing nt< v If the necessity itself

is

Subjunrtivr is n --<! as with other verbs. may be seen in the following example
:

The

dii

often imperceptible, but

quid facere potuissem nisi turn consul fuissem? consul autem esse qui potui nisi cum vitae cursuin lenuisscin a pueritia (Rep. i. 10), what

could

I have done

if

I had
is

not then been consul ;

and how

could 1

ha-'c been consul if I had not followed that course

of life from boyhood.

NOTE 2.
si

This construction
iactaret

sometimes carried

still

further in poetry: as,

non alium

odorem, laurus erat (Georg. but for giving out a different odor.

ii.

133), it were

laurel,

d. The participle in -urus with eram or fui may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the Apodosis of a condition

contrary to fact
quid enim

as,

futurum

fuit

[=

fuisset], si

... (Liv.

ii.

i),

what would have

happened if, etc. neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si ... (id.), nor is there any [Direct: fecisset.] question he would have done it if, etc. ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui haec sine doctrina creditor! fuerint (Tusc. i. 48), hence it may be understood how keen they are by nature, who, without instruction, would have believed this. [Here the condition is contained in the words sine doctrina.] adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, nl incerta noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that
they would have seized upon Olho, had they not feared the hazards the night. [In a main clause : rapuissent ni timuissent.]

of

NOTE. This construction is regularly used when the apodosis is itself a dependent clause requiring the subjunctive, and also in Indirect Discourse. In Indirect Discourse fuisse replaces eram or fui (see \ 337).
e.

in the protasis

Perfect subjunctive are sometimes used in poetry and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact as, comes admoneat, inruat (/En. vi. 293), had not his companion warned
:

The Present and

him,
bear

lie

would have rushed on.

ferant
(id.
i.

ni faciat, maria ac terras

58), unless he did this, they

would

away
This

sea
is

and land.

NOTE.

condition in a vivid form,

probably a remnant of an old construction. Its use puts the as if possible at any moment in the future though not

now

true.

6.

General Conditions.

3O9. General Conditions ( 304. d) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. JUit they are sometimes distinguished in the following three cases:

33O
a.

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

The
Subjunctive

[309,310.

to denote the act of

is sometimes used in the second person singular, an Indefinite Subject (you any one}. Here the Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis as, mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exerceas, rubi:

ginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very like iron: ifyou use it, it wears away ; ifyou don't use it, it gathers rust. virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur (Tusc. i.
si

prohibita

91), glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that Is not one's aim. impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est

si

(Tac. A. iii. 54), ifyou once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no fear nor shame any more. cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), [he was'] easily appeased ij one yielded.

b. In later writers (not in Cicero), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apodas, osis, to state a repeated or custotnary action in past time
:

accusatores,

si

facultas incideret,

poems adficiebantur
offered,

(Tac. A.

vi.

30), the

accusers,

whenever opportunity

were visited with punishment.

c. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis.

Thus,
si

quos aliqua membrorum parte

ix. i, 25),

inutiles

if they [ever]

mark any

notaverunt, necari iubent (Q. C. infirm in any part of their limbs,

si

[Present.] they [always] order them to be put to death. a persequendo hostes deterrere nequiverant ab tergo circumveniebant e re unable to prevent the enemy from pur(J U S- 5)> */T ever ] they [Past.] suing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear.

d. In all other cases, general suppositions

duced by Indefinite Relatives

Particular Conditions.
7.

including those introare not distinguished in form from

Condition Disguised.

asis is not expressed

31O. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protby a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of
the thought.
a.

Thus,
may be
illo

The
me

condition

implied in a Clause or in a Participle,

Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase.

facile

Thus,

pro Sex. Roscio dicere ipso iudlce quaerente to speak for Roscius (Rose. Amer. 85), / should readily allow myself the trial. [Present contrary to fact : zvere that conducting very judge if
paterer
si

quaereret,

etc.]

310.]
MMII mihi, nisi

Condition Disguised.

331

admonito, venissct in incntcm (I -o), it would not have come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [I'.i trary to fact: nisi admonitus essem.] nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), // no other people that -could not have been crushed by such a weight of
disaster.

[Past contrary to fact: si alia fuisset.]

immortalitatis, se pro patria offerret ad
i.

nemo unquam sine magna spe

moitem (Tusc.
32),

no one, without great hope of immortality, ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact nisi magnam spem haberet.] quid hunc paucorum annorum accessid iuvare potuisset (Loel. n),what good could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been
:

added) ? [Past contrary to fact si accessissent.] qul igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentient! (Tuscul. i. 104), what harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don't feel any:

[Future more vivid si nihil sentiam.] thing (feeling nothing) ? incitata seinel procllve labuntur (Tusc. iv. 42), if once given a push, they slide down rapidly. [Present General si incitata sunt.]
: :

b. The condition niay be contained in a Wish (optative subjunctive), or expressed as an Exhortation or Command (hortatory subjunctive, 1 or

imperative)

as,

utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), I wish I had been [chief] he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had
:

been). [Optative Subjunctive.] naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24) drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.]

roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny. manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria(Cato M. 22), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dilitolle

gence ( 266. d). [Hortatory.] hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.]

NOTE.
and

The so-called concessive subjunctive with lit often has the force of protasis ($ 313. a) : as,

and ne

is

really hortatory,

ut enim rationem Plato nullam afferret, ipsa auctoritate me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower me,
etc.
c.

Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:

maiore cachinno concutitur (Juv.
iii.

as,

rides:

100),

you laugh; he

shakes

with louder laughter

1

(=
tin-

if

you laugh, he shakes).

TV

prnbublv
i:

Minrtivr tiriti"

origin nf the use of the subjunctive in Pi the conditional particle is a

form

of an indefinite pronoun (see head-note, p. 330).

332
:

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

310, 311.

commove senties (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up [and] you'll find, etc. de paupertate agitur multl patientes pauperes commemorantur (Tusc. are mentioned. iii. 57), we speak ofpoverty ; many patient poor
:

d.

The

condition

is

often contained in a Relative Clause (see

participle as

316).

REMARK.

For the use of a

8.

APODOSIS, see

304.

c.

Condition Omitted.

311. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument. Thus,
poterat Sextilius
tilins

impune negare quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sexmight have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he had)
:
.

REMARK.

Under

this
I.

head belongs the

so-called

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.

Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as actually performed, but as possible. In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to
a.

The

is

the immediate future; the Imperfect to past time. The second person common, indicating an Indefinite Subject (cf. 309. a). Thus,
hie quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 133), here some one may ask. assimilare freto possis (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare. ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Of. iii. 97), as one may perhaps say. forsitan haec illi mirentur (Verr. iv. 124), they may perchance
these things. turn in lecto quoque

marvel at

videres susurros (Hor. Sat.

ii.

8. 77),

then on each couch

you might hear whisperings. NOTE i. The Present is sometimes used

migrantis cernas

for the Imperfect: as,

(^n.

iv.

Ap\},you might have seen them moving.

is

NOTE

2.

The
.

Pluperfect

rare in this construction.

Its

place

is

supplied by

the Imperfect.

putasses eius luctus aliquem finem esse debere (Sen. Dial. would have thought there ought to be some end to his grief.

6,

13),

you

NOTE

3.

The

Potential Subjunctive, but

subjunctive with forsitan does not differ in meaning from the is really an Indirect Question ( 334. g).
potential subjunctive
protasis
is

REMARK.
protasis.

The

strictly

Sometimes the

may be
So

easily supplied, but often

an apodosis with omitted none is

present to the below).

mind of

the speaker.

also the Subjunctive of

Modesty

{b,

II.

SUBJUNCTIVE OF MODESTY.

b. The Subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical statements (coniunctlvus modestiae). This use is especially common in a polite wish, with velim or vellem, Thus,

311.]
e tuii

CoHitificn

Omitti-,1.

333

dixorim(Mil. 105), / sciam an (L.i-lius 51), I should inclint to tkink. tu velim sic cxistiincs (Fain, xii. 6), I should //'/< nk so. vi\ ausim credere (< >v. M. vi. 561), I should hardly dare believe. vellem adcssct M. Antonius (1'hil.i. 16), / could wish Antony ivere here. [Here vellem implies an unfulfilled wish in present time; void or nold would express a peremptory wish.] haec erant fere quae tibi nota esse vellem (Fain. xii. 5), this is about what I should like you to know. [Here vellem is simply velim transferred, to past time on account of erat (epistolary), by sequence of tenses, and does not imply an impossible wish.]
haiul
III.

VERBS OF NECESSITY.

c.

The

like,

may

Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and the be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future
:

or contrary to fact

as,
. .

longum
illud

est ea dicere, sed

(Ses. 12), it

would

be tedious to

tell,

etc.

[Future.]

erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin.

(Off.
iii.

iv.

2), it

would be more
it

Jitting to yield each one his rights.

quanto meliua fuerat

been.

94),

how much

better

would have

quod centra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat Maj.), whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him. ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil.ii. 103), would it have been a

nam

great matter to wait for the man himself? nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus (Tusc. i. I 1 ^)tfor it were fitting to mourn the house where a man has been born
(but

we do

not).
. . .

nunc

nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvmar deorum tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37. i), i.e. it would be time (if it wore for us to do it, but it is a public act).
est

bibendum

REMARK. Notice that, in this construction, the Imperfect indicative refers to present time ; the Pluperfect to simply past time, like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now], but is not ; oportuerat means it ought to have been,
but
iihis not.

No IK.
to the

In

many

cases

it

is

mind of

the speaker or not (see third

impossible to say whether a protasis was present example above).

9.

Complex Conditions.
may he
a complex idea in
is

d. Either the protasis or the apodosis

which the main statement

tions.

or implied qualificaIn such cases the true logical relation of the parts is sometimes
:

made with

disguised

as,

334
si

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

quis

311, 312,
multa

horum

dixisset ... si

verbum de republica

fecisset
2),

plvira

if any of these had spoken in case he had said a -word about politics, he would be thought to have said muck more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of
dixisse

quam

dixisset putaretur (Rose.

Am.

dixisset

is

which

is itself

the whole of the following statement (si ... putaretur), conditioned by a protasis of its own: si verbum, etc.].

quod si in hoc mund5 fieri sine deo non potuit ne in sphaera quidem eosdem motus sine divino ingeniS potuisset imitari (Tusc. i. 63), now if that cannot be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archimedes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions
without divine genius. [Here si potuit (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary-to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine . . . ingeniS.] peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat. ii. I. 6), confound me (may I perish wretchedly) if it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat.
contrary to fact,
is

omitted.]

10. Particles of

312. The
si,

quasi, acsi,
if),

Comparison (Conclusion Omitted). tamquam, tamquam particles of Comparison and utsl, velutsT, veluti, poetic ceu (all meaning
si (than if)

as

and quam

take the Present or Perfect

Subjunctive, unless the sequence of tenses requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect. Thus,
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed. tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. ii. 4, 21), just as if I were lame (i.e. just
ita

as it would be if I should be lame), hos [honoris] petunt, quasi honeste vixerint (Jug. 85), they seek them (offices) just as if they had lived honorably. quasi vero non specie visa iudicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as ifforsooth visible

things were notjudged by their appearance.

similiter facis ac si

me roges

(N.

S.

iii.

aeque ac

si

mea

negotia essent (Fam.

^)^you do exactly as ifyou asked me. xiii. 43), as muck as if it were my

own
velut
si

business.

coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as if he were present in person. ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (^En. ii. 438), as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But sometimes with indie, in poetry, as yEn. v. 88.] magis quam si domi esses (Att. vii. 4), more than ifyou were at home. REMARK. The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and

Pluperfect Subjunctive with these particles; but the point of view is different in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means/#.r/ lame, as [it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid
future condition requiring the present subjunctive. Similarly quasi honeste vixerint, as if they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] ifthey should have lived honorably, and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive ( 307. c.\

313.]

Concessive Clauses.

335

NOTE. These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam si claudus blm the protasis is introduced by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
11. Concessive Clauses.

313. The
quamvis,
etiamsi.

particles of

Concession (meaning although,

:

granting that)

are

quantum

the following quamquam, quamlibet, vis, ut, n5, cum, licet, etsi, tametsi,

Some
tive.

of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indica-

Thus,
Quamvis,
ut, and ne* take the Subjunctive (
266. c)
:

a.

as,

quamvis ipsi Infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking they themselves may be, yet, etc.
ut neminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other. ne sit sane summum dolor: malum certe est (Tuscul. ii. 14), suppose pain
is

not the greatest evil,

still it

surely
as

is

an
as

evil.

NOTE.
above,
let

Quamvla means
is

literally,

much

you

will.

Thus

in the

example

them be as incapable as you

hortatory ; that with

will, still, etc.

is

The

subjunctive with

quam-

vis and ne
b.

Ut

of uncertain origin.

Licet (properly a verb) takes a Substantive clause in the Sub-

junctive (
licet

331.0
in

as,

omnes

all terrors

me terrores periculaque impendeant and perils should menace me.

is

(Rose.

Am.

31),

though

NOTE. The subjunctive with licet limited to the Present and Perfect tenses.
c.

by the sequence of tenses

necessarily

Etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even if% take the same constructions as

Bi(305): as,etsi etsi etsi

abest maturitas (Fam.

vi. 18),

though ripeness of age

is

-wanting.

etsi

nunquam dubium fuit (id. v. 19), although it has never been doubtful. statueram (id. v. 5), though I had determined. nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 90), even ifyou had taken aivay nothing
else.

non habebis, scribito tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if have nothing to write, still write. sed ea tametsi vos parvi pendebatis (Sail. Cat. 52), but although you regarded those things as of small account.
etiamsi

quod

scribas

you

[shall]

d.

Cum

concessive takes the Subjunctive (see

(Fain.
v. 13),

326)
it

as,

cum mihi non omnlno excidisset

vanished [from

though

had not

entirely

my

mindj.

336
NOTE.
tive: as,
nil

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

In early Latin

313, 314,

cum (quom)

concessive usually takes the Indica-

quom

nothing
e.

est nil dent tamen (Ter. Eun. 243), while is Tvanting. 326, note 3.] [See also

I have

nothing,

still

Quamquam

introduces an admitted fact and takes the Indica-

tive: as,

omnibus

quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus

down under

8), though he is breaking all with destruction.

his disasters,

pestem denuntiat (Phil. xiv. still he threatens

f.

Quamquam

more commonly means and yet, introducing a new

:

proposition in the indicative

as,
76),

quamquam haec quidem tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc. (Mil. yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
g.

and

poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quamconnecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to the nature of the condition. Thus,

The

quam like etsi,

quamquam moveretur
Pollio

(Liv. xxxvi. 34), although he

rustica,

was moved.
iii.

amat nostram, quamvis est

muse, though she
is rustic.
ii.

musam

(Eel.

84), Pottio loves

my
NOTE.
as,

quamvis perveneras (Liv.

40), though you

had come.
with the Subjunctive:

Even Cicero occasionally uses

quamquam

quamquam ne id quidem suspici5nem

coitionis

habuerit (Plane.

53), though

not even that raisedjany suspicion of a coalition. h. The Relative pronoun qui is often used with the Subjunctive to 320. e). express concession (see i. Concession is often expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle ( 266) as,
:

sit clarus Scipio,

vir egregius profecto inter horum laudes aliquid loci nostrae gloriae (Catil. iv. 21), let Scipio be renowned, let Africanus be honored with especial praise, let Paulus be regarded as a remarkable man, [still]

ornetur eximia laude Africanus, habeatur

Paullus

erit

there will surely be some

room for my glory amid

the praises

of these

men.
12. Proviso.

314. Dum, modo, dummodo, or tantum, introducing a

PROVISO, takes the Subjunctive:
oderint

as,

dum metuant

valetudo

modo bona dummodo inter me atque

wall (of the

(Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear. sit (Brut. 64), provided the health is good.
te

murus intersit

(Cat.i. 10),

provided only

the

city) is between us.

314,315.]

Proviso; SI
n5
is

and its Compounds.

modo,
etc

337

used, with or without

i.

modo ne
ill

sit ex

peciulum genere(Of.

105),

provided [in pleasure J he be

v.

not of the herd of cattle. facial sarpe, dum ne lassum fiat (Cato R. R. idrd he tt'i't's >n>t gef tired.
}

4), let

him do

this often,

dnmmodo
\

ea (severitas) ne varietur (Q. Fr. be not allowed to swerve.

i.

i),

provided only

it (strict-

tantum ne noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm. N< 'IE. The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory ($ 266. d) that with
;

dum and

dummodo, a development from

clauses,
b.
$

in temporal the use of the Subjunctive with 328 (compare the colloquial, so long as my health is good I don't care).
',

dum

The Hortatory

Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex266. */): as,

viii.

presses a proviso (see

sint Maecenases, non deerunt, Flacce, Marones (Mart. be Maecenases, Virgils will not be lacking.

56, 5), so there

NOTE.

For a clause of Result expressing proviso, see

319.

b.

13. Use of Si and its Compounds. 315. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows a. i. Si is used tor affirmative, nisi (nl) and si non for negative
:

conditions. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true. Thus,
nisi

Con on adest maereo, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which case I am not).
si

With
si

non

tive) case supposed,

(if not} the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negabut as to other cases no statement is made. Thus,
is

Conon non adest maereo, if Conon

not here,

I mourn

(i.e. I

mourn

in

the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases in which I may or may not mourn).

NOTE.
is

It often,

however, makes no difference in which form the statement

made.
2.

NT

is

an old form surviving

in

a few conventional phrases and

:

reappearing in poets

and

later writers.
if,

Sometimes nisi
noli putare

si,

except

unless, occurs

as,

me
b.

longiorcs epistulas scrlbere, nisi si quis ad plura scripsit (Fam. xiv. 2), except in case one writes more to me.

me ad quemquam

Nisi v6ro and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or exception ironically, and take the Indicative: as,

338

Syntax: Conditional Sentences.

315.

nisi ver5 L. Caesar crudelior visus est(Cat.iv. 13), unless indeed L. Ccesar

seemed too cruel.

nisi forte
be sure

volumus Epjcureorum opinionem sequi (De Fato, we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.
:

37), unless to

NOTE.
Nisi alone
nisi

is

This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin. sometimes used in this sense as,
363), unless

unum hoc faciam ut in puteo cenam coquant (Plaut. Aul. / do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well.
. .

. . . sive or, introduce a condition (seu), whether . form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they

c.

Sive (seu)

in the

are used without a verb.

Thus,
uti,

nam

illo

loco libentissime soleo

sive quid
ii.

aut scribo aut lego

place, whether

(De Leg.

i),

for

mecum ipse cogito, sive / enjoy myself most in

quid
that

/ am

thinking by myself, or

am

either writing or

reading.

NOTE.
d.

Sive
is

. .

seu and seu

. .

sive are

late or poetic.

Nisi

often used loosely

by the comic poets

in the sense of

only: as,
ecce autem de integro:
nisi quidquid est volo scire (Ter. Ad. 153), but
there it is again ; only whatever it is

/ want to know

it.

316.]

Relative Clauses.

339

CHAPTER

V.
I.-

Dependent Constructions.
RELATIVE CLAUSES.

The Relative, being in origin a weak demonstrative (or possibly, in some cases, an interrogative), may be used indifferently with either the indicative or the subA simple relative, introducing a merely descriptive fact, takes the junctive. Indicative, as any demonstrative would do. Thus, tellus quae fuerat rudis. But many relative constructions take the subjunctive to indicate a closer logical connection between the relative clause and the main clause. These constructions have grown up from the future meaning of the subjunctive, each with its own special development. In general they are of two kinds, which are not, however, very distinct in meaning: i. clauses where the implied logical connection is that of Purpose; 2. clauses which express more or less distinctly some Characteristic of the antecedent. Of these last the most common is the ordinary clause of Result. Besides these two classes, however, there are general relatives of Protasis, in which the indefinite relatives whoever, whenever, etc., are
regarded as conditional expressions, equivalent to, if any one, if at any time, Dependent Relative Clauses may be thus classified:
1. 2.

etc. 1

3.

Conditional Relative Clauses ($ 316). Clauses of PURPOSE (Final Clauses) ($ 317). Clauses of CHARACTERISTIC, including
a.
b.
c.

Simple Result (Consecutive Clauses) ( 319). Clauses of Characteristic (including cause and hindrance"} Clauses of Time ( 322 ff.).
1.

320, 321).

Conditional Relative Clauses.

316.
Relative

by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb may be treated as a conditional clause

clause introduced
305): as,
(Tusc. iv. 4^), a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults.

and take any of the constructions of Protasis 1 ( qui enim vitiis modum apponit, is partem suscipit vitiorum
he

who [only]

sets

[=si quis apponit.]

quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per se (Agr. 1,20), whatever power she had, she had by herself. [= si quid potuit.] quod qui faciet, non aegritudine solum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv.

and he who
faciet.]

does [shall do] this, will be free not only, etc.

[=

si

quis

quisquis hue venerit vapulabit (Plant. Am. 153), whoever comes here shall get a thrashing. [= si quis venerit.]
1

As

in

the Greek

t>s

&?, Sreu', etc.

anil

in

st.itutrs

in

Knglish,

where the

phrases // any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently.

340

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

omne tempus

316, 317,

philosophia, cui qul pareat,

aetatis sine molestia

possit

degere (Cat. Maj. 2), philosophy, which IF anyone should obey, he "would be able to spend his whole life without vexation. [= si quis
pareat.]

quaecumque causa

glad, whatever cause the one which did).

vos hue attulisset, laetarer (De O. ii. 1 5), / should be had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as
[

si

. . .

attulisset.]

NOTE.

The

relative in this construction is always Indefinite in

meaning, and

usually inform.

a. The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes found in Conditional Relative Clauses: viz.,
1 The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis ( 309. a) as,
. :

bonus segnior

fit,

ubi neglegas (Jug. 31), a good man becomes

less diligent

when you
2.

don't watch him.

In later writers the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the

protasis

and the Imperfect Indicative

se intulisset, victoriam

in the apodosis (

309. b)
vi.

as,

quocumque

secum trahebat (Liv.

8), wherever

he advanced, he carried victory with him.

3.

The

Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the

(

Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis

309. c}

as,

ad villam veni, hoc ipsum nihil agere me delectat (De O. ii. 24), whenever I come to the villa, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition.] cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning.

cum

[Past General Condition.]

of Purpose.
Subjunctive clause of Purpose has arisen either from the originalfuture meaning of the subjunctive, or from its hortatory use. Either affords a satisfactory analysis. If developed from the hortatory subjunctive, the Subjunctive of Purpose has come through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see 340). Thus naisit legates qui dlcerent means either he sent ambassadors who would say (future use), or, he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. let them say

NOTE.

The

266. <?, and hortatory clauses in Indirect (cf. hortatory subjunctive in past tenses, Discourse, 339). As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut is the same as that of relatives. That with ne is, no doubt, in origin, a hortatory subjunctive.

317.
Clause,

clause expressing purpose

is

called a

FINAL

317.]

Clauses of Purpose.

341

Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut us (ut n6), or by a Relative pronoun or (uti), negative
adverb.

Final clauses
Substantive.
1.

may be

divided into Pure, Relative, and

They express
clause.

Pure Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti) or ng. the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying

2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the Relative pronoun qui, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, quo, etc. The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. 3. Substantive Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti), negative

nS.

a substantive.

from Pure final Clauses in having the construction of (For Substantive Clauses of Purpose, see 331.) Examples of Pure and Relative clauses of purpose are

They

differ

ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 12), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator. ne qua eiua adventus procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance. ut ne sit impune (Mil. 31), that it be not wifh impunity. scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Bru. 206), he wrote speeches for other

men
nihil

to deliver.

habeo quod scribam, I have nothing to write. eo exstinctS fore unde discerem ncminem (Cat. Maj. 12), that when he was dead there would be nobody from whom (whence) / could
learn.

huic ne ubi consisteret quiclem contra te locum reliquisti (Quinct. 73), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.

habcbam qu5 confugerem (Fam.

flee.

iv.

6),

I had

[a retreat] whither

I mi^ht

NOTE.
(cf. \

The

Relative in this construction

is

sponding demonstrative.
319. note).

Thus qui

= utjia^jetc.^

equivalent to

ubi^=

ut with the correut ibi and so on

a. Sometimes the main clause as,

:

relative or conjunction has

a correlative in the

legum idcirco omnes

this

servi

sumus, ut

liberl esse

possimus (Clu. 146), for

be free.

reason
.
.

we are

all subject to the laws, (hat

we may

eo consilio . ut (regularly), with this design, ea causa . . ne.yfrr this reason, lest, etc.
.

that, etc.

hoc consiliS

ut

purpose, that

montium tegerentur altitudine (Nep. Milt. 5), with thy might be protected by die height of the mountain*.

this

342
b.

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

The
ablative

317, 318.
final

quo (= ut eo)
quo impunius

is
:

used as a conjunction in
as,

clauses which contain a comparative

libertate usus est,
liberty, that

of

he might bluster

dicax esset (Quinc. IT), he took advantage "with more impunity (by which the
introduces a subjunctive clause

more

easily).

NOTE
NOTE
quo
c.

i.

So

quominus (=ut eo minus)

after verbs of
2.

hindering (see 331. e}. Occasionally quo introduces

final clauses

which do not contain a

comparative: as,
sibi

army

(exercitum) fidum faceret (Sail. Cat devoted to himself*

u), in order

to

make
is

the

The

Principal clause,

on which a
Thus,

final clause

depends,

often

to

be supplied from the context.

ac ne longum
etc.
sit

[Strictly, in

... iussimus (Cat. iii. io),and not to be tedious, we ordered, order not to be tedious, I say, we ordered^

sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus (Tusc. v. 63), but to return to Dionysius. sed ut eodem revertar, causa haec fuit timoris (Fam. vi. 7), but, to return
to the

same point,

this

satis inconsiderati fuit,

was the cause offear. ne dicam audacis (Phil.xni.

say daring.
is

12), it

was

the act

of one
(some-

rash enough, not

to

REMARK.
times ne),

By a
.

still less,
. .

similar ellipsis the subjunctive not to mention that: as,

used with

nedum

nedum nedum isti

ii.

possimus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe. non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. Ag. 35), far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.
salvi esse
. . .

nedum

in marl et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea, and on a journey. quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatigant; ne illi corruptis moribus victoriae temperarent (Sail. Cat. n), for prosperity overmasters the soul even of the wise ; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on victory.

NOTE.

With

nedum the verb itself is often omitted

for

as,

aptius humanitati tuae

28, i), Jitter

quam tota Peloponnesus, nedum Patrae (Fam. vii. your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing

of Patra.

REMARK. Clauses of Purpose are sometimes rendered in English by that, or in order that, with may or might ; but more frequently by the Infinitive with TO.
For negatives, see
319. d. R.

in various

318. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin ways but never (except rarely in poetry) by
;

the simple Infinitive as in English

273).

The

sentence, they came to seek peace,

may be

rendered

318.1

Clauses rf Purpose ; of Result.

343

[Final clause with ut ( 317).] (1) venerunt ut pfirrm peterent. [l-ina! clause with Relative ( 317).] (2) vcnerunt jui p.u-ein pctcrcnt. (3) [venerunt ad pcteiukim })ficein.] (Not found with transitive verbs ( 300,
note), but cf. ad parendum senatui.) [Gerund with ad ( 300).] (4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad ( 300).]

(5) venerunt

pacem petendi causa

(gratia).

[Gen. of Gerund with causa [Gen. of Gerundive with causa

(

(298-0-]
(6) venerunt pficis petendae causa (gratia).

(298.00
(7) venerunt (8) venerunt

pacem pacem

petlturi.

petitum.

[Future participle [Former supine (

293. U)

not in Cicero.]

302).]

These forms are not used

a.

indifferently, but
is

The

usual

way of expressing purpose

unless the purpose is closely connected 'with case a relative is more common. Thus,

by ut (negatively nS), some one word, in which

Arria glaclium dedit marito ut se interficeret, Arria gave her husband a sivord to kill himself (\h-3A. he might kill himself). Arria glaclium dedit marito qu5 se interficeret, Arria gave her husband a

sword to
b.

kitt himself WTCH (with

which he might,

etc.).

constructions of purpose are usually limited to short expressions, where the literal translation of the phrase, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
c.

The Gerund and Gerundive

The Supine
in a

and

(J.

is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, few idiomatic expressions ( 302). The Future Participle used to express purpose, is a late construc(

tion of inferior authority

293.

).

3.

Clauses of Result.

of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of Characteristic. The clause of CHARACTERISTIC is a development peculiar to Latin, and has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive ($ 311. a). A Protasis was, perhaps, originally implied, though this is not necessary to the analysis. The difference between the Subjunctive in such clauses and the Indicative of simple description is that the subjunctive expresses what would happen in

NOTE.

The use

a supposed case, while the indicative states what does or did in fact take place. The most common and obvious use of this construction is to express a quality or characteristic of an indefinite antecedent (either expressed or implied). Thus, is us] qul ponat summum bonitm in voluptate would mean, literally, a. man who would (in a." <<'>.'sablf case") make the highest good consist in pleasure. This
t f
'.

,-it.'v

serves to express a characteristic of the indefinite person referred to by i&. him one of a class; while is qul p5nit would mean the man (Epicurus)

making

who

in

fact cfOf s, etc. So, non sum ita hfbt-s Ut /A/ d'n\im would mean, literally, I am not dull in the man ier (dei'.r-'c) /;/ which I should say that. Since in these charac^ the a the form of a supposed result, the con////,:/.' struction readily passes over into l*ure Result, with no idea of characteristic as.
:

344
tantus terror

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

319.
so

omnes occupavit ut etiam ipse rex ad flumen perfagerit, great panic seized all that the king himselffled to the river.

319.

Au_cl3jiS_^^

secutive Clause.

ut, so

Conseculive Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by that (negative, ut n5n), or by a Relative (pronoun or
Consecutive Clauses

adverb).

may be
317).

divided into Pure, Relative,

and Substantive
1.

(ct.

Pure Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut non. -They express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause. 2. Relative .Clauses of Result are introduced by the Relative pronoun qul, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, quo, etc. The
antecedent
3.
is expressed or implied in the main clause. Substantive Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut non. differ from Pure consecutive clauses in having the construction of

They

a substantive.

(For Substantive Clauses of Result, see

are,

332.)

Examples of Pure and Relative Clauses of Result

tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste dfligamus (Lael. 29), so great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy. nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini (Tus. iii. 16),

for innocence
sunt aliae causae

is

such a quality of mind as* to do

efficiant (Top. 59),

harm

to

no

one.

quae plane

there are other causes

such as

to

bring to pass.

nulla est celeritas

i.

quae possit cum animi

celeritate

contendere (Tuscul.
etc.

43),

there is no swiftness

which can compare,

Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre= = sponding demonstrative. Thus, qui ut is (etc.). ubi ut ibi^and so on (cf. 317. note). REMARK. Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words

NOTE.

The

as^tam,
clause.

tails,

tantus,

ita,

sic^adeS, usq\A6 ^6. which belong

regularly expressed

to the

main

a.

negative result
similar

is

by ut or qui with non,

nemo and

negatives (not ne).

Thus,

multis gravibusque vulneribus confectus ut iam se sustinere non posset (B. G. ii. 25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no

nemo

longer stand. est tarn senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cato Major 24), nobody is so old as not to think that he can live a year.

NOTE.
nj^or

When
is

the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose^JlJi

less positive

sometimes used as being

than

ut non

as,

319.]
[librum]
ita corrigas

Clauses of Result.
ne mihi noceat (Fam.
vi.

345

7), correct the book so thai

Itmaynotliurtme.
b.
is lUPfl in 1 nefriftint* cancn, Frequently a Clause Of Result Proviso (cf. 314) as, toji
:

amounts
hoc

est ita utile ut

this is so

ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose.

Am.

55),

far tiseful that we are not utterly mocked by tfie accusers (i.e. useful only on this condition, that, etc.). nihil autem molestum quod non desideres (Cato Major 47), but nothing is troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss.

ut eo minus) c. The subjunctive with the Relative quominus ( may be used, to express a result, after words of hindering or refusing
(cf.

317. b, note i)

as,

nee aetas impedit quSminus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. Maj. 60), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the

ground.
d. _A_rfoysft of rgsnVMsJntrorlnrpf]

quin
like.

is

Thus,

by quin after general negatives, equivalent to qul (quae, quod) non; so also after s of hindrance, resistance, doubt, hesitation* and the

[= quod non] ego ill! dixerira (Plaut Bac. iii. 9), I have not told him. non dubit5 quin, I do not doubt that (cf. the Eng., I do not doubt but that). I hardly refrainedfrom, etc. aegre (vix) abstinui quin
quin
there is nothing of this that
. .

nihil est illorum

.,

nihil impedit quin

abesse non

there is nothing toprevent, etc. potest quin (Or. 233), it cannot be but that.
. .
.,

REMARK.
in the negative^

It is

to

be observed
nff,

that the constructions of

Purpose and Result

but that

in Latin are precisely alike in the affirmative (but see sequence, \ 287. c),

Purpose takes

Result

ut n5n,

etc.

Thus,

cust5ditus est

ne

effugeret, he ivas guarded in order that he

MIGHT not escape.

not.

custoditus est ut

non

effugeret,

he was guarded so that he DID

f

So in Purpose clauses ne quis^ ne quid, ne ullus, ne qu5 necuDl. etc.. are almost always used in Kpsnlt rlnii^s nt. nemo,
[

nunu3 >e tc.

ita

11^ riibil

ut

Tims,

multi sunt imbecilli senes

ut nullum

officl

Major
qui

35),

many

old

men are so feeble

munus exsequl possint (Cat. that they cannot perform their

virtute
it

duties to society.

summum bonum
(Offic.
i.

sic instituit

ut nihil habeat cum

5),

who has
virtue.

so settled the highest

good that
i.

common with

coniunctum has nothing in

cernere ne quis eos neu quis contingere posset (^En. might see them, no one touch them.

413), that no ont

346
ne quandS
lest at

Syntax : Dependent Constructions.

[319,320.

liberis proscriptorum bona patria reddantur (Rose. Amer. 145), some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to

their children.

ipse

ne quo inciderem

revert!

Formias (Att.

viii.

3, 7), that

I might

not

come upon him anywhere. dispositis exploratoribus necubi Roman! copias transducerent (B. G. vii. 35), having stationed scouts here and there lest the Romans should lead their
troops across anywhere.
tu

tamen eas
lest

epistolas concerpito
out.

nequando quid emanet

(Att. x. 12. 3),

anything ever leak

The

clause^of Result is sometimes expressed in English by the oFSOTAS-TO^or an equivalent: as,

tarn longe

Infinitive with

TO

aberam ut n5n viderem, I was

cf.

too

far azvajQ^jsee

(so far that I

did not see;

320. c).

NOTE.
in

Result
(

is

a few passages

273.

never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets Rem.).

4.

Clauses of Characteristic.

relative clause with the Subjunctive is often 32O. used to indicate a characteristic nf the antecedent, where

there

is

no idea of Resultjsee
is

319. head-note)
the antecedent
is

This construction
otherwise undefined.

especially

common where
v. 12),

Thus,
qui nescias (Fam. for you are not such a one,
2),

neque enim

tu is es,

as not to know.

multa dicunt quae vix intellegant (Finib. iv. which (such as) they hardly understand.
paci

they say

many

things

quae nihil habitura sit Insidiarum semper est consulendum (Off. i. 35), we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots. unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there was nothing left, from which an embankment could be got together.

a.

relative

clause_pf

characteristic is used after general expres-

sions oT^xistence or
negative.

^^Wc/^/v^

inrlnHing

gufigtinns

implying a

So

who

is

est qui, especially with sunt qui, there are [some] who*, quis there who? Thus,

sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tus. i. 18), there are some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death. erant qui Helvidium miser arentur (Ann. xvi. 29), ''there were some who
[Cf. est cum ( 322. Rem.).] pitied Helvidi us. quis est qui id non maximis efferat J^udibus (Lael. does not extol it with the highest praise ?
24),

who

is there that

320.]
Hut

Clauses of Characteristic.
consul cui
to
. .
.

347

cf. ille

fuit (C'at.

iv. i. 2).

N'MK.

Tli<-s<-

an- SMim-times called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antein protasis

en lent, but are

b.

be carefully distinguished from the Indefinite Relative

A ~

relative. clause of characteristic

may

follow

anus and solus:

as,
nil

admlrari prope res est

una solaque quae

tum

(I lor.

Kp.

i.

6. i), to

wonder at nothing

possit facere et servare bcais almost the sole and only

thing that can make and ketp one happy. solus es cuius in victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus (Deiotar. 34), yon are the only man at whose victory no one has fallen unless armed.
c.

clause of result or characteristic with

(rarely with

quam

maiores arbores

quam ut, quam qui may be used after comparatives as, caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxviii. 5),
alone),
:

they cut larger trees than soldier to carry).

what a

soldier could carry (too large for a

Canachi slgna rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than
that they should).

NOTE.
d.

This construction corresponds to the English too ...

relative clause of characteristic is

to,

used in expressions of Re-

striction or Proviso (cf.

319. by. as,

quod sciam, so far as I know. Catonis orationes, quas quidem

at least such as
servus est
there is not
e.

invenerim (Brut.

65), the speeches

of Cato,

I have discovered. nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione

a
slave, at least in

any

sit servitutis(Cat. iv. 16), tolerable condition of slavery.

relative clause expressing cause or concession

takes the sub-

junctive (

313.

//,

321. b)

as,

virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 230), oh ! guileless man, who kida nothingfrom us! [Causal.] peccasse mihi videor qui a te discesserim (Fam. xvi. i), I seem to myself to have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.] egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem tamen complures Athems dies sum commoratus (De O. i. 82), I myself though I began Greek literature
late, yet, etc.
(lit.

[a

man] who,
is
:

etc.).

[Concessive.]

In this use the relative preceded by Ut, utpote, or quippe

i.

NOTE

equivalent to

cum

is, etc.

It is

often

as,

nee consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini fecit (Liv. xlii. 7), nor did the consul delay (he /i,^if, since he had sought that very //;<
(as [being one] who had sought, etc.). ea nos, utpote qui nihil contemnnre soleamus, non pertimescebanms (Alt. ii. 24, 4), as bting men who are accustomed to despise not/a

348
convlvia

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

320, 321.

cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro veniret (Rose. Am. 52), since he did not even come, etc.

NOTE 2. The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Characteristic construction. The quality expressed by the subjunctive is connected with the action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as
hindrance in
f.
spite

of which (ALTHOUGH).
aj
:

Dignus, indignua,

a relative (or rarely with ut)

digna in

as,

quibus elaborarent (Tuscul. i. i), (things) worth spending their toil on (worthy on which they should, etc.). digna res est ubi tu nervos intendas tuos (Ter. Eun. 312), the affair is worthy of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should,
etc.).

indignus eras qui faceres iniuriam,

it

was beneath you

to

do a wrong (you

were unworthy who should, etc.). idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 57), fit to obtain. indlgni ut redimeremur (Liv. xxii. 59), unworthy

to be

ransomed.
:

NOTE.

With

these words the poets often use the Infinitive

Sat.
i.

as,

dignum nStari (Hor.

fons rivo dare

nomen

24), worthy to be stigmatized. idoneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16, 12), a source Jit to give
3,

name

to

a stream.

aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov.),

a time of life

soft

and easy

to be

guided.

5.

Causal Clauses.

Causal clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to their construction the idea of Cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in the form of the argument, or in the connecting particles.
;

NOTE.

321. The Causal

Particles quod, quia,

and quoniam take

the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the authority of another: as,
1.

Indicative:
tibi

cum

agam

gratias

quod me

vivere coegist! (Att.

iii.

3),

when I may

thank you that you have forced me to live. quia postrema aedificata est (Ver. iv. 1 19), because it was built last. quoniam de utilitate diximus, de efficiendi ratione (Or. Part. 95), since we have spoken of its advantage, let us speak of the method of effecting it.
2.

Subjunctive:

mihi gratulabare quod audisses me meam pristinam dignitatem obtinere (Fam. iv. 14, i), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had
fuard,
etc.

321, 322.]

Causal Clauses

Relations of Time.

349

noctu ambulahat Themistoclcs

44),

Themistoclcs used
sleep.

to

quod somnum capcrc non j)ossct (Tusc. iv. walk about at night because [as he said] he
Cistell. 101),

could not

mea mater
is

Iruta est
/',v,.'/nv

nn^ry

quia nfm redierim (Plaut. didnt return.

my

mother

UDII quoniam hoc sit necesse (Ver. ii. i. 24), not that this is necessary. NOTE i. The Subjunctive in this use depends on the principle of Intermediate

Clauses ($ 341. d).

NOTE

2.

Under

this

head what the speaker himself thought under other

:

circumstances

may have the Subjunctive ($ 341. d. Rem.) as, ego laeta visa sum quia soror venisset (Plaut. Mil. 387), / seemed dream) glad because my sister had come.

(in

my

So

with

quod
quod

even a verb of saying may be

se

in the Subjunctive
(Off.
i.

as,

rediit

oblitum nescio quid diceret

40), he

returned because

he said he

NOTE 3.
quando

had forgotten something. The Subjunctive with_ quia is

rare.

The

causal particle

quando
may

takes the Indicative: as,

ita vis, di bene vortant (Plaut. Trin. 573), since the gods bless the undertaking.

you

so wish,

REMARK.

N5n quod, non

quia,

non quoniam,

introducing a reason

quo and non quin introduce expressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive. a Result clause, but with nearly the same meaning ($ 341. d. Rem.). Thus,
pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia omne corpus intenditur (Tusc. ii. 56), boxers groan not because they are in pain, but because etc.
,

Non

n5n quia

philosophia percipi non posset

(id.

i.

i), not that

philosophy

cannot be acquired.

non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Ver. ii. 1.24), not that this is necessary. non quin enitendum sit (De O. ii. 295), not that pains must not be taken.
a. Causal Clauses introduced

Indirect Discourse, like

b.

by quod, etc., take the Subjunctive in any other dependent clause (see 336). Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Sub-

320. e). junctive (see causal takes the Subjunctive (see c. 326). NOTE. In early Latin cum causal takes the Indicative

Cum

($ 326. note 3).

6.

Relations of Time.

particles which are almost all of are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have developed into special idiomatic constructions. (For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 124.)

NOTE.

Temporal clauses are introduced by

relative origin.

They

particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone or with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relacompounded constructions of protasis (cf. and have the tives, 316). Thus,

322. The

350
cum
id

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

malum
esse

322-24.

negas (Tusc. ii. 29), when you (the individual dis be an evil. 306).] [Present, nothing implied (cf. quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem (Phil. v. 51), which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled
putant) deny
it to

me.

[Present, contrary to fact

. . .

cf.

308.]

cum
id

dolore non frangi (Tus. D. ii. 66), when you see that those are not broken by pain, etc. [General condition : cf 309. a.~\

videas e5s

ubi dixisset, hastam

:

(Liv. i. 32), said this, he ttsed to cast the spear into their territories. action see 309. b.~\

in fines

eorum emittebat

when he had
[Repeated

cum

he

rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever had seen a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general con:

dition

cf.

309.

c.~]

REMARK.
sions like

The phrases est cum, fuit cum, est qui, sunt qui ( 320. a) as,
:

etc.,

are used in general expres-

ac

fuit

quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrager (De Or. i. i), and there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
a
:

323. Temporal clauses have two uses

1. They themselves define (with reference to the time of the speaker) the time of the clause on which they depend. 2. They describe by its circumstances the time of the main clause,

which

is

denned not by them, but by the main clause

:

itself.

Thus, in When did the Emperor Frederick die ? He died while the people were still mourning the death of his father, the time of the main clause, he died, is definitely fixed by the temporal clause, while the people] etc., as is seen by the fact that the temporal clause answers the question, WHEN did he die ? But in The Emperor Frederick died while the people were still mourning the death of his father, the time
:

of the main clause

is not defined by the temporal clause, but is regarded as sufficiently definite in itself (or from the context). The temporal clause is added to describe that time by the circumstances of the people's grief.

These two sorts of temporal clauses the Romans distinguished by means of the mood, invariab>y using the Indicative in the first and the Subjunctive in the second. They commonly also used the particles and
the tenses in accordance with this division.
I.

POSTQUAM,

UBI, ETC.

particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut priut mum, semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present}', as,
1 The terms Absolute and Relative Time naturally applied to these two uses have been abandoned in this book because they have given rise to misapprehension and have often been used by learners as pigeon-hole expressions to conceal a want

324. The

of knowledge of the subject.

324.]
militcs
(

POSTQUAM,

//,

etc.

35

'at.

postqunm victoriam adept! aunt, 1), when the armies had won the
1

nihil rcliqm victis fecerc (Sail.

victory, they left nothing to the

vanquished.

posteaquam forum
forum.

attigisti

(Fam.

xv.

16),

since

you came

to

the

ubi onincs idem sentlre intellexit (B. G. iii. 23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing). Catilina ubi eos convenisse videt sececlit (Sail. Cat. 20), -when Catiline sees they Jiave come together, he retires. quod (sc. agmen) ubi pergerc vident (Q. C. v. 3, 18), and -when they see
that
it is

advancing.
acie excessit (B. C.
iii.

Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit,

94),

when Pompey saw

NOTE.
These

his cavalry beaten, he left the

iv.

army.

simul ac persensit (/En.

90), as soon as he perceived.

particles are appropriated to time defined, and take the historiset forth in they take 323. the descriptive tenses (see a, below), they do not describe the time by its circumstances, but still define it, referring it to a then-existing state of things {Imperfect) or cal tenses in

accordance with the distinction

When

the then-existing result of a completed action (Pluperfect).

a.

These

particles less

indicative.

commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect The Imperfect in this case denotes a state of things the
;

Pluperfect,

an action completed
instruct!

in past time.

Thus,

postquam
i.

23), when they stood in the midst.

P. Africanus

utrimque stabant, duces in medium procedunt (Liv. array on both sides, the generals advance into

posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in Csec. 69), when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice
consid

and censor.

postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perfkiend! dabatur, ad rompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to
Pompey. post diem quintum

quam

barbari

iterum male pugnaverant

(=

victi

sunt), legal! a Boccho veniunt (Jug. no), the fifth day after the barbarians were beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus.

haec iuventutem, ubi familiares opes defecerant, ad facinora incendebant (Sail. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out. ubi pencula virtute propulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers
by their valor.
b.

Rarely some of these particles seem to take the subjunctive:

as,

posteaquam maximas aedificasset ornassetque classes (Manil. 9), having built and equipped mighty fleets (after lie had, etc.). [But the more
approved editions have postea cum.]

352

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

II.

325.

CUM TEMPORAL

325. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning when, takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, other tenses
in the Indicative.

Thus,
30),

cum

servili bello

the load

of the

premeretur (Manil. Servile War.

when

she

(Italy)

was under

id nuntiatum esset, maturat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported, he made (makes) haste. cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt send (Rose. A. 120), -when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit turn cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the
city.

cum

[For examples with the Future, see c below.]

Present takes the Indicative, because present time is generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind ; and it is only when the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see below, 326), that the Subjunctive The Perfect takes the Indicative as the tense of narration, as with postis used.

NOTE.

The

quam, etc. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, than to define the time.
a.

fitter

to describe

Cum,
cum

temporal, sometimes takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect

haec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen (Fam. xii. I write (epistolary) the affair has been brought into

Indicative to indicate a definite past time: as,

res
6), at the time

great hazard.
quern quidem

cum

ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo (Cat.

iii.i6),

when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, I looked forward to this. fulgentes gladios hostium viclebant Decii cum in aciem eorum inruebant (Tusc. ii. 59), the Decii saiv the flashing swords of the enemy when
turn

they rushed upon their line. cum in Asia res magnas permulti

amiserant (Man.

19),

at that time,
In required for

when many had lost great fortunes in Asia. The distinction explained in 9 323 is unknown NOTE.

to early Latin.
is

Plautus always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive some other reason.
b.

quom

When

becomes the main

dies

the clauses are inverted, so that the logical temporal clause clause, and the main clause becomes the temporal

clause, the Indicative

must be used with cum:

intercesserant,

as,

nondum decem
killed,

cum

ille

alter films infans

(Clu. 28), ten days

iamque

[Instead apparebat cum procedit ad milites (Q. C. vii. 8, was already dawning when he appears before the soldiers.
liix

had not yet passed, when the other infant of, when ten days had not yet passed, etc.]
3),

necatur son was

and day

325,326.]
hoc faccre
noctii

CUM Causal
apparabant,
(!'..<
'..

ncrssive.

procurrerunt

when
c.

the

women

matres familiae repente in publicum were preparing to do this by night, suddenly ran out into the streets.
vii.

cum

26), they

To

denote future time

cum

takes the Future or Future Perfect

Indicative: as,

nun dubitabo dare operam ut tc videam, cum id satis commode facere potero (Fam. xiii. i), I shall not hesitate to take tains to see you, when I can do it conveniently. longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time when 1 shall be no more. cum veneris, cognosces (Fam. v. 7), when you come (shall have come},

you will find

out.

III.

CUM CAUSAL OR

CONCESSIVE.
:

326. Cum CAUSAL or CONCESSIVE takes the Subjunctive

as,

cum

solitudo

. .

Insidiarum et metus plena

sit

(Fin.

i.

66), since solitude

of treachery and fear. [Causal.] cum initio non amplius duSbus milibus habuisset (Sail. Cat. 56), though at the start he had had not more than two thousand. [Concessive.]
is full

cum

primi ordines
vii.

concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui resistebant

(B. G.

6l), though thejirst ranks

had fallen,

still the

others resisted

vigorously.

[Concessive.]
in these uses is often

NOTE

i.

Cum
as,

emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe,

praesertim:

nee reprehendo:
(Att. x. 3),

quippe cum I find no fault :

ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim since I myself did not escape that blame.

NOTE 2. These causal and concessive relations are merely variations of the idea of time. The attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it (cf. qui causal and concessive, $ 320. e). NOTE 3. In early Latin (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indicative: as,
.

cum

quom

property
note.]

tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (Plaut. Trin. 573), since your is torn in pieces, oh ! that I may see, etc. 313. </, [See also

REMARK.
a.

Cum causal
;

may

usually be translated

by

since ;

cum

concessive

by although or while

either, occasionally,

by

?<//<;/.

Cum

in the sense of
:

quod, on the ground

that, frequently takes

the Indicative
gratulor
tibi

as,

cum

late you that you

tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. are so strong with Dolabella.

ix.

14),

I congratu-

REMARK. This tis~ of thr: indicative appears to be a colloquial relic of the old Indicative construction with ^see note 3, above).

cum

354
b.

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

326-2a

Cum
but

. . .

tive

when cum approaches

turn, signifying both . . . and, usually takes the Indicathe sense of while or though, it may

have the Subjunctive ( 326). cum multa non probo, turn

Thus,
illud in

many things I do not approve, cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter,
while the whole thing

primis (Fin. i. 18), while there are there is this in chief. But,
turn

ne

efficit

quidem quod

vult (ib.),

is childishly

got up, he does not even

make

his

point (accomplish what he wishes}.

IV. ANTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM. 327. Antequam and priusquam, before, have in narration the same construction as cum temporal ( 325) as,
:

antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter. neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10), she did not let the young man go fill he pledged his faith.

antequam homines

nefarii

donian! perrexi (Plane. 98), before those evil coming, I arrived in Macedonia.

de me5 adventu audire potuissent, in Macemen could learn of my

The idea of purpose regularly requires the subjunctive: as, nunprius discessit quam ad flnem sermo esset perductus, i.e. he -waited for the conversation to be finished.
NOTE.

quam
a.

Antequam and priusquam, when

;

referring to future time, take

the Present or Future Perfect Indicative

tive: as,

rarely the Present Subjunc-

priusquam de
3), before

ceteris rebus

respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam (Phil.

Or.

ii.

I reply to the rest, I will say a little offriendship. non defatigabor antequam illorum ancipites vias perceperS (De 145), I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.
antequam veniat
a
b.
letter.

iii.

litteras mittet

(Ag.

ii.

53), before

he comes, he will send

In a few cases the Subjunctive of protasis

(cf.

is

found with

antequam

and priusquam
in

309. a)

as,
est praeparatiS in all undertakings before you proceed to

omnibus neg5tiis priusquam aggrediare, adhibenda

diligens
(Offic.
i.

73),

action, careful preparation

must

be used.

V. DUM, DONEC, AND QUOAD. 328. Dum, donee, and quoad, implying purpose, doubt,

Vt futurity, take the Subjunctive, otherwise the Indicative.

1.

Subjunctive

as,

exspectas fortasse

dum

him

to

say

(till

dicat(Tus. he say).

ii.

17),

you are waiting perhaps for

328. 329.]
iratis

Substtnifii'f Clauses.
in

355
s

subtrahend! sunt

el

qiifls

impctuin cfmantur facere dura

colligant (Tusc.
lelves).

iv.

78), //// they

come

to

their senses (collect them-

suslinuit dura genitor protectus abiret (./En. x. 800), he kept sF.neas in check till his father could get away in safely. et diixit loti^c donee curvata coirent inter se capita (id. xi. 860), ami drew it (the bow) until tJie curved tips toucJicd.

Aenean inorando

Epaminimdas exereebatur plurimnm luctando ad euin finem quoad stans complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Ep&tninondat trained himself in wrestling so far as to be able to grapple standing

andfight
2.

(in that way).

Indicative (cf. a, below): as,

feel

hoc

dum
it

licuit, intermisl

quoad non

licuit (Phil.

iii.

33),

I did this

so

long as

was

allowed,

I discontinued it so

long as

it

was

not.

dum pelago desaevit hiemps (/En. iv. 51), weave excuses for delay until t)ie storm upon the sea hath spent its rage. dSnec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence till he. returned.
causas innecte morandl

quoad potuit

restitit (Cat.

Major

1),

he resisted as long as he could.

:

NOTE

i.

Quamdiu

takes the Indicative only

as,

se oppido tarn diu tenuit

quamdiu in provincia Parthi 19), he kept himself within the town so long as the the province,
2.

fuerunt (Fam. xii. Parthians were in

NOTE
a.

For

dum and dummodo introducing a proviso, see

314.

of 'while usually takes the Present Indicative to indicate a continued action in. past time, if that time is not contrasted with any other
(

Dum in the sense

276
e.

and note)
i.

as,

dum
junctive

haec geruntur (B. G.

46), while this was going on.

the Sub-

NOTE. Dum, d5nec, and quoad in later writers sometimes take when the classical usage would require the Indicative: as,

nee

obstitit falsis donee tempore ac spatio vanescerei^t (Tac. Ann. ii. 82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods until they died out from lapse of

time.
nihil sane trepidabant elephant!

donee continent!

velut ponte

agerentur
long as

(Liv. xxi. 28),

they

went

the elephants showed no alarm whatever so over the continuous bridge, as it were.

RKMAKK.
ing on
P. 378.)

With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found dependsome other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses below,

II.

-SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
is

329.
Clause.

clause used as a noun

called a Substantive

356

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

Substantive Clause

329, 330.

may be used

as the Subject or

Object of a verb, as an Appositive or as a Predicate inative or Accusative.

Nom-

NOTE. Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation, may be postulabat ut quaestio haberetur. The common English expression
it

FOR

remains for

with the infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause as, me to speak of the piratic war, reliquum est lit de bello dicam
:

piratico.

REMARK.
it is

When

a Substantive Clause

is

used as Subject, the verb to which

in English is the

subject is called impersonal, so-called expletive IT.

and the sign of the construction

Substantive Clauses are classified as follows

i.

INFINITIVE CLAUSES

*
:

j
(.

b.

In fi nitive clause a* Subject ( 270). Infinitive clause as Object ( 330. B).

..OfPur P ose(command,wish,fea r)
b'
f

Result

haPP en

effect '

hinder )

<$ 332).

3.

INDICATIVE CLAUSE with quod:

Fact, Specification, Feeling.

4.

INDIRECT QUESTIONS:
1.

Subjunctive, introduced

by

Interrogative

Word.

Infinitive Clauses.

33O. A. The Infinitive with Subject-Accusative may be used as the subject of sum and of many impersonal verbs
(see
B.
1

270).

The
Of
all

Infinitive with Subject-Accusative is used as the

object
i.

verbs and expressions of knowing, thinking,

(

telling,

and

perceiving (Indirect Discourse)

272).
ii.

me

spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusc.

67),

I trust I have

been freed
is

from fear.
dlcit

montem

ab hostibus teneri (B. G.

i.

22), he says that the height

held by the enemy.

negat ullos patere portus (Liv.
xxviii. 43),

he says that no ports are open.

i The accusative with the infinitive is found with about 80 verbs and verbal phrases, the most common being (i) accipio, affirmo, animadverts, arbitror, audio, censeo. cogitS, dico, dispute, doceo, exlstimo, fama est,
:

fateor, intellego, memini, narro, nego, puto, recorder, rumor est, sentiS, spero, suspicor, traditur, verum est, vide5, videtur (2) iubeo, veto, patior, cogo, sin5 (3) cupio, void, n515, malo (4) decet, iuvat, aequum est, oportet, opus est, placet, fas est, nefas est, interest.
;

330.]

Infinitive Clauses.

357

2. Of iube6 and veto, and rarely of other verbs of commanding, requesting admonishing, and the like ( 331. a). Thus,

publicum redigi (Liv. ii. 4), they forbade the return of the goods (that they ho returned), etc. Labienum iugum montis adscendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), he orders Labienus
to

vetuere [bona] reddi, vetuere in

ascend the ridge of the

hill.

3.

Sometimes of verbs of wishing

331. b}
1 1

as,
to

iudicem

me

esse non doctoretn volo (Or.

7), / wish

be a judge, not

a.

teacher.

REMARK.
is

The

Infinitive with Subject-Accusative,

though not

strictly

a Clause,

equivalent to one, and

may be

treated as such.

a. If the
1.

The
:

becomes
tion}

main verb is changed to the Passive, either subject of the infinitive (like other objects of active verbs) nominative, and the infinitive is retained {Personal Construcmountain
is

as,
dicitur ab hqstibus teneri, the

mons

said
is

to be

held by the
to

enemy. Labienus iugum montis adscendere iubetur, Labienus

the ridge
2.

ordered

ascend

of the
is

hill.

The

passive

used impersonally, and the clause retained as

:

its

subject (Impersonal Construction}

dicitur

montem ab
enemy.

hostibus teneri,

it is

said that the mountain

it is

is

held by

the

nuntiatur piralarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 87), ships of the pirates are in port.

told that the

b. i. Verbs of saying, thinking, etc., may take in the Passive either But the Personal conthe Personal or the Impersonal construction. struction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of in-

complete action.

Thus,

beate vixisse videor (Laelius 15),

I seem

to

have lived happily.

i.

Epaminondas

fidibus praeclare cecinisse dicitur (Tuscul. das is said to have played excellently on the lyre.

4),

Epaminon-

multi idem facturi esse dicuntur (Fam. xvi. 12),

to

many

are said to be about

[Active dicunt multos facturos (esse).] primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to have joined "words with a certain skill.

do the same thing.

putatur is esse constitutus ex been set up in marble

marmore (Archias

22), he
it

is

thought

to

have

Bibulus audiebatur esse in Syria (Att. v. 18), lus was in Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.).

was heard
ii.

that Bibu-

[Direct: Bibulus est.]

74), the rest

ceterae Illyrici Iegi5nes secuturae sperabantur (Tac. Hist.

of the legions of Illyricum were expected to follow.

358

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

330.

videmur enim quieturi fuisse nisi essemus lacessiti (De O. ii. 230), it seems that we should have kept quiet if^ve had not been molested (we seem, nisi essemus lacessiti.] etc.). [Direct: quievissemus
. . .

2.

Iube5 and veto always

consul

take the personal construction of the

passive: as,
iussus es renuntiari
(Phil.
ii.

79),

you were

tinder orders to be

declared consul.

Nolani muros portasque adire vetiti sunt (Liv. xxiii. 16), the were forbidden to go to visit the walls and gates.
c.

men of Nola
imperis

In the

compound
is

tenses of verbs of saying, etc., the

sonal construction
lar: as,

more common, and with the gerundive

fuisse (Tus. v. 114), it is

regu-

traditum
too,

est

that

etiam Homerum caecum Homer was blind.

est,

a tradition,

ubi tyrannus

ibi

non
iii.

rempublicam (Rep.

vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane nullam esse 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said,
is evil,

not that the Commonwealth

d.

but that

it

does not exist at all.

The

to verbs

poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive which are not properly verba sentiendi, etc. as,
:

colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
e.

it is

gathered [from

this

The

Infinitive with a subject

may depend on any word implying

a verb of saying,
etc. (see

speech or thought, though not note 2).

strictly

336,

f. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,

contrary to the English idiom

as,
:

minatur sese abire (Plaut. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct abeo, / am going away.~\ ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lsel. 79), from which they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct: capiemus.]

quern inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac sponde5 (Mur. 90), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct:
erit.]

dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc.

to

v. 76),

pain threatens
Infinitive

wear down fortitude.

[Direct: debilitabo.]

(^ 271).

NOTE. These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary So regularly in early Latin (except spero). Thus,

to give hostages. pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise [Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs],

promisi d51ium vini dare (Plaut Cistel. 542), of wine.

I promised

to

give a jar

331.]

Siibsfiinfiir ( lanscs of Purpose.

2.

359

Clauses of Purpose verbs of admonishing, etc. ($ 331)

NOTE.

Clauses of Purpose. may be used substantivcly l

;

(i) as the Object of

(2) as the Subject of these

same verbs

in

sive ($ 331. /i). a.s \vcll as of certain impersonal verbs and verbal phrases (\ 311. (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative, etc.

/')

331. Substantive Clauses

ng) are used as the object of directed toward the future?

of Purpose with ut (negative all verbs denoting an action

Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, decree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish. Thus, monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to avoid all
suspicion.
te

rogo atque oro ut aid him.

eum iuvea (Fam.

xiii.

66),

beg

and pray you

to

his ut conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet (B. G. i. 3), he persuades Casticus
to

usurp royal power.

Infinitive with Subject

a.

Iube5, order, and veto, forbid, take the

(

Accusative

330. B. 2)

as,

liberos ad se adduci
to

iussit

(B. G.

ii.

5), he ordered the children to be brought

i.

him.
20),

ab opere legates discedere vetuerat (B. G. lieutenants to leave the work.

he

had forbidden

the

NOTE
tive
:

i.

Some

other verbs of commanding,

etc.,

occasionally take the Infini-

as,

haec facere imperatum est, orders were given to do this. res monet cavere (Sail. Cat. 52), the occasion warns us
b.

to be

on our guard.

Verbs of wishing take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. The Infinitive is more common when the subject remains the same; the Subjunctive, when it changes. Thus, 1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of main verb
:

quos non
2.

tarn ulcisci studeo

quam sanare (Cat.

to cure.

ii.

17),

whom I

do not

care so

much

to

punish as

Subject of dependent verb different from that of main verb cupio ut impetret (Plaut. Capt. 102), I wish he may get it.

mallem Cerberum metueres

Cerberus.
1

(Tus.

i.

12),

/ would

rather you fetired

See

p. 362, foot-note

i.

Such Verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id venio, cave6 (ne). censeS, c5go, coucedS, c6nstitu5, ciiro, decerno, ed!c5, flag-its, hortor. imperS, InstS, mand5, metuo (ne), moneo. negrotium d5, operam do, oro, persuaded. pet5. postu!5. praecipio, precor, pronuntiS, quaero, rogo, seised, timed, vereor (ne), vide5. vo!6.
2

360

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

331.

NOTE. Volo and cupio, however, tend to take the Accusative and Infinitive rather than the Subjunctive, even when the subject changes. When it remains the same, the subject-accusative is rarely found. Thus,

vim volumus exstingui

te tua frui virtute

(Sestius 92),

we

-wish violence to be put

down.

cupimus (Brutus

331),

we wish you

to

reap the fruits

ofyour virtue. iudicem me esse, non doctorem volo (Orat. 117), / wish to be a judge, not a teacher. cupio me esse clementem (Cat. i. 4), / desire to be merciful. [But regularly, cupio esse clemens (see 271. a).]
c. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Fatior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative

Infinitive.
;

so often

sin5.

Thus,

ut partes faceret (De O. ii. 366), permitted him to make divisions. concedant ut boni viri-fuerint (Laelius 18), let them allow them to have been good men. nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered himself to be entangled in no business. vinum importarl non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be
permisit

imported.
d.

Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take either

:

the Subjunctive or the Infinitive

constituerant

as,
Cat. 43), they

ut L. Bestia quereretur (Sail. that Lucius Bestia should complain.

had determined

proelio supersedere statuit (B. G.

ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle. de bonis regis quae reddi censuerant (Liv. ii. 5), about the king's goods, which they had decreed should be restored. decernit ut consules delectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls shall hold a levy. edicto ne quis iniussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none shouldJight without orders. pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bargained that the property should belong to the victor.

NOTE
NOTE

I.

construction.
2.

Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their For verbs of bargaining with the Gerundive, see 294. d. Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second
:

Periphrastic conjugation

as,

Regulus captives reddendos [esse] non censuit (Off. i. 39), Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his for-

mal opinion
'(k
i.

captivi

non reddendi

sunt.]

Verbs of caution and

try,

conor,

commonly

effort take the Subjunctive with ut. takes the complementary Infinitive. Thus,
10), let

But

cura ut

possible (take care that I

quam primum intellegam (Fain. xiii. may understand).

me know

as soon as

331.]

Substantive Clauses of Purpose.

to

361
have (give
their

dant opcram ut habeant (Sail. Cat. 41), they take pains

attention that, etc.).
(

impellere ut acs.ir iiorninaretur (id. 49), /0 induce them to (that Ca-sar should he named),
si

name

Ciesar

transire conarentur (B. G.

i.

i.

8), if they should try to cross.

i.

NOTE
,

CSnor

si also occurs (as B. G.

cf.

rniror

si, etc.. $ 333.

Rem.).

NOTE
317)
:

2.

Ut ne

occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort

(cf.

as,

cura et provide ut nequid

nothing.
2.

ei

dealt

( Att.

ii.

3), take care

and see

that he lacks

Verbs denoting an effort to hinder take either (i) a Subjunctive with quflprin"* ? r B 6 - or ( 2 ) the Infinitive as,
;

non

deterret sapientem mors quominus prevent the wise man from, etc.

(Tusc.

i.

91), death does not

ne facerem impedivit (De Fat. i), prevented me from doing. ne transire copiae possent (Verr. v. 5), you opposed the passage of the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross), prohibet accedere (Csec. 46), prevents him from approaching (to approach).
obstitisti

NOTE.

For verbs of hindering negatived (not

to

hinder) see
,

332. g.

(VA Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, 1 with ne njThon or ut negative^ Thus,

affirmative

and

timeo ne Verres fecerit (Verr. v. 3), Ifear that Verres has done, etc. ne animum ofienderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should

hurt the feelings, etc. metuo ne languescat senectute (Cat. Major 28), I fear the orator grows feeble from old age. vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De O. i. 35), / fear \_thaf\ I cannot grant you. toaud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet (Tus. v. 118), there is no danger that he will not think death desirable.
orator

NOTE.

In this use

ne

is

commonly

to

be translated by that or //, ut and

ne non by thaHfoT. REMARK. The

classes.

So

fac, and
like.

particle ut is often omitted with some verbs of the above generally after verbs of ivishing, necessity, permission; after die, frequently in Indirect Discourse after verbs <5f commanding and the

Thus,
ii.

volo amis (Att.

10),

I wish you
ii.

to love, etc.
to love

me ipsum ames

oportet (Fin.

S$),you ought

me.

1 With verbs of Fearing the subjunctive with ne is hortatory in origin timed ne accidat is literally 1 fear, let it not happen. The subjunctive with ut may have been either hortatory or deliberative, I fear, let it happen, or I fear; how may
:

it

happen f ** 1 hope

it

will happen, but I fear

it

will not.

362

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

331.

fac diligas (Att. iii.), do love. die exeat, tell him to go out.

Mnesthea vocat, classem aptent socii (^En. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and orders that] his comrades should make ready the fleet (cf.
339).

NOTE.
*\

Similarly

ne

is

omitted after

cave

in Prohibitions (cf. \ 269. a).

tive instead

(D\ With any verbs of the above classes the poets of an object clause as,
:

may

use the Infini-

hortamur far! (^En. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak. ne quaere doceri (id. vi. 614), seek not to be told.
temptat praevertere
h.
(id.
i.

721), she attempts

to

turn, etc.

comes the subject when that verb

imperatum permissum
me).
est lit iter

Substantive clause of Purpose used as the object of a verb beis put in the Passive. Thus,

facerent, it was ordered that they should march. ut Irent, permission was given that they should go. mihi persuadetur ut exeam, / am persuaded to go out (it is persuaded to
est

/. The impersonals licet and oportet take as subject either a Substantive clause of Purpose, or an Infinitive with or without subject-

accusative.
licet

Thus,
ire, it is

me

allowed
i.

queramur

licet (Caec. 41),

me to go. we are allowed to complain.

12), they

sint enim oportet (Tus.

must

exist.

NOTE
(see

i.

The

Subjunctive with

oportet omits ut, except

in later writers

33i-/ Rem.).
2.

NOTE
NOTE

Licet may take

313. b).

the Subjunctive, usually without ut, to denote con-

cession (see

Licet may take (i) the Subjunctive; (2) the Simple Infinitive; 3. or (4) the Dative and the Infinitive. (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; Ire, or licet mihi Ire. Thus, / may go is licet earn, licet ire, licet

me

3.

Clauses of Result.

may be used substantively.i (j) a s the object of the passive, as well (2)*as the subject of these same verbs in 332) as of other verbs and verbal phrases ($ 332. a, d) (3) in apposition with another
NOTE.
Clauses of. Result
;

facio,

etc.

substantive, or as predicate nominative, etc. (see

332. /).

In

all

these cases the clause

is

not

strictly subject

or object.

The main verb

conveyed a meaning complete in itself, and the result clause was merely the main verb appended. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject (ita accidit ut, etc.) or object of the verb with which they are connected.
originally
.

332.]

Substantive Clauses of Result.

of

363

332. Substantive Clauses

ut

Result with ut (negative

non) are used as

the object of verbs denoting the

its

accomplishment of an effort^
Such are especially facio and
Thus,
ut intellegatis (Cluent. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect [So, faciam ut intellegatis (id. 9).] commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that
efficiam

compounds

(efficio, conficio, etc.).

that you, etc.).

supplies could be brought. quae libertas ut laetior esset regis superbia fecerat (Liv. ii. i), the arrogance of the last king had made this liberty more welcome. evincunt instando ut litterae darentur (id. 4), by insisting they gain their that letters should be sent. [Here evincunt = efficiunt.] point,

a. Substantive Clauses of Result are

used as the Subject of the

fol-

lowing
1.

passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort: as, impetratum est ut in senatu recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. i), they succeeded in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about
that, etc.).
2.

Of

Of Impersonals meaning
it is 2 added, and the

it

happens,
:

it

remains,

it

follows,

it is

necessary,
accidit

like

as,

ut esset luna plena (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to be full moon (it that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.] reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (Tus. D. iii. 17), it remains that the fourth virtue is thrift. [So also restat.] sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows that I should show).

happened

NOTE.
3.
est

In poetry the infinitive sometimes occurs.

:

Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic) as, ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1.9), it is the fact that one man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.

b.

result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows

quam,
all

after a

comparative (but see

336.

c,

note 2)

as,
ii.

perpessus est omnia potius rather than betray, etc.

quam indicaret

(Tusc.

52), he

endured

1 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accedit, accidit, additur. altera est res. commltto, cSnsequor, contingit, efflcio, evenit, facio, fit, fieri potest, fore, impetro, integrum

est,

mos

est,

munus

est,

necesse

est,

prope

est,

rectum

est, relinothers.

quitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, 2 See the impersonate in the list above.

tantum

abest, and a few

364
c.

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

332.

A result clause,

with or without ut,

is

exclamatory questions. Thus, rogative -na

The

question

may be

often used elliptically, in introduced by the inter-

quamquam quid loquor?

te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do 1 speak? [the idea] that anything should bend you! egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you ? te videre

ego

noluerim (Q.
Infinitive, in

Fr.

i.

3),

I unwilling to see you?

REMARK.
d.

The
;

actually occurring

exclamations ($ 274), usually refers to something the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.

ii is

The phrase tantum abest,

two clauses of
the other
is

so

far [from being

ut
:

regularly takes

result with

one

is

the case], substantive, the

subject of abest;

adverbial, correlative with

tantum.

Thus,
tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthener: (Or. 104), so far from admiring my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree, that not Demosthenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the sub332. a); the second, a result clause, after tantum ject of abest (
(

319); and the third, after usque e5.]

e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb: as,

invitus f eci

luctance that

ut Flaminiuni e senatu eicerem I expelled Flaminius from

this

(Cat. Maj. 42), it the senate.

was with

re-

NOTE.

With

maybe compared fore ut for the

future infinitive

288./).

as a result, and is f. Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered ut the accusative and ininstead of with the subjunctive expressed by
finitive (

336. i).

In this case a demonstrative usually precedes

as,

praeclarum

illud est,

ut eos

amemus

(Tusc.

iii.

73), this is
it is

noble

thing, that we should love, etc. verisimile non est ut ille antepSneret (Verres iv.

n),

not likely that

he preferred.

x A Relative
Uinns
facere
r>f

clause of Result with

fLJndtrinft

and the
.

like

quin is used after verbs or other when these are negatived, i'hus,

nihil praetermisi to write,

n5n possum quin (Att. xii. 27), / cannot avoid, etc. quin scribam . . (Q. F. iii. 3), I have left nothing undone
.
.

at imlla re impedirer quin (Att.

iv. 2),

that

I might be hindered by
(Sail.

nothing

from,

etc.

non humana

ulla

neque divina obstant quin

etc.

Ep. Mith. 17), no

human

or divine iaws jrevent, out that,

332.)
NOTF.
.

Substantive CJausts
I.
>

<\f

Result.

365

(as in

--.I (.is in tin; Th- n<-i;;itiv in rxamplos above) or n. quis impedit quin earn, who (i.r. nobody hinders me Jtom
j

')

not doubt,

This usage is found especially with the phrase KI.MAKK. and similar expressions as,
:

n6n dubito,

/ do

non dubitahat quin

believed him.
illud

el

crederemus

(Alt.

vi.

2), he

did not doubt that we

20), do not doubt that

cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Tarn.

all.

v.

I will do

quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 64), -who is ignorant that, etc.? neque ambigitur quin Brutus pcssimo publico id facturus fuerit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Liv. ii. i), nor is (here any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the kingdom from any one of the former kings would have done it with the worst results to the state.
y

[Direct statement

fecisset.]

NOTE
Infinitive,

2.

dubitS. in the sense of I do not hesitate, commonly takes the but sometimes quin with the subjunctive. Thus,
i),

Non

nee dubitare ilium appellare sapientem (Laelius call him a sage.

think he ought
to hesitate to set out.

and

not

to hesitate to

dubitandum non exlstimavit quin proficisceretur (B. G.

ii.

2), he

did not

h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These take as their object either a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result

or an

Infinitive

with

subject

accusative,

according

to

the

sense.

Thus,
sequitur ilico ease causas immutabiles (Fat. 28), it follows directly that there are unalterable causes. [Result clause, the regular construction with sequor when used of a logical sequence.]

laudem

sapientiae statuo esse

maximam

(Div. v. 13),

/ hold

that the glory

of wisdom is the greatest. statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent. 331. </ ] [Purpose clause, cf. res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Alt. x. 8), the thing itself warned that it

was
that.

lime.

fac mini esse

[Cf. monere ut, warn to do something.] persuasum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am persuaded of

[Cf. facere ut, accomplish that]

vi.

hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animos (B. G.

convince that souls do not perish. huic persuivlet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. pass over to the enemy.
iii.

13), they wish to

18), persuades

him

to

The infinitive with subject accusative in this rnnstrtirfion is Indirect NOTE. Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause.

366

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

4.

333.

Indicative with Quod.

peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of with the Indicative. causal quod

333.

The
alter

clause in the Indicative with quod

is

is

used when

the statement

regarded as a fact :

as,

um

est vitium,

i.

19), it is

quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut

conferant could be used, meaning that some should bestow; or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly) ; quod makes
it

a fact that

men
et

do bestow, etc.]
interest,

inter

inanimum
ii.

animal hoc maxime

(Ac.

37), this is the chief difference, etc., that

quod animal agit aliquid an animal aims at

quod

something. rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Of. seems wonderful to us.

iii. 1 1

1),

that he (Regulus) returned

vetus illud Catonis

admodum

scitum
that he

est,

qui mlrari se aiebat

(Div.
ii.

rideret haruspex haruspicem

cum

vidisset

51),

'tis

quod non an old

and shrewd saying of Cato,

when
NOTE.
tive as

he looked another in the face.

wondered a soothsayer did not laugh [Here rideret is in the subjunc:

being a subordinate clause of indirect discourse

see

336.]

Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly^either the subject or
in apposition with the subject.

a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod sometimes appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English WHEREAS
(cf.

326. a)

as,

quod de domo quod mihi de

dition,

scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of the hotise. nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis praeclaris

operibus laetari (Att.

i. 5), as to your congratulating me on our conno wonder you are pleased with your own noble works.

b. Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod, quia (Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse)

as,

quod

scribis

facio libenter

quod

gaudeo (Q. F. iii. i), I am glad that you write. earn non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 63), I am glad that
it by.

I cannot pass
that this

quae perfecta esse vehementer

is finished.

laetor (Rose. A. 136),

I greatly

rejoice

REMARK.
with
si. 1

Miror and
is

This

similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause 331. e. i. note i). apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf.

Thus,
l Cf.

the

Greek 6avpdfa

ei.

333, 334.]
miror
si

Indirect Questions.
(Loci. 54),

367
I wonder if he could
at
'/.]

quemquam amtcum hahere potuit

<i

evfr have

friend.

[Originally, If this is so,

/wonder

5.

Indirect Questions.

is any sentence or clause which is introduced by an Interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and which is itself the subject or In object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt. Ui.immatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from interrogative

NOTE.

An

Indirect Question

(see the third

example below).

334.
junctive

An
:

Indirect Question takes

its

verb in the Sub-

as,

quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 10), / will explain what I think. [Direct: quid sentio?] id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 32),^ consulted whether it could be done.
[Direct: potestne?]
sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 87), all could understand how bold you are. [Direct quam es audax !] doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), it is of no account

quam

rogat

I suffer or not. [Double question.] me quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. tiam, he asks me my opinion."}
whether
est,

[Cf.

rogat

me

senten-

uter nostrum sit verecundior (Academ. ii. 126), this is which of ns two is the more modest. incerti quatenus Volero exerceret victoriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far Volero would push -victory. [As if, dubitantes quatenus, etc.]
doubtful,

hoc dubium

NOTE. An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth example), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the fifth),
an appositive (as
in the sixth).

The use

of tenses in Indirect
:

Question

is illustrated

by

the following examples dico quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing. dic5 quid facturus sim, / tell you what I will do. dico quid fecerim, I tell you what I did {have done, was doing, had done}. dixi quid facerem, / told you what I was doing. dixi quid fecissem, I told you what I had done. dm quid facturus essem, I told you what I would do (was going to do). dixi quid facturus fuerim, I told you what I would have done.
a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive of the First Periphrastic conjugation as,
:

prospicio qui concursus futuri

there
"u'ill

sint

(Div. in Csec.),

I foresee what

throngs

be [Direct

qui erunt?]
:

quid

sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (I lor. Od. i. 9), forbear to ask what will be on the morrow. [Direct quid erit or futurum est?J

368

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

334.

NOTE. This periphrastic future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused. by using the present subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses. 268 and examples) remains b. The Deliberative Subjunctive (see

unchanged

in

an Indirect Question, except sometimes

in tense

as,

[quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, ar Carthaginiensibus reddatur (De Inv. i. 17), [the question is] shah Carthage be destroyed, or restored to the Carthaginians.

nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. or fear. [Here the 7), nor is any one -well assttred what he shall hope future participle with sit could not be used.] incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it was doubtfut (abl. abs.) what they should seek or shun.
c.

In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an Indirect Quesis

tion

often attracted into the

:

main clause as object (accusative of

sit

anticipation}
nosti

as,

Marcellum quam
is.

tardus

Marcellus
thee

[For nSsti
art^\

quam

(Fam. viii. 10), you know how slow tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. / know

who thou

Cf. potestne igitur

ii. I

earum rerum quare futurae sint ulla esse praesensio (Div. $),can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they will occur ? [A similar use of the objective genitive.]

REMARK. In some cases the Object of anticipation becomes Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative construction
is

the result

as,

quidam saepe
is

in parva pecunia perspiciuntur

often seen, in

people are (some

are).

quam sint leves (Lsel. 63), it trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are often seen through, how unprincipled they

quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Ag. i. 5), it has been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown by me, how they attacked).
d. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin

and

in

poetry:

as,

non reputat quid

task it
is.

laboris est (Plaut.

Am.

172), he does not consider

what a
6), in

vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R. R. what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.

few interrogative expressions are used parenthetically in an e. indefinite sense and do not take a subjunctive. Such are
nescio quis (and kindred forms),

I know

not who, somebody or other,

etc.

mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how), mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much), immane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much),
sane quam, immensely.
valde

quam?

enormously*

334.]
.

Imtinrt
:

l)i.\conrse.

Examples are
(jui ist.un

quam indolcntiam magnopere laudant (Tu^. greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever that is.
nescid

iii.

12),

who

mirura quantum profuit (Liv.

ita fato

ii. i), it helped prodigiously. nesci5 quo contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), I think it happened so by some fatality or other. nam suos valde quam paucos habet (Fain. xi. 13), for he has uncommonly

few of his own. quam sum gavisus (id.), I <*s immensely glad. vino et lucernis Medus acinaces immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od.
sane
5), is

i.

27.

monstrously at -variance.

f. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the sense of whether (like if in English, cf. 333. b. Rem.) : as,

circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperire possent (B. G.

vi.

37),

enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance. visam si domi est (Ter. Heaut. 118), I -will go see if he is at home.
the

NOTE.
the clause

This

is strictly

is virtually

a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis an Indirect Question.

is

thought

of,

and

g. Forsit, forsitan, forsan, fortasse, fortasse an, perhaps, are often followed by the Subjunctive as,
:

forsitan

quaeratis qu! quire what this alarm

iste terror sit

is.

(Rose.

Am.

2),

you may perhaps

in-

tion.

Subjunctive Clause in this case was originally an Indirect QuesFortasse is also followed by the etc. Infinitive with Subject Accusative in Plautus.

NOTE.

The
it

Thus,

would be a chance whether,

III.-INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (oratio obllqua) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit and Zend, but some forms like it have grown up in English and German. The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb is

NOTE.

The use

is not limited to reports other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any one whether the speaker or some one else says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a complete sentence. For anything that can be said, etc., can also be reported indirectly as well as directly. The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying, etc.,

necessarily conformed to the new relation of persons. The construction of the Indirect Discourse, however,

of the language of

some person

and

its

object together.

This object in time came to be regarded

as.

and

in fact

37
to all intents

Syntax: Dependent Constructions,

335, 336.

became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found ip it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of saying and the like, by means of a predicative apposition, " in such expressions as, The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft
Sanskrit, which, though

of her senses."

The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was afterwards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses and in Latin it became a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches, etc., which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in English, where only the person and tense are changed, as is also occasionally the case in Sanskrit.) The use of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse probably
;

came from regarding the statements contained in them as not absolutely true, but as conditioned upon the trustworthiness of the original speaker; that is, as Apodosis with an implied Protasis (if we may believe the speaker, or the like). So the French " " conditional is often equivalent to it is said : as, ainsi il aurait apeu pres double, " " would have it is said to have nearly doubled," lit. doubled," i.e. if we should " he is said to be sick," lit., believe the report. Cf. in German, Er soil krank sein " he ought to be sick, unless the story is false."
t

is

The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense
necessary), as in the reporter's style,

(if

and

in Sanskrit.

335.

Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the

original speaker or writer.

An

Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker

or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted. REMARK.
senses.

The term INDIRECT DISCOURSE

it

(oratio obliqua) is

used

in

In the wider sense

includes

all

clauses

of whatever kind

two which

express the words or thought of any person indirectly ; that is, in a form different from that in which the person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Caesar and Livy. In this book the term is used in the restricted sense.

I.

FORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

336.
ing,
1

Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinktelling, and perceiving?- govern the Indirect Discourse.
I.

Such are: (i) knowing, sci5, cognSsco, compertum habeo, etc.; puto, existimo, arbitror, etc.; (3) telling, dico, nuntio, refero, polliceor, promitto, certiorem facio, etc.; (4) perceiving, senSo in general any word that denotes tio, comperio, video, audio, etc. thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the
(2)

thinking,

Indirect Discourse.

336.]
2.

Indirect />/-

Subject Accusative.

371
of a De-

In the Indirect Discourse the

is

main clause

claratory Sentence

Accusative.
tive.
sper5

put Subject All Subordinate clauses take the Subjunc[esse] de metu (Tusc.

in

the

Infinitive with

Thus, me liberatum

ii.

67),

trust

I have

been

freed from fear.

[dicit] esse nonniillos

quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [In direct discourse sunt nonnulli valet.]
:
.

nisi iurasset, scelus se

facturum [esse]

arbitrabatur (Ver.ii.

1.

123),^
:

thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. nisi iuraverS, faciam.]
Stoici

[Direct

negant

quidquam

68), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right. nego is used in preference to died with a negative.]

[esse] bonum, nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. [The verb

NOTE i. In the statement of all speech or thought, the Romans tended to use the Indirect Discourse, etc., with verbs of the classes mentioned, but: inquam, said I (etc.), is appropriated to the Direct Discourse except in poetry. NOTE 2. The verb of sayingfzlc., is often not expressed, but implied in some word or in the general drift of the sentence : as,
c5nsulis alterius

nomen invisum

civitati

fuit:

nimium Tarquinios regno

adsuesse
(Liv.
ii.

initium a Frisco factum; regnasse dein Ser. Tullium, etc. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state ; the
;

Tarquins
power,
etc.

(they thought)

had become

too

much accustomed
this

[Here invisum implies a thought, and

to royal thought is

added

in the Indirect Discourse. ]

orantes ut urbibus saltern

senatus ferret (Liv. xvi. 6) ,

aid to
lost.

the cities

iam enim agrSs deploratos esse opem praying that the senate would at least bring for the fields [they said] were already given up as
and and

NOTE 3. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse (see 330.^
note).

1. a.
larly
i.

Subject Accusative.
wanting in the direct

The

Subject of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse must reguif it is

:

be expressed, even

as,
is

orator sum,

/ am an

orator ; dicit se esse oratorem, he says he

is

an

orator.

NOTE.

But the subject

often omitted,

if

easily

understood:

as,

ignSscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G.

rashness.

iv.

27), he said he

pardoned

thei*

rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum: dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 27), / asked whether they (the curtains) had come to Agrigentum ; he answered that they had.

372
REMARK.
:

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

After

336.

relative,
it

or

quam

(than), if the verb

would be the same

is

as that of the main clause, the accusative as,

te suspicor

is

usually omitted,

and

its

subject

attracted into

eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. Maj. i), pect that you are disturbed by the same things as I.

sus-

2.

When
i.

may be
NOTE

the verb &t saying, etc., becomes passive, the construction either Personal or Impersonal.

For

rules in regard to the choice

330. a-d. Indirect Narrative

between these constructions, and

for examples, see

NOTE

2.

An

begun

in the personal construction

may be

continued with the Infinitive and Accusative.

2.
b.

Subordinate Clauses.

A subordinate clause merely explanatory or containing statements

:

which are regarded as true independently of the quotation, takes the

Indicative
as,

quis neget haec

iii.

21), who can of the gods?

omnia quae vidimus deorum potestate administrari (Cat. deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power
'

cuius ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 20), by whose genius he thought that those deeds ivhich he had done could be celebrated.
fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is be true without regard to the quotation quae gessisset would mean, what Mariu's claimed to have done.]

[Here the

felt to

NOTE. It often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall use the Indicative or Subjunctive in such clauses (cf. 340-342).
c.

Clauses introduced by a relative which

is

equivalent to a demon-

strative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate,

and hence
iSo.f)
:

take the Accusative

as,

and

Infinitive in Indirect

Discourse (see

Marcellus requlsivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Ver. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed.

unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse partem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 64), the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this naturally
follows.

NOTE

i.

Really subordinate clauses occasionally take this construction: as,

quemadmodum

si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habiturum, sic deditam inviolatam ad su5s remlssurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so ifgiven up he will return her unharmed to her friends.

336.]

Tenses in Indirect Discourse.

a.

373

NOTE
with

The
as,

infinitive construction is regularly

continued after a comparative

quara:

addit so prius occlsum Irl ah eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 20), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.

NOTE
d.

3.

The

Subjunctive with or without

ut

also occurs with

quam

(see

subordinate clause in the Indirect Discourse occasionally takes

the Indicative

when

\.\\tfact is
.

emphasized:
.
.

as,
et

factum eius hostis periculum

cum, Cimbris
ipse

Teutonls

pulsis,

non

min5rem laudem
(B. G.
the
i.

army

imperator meritus videbatur 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, etc., seemed, etc.
exercitus

quam

3.

Tenses of the

Infinitive.

336. A. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future

finitive
is

In-

used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to
the verb of saying,
is

etc.,* by

which the Indirect Discourse

e

introduced.
**&, I am
cadebam,

Thus,
dixit J
)
,.

fatting: J

f
i
*

!'

** he \falling. ' } si cadere J he ] said > \ { I was J

(

sa

is

I was falling
I hadfatten
(

cecidi, //,//

Jcit dlxlt ;

sE cecidisse>

he says he sald

cecideram,

cadam, Ishattfatti J
cecidero,

* ci

}se dixit J

cSsurum [esse], J

\
(

f {""' he said he should fall.

Jf

he was falling,

had fallen.

sh

I shall

dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare],

have fallen

he says he shall have fallen. dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen.

by

All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the
I.

NOTE

Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. But sometimes continued or repeated action is expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse, and is often called the Imperfect
in past time
Infinitive (so regularly after
te

meminl)

thus,

meminl dicere, I remember that you

2.

said.

[Direct: dicebas.]
Infinitive, see $ 147. c.

NOTE

For various ways of expressing the Future

4.

Tenses of the Subjunctive.

336. B. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ( 286). They depend for their sequence on the verb of saying, etc.,
by which the Indirect Discourse
is

introduced,

374
Thus
in

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

the sentence, dixit se

336, 337

Romam

iturum ut consulem

in order that he might see the consul, videret follows the sequence of dixit without regard to the

videret, he said he should go to

Rome

Future Infinitive, iturum [esse], on which

it

directly depends.

This rule applies not only to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses in indirect discourse, but also to that which stands for the imperative, etc. (see exi.

NOTE

to that in questions ( 338). subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is commonly in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying, etc., is in a primary tense

amples in

339),

and

NOTE
287

2.

(cf.

i).

Thus,

Tarquinium dixisse ferunt turn exsulantem se intellexisse quos fidos amicos habuisset (Lael. 53)> they tell us that Tarqidn said that then in his exile he had found out -what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dixisse and intellexisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.] tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vinceremus (Nat. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in fulness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
a.

The

clauses of the Indirect Discourse even

in a secondary tense
:

Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent when the verb of saying, etc., is
as,

dicebant

totidem Nervios (polliceri) qui longissime absint (B. G. ii. 4), ~~ they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as tnany.
. .
.

NOTE i. This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker {Repraesentatio}. In the course of a long passage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary,
sometimes following the Sequence, and sometimes affected by Repraesentatio. Examples may be seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc.

NOTE 2. Certain constructions are never affected by Repraesentatw. Such are the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with temporal, antequam,

cum

and priusquam.
5.

Conditions in Indirect Discourse.

in

337. Conditional sentences

expressed as follows
1.
:

Indirect Discourse are

The

Protasis, being a subordinate clause,

is

always in the Sub-

junctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive. a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future conThus there is no disditions ( 307. b} becomes the Future Infinitive.

tinction

between more or

less vivid future conditions in the Indirect

Discourse.

337.]

Conditions in Indirect Discourse

in Indirect

375
Bl

Kx.imples of conditional sentences

1.

Discourse

Simple Present Condition

si

306).

(dixit)

ipsc populo

uterctur,

non oportere

(B. G. i. 36), he they should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct: si non prae-

Romano non praeacriberet quemadmodum suo iure sesc a populo Romano in suo iure imped iri said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people hoio

scribS

n5n oportet.]

praedicavit ... si pace uti velint, iniquum esse, etc. (B. G. i. 44), he asserted that if they ivished to enjoy peace, ft was unfair, etc. [Direct: si volunt . . est. Present tense kept by Rcpraesentatio ( 336. B. a,
.

note i).]
2. Simple Past Condition ( 306). non dicam ne illud quiclem, si maxime

hominem

in culpa fuerit Apollonius, tamen in honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tarn graviter animad-

vert! causa indicia

this either, that,

able

man
.
.

non oportuisse (Verres v. 20), I will not say even if Apollonius was greatly in fault, still an honorought not to have been punished so severely, etc. [Direct:

si fuit 3.

n5n oportuit.]
(

Future Conditions

307).

Aeduis se obsides redditurum non esse, neque els ... bellum illaturum, si in eo manerent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis penderent si id non fecissent, longe eis fraternum nomen populi R5mam abfuturum (B. G. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the sEdui, but ivould not make war upon them if they observed the agreement, etc., and paid tribute yearly j but if they should not do this,
:

the

them.
si

name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding Inferam ... si manebunt [Direct reddam pendent:
: .
. .
.

non fecerint

aberit.]

(dixit)

quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go
with the tenth legion alone.
[Direct
in
:

si

sequetur

ibo.

Present

tense by Repraesentati'b.'} id Datames ut audivit, sensit,

rio se relictum,

si

turbam exisset ab homine tam necessa-

[esse] ut ceteri consilium sequantur (N'ep. Dat. 6), if it should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody else ^uould follow his example.
[Direct: si exierit . . . sequentur.] (dixerunt) nisi me civitate expulissent, obtinere se non posse licentiam cupiditatum suarum (Alt. x. 4), tJiey said that unless they drove me out

futurum

of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. (Ciceronem) expulerimus, obtinere non poterimus.]
b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact Discourse, the following points require notice.

[Direct

nisi

308) into the Indirect

376
1.

Syntax : Dependent Constructions^

The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive

337

form, made by in -urus the with fuisse. Participle combining 3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futurum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must
2.

be used.
4.

An

Indicative in the Apodosis

:

becomes Perfect

Infinitive.

Examples are

nee se superstitem

filiae futurum fuisse, nisi spem ulciscendae mortis eius in auxilio commilitonum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50), and that he should not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct : non

illud

superstes essem, nisi habuissem.] Asia cogitet, nullam a se neque belli extern! neque discordiarum domesticarum calamitatem abfuturam fuisse, si hoc imperio non teneretur (Q. Fr. i. I, 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster^ not held by this government. etc., would not be hers, if she were
:

[Direct abessem, si non tenerer.] quid inimicitiarum creditis excepturum fuisse, do you think (Q. C. vi. 10, 18), what enmities

si

Insontes lacessissem

I should have

incurred
si laces-

if I

had wantonly

assailed the innocent,

[excepissem ...

sissem.] invitum se dicere, nee dicturum fuisse, ni caritas rei publicae vinceret (Liv. ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken (at ? [Direct: nee dixisall), did not love for the commonwealth prevail

sem
quorum

ni vinceret.]

aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futurum fuisse ut omnibus iii. 69), if life perfectis artibus hominum vita erudiretur (Tuscul. could have been longer, human existence would have been embellished by
si

every art in
si

its

perfection.

[Direct

erudita esset.]

Cn. Pompeius privatus esset, tamen erat deligendus (Manil. 50), if P. were a private citizen, still he ought to be chosen, would become deli-

Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not distinguished in the apodosis from Past, but the protasis may keep them distinct.
choice

gendum fuisse. NOTE i. In Indirect

NOTE2. when
The
there

NOTE 3.
to express the

periphrasis futarum fuisse Ut is sometimes used from no necessity for resorting to it. Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse
is

Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary examples of this use occur in classic authors as,
:

to fact.

Only four or

five

Titurius clamabat

si

Caesar adesset neque Carnutes,

etc.,

neque Eburo-

nostra ad castra ventur5s esse (B. G. v. 29), Titurius cried out that if Casar were present, neither would the Carnutes, etc., nor would the Rburones be coming to our camp with such contempt. [Direct si adesset . . . venirent.]

nes tanta

cum contemptione

338, 339.]
6.

Questions

(Vi</

Commands.

377

Questions in Indirect Discourse.

in

338.
i-ii

Question

the

Indirect

Discourse

may

be

her in the Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

real question, asking for an answer, is generally put Subjunctive; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying its own answer, in the Infinitive. Thus,
in the
quiil

he

vellet? cur in suas possessiones venlret (B. G. i. 44), ivhat did he come into his territories? [Real question. Direct quid vis ? cur venis ?]
sihi

want? why did

:

num

recentium iniuriarum
Direct

could he lay aside the

tion.
:

num

memoriam [se] deponere posse (id. i. 14), memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Quespossum ?]

quern signum daturum, fugientibus ? quern ausurum Alexandro succedere (Q. C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the retreat? who will dare succeed Alexander ? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit ... au debit.]
sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the InfiniWhether the question is to be regarded as rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view. Thus,
i.-

NOTE

No

tive in questions in the Indirect Discourse.

utrum partem

regni petiturum esse, an totum erepturum (Liv. xlv. 19), will you ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole? quid tandem praetori faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, ought

a pr&tor to have done ? quid repente factum [esse]

happened,
that, etc.?

cur, etc. (id. xxxiv. 54),

what had suddenly

NOTE 2. Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see 334). This is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse.
The question may be
either real or rhetorical.

See quaesivit,
i.

etc. (Liv. xxxvii. 15).

NOTE 3.

For the use of

tenses, see \ 336. B, note

a. Deliberative Subjunctive in the Direct Discourse retained in the Indirect: as,

is

always

cnr aliquos ex suis amitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he lose some of his men ? [Direct: cur amittam?]
7.

Commands
Discourse

in Indirect Discourse.

339. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect

:

as,
i.

reminisceretur veteris incommodi (B. G.

(indent disaster.

13),

remember

(said he) tht

[Direct: reminiscere.]
let

finem faciat

(id.

20),

him make an

end.

[Direct: fac.J

378

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

ii.

339. 340.
them help.

ferrent opem, adiuvarent (Liv.

6), let

them bring aid,

let

REMARK.

This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse,

but to the hortatory and the optative subjunctive as well.

these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the sequence of tenses, being in fact 286, 336. B, note i).. dependent on the verb of saying", etc. (cf. Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by n NOTE 2.
i.

NOTE

Though

direct discourse, they follow the rule for the

with the Subjunctive, even Direct: as,

when noli

with the Infinitive would be used in the

ne perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled. [Direct: nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Ind. Disc.]

The following example a connected address

:

illustrates

some of the foregoing

principles in

INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Si

DIRECT DISCOURSE.
Si

pacem populus Romanus cum

pacem populus Romanus cum

Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros atque ibi futures Helvetios, ubi

Helvetiis faciet, in earn partem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eos tu

eos Caesar constituisset atque esse voluisset: sin bel!5 persequi perseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris

constitueris atque esse volueris : sin

bello persequi perseverabis, reminiscere [inquit] et veteris incommodi

incommodi populi R5mani,

nae
virtutis

et pristi-

Helvetiorum.

Quod

im-

populi Romani, et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod improvise unum

proviso

cum

ei

unum pagum adortus esset, qui flumen transissent suis

auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob earn rem aut suae magno opere virtuti

pagum adortus es, cum ei qui flumen transierant suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob earn rem aut tuae
magno opere
virtuti
:

tribueret, aut ipsds despiceret se ita a patribus maioribusque suis

:

nos despexeris

nos

tribueris, aut ita a patribus

didicisse, ut magis virtute quam dolo contenderenfc, aut insidiis niteren-

maioribusque nostris didicimus, ut magis virtute quam dolo contendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. Quare
noli committere, ut hie locus ubi constitimus ex calamitate populi R5-

tur.

Quare ne committeret,

ut is

locus ubi constitissent ex calamitate

populi
tus

Romani et internecione exercinomen caperet, aut memoriam

B. G.
i.

mani

et internecione exercitus

nomen

capiat, aut

memoriam prSdat.

prdderet.

13.

II.

INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES.

34O.

when
(2)

it

Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, (i) expresses the thought of some other person than
(Informal Indirect Discourse), or
it is

the speaker or writer

when

an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or

1

equivalent Infinitive
1

(Attraction).
at

See note

head of Indirect Discourse,

p. 369.

341.]

Informal
1.

Intlirrct Disco-

379

Informal Indirect Discourse.

subordinate clause takes the subjunctive when expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker. Thus

341.

it

In subordinate clauses in formal indirect discourse ( 336) also in Informal Indirect Discourse in the following cases (b-d)'
a.
b.

but

When

the clause depends

upon another containing a wish, a com-

tnand, or a question expressed indirectly, though not strictly in the form of Indirect Discourse : as, animal sentit quid
that is fit.
sit

quod deceat

(Of.

i.

14),

an animal feels

-what it is

hunc

sibi

evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs this doubt that goads and slings him day
tive clause is

ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet ac pungat, ut you to pluck from his heart

and

night.

[Mere the

relais

not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, but an assertion made by the subject of postulat.]
c.

When

saying, or
si

the main clause of a quotation some modifier of it as,

:

is

merged

in the

verb of

quid de his rebus dicere vellet, feci potestatem (Catil. iii. n), if he wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance. tulit de caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Milon. 15), he passed a law concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the Appian Way.
nisi

eis

restituissent statuis, vehementer eis minatur (Verr. ii. 1 62), he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main " that he will inflict clause, punishment," is contained in minatur.] auxilium suum pollicitus si ah Suevis premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [= pollicitus se

auxilium laturum,

etc.]

prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni (Ver. iii. 37), the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the

bargain.
d.

When
quod

or by

(rarely

a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a relative 1 Thus. quia) (see 32I).

i.

Paetus omnes libros qu5s pater suus reliquisset mihi d5navit(Att.ii.

Pcetus presented

12)

which (he said) his father had left. REMARK. Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive. Here belong also non quia, nSn quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. (See $ 321. Rem. and note a.)
all the books
1

me

This usage probably originates

in

truth of the speaker, the

main

subject.

Apodosis, the condition being the supposed (See Indirect Discourse, Note, p. 370.)

380
2.

Syntax: Dependent Constructions.

Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction).

342.

342. clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if 1 regarded as an integral part of that clause : as, imperat, dum res adiudicetur, hominem ut adservent cum iudicatum sit,
:

ad

se

adducant (Verr.

iii.

decided, to keep the

man ;

he orders them, till the affair should be when he is judged, to bring him to him.
55),

etenim quis tarn dissoluto ammo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac neglegere possit (Rose. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit, that, when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ? mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti (Or. 151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. [Here laudari is equivalent to ut

laudentur.]

But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if
a.
it is

not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause

postulat ut,

as,

quodam modo
nus (Att.
called,
si

quemadmodum

x. 4),

in a

manner

etiam appelletur, tyranhe demands that as he is, so he may be

est, sic

a tyrant.
ponderari solent, verecundius a te

mea

in te essent officia

quam a me

if my good services to

solum tanta quanta magis a te ipso praedicari . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6), you were only so great as they are wont rather to

be called by you than to be estimated by me, I shotild, etc. natura fert ut els faveamus qui eadem pericula quibus nos perfuncti

sumus

nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through. ne hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suos circumvenire possent (B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should be able to surround his men.
ingrediuntur (Muren.
4),

NOTE.

The use

of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to empha-

size the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infinitive clause. But in many cases no such distinction between the Indicative

and Subjunctive
1

is

perceptible.
is in

The

Subjunctive in this use

a manner of the same nature as the Sub-

dependent clause in a clause of Purpose is really a junctive in the main clause. part of the purpose, as is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English.
In a Result clause this
characteristic, to
is less clear,

but the result construction

is

a branch of the

which category the dependent clause

in this case evidently belongs,

when

it

It is

takes the Subjunctive. often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse

and the

Integral Part.

Thus

in

imperavit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent

may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being a part of the order itsell

Syntax: IHIportant Rules.

381

IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX.

X.

A noun used

to describe another,
it

and denoting the same person or thing,

apves with
2.

in

Case

183).

3.

Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case ( 1 86). Relative pronoun agrees with its Antecedent vn. gender and number,

but

its

case depends

on the construction of the clause

in

which

it

4.
5.

its Subject in number and person ( 204). Superlatives (more rarely comparatives) denoting order and succession also medius, ceterus, reliquus usually designate not "what object,

stands ( 198). Finite Verb agrees with

6.

The
The

but what part of it, is meant ( 193). Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in urn being used partitivcly, and that in -1 oftenest objectively ( 194. 3).

7.

8.

Reflexive pronoun (si), and usually the corresponding possessive (suus), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause ( 196). The Possessive Pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun: (i) always instead of the possessive genitive, (2) rarely in-

9.

stead of an objective genitive ( 197. a}. Possessive representing a genitive may have a genitive in apposition
(

197-

0-

to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs ( 207). of simple fact, requiring the answer YES or NO, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word ( 210. a). as in nonne, 12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, an
10.

Adverbs are used

11.

A question

The particle num suggests a negaaffirmative answer is expected. tive answer ( 210. c). 173. a'}. 13. The subject of a finite verb is in the NOMINATIVE ( noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person 14.

15.

The

is put in the GENITIVE ( 213). Subjective Genitive is used with a noun to denote (i) the Author or Owner, (2) the Source or the Material, (3) the Quality ( 214).

or thing,

6.

1 7.

are followed by the genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs {Partitive Genitive, 216). Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive of the object

Words denoting a Part

(Objective Genitive,
18.

217).

Adjectives denoting* desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, f(ni't'r, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; verbals in -ax, and participles in -ns when

19.

used as adjectives, govern the Genitive ( 218. a, 6). Verbs of remembering, forgetting, take the Genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state of mind, but the Accusative when
used of a single act (
219).

382
20.

Syntax: Important Rules.

Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty ( 220). 21. The DATIVE is used of the object indirectly affected by an action {Indirect Object, 22.

224).
to favor, help, please, trust,

Most verbs meaning

and

their contraries;

also,

to believe, persuade,

command,

obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten,

pardon,

23.

and spare, take the Dative ( 227). Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, are followed by the Dative

24.

Many

of the indirect object ( 228) . verbs of taking away, and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation ( 229).
is

25.

The Dative
(

used with esse and similar words to denote Possession

231).

26.

The Dative

of the Agent

is

used with the Gerundive, to denote the

person on whom the necessity rests ( 232). 27. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected ( 233. #).
28.

The Dative The Dative

is

used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness, near-

and their opposites ( 234. a). often required, not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the sentence {Dative of Reference, 235). 30. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the ACCUSATIVE (
ness, service, inclination,
is

29.

237)31.
32.

A neuter

verb often takes an accusative of kindred meaning

238).

Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct
object ( 239. a). Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by

33.

the preposition
34.

239. 3).

Verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of the person, and the other of the thing ( 239. *).

35.
36.

The
(

subject of an Infinitive

is

in the Accusative (

173. 2).

Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative

240. e).

37. 38.

The VOCATIVE is the case of direct address ( Words signifying separation or privation are

241).

followed by the ABLATIVE,

243).
(

with or without a preposition {Ablative of Separation,

39.

40.

Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative The ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to denote
from which anything
(
is

243. e).

the source
it

derived or the material of which

consists

244).

Syntax: Important Rules.

41.

383

The
(

Ablative, with or without a preposition,

is

used to express cause

take the Abla-

245)-

42.

Dignus and indignus, contentua,

tive (

laetus, praeditus,

etc.,

245. a).

43.

44.

The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is put in the ab ( 246). The Comparative degree is followed by the Ablative
(

Ablative with

or

(signifying

THAN)
is

247).

45.

The Comparative may be

followed by

quam,

than.

When quam

used,

46.

the two things compared are put in the same case ( 247. a}. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun ( 248).

cum,
(

47.

Accompaniment
248. a}.

is

denoted by the Ablative, regularly with

cum

48.

The

Ablative
c.

is

used to denote the means or instrument of an action

248.
49.

I).

The deponents,

50.

utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, with several of their compounds, govern the Ablative ( 249). With comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is used
to denote the degree

of difference ( 250). quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with a modifier, usually an adjective or limiting genitive ( 251). 52. The/rzV^ of a thing is put in the Ablative ( 252). 53. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is
51.

The

or
54.

is

done

253).
participle,

noun or pronoun, with a

may be

put in the Ablative, to

define the time or circttmstances of

an action (Ablative Absolute}.

An
55.

adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the ablative absolute construction ( 255 and a).

Time

ivhen, or witfiin which,

is

put in the Ablative; time

how

long in the

Accusative (
56.

256).

The

place from which is denoted by the Ablative with ab, de, or ex; the place to which (the end of motion), by the Accusative with ad or in
of towns or small islands from which, as also domtlS and rfls, are put in the Ablative without a preposition ($ 258. a). The names of towns or small islands to wAicA, as also domus and rfls, are

(258.,). The names

put in the Accusative without a preposition ($ 258. b).

57.

Theft/ace where
five Ablative}

is
;

but
(

denoted by the Ablative with the preposition in (&*:<* names of towns and small islands are put in the
258. c}.
is

Locative Case

The

Locative Case

also preserved in

doml,

belli, mllitiae,

humi,

foris, rtlil,

terra marlque

($ 258. </).

384
58.

Syntax: Important Rules.

Infinitive,

The

with or without a subject accusative,

may be used

with

est

similar verbs (i) as the subject, (2) as in apposition with the subject, or (3) as a predicate nominative ( 270).
59.

and

The

Infinitive, without a subject accusative, is used with verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning ^Comple-

mentary
60.

Infinitive ,

The

Infinitive,

271). with subject accusative,

sions of knowing, thinking, telling, see 272).

is used with verbs and other expresand perceiving (Indirect Discourse,

61.

The

Infinitive is often

used in narrative for the Imperfect Indicative, and

275).

takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive,

62.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive; a secon-

63.

The

64.

286). ( tenses of the Infinitive denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb on which they depend ( 288). PARTICIPLES denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the

dary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect

time of the verb in their clause (

65.

290).

The GERUND and

For

the

GERUNDIVE
(

are used, in the oblique cases, in

many

of the constructions of nouns

particulars see \\ 298-301.

297).

66.

The Former SUPINE

Purpose
(

(in -urn)

is

used after verbs of motion to express

302).
is

67.

The

Latter SUPINE (in -u)

fas, nefas,

nouns
68.

and opus, and

used only with a few adjectives, with the rarely with verbs, to denote an action
is

in reference to which the quality

asserted (

303)

69.

The Hortatory SUBJUNCTIVE is used to express an exhortation, a command, a concession, or a condition ( 266). The Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present tense denotes the
wish as

possible, the imperfect as Tinaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time (Optative Subjunctive, 267). 70. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being done (Deliberative Subjunctive^

71.

268). Prohibition

is regularly expressed in classic prose (i) by ne with the second person of the Perfect Subjunctive, (2) by n5li with the Infinitive, (3) by cave with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive ( 269. a).

72.

Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as actually per formed, but as possible ( 311. a). 73. Dam, modo, dummodo, and tantum, introducing a PROVISO, take the

The

74.

FINAL

Subjunctive ( 314). clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative (lit ne), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) ( 317),

R9

Synta.r: Important Rules.

75.

385

clauses take the Sul)junctive introduced by ut, so that (negut non), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) ( 319). 76. Dignus, imlignus, aptus, and idoneus, take a clause of result with a

CoNSFcrnvF,
ative,

relative (rarely with ut) (

77.

The Causal when the

Particles

reason

is

320. /). quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative given on the authority of the speaker or writer;

the Subjunctive

when

the reason

is

given on the authority of another

78.

Cum TEMPORAL, meaning when, takes Cum

79.

the Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, other tenses in the Indicative ( 325). CAUSAL or CONCESSIVE takes the Subjunctive ( 326).

For other concessive

80.

particles, see $ 313.

81.

main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive ( 336. 2). In the Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the SubjuncIn the INDIRECT DISCOURSE the
tive;

a rhetorical question

in the Infinitive (

338).

82.

All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Dis-

course
83.

A A

( 339). Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal Indirect

Discourse,
84.

341).

clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that
clause {Attraction,

342).
their cases, see

For PREPOSITIONS and

152, 153.

For CONDITIONAL Sentences, see 304. ff. (Scheme in For ways of expressing PURPOSE, see 318.

305.)

386

Syntax: Order of Words.

343, 344.

CHAPTER VI.

Order of Words.
the arrangethe ideas in

Latin differs from English in having more freedom in NOTE. ment of words for the purpose of showing the relative importance of

a sentence.

343. As
first,

in other languages, the Subject tends to stand

last.

the Predicate

Thus,
varius in

Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus homo sed

fuit.

omni genere

vitae

NOTE. This happens because from the speaker's ordinary point of view the subject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other things to be spoken of.

There
the verb

is

in Latin,

itself last

however, a special tendency to place of all after all its modifiers. But many

writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single word of the predicate.

the speaker's mind comes

344. In connected discourse the word most prominent first, and so on in order

in

of

prominence. This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called
emphasis).
or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the

NOTE.

This

stress

any

violent contrast to the rest of the

best actor in English.

REMARK.

Some
first

exceptions to this rule will be treated

later.

chapter of Caesar's Gallic War rendered so as to bring out so far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus

Thus the

344.]

:/>/Y7.<7>.

387
i

GAUL, 1
vided
2

in the -undest sense,

:

is

di-

into three

A///V which

are

trcs,

Call a cst omnis divisa in partes quarmu linain inenlunt

i

inJiiibited* (as follows)

one 6 by the

6 Belgians, another by the Aquitani, the third by a people called in their

aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsurum lingua Ccltae, nostra Galli ap.
tur.

Hi omnes

lingua, institutis, Icgidifferunt.

language Celts, in ours Gauls.

bus inter se
Aquitanis

Gallos

ab

language, institu10 diftions, and laws re all of them

THI-SK,
ferent.

in their

Garumna

flumen, a

Matrona

et

The

GAULS H

Sequana di^dit.

Ilorum
prop-

(proper) are

omnium
terea

fortissimi sunt Belgae,

12 from the Aquitani by separated the river Garonne, from the Belgians

quod a cultu atque humanitate

the bravest of all 14 are the

by the

Marne and

Seine.

Of THESE 18 (TRIBES)

15 Belgians, for the reason that they live farthest

away from
title

the CIVILIZA-

GAUL:

emphatic as the subject ofdiscourse, as with a

:

or the

like.

that the country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact that Caesar later speaks of the Galli in the narrower sense as distinct from

Divided opposed
who

to the false conception (implied in the use of

omnis)

the other two tribes,

with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense.

* Parts : continuing the emphasis begun in to any other number, but into parts at all.
4

divisa.

Not

three parts as

opposed

Inhabited: emphatic as the next subject, The inhabitants of these parts are, etc." One given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close connection with quarum.
6
:

"

6 I 8

Another,
Their
<>zcw,

etc.

opposed
:

to one.

ours
:

THESE

(tribes)

strongly opposed to each other. the main subject of discourse again, collecting under

one head

the

n^mes previously mentioned.

" Language, etc.: these are the most prominent ideas as giving the striking points which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English ii we say " these have a different language, different institutions, different laws"
10

adjective, as
II

All of them the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the " if it were every one has its own, etc." GAULS emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the
:

other tribes.

Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is : The Gauls lie between the Aquitani on the one side, and the Beiges on the other.
18
14

12

OF THESE:
All
:

the subject of discourse.

;

emphasizing the superlative idea in bravest they, as Gauls, are assumed to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians. 16 Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main It is idea, the effeminating influences from which the Bclgne are said to be free.
not that they live farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the province, etc., which would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has already been anticipated by the construction of cultd and
still

of the sentence.
soften

more by longrlsslmS, so that when it comes it amounts onlvto a formal part Thus because the civilization, etc., of the province (which would
them)
is farthest

from them.

338

Syntax: Order of Words.

344.

TION and REFINEMENT of the Prov16 ince, and because they are LEAST of all of them subject to the visits of 1 traders? and to the (consequent) im18 tend to portation of such things as
19 their warlike spirit; and are soften also nearest 20 to the Germans, who

provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe corn-

meant atque ea quae ad effeminandos

animos pertinent, important, proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helve tii
dunt,

live

across 'the

Rhine^ and

with

whom

they are incessantly^ at war. For the same reason the HELVETII, as well, are superior to all the other

quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecequod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut

suis finibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in

Gauls in valor, because they are engaged in almost daily battles with the Germans, either defending their own boundaries from them, or themselves

eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano; continentur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentri5nes. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur : pertinent ad inferiorem partern fluminis Rheni ; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem.
tania a

making war on those of the Germans. Of ALL THIS country, one part, the
one which as has been said the Gauls (proper) occupy, BEGINS at the river Rhone. Its boundaries are the river Garonne, the ocean, and the confines of the Belgians. It even REACHES on the side of the Sequani and Helvetians the river Rhine.
direction
is

Aqui-

Its

general

flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et earn partem Oceani,

Garumna

towards the north.

at the

BELGIANS begin

The extreme lim-

quae est ad Hispaniam, pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones.

its of Gaul; they reach (on this side) as far as the lower part of the Rhine.

They spread to the northward and eastward. AQUITANIA extends from the Garonne
part of the ocean that lies towards Spain.

to
It

the

Pyrenees,
off

and

that

runs

westward and

northward.
!6

LEAST: made emphatic here by a common Latin

traders: the fourth

order,

the chiasmus (see

/ P. 39o).
17

member

of the chiasmus opposed to

cultd and hd-

manitate.
is Such thing's as: the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in

traders"
19

cf. what is said in note 15. They are brave because they have them, their native barbarity being assumed. 28 Nearest: the same idiomatic prominence as in 16, but varied by a spc cial usage (see / p. 390) combining chiasmus and anaphora.

Soften;

less to soften

21 22

Across the Rhine;

i.e.

and so are

Incessantly: the continuance idea, as if it were, "and not a

perfect savages. of the warfare becomes the .all-important day passes in which they are not at war

with them."

344.]

Special Rules of Order.

389

The mote important word is never placed last for KK.MAKK. emphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emph, not misconceived) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought,
either real or attected,

and so has
hut, as
it

which
a.

it is

appended,

its position not in the scnten were, in a new one.

In any phrase the determining

as,

and most

significant

word comes

1.

Adjective and

Noun

omnes homines

EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not). Lucius Catilina nSbili genere natus fuit magna, vi et animi et corporis sed ingenio malo pravoque (Sail. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a NDI-.I.E family, with GKK.VT force of mind and body, but with a NATURE that was mil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns being as yet thought of; but in the second branch the noun is meant to be opposed
clecet,

to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus making a chiasmus.'}
2.

Word

with modifying case

cui rei magis

Epaminondam, Thebanorum imperatorem, quam victSriae Thebanorum consulere decuit (Inv. 1.69), what should Epaminondas, commander of the THEBANS, have aimed at more than the VICTORY of the Thebans? lacrima nihil citius arescit (id.i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR. nemo fere laudis cupidus (De Or.i. 14), hardly any one desirous of GLORY (cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, EAGER for glory}.

b. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words to which they belong as,
:

perturbatione (Of. i. iyj},ivilh SOME disturbance. hoc uno praestamus (De Or. i. 32), in THIS one thing ive excel.

cum aliqua

ceterae fere

artes, the

OTHER

arts.

This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but oft words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns, etc., the emphatic place as,
:

NOTE.

yiclvi

causa aliqua (De Or.

stilus
ille

1.250),

WOT* CASE.
see pas-

tuus (id.

i.

257), that STYLE of yours (in an antithesis;

sage).

Romam
c.

quae asportata sunt (Ver. iv. 121), contrast to what remained at Syracuse).
is

what were carried to ROME

(in

When sum
first,

used as the Substantive verb

its

(
:

172, note),
as,

it

regu-

larly stands

or at any rate before

(Off.
i.

subject
it is

est

viri

magni punire sontes

the guilty.

82),

the duty

cf a great

man

to

punish

390
d.

Syntax: Order of Words.

The verb may come
it is
ii.

344.

first,

or have a prominent position either

as,

(1) because the idea in

emphatic:

dicebat idem Cotta (Off.

to others' boasting).

59)> Cotta used to SAY the

same thing (opposed

idem fecit adulescens M. Antonius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was DONE by M. Antonius in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before.] facis benigne (Lael.), you ACT kindly. [Cf. benigne facis, you are very

KIND (you

act KINDLY).]
is

(2) or because the predication of the whole statement

emphatic

as,

propensior bemgnitas esse debebit in calamitosos nisi forte erunt digni

calamitate (Off.
ii.

62), unless perchance they

REALLY DESERVE

their

misfortune.

praesertim

cum

scribat (Panaetius)

(id.

iii.

8), especially

when he DOES

SAY

(in his books).

[Opposed

to

something omitted by him.]

:

(3) or the tense only

may be emphatic
ii.

as,

fuimus Troes, fait Ilium (^En. is now no more. loquor autem de communibus
now,
etc.

325),

we have ceased to
iii.

be Trojans,

Troy

amicitiis (Off.

45)> but

I am

speaking

e. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places as,
:

plures solent esse causae (Of. i. 28), there are USUALLY SEVERAL reasons. quos amisimus civis eos Martis vis peiculit (Marc. 17), WHAT fellow-citizens we have LOST, have been stricken down by the violence of war.

maxima's

tibi

omnes
thanks.
est

gratias

agimus (Marc. 33), we ALL render you

to

the

WARMEST

haec res unius ALONE.

propria Caesaris (Marc, n), THIS exploit belongs

Ccesar

obiurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariae (Of. i. 136), OCCASIONS FOR REBUKE also SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable.

f. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated either (i) by placing the pairs in the same order (anaphora} or (2) in exactly the opposite order (chiasmus *)
.

(1) rerum copia verborum copiam gignit

(De Orat. MATTER produces COPIOUSNESS of EXPRESSION.

iii.

125),

ABUNDANCE of
iii.

(2) leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur the laws VISIT PUNISHMENTS upon the WICKED, but the

bonos (Fin.

5),

GOOD

they

DEFEND

and PROTECT.
i

So-called from the

Greek

letter

(chi),

on account of the

criss-cross arrange-

ment.

Thus

x.

344.]
r..

Sf>i'ciiit

AW

,/</:

391
in
"

Chiasmus
construction.
s

is

in.utiln.-i.il

very common in Latin, In an artless narrative one

i

and seems
might hear,

fact tho

more

The woin
est (Lael. 14),

all

Jrswufd, they

ired the

non

i^itur utilitatcm ainicitia se<l utilitas

it is

amicitiam consecuta

not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advan;<pon friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas heim: in the parallel order.] (See also in the example from
Caesar, p.

388

longiaaime, minime, proximi.)

g.

modifier of a phrase or
:

some

part of

it is

often

embodied within
to the

the phrase

as, (cf. a) de communi hominum memoria (Tusc.

i.

59),

in.

regard

UNIVERSAL

memory of man.
h. favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis} as, et superiecto pavidae natarunt aequore damae (Hor. Od. i. 2. n).
:

NOTE.

This

is

often joined with

chiasmus:

as,
ii.

arma nondum
/.

expiatis uncta cruoribus (id.

I.

5).

Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance as,
:

dictitabat se hortulos aliquos

emere

velle

(Offic.

iii.

wanted

to buy some gardens. [Here aliquos emere, but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulos.]

58), gave out that he is less emphatic than

j. The copula is generally felt to be of so may come in anywhere where it sounds well

little

importance that it but usually under cover

of more emphatic words

as,

consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consilio (Repub. iii. 28), as consul I held an investigation in which you attended me in council.

falsum est id totum (id.

k.

ii.

28), that is all false.

:

Many

expressions have acquired an invariable order

populus Romanus; honoris causa; pace tanti

as,

res publica;

viri.

These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an NOTE. arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus, senatus populusque Romanus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.
a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place as, [dixit] venalis quidem se hortos non habere (Offic. iii. 58), [said] that he didn't hare any gardens for sale to tie sure,
/.
: t

The Romans had

name

m. Kindred words, as infigftra etymologica, often come together

ita

sensim sine scnsu aetas senescit (C. M. 38), thus gradually, without j old. being perceived, nun.

392

Syntax: Order of Words.

Special Rules.

345, 346.

345. The following are

a.
i.
;

special rules of

arrangement

Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede 2. but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between their nouns

a noun and
quern ad

its

adjective or limiting genitive

as,
coplis;

modum; quam ob rem; magno cum metu; omnibus cum

344.
t)'.

nulla in re (cf.

b. Itaque regularly autem, vero, quoque, if the second word is emphatic word ne
;

comes
never

first
first,

in its sentence or clause

enim,

but usually second, sometimes third emphatic; quidem never first, but after the quidem include the emphatic word or words.

c.

Inquam,

more words.

inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or So often credo, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor.

d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; if it is especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 344. /, note.)
e.

first

in Latin,

In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes and usually contains the antecedent noun : as,
vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens

quos amisimus civis, eos Martis we have lost> etc.

whom

Structure of the Period.

modern languages, expresses the relation of words to NOTE. each other by infection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word. An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the following:
Latin, unlike

"

High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat." Paradise Lost, Book II.

1-5.

But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the
logical relation

among

all its

parts

is

carefully indicated.

Hence

346. In the structure

are to be observed:

of the Period, the following rules

a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause not in a subordinate one (according to 344) as,
:

346. J

Structure:

the Period.
foetus cst,

393
when Hannibai

Hannibal ruin uvensuissct auxilia

<

had

reviewed,

Volsci I'xif-iuun spcin in annis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, praetor cetera adversa, loco quoquc iniquo ad pugnam eon^n ssi, iniquiore

ad fugam, ruin
dedito im;

al>

omni

parte caederentur,

a<l
j

iitisque armis, sul>

iu^um

inissi,

cum

singulis vesti-

mentis, ignominiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur (Liv. iv. 10). [Here the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circumstances of the surrender, etc., which in Mulish would be detailed in a

number of

brief independent sentences, are put in the several subordinate clauses within the main clause, so that the passage gives a com-

plete picture in
b.

one sentence.]

Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind of the speaker so, usually, cause before result ; purpose, man;

ner,
c.

and the

like,

before the act.

omitted (asyndeton}.

In co-ordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently In such cases the connection is made clear by
antithesis indicated

some
d.

by the position of words. change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But

such change

less important

often purposely avoided by a change in structure, the being merged in the more important by the aid of partias, ciples or of subordinate phrases
is
:

incendium effugisse viderunt, tells eminus emissls interfecerunt, when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw darts at HIM and killed HIM. celeriter confecto negotio, in hlberna legiones reverterunt, the matter was
quern ut barbari
soon finished,
e.
it, is

AND

the legions, etc.

repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a avoided unless a different case is required as,
:

So the

pronoun
the

for

dolorem

si

will hide IT.

non potero frangere occultabo, if I cannot conquer [Cf. if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain .]

pain,

/. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succession of long and short syllables. Thus,

quod
is

scis nihil prodest,

of no

use,

quod necis multum obest (Or. l66),tnio/ JWtt kmni< what you do not knwu does great harm.

PART THIRD.

PROSODY (RULES OF
VERSE).

CHAPTER
NOTE.

I.

Quantity.

The

been somewhat

like

poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding
;

the natural quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables and the Romans borrowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence

Latin poetry does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme ; but is measured, musical strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely different system of metrical accent or Ictus (see 358. a). This depends upon the character of the measure used, falling regularly on certain long syllables. Each
like

syllable is
erally

counted as either long or short in Quantity l and a long syllable is genreckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see 355. c-e).
;

The

in

mater

as of short a in pater or of long quantity of radical or stem-syllables can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined

by the general

rules of quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary rules devised to assist the memory the syllables being long or short because the
;

actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets ; but the ancient grammarians give some assistance, and in some inscriptions the long
ancients pronounced

them

so.

The

vowels are distinguished in various ways, by marks over the letters, for instance, or by doubling. Since Roman poets borrowed very largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek, and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point, the variations will be noticed in the rules below.

1.

General Rules.
of Quantity
(cf.

347. The following are General Rules

'):a.

VOWEL.

vowel before another vowel or h

is

short

as, via,

traho.
1 The terms long and short, when used of Latin when used of English sounds, to their quality.

sounds, apply to their quantity;

347.]
INS.
i.
1

lies

of Quaii'
is

395
long, except usually

In tin '^rnitivc form -ius, I

It is,
!

in alterius.

Thus, utrlua, nullius.

(

made

short in verse
2.

83.

l>).

between two vowels

NOTE.
hexameter).
It

In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long but it is short in fidSI, r6i, spel. as, dig!
: ;

was once long

in these also

as,

plenu8

fldel (Ennius, at end of

also long before I in the old genitive of the first declension as, aulSI. In the conjugation of fI6, i is long except when followed by er. 3. Thus, fio, fiebam, flam, but fieri, fierem so also fit, by 354. a. 3. 4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel
is
:

or diphthong, and retains

its

original long quantity

as,

TrSes

(Tpuics),

Thalia (oAeia), heroas (rjpwas), agr (arjp). NOTE. But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect as, Academla, chor6a, MalSa, platSa. and sometimes in Diana and She the first 5. In gheu and dlus,
:

vov.-el is

long.

b.

DIPHTHONG.

Diphthong
:

is

long: as, foedus, cui, dsinde.

EXCEPTION.
(id. v. 186).

The

preposition prae in
as,

compounds
vii.

is

generally

shortened before a vowel

prae-ustls (/En.

524),

pr&e-euute

NOTE.
vowel (see
c.

following q, 8, or g, does not

make a diphthong

with a following

4. n. 3).

CONTRACTION.
from nihil
;

vowel formed by contraction (crasis)

is

long

as, nil,

currus, genitive for curruis.

parl6tlbls

But often two syllables are united by Synaeresis without contraction: as when is pronounced paryedbus.

A vowel, though short, followed by two consonants d. POSITION. or a double consonant, makes a long syllable : as, adventus, cortex. But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable
may be
XoTE
either long or short

(common}
i

as, alacris or al&cris

patris

or p&tris.
i.

Any vowel

before
all
cf.

consonant makes a long syllable (except in

bliugis, quadrliugis). But it is probable that in

reicio,
etc.

such cases the vowel was long by nature.

So

also

note 2. X<>TE2. The compounds of iaciO, though written with one 1, commonly retain the long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as i: bfforo a consonant, and lengthen the short as if by Position. (But how the

(from rS-iacio),

syllables

were pronounced

is

uncertain.)

Thus,

gblcis hostl (at the end of a hexameter, /n. iv. 549) . jnicit 8t salttl (at the beginning of a hexameter, vEn. ix. 552). proice tela mantt (at the beginning of a hexameter, ,-En. vi. 836),

396

Prosody

Quantity.

347,

34a

The later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and the prepositions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel. Thus :
(1) turpe pujtas Sbijcl (Ov. Pont.
ii.

3,

37).
iv.

cur an|nos 5bi|cis (Claud. Cons. Hon. (2) reice ca]pellas (Eel. iii. 96, at end).

364).

REMARK. The y or sound resulting from synceresis has the effect of a consonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluviorum (fluvydrum). Conversely, when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, sfluae, for silvae.
e.

In early Latin, B at the end of words was not sounded, and hence

does not make position with another consonant.

REMARK.
is

A syllable made long by the rule in d, but containing a short vowel,

by POSITION
:

said to be long

as in

docetne.

The

rules of Position

do

not, in

general, apply to final vowels.

2.

Final Syllables.

348. The Quantity of Final Syllables is determined by the following Rules 1. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long as, me, tu,
: :

hi, ne.

The
shqrt
is
;

attached particles
seis

-ne', -que',

-v, -c,

-ptg,

and rS- (rd-) are

Thus, secedit, exercitumquS reducit. But relong. often long in religio (relligio), retuli (rettuli), repuli (reppuli). 2. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, sol, 6s (oris),

bos, par, vis. EXCEPTIONS.

vir, tSt, quSt.
3.

cor (sometimes long),

fel,

lac, mel,

os (ossis),

Most monosyllabic

Particles are short

as,

an, in, cis, ngc.

:

But
hue,

ac, eras, cur, en, non, quin, sin sic are long.
4. Final

with adverbs in c

as, hie,

in

words declined by cases

declension
;

is short,

except in the ablative

final

singular of the

first

in all other
(abl.)

words
;

is

long.

Thus,

stellS. (nom.),

cum

ea stella

frustra,

voca

(imperat.),

postea, triginta. EXCEPTIONS. ei&, it, quiS, puts, (suppose)

triginta, etc. 5. Final e
1.

and, in late use,

is

short, as in nube", ducitg,

fifth

saep.

Except

In nouns of the

declension: as, fide (also fame), hodie

as, cete.

(hoi die), quare (qua re). 2. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension
:

3. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declenas, alte, misere, aperte, saepissime. sion, with others of like form So fere, ferine, probably of same origin.

348.]
4.

-ntity
the

of I -'in at Syllables.
conjugation:

397
as,

In

imperative

singular of the second

vidg.
Ex<
6.

To
i is

3:

times, cavg, habg, tacS, valg,

benS, malg inferng, superng. vid6 (cf. 375. ).

;

To

4: some-

Final
it

long

as in turri,
in

fill,

audi.
;

But

is

common

mini, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi

and short

in nisi,

quasi, cul (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as

Alexl.
7. Final o is common; but long in datives and ablatives, also, almost invariably, in verbs, and in nouns of the third declension.

EXCEPTIONS. cit6, modd,

eg&, du8, octS.
8. Final

ilic6,

prefects,

dummodd, imm6,

is

long.

Final

y
;

is
;

short.
;

long final is, us, ys, are short as, nefas, rupes, servos (ace.), honos hostis, amiciis, Tethys. EXCEPTIONS, as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as lampadSs
;

9. Final as, es, os, are

and

in anas.

es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short vowel in the stem 1 as, mile's (-Itis), obsgs (-idis), except abies, in the prepoaries, parigs, pes in the present of esse (gs, adgs)
:
;

pengs, and in the plural of Greek nouns, as herogs, lampadgs. os is short in compo's, imp6s in the Greek nominative ending, as barbit6s also, in the old nominative ending of the second declension, as serv6s (later servus).
sition
; ;

ia

in plural

cases

is

long, as

in

boms, nobis, vobis, omnis

(accusative plural). is is long in fis, sis, vis (with quivis, etc.), veils, malls, noils ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjugation, as audis

and sometimes in the forms in -eris was originally long. us is long (by contraction) in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension and in nouns of the third declension having u (long) in the stem as, virtus (-utis), incus (-udis). But pecus, -tidis.
(where
it

is

the stem-vowel);
it

(perfect subjunctive), where

10.

Of

are short.

other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except -c, Thus, am&t, amStur; but, istuc, alec.

EXCEPTIONS, dongc, f&c, ngc, sometimes hie; 5gr, aether, cratgr,

lien, splen.

The

quantity of the stem-vowel

may be

seen in the genitive singular.

398
3.

Prosody : Quantity.
Penultimate Syllables.

349, 350.

349.
any case
gular.

A
it

noun or adjective is said to increase, when in has more syllables than in the nominative sinsaid to increase,

verb

is

when

syllables than in the stem.

tegi-tis

in any part it has more Thus, ama-tis (stem, ama-),

(stem, tege-), capi-unt (stem, capi-).

In such words as stellarum, corpSris, amatis, tegltis, the penultimate syllable is called the increment?- In itineribus, amavSritis,
the syllables marked are called the of the noun or verb.
first,

second, and third increments

In such words as Itippiter, lovis senex, senis, the syllables whose NOTE. vowel-quantity is marked are called increments. These forms must be referred to lost nominatives from the same stems (cf. 60, 61, foot-note). So itineribus has really only two increments as from fitinus.
;

350. In increments
are generally long;
aetas, aetatis
ris
;
;

Adjectives, a and o e, i, u, y, generally short: as, honor, honoris servos, servorum opus, opgof
; ; ;
;

Nouns and

carmen, carmmis murmur, murmuris pecus, pecuc'ds chlamys, chlaniydis. Exceptions are a: short in baccar (-aris), hepar (-atis), iubar (-aris), lar (-l&ris), mas (maris), nectar (-Sris), par (paris), sal (salis), vas (v&dis), daps (dapis), fax (facis), anthrax (-acis). o short in neuters of the third declension (except os, oris) as, corpus (-8ris) also in arbor (-6ris), scrobs (scr&bis), ops (Spis), bos (b8vis), memor (-6ris), luppiter (I6vis), Hector (-8ris), and compounds of -pus (as, tripus, -p8dis).
;
: : :

long in increments of

fifth

declension

as, dies,

diel

also in

heres

(-edis), lex (legis), locuples (-etis), merces (-edis), plebs (plebis), quies (-etis), rex (regis), ver (veris), crater (-eris). But see 347. 2. i: long in most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, felicis, radicis

(except filix, nix, strix) also in dis (ditis), glis (gliris), vis (vires), Quirites, Samnites. u long in forms from nouns in -us as, palus, paludis ;
;
: :

lis (lltis),

tellfls, tel-

luris; virtus, virtutis; also in lux, lucis; [frux], frugis; fur, furis.
l The rules of Increment are purely arbitrary, as the syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the Stem or of the formative terminations. The declension (see \ 67) quantity of noun-stems appears in the schedule of the third and the quantity of inflection-endings is seen under the various inflections, where
;

it is

better to learn

it.

For quantities of Greek stems, see

63.

351, 352.]

Penultimate Syllables.
the

399

:551.

In

increment of Verbs the characteristic

:

vowels are as follows

1.

2.

3.

conjugation a: as, amare, amatur. In the second conjugation 5: as, monSre, monStur. In the third conjugation 8, I as, tegSre, tegitur.
In the
first
:

4.

In the fourth conjugation I: as, audlre, audltur.

its compounds have a as, dare, In other verbal increments (not stem-vowels)
:

KXCFPTION. dp and
it.

circumdabat

a
e

is
is

always long
:

as,

monearis, tegamus.

long as, tegSbam, audiebar. But e is short before -ram, -rim, -ro in the future personal endings NOTE. -beris, -bSre and sometimes in the perfect -8runt (as st8t6runtque comae,
;

JEn.

ii.

774).
:

long in forms which follow the analogy of the fourth conjugation also in the petivi, lacessitus (in others short as, monitus) subjunctive present of esse and velle (simus, velimus) and (rarely)
i is

as,

in the endings -rimus, -ritis.

etc.

It is

short in the future forms amabitis,

found only in imperatives, and is always long as, moneto, etc. short in suinus, volflmus, quaesttmua in the Supine and its derivatives it is long as, soluturus.
is
:

is

b.

Perfects

and Supines of two

vidi,

syllables lengthen the first syllable

;

as, iuvi,

iutum (iuvo),

visum (video)

fugi (fflgio).

EXCEPTIONS, blbi, d6di,

fidi, soldi, stgti, stiti, tttli;

cltum,

datum, Itum, Htum, qultum, ratum, rutum, satum, situm, statum. In some compounds of sto, statum is found (long), as prdstatum.
c. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short the following syllable is, also, usually short as, c6cldi (c5do), didicl
;
:

(disco),

ptipugi

m8mordi (mordeo).
vowel.
1.

(pungo), cucurri (curro), tgtendl (tendo), But cgcldi from caedS, pepgdi from pdo.

352. The following terminations are preceded by a long

-al, -ar: as,

vectTgal, pulvinar.

EXCEPTIONS, animal, capital, iubar. 2. -brum, -crum, -trum: as, lavacrum, dSlubrum, vSratrum. as, formido, auriga, imago. 3. -do, -ga, -go EXCEPTIONS, cado, divide, Sdo, mddo, s61Ido, spado. trSpIdo callga, fuga, t6ga, plaga ago, t6go, nggo, r6g5, harpago, llgo. So 6gS.
: ;

4.

-le, -lea (-les), -lia:

as, aucfle,

miles, crudelis, hoatllia.

4OO
;

Prosody : Quantity.
;

352, 353.

stSrllis
lis,

EXCEPTIONS. m&l indSles, subfiles grScIlis, hfimilis, similis, and verbal adjectives in -ills as, dficilis, facilis, terrlbi:

amabllis.
:

-mentum as, poema, flumen, iumentunr 5. -ma, -men, EXCEPTIONS, anima, lacrima, victima; tamen, colflmen; with rggimen and the like from verb-stems in e-.
6. -mus, -nus, -rus, -sus, -tus, -neus, -rius as, extremus, stlpinus, octoni, seVerus, fumSsus, pgritus, senarius, extraneus. EXCEPTIONS. (# .) i before -mus as, fmitimus, m&ritimus (except
: :

bimus, trimus, quadrimus, opimus, mimus, ITmus) and in superlatives (except imus, primus) also, dSmus, httmus, nSmus, calamus, thalamus. (.) i before -nus as in crastinus, fraxmus, etc. (except .divinus, mStutinus, vespertmus, rgpentinus) acinus, asmus, cominus, c8phiiius, gminus, dbminus, facinus, fraxinus, protmus, terminus, vaticmus also, manus, oceanus, plStanus genus, Venus. So 6 in bSmis, onus, sonus, tdnus. as, merus, hgdera (except proce(c.} S before -rus (-ra, -rum) rus, sincerus, severus). In like manner, barbarus, ch6rus, nurus, pirus satira, amphSra, anc6ra, lyra, pyra, purpura f6rum, supparum, garum, pSrum. (d.) latus, metus, vetus, anhelitus, digitus, servitus, splritus quStus, totus arbtttus, habitus, and the like.
; :
:

7.

-na, -ne, -nis

as,

carina,

mane,

inanis.

angina, domina, femma, machina, mina, ggna, pagina, patina, sarcina, trutlna, and compounds with -gena bne, sine c&nis, cinis, iuvgnis. 8. -re, -ris, -ta, -tis as, altare, salutaris, mSneta, immitis. EXCEPTIONS, mare, hilaris, rSta, nSta, satis, sitis, p6tis, and most nouns in -ita.

EXCEPTIONS,

advgna,
;

9.

quercetum,

-tim. -turn, and syllables beginning with vj as, privatim> 61iva.

affatim,

EXCEPTIONS,
Igvis (light}

stStim;
;

mvis

(nix)

brgvis,

grSvis,

fSveo)
10.

also,

n6vus, n8vem and 8 vis, b8vis, 16 vis.

:

several verb roots (as, iuvo,

-dex, -lex, -mex, -rex, -dix, -nix

as,

and the numeral endings

-ginti, -ginta

iudex, Hex, radix, viginti, triginta. EXCEPTIONS, culex, silex, rumex.

353. The following terminations are preceded by a short

vowel
:

353, 354.]
1.

Penultimate Syllables.

401

dus, -lusj as, rfiatlcua, calldus, gladiolus. Spacus, Smicua; anticua, apricua, flcus, mendlcus, poaticus, pudicua fidua, nidua, aidus and u before -dua us. crudus, nudua g before -lua, as phasglua (except gSlua, scSlus) aailua; lucus.
-CUB,
IONS.
:

2.

-no, -nor, -ro, -ror, in verbs: as, deatlno, crimlnor, ggrS,

quSror. EXCEPTIONS, divmo, featmo, prfipino, aagino, Spinor, iucliiio dSclaro, apero, spiro, oro, duro, miror.
:

as, faba, blbo, Itipa, crgpo. 3. -ba, -bo, -pa, -p5 EXCEPTIONS, gleba, scriba bubo, nubo, acrlbo papa, pupa, ripa, scopa, stupa capo, repo, stipo. as, clvltaa, fortl4. -taa (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs)
;
;

ter, pgnltus.
5.

-culua, -cellua, -lentua, -tudo

as, faaciciilua,

Scellua, lucii-

lentus, naagnitudo.

354. Rules for the quantity of Derivatives are

a.

Forms from

the

same STEM have the same quantity

as,

Smo,

cimavisti; gSnus, generis.

also arboa EXCEPTIONS. I. boa, lar, mas, par, pea, aal, vaa have a long vowel in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bSvia, etc.). 2. Nouns in -or, genitive -oria, have the vowel shortened before the
final r
:

as,

in Plautus
3.

hondr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that and inscriptions these nominatives are often found long.)

or

-t

Many verb-forms with vowel originally long shorten it before final -r as, am6r, dicergr, amSt (compare amgmua), dicergt, audit, fit.
The
final syllable in -t

NOTE.
long, but to
4.

of the perfect seems to have been originally

this rule.

have been shortened under

few long stem-syllables are shortened, apparently under the influence of accent as, acer, Scerbus. So de-iSro and pg-igro, weak:

ened from iuro. b. Forms from the same ROOT often show inherited variations of quantity (see 10) : as, dlco (cf. maledlcus), duco (duels), fido (perfidus), vocia (vSco), Iggis (ISgo).
c. COMPOUNDS retain the quantity of the words which compose them: as, oc-cldo (cado), oc-cido (caedo), in-Iquus (aequus). d. Greek words compounded with as, prSphgta, irpo have o short
:

pr816gus.
uequis,

Some

cor, pr6fiteor.

Latin compounds of pro have o short: as, prSficisCompounds with n vary: as, uSfas, uggo,

402

Prosody: Rhythm.

355.

CHAPTER
NOTE.

II.

Rhythm.

in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables than those intervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another different degrees the pronunciation of the words. The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, was not so restricted. But hand, the purely metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words

The

essence of

Rhythm

pronounced with more

stress

The strict (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. rhythm was doubtless more closely followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time perand there are some cases in which the fectly preserved, even in single measures regularity of the time between the ictuses is disturbed. The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time
;

required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced >n less than their proper time, though doubtless always distinguishable in time from
short one.

one short (see d}. Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have 355. been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word hence the impor,

tance of Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (see

1.

358).

Measures.
of the division of musical

355. Rhythm consists

into

sound

MEASURES Or FEET.
natural division of musical time
is

The most

into meas-

But the ures consisting of either two or three equal parts. ancients also distinguished measures of five equal parts.

355, 356.J

Measures.
The
divisions of musical time are

403
marked by a
stress of voice

REMARK.

on
or

one or the other

a.

part of the measure.

This

stress is called the

Ictus

(b fat),

metrical ;u:crnt (see $ 358).

called a

The unit of length in Prosody MORA. It is represented by

(P).

is

one short

syllable.

This

is

the sign

or in musical nota-

tion
b.

by the quaver

A long syllable
_,

by the sign
c.

is regularly equal to two moroe, and or by the crotchet () .

is

represented

long syllable

may be
;

Such a sented by the sign u_ (or f )

three or four morce.
d.

protracted, so as to occupy the time of syllable, if equal to three mora, is repreif

equal to four, by

L_I

(or F).

A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take

Such a
syllable is

practically the time

of a short one.
e.

A A

sometimes represented by the sign >. short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one
pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of fill up the time. pause of one mora in a measure is indi-

mora.
f.
verses, to

one of two mores by the sign 7\ cated by the sign g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an ANACRUSIS or
j .

preluded

The

anacrusis

is

regularly equal

to

the unaccented part of the

measure.

356. The measures most frequently employed

ing
i.
:

in Latin

verse, together with their musical notation, are the followa.

TRIPLE OR UNEQUAL MEASURES

(f).

TROCHEE
IAMBUS

w
(w
_

as *

rgs

2.

=P

P)

as, diices.
:

3.

TRIBRACH 8 (^

ww =ff

f)

as, htimtnts.

1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem that the original form of Indo-European poetry was iambic in its structure, or at least accented the second syllable rather than the first.

2 8

Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to I. Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee o*

Iambus.

404
b.

Prosody: Rhythm.

356.

DOUBLE OR EQUAL MEASURES

(f).

1.

DACTYL

(+.

w w= w
__

PP)
f)
:

as, consults.

2.

ANAPAEST (w

= PP

as,

monitos.

3.

SPONDEE

(_

=P

P)

as,

r^r.

c.

SIX-TIMED MEASURES
(
\j

(f).
:

1.

IONIC a maiore
IONIC # minore

w
=

f f f f) f f f f) f)

as, confec$rat.

2.

(w w

as, retulissent.

3.

CHORIAMBUS

(_ w w

_ = f PP

as, contulerant.

d.
1.

1 QUINARY OR HEMioLic MEASURES

(f).

CRETIC
PiEOKprfmtts

(_

\j

=f

f f)

as, consults.
as, cons&ttb&s*

2.

(_ w w w = f f f

i*)

3.

P.EON quartus (w

w w

= fff

f)
:

as, r/r^rf.

4.

BACCHIUS
Several

(w

=f

f f)

as,

dmicos.

are mentioned by the grammarians, w), Proceleusmatic (^ \j \j w ), the 2d and 3d Pceon, having a long syllable in the 2d and 3d places, with three short ones 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus^ having a short syllable in the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th places, with three long ones. None of them, however, are needed to explain rhythmically all the forms of ancient
e.

compound measures
(

viz.,

Antibacchlus

verse.
/. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy the in the measure, but may be contracted or prolonged to suit

same time

the series in which they occur. They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have integral ratios. Such are :

IRRATIONAL SPONDEE
CYCLIC DACTYL:

_>

= -ww =

^
Js
3

^ (or nearly N

M.

Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of

i to 1$,

or of 3 to

2.

356, 357.]

Measures.
:

405
reversed.

CYCLIC ANAPAEST

IRRATIONAL TROCHEE:
NOTE. and
\

= the same > = J N

.

verse,

assuming
3, 8*

Of feet and combinations of feet (sometimes extending to an entire controlled by a single leading accent), the following are recognized, to be the unit of musical time:
4^ 8*
r,^

8*

G^ 8*

O
f

!Of 8*

12 ? 8*

16^

8*

lG 8*
f

18f 8*

2O^

26.

8*

8*

Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or Chant, with instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It which in this differs widely from must be borne in mind that in ancient music the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm oi the text. modern The lyric poetry was to be sung; the poet was musician and composer, as well as " author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to sing."

Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the Verse gives us the exact time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied " according to certain laws of so-called Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the
relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance,

though the words should be distinguished

not scan, but read metrically.

carefully,

and the sense preserved.

Do

357. In many cases measures

of the

same time may be

substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long
one.

In the former case the measure

in the latter, to
a.

is
:

said to

be contracted;

be

resolved.
)

Thus

Spondee

( )
;

may

take the place of a dactyl (__

w w)

or an

anapaest

and a Tribrach (^ ^ w) may take the place of a The optional substitution of Trochee ( \J) or an Iambus (^ ). one long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign <so. b. Another form of dactyl when substituted for a trochee is repre-

(^

sented thus,

\3^>>

A
c.

spondee, similarly substituted

for

a trochee,

is

represented

thus, __

>
a long syllable having the Ictus ( 358. a) is resolved, the belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but for
is

When

ictus properly

convenience the mark of accent

ndnc experiar
J

placed on the
cor
acr*'

first

as,

situ' acetu

tibi

in

pectore.

auh. 405.

406
2.

Prosody: Rhythm.

35a

The Musical Accent.

358. That part

of the

of voice (the musical accent) 'is called the unaccented part is called the ARSis. 1
upon the Thesis thus: marked jL w (deaf). b. The ending of a word within a measure
a.

measure which receives the THESIS

stress
;

the

The

stress of voice laid

is

called the ICTUS

It is

is

called

CESURA.

When

this coincides

with a rhetorical pause,

it is

called the Caesura of

the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm. c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure in

Prosody
1

is

called

DLERESIS.

\he putting down (fleVts, from riOri/LLi) of the foot march or dance ("downward beat"), and the Arsis, the raising (apvis, from aet/xw) of the foot ("upward beat "). By the Latin grammarians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and beginning of a meas-

The Thesis signifies properly,

in beating time, in the

ure.

By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accordance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This

metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept
in

mind.

The

definition

error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic which was true only of iambic or anapaestic

and

dactylic verse

359.1

The

Verse.

407

CHAPTER

III.
1.

Versification.

The Verse.
that
is
is,

359.

single line of poetry

a series of meas-

ures set in a
NOTE.

recognized order

called a

VERSE. l

stichs),

Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemibut the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic verse by the Diaeresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Ccesura.
a.

A
is,

that
is

having a pause to

verse lacking a syllable at the end fill the measure;

is

is

called

CATALECTIC,

when

the end syllable

not lacking, the verse

b.

called

ACATALECTIC, and has no such

appropriate measures, according to scanning or scansion

pause.

To

divide the verse into

its

the rules of quantity

and

versification, is called

(scansio, from scando, a climbing or advance by steps).

REMARK. In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done in scanning.
c.

In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless

interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called ELISION (bruising). 2

an

In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. however, they should be sounded lightly.

Strictly,

REMARK.

Elision

is

sometimes called by the Greek name Synaloepha

(smearing) . Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse a vowel: this is called Synapheia (binding).

when

the next verse begins with

1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or proversus), which means straight ahead. 2 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is some-

times adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: as,

T inveigle and invite

:

th*

unwary

sense.

Comus

538.
letter

In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this a consonant (cf. $ 13. b) as,
scnid coniectu1 quiescit.

even before

Ennius (C. M.

14).

408
d.

Prosody :

Versification.

359-62.

A final -m,

ner

when

the next

with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manword begins with a vowel or h: 1 this is called
:

ECTHLIPSIS (squeezing out)

as,

monstr*** horrendw**, inform', ingens, cui 15men ademptum.

sEn.
Final

iii.

658.

has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before the initial vowel of the following word was easy.
(plural) are
is

-m

The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui never elided ; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision often evaded by skilful collocation of words.
e.

REMARK.

Elision

is

a special emphasis, or
called

sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has is succeeded by a pause. This omission is
in such cases.

HIATUS (gaping). The final vowel is sometimes shortened

f.

A final syllable,
:

pause

9 it is

regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a then said to be long by Diastole: as,

nostr5r* g.

obruimur,

oriturque miserrima caedes.

The

last syllable

of any verse

may be

indifferently long or short

(syllaba anceps).
its dominant or fundamental measure as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapcestic ; and from the number of measures (single or

360.

A verse
which

receives
:

FORMS OF VERSE. its name from

double)

it

contains

as,

Hexameter,

Tetrameter,

Trimeter, Dimeter. REMARK. Trochaic,

single feet, but

by

pairs (dipodia), so that six

Iambic, and Anapsestic verses are measured not by Iambi make a Trimeters

361. Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of verses ranged in a fixed order. Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet as,
:

Sapphic (from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian (from Archilochus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.
1.

Dactylic Hexameter.
Verse, consists
:

362. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic

It may be represented thus theoretically of six dactyls. 1 Hence a final its vowel, syllable in -m is said to have no quantity of itt own in any case, being either elided or else made long by Position.
2 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity.

362.]

Dactylic Hexameter.

409

or in musical notation as follows

irtfirt; ricrircrircr
For any one of the feet, except the stituted, and must be for the last.
a.
fifth,

a spondee

may he

sub-

fifth place ; the verse is then called the verse ends with incrementum. 49 spondaic. In reality the last foot is a trochee standing for a dactyl, but the final NOTK. syllable is not measured, and the foot is usually said to be a spondee.

Rarely a spondee

is

found in the
iv.

Thus

in Eel.

b.

The hexameter has always one principal

c&siira

sometimes

two

almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense.

The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis'} of the tJiird foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense
and rhythm.
It

may

also

fourth foot.
parte fe

be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the In this case there is often another caesura in the second
ar
|

foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts: as,

j

rox

clensqu* ocu

Us

||

et
|

sibila

colla.
|

j3Ln. v. 277.

Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is the break in the sense. caesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the caesura may also be found in any foot fifth foot of the 3d and 4th verses in c). of the verse, but a proper ccesural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth. When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes

REMARK.

improperly called bucolic ccssura, from

C.

its

frequency in pastoral poetry.

introductory verses of the yneid, divided according to the will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each rules, foregoing verse is marked by double lines
:

The

Arma vi|rumque cajno

|

oris Tro|iae qui primus ab Itall|am fa (to profu|gus Lajvimaque vemt mult">* ill* et ter|ris alto litora, iac|tatus et
||
|

||

||

supe|rum saejvae memo|rem lujnoms ob Tram; conclcret multa quojqu' et bel|lo pas|sus dum urbem, umle La|tinum, genus infer] retque de|5s Lati|o, Roinae. Albajnique pa|tres, H at|qu* altae moenia
vi
||
|

||

[|

The feminine

ccesura

is

Dis gem|ti potu|ere: H NOTE. The Hexameter

sEn.\\. 131. thus illustrated in English verse: " Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward, Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired ./Ethiop people, Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver, for they know not the lords of Olympus, Skilful, but feeble of heart
|

seen in the following silvae. te|nent medil^ omma

:

is

4IO
;

Prosody:

Versification.

[362,363.

Lovers of men neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athene^ Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo, Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water."
;

Kingslcy's
2.

Andromeda

Elegiac Stanza.

363. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two lines, an hexameter followed by a pentameter. 1 The Pentameter verse is the same as the hexameter, except that it omits the last half of the third foot and
of the sixth foot.

Thus,

ri;
a.

r
is

rtrlrcrl

thus to be scanned as two half-verses* the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single
verse
syllable.
b. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura but the first half-verse must always end with a word, which is followed by a pause to complete
;

The Pentameter

the measure. 2
c.

The
:

following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac

subit
noctis ijmago urbe fu|it, tempus in tot mihi cara re|liqui, nunc quoque gutta me|is.
|

Stanza

cum cum

illi[us trls|tissima
|

qua mlhi
|

suprejmum
|

A
H

II

repejto noc|tem qua ex ocujlis /\ labitur

(

iam prope
finlbus

lux adejrat
J

qua
J\
||

me

dis|cedere| Caesar
(

extre|mae

iusserat

Ausoni|ae. OVID, Trist.

i.

3.

Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of composiand was especially a favorite of the tions, epistolary, amatory, and mournful, poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English verse, imitated. from the German
:

NOTE.

The

"

In the Hex|ameter In the Pen|tameter

rises the

fountain's
|

silvery
|

column;

aye

||

falling in

melody

back."
five

feet

Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows
: II

ww
W

ww
W

II

\j \j

Iww
W
1

II

The

time of this pause, however,

may be
li

filled

by the protraction of the

I

pre-

ceding

syllable, thus-

_W

_W

L-J

W W

364, 365.]
3.

Iambic Trimct
Other Dactylic Verses.

41

;5G4.

Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasion:

Thus ally used by the lyric poets. a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the Akmanian Strophe, as follows
:

the hexameter, forming

O
mccum
|

for|tes pe|ioraque pass!, nunc vino pellite curas; saepe vi|ri eras in gens itelrabimus aequor. HOK. Od. i. 7 (so 28; Ep. 12).
|

||

NOTE.
f, note).

This verse

is

a single measure,

its

time being represented by

-l

($ 356.

b.

The

Dactylic
It is

Penthemim

tameter verse.

(five half-feet) consists of half a penused in combination with the Hexameter to form
:

the First Archilochian Strophe

diffulgere

as,
| |

m|ves

redejunt iam gramma arbori busque co mae

||
|
|

campis,

mutat

terra vi|ces

||

et
|

flumina

decres|centia ripas HOR. Od. praetere unt.

|
|
|

iv. 7.

[For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian Heptameter, alternating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see $ 372. n.]
4.

Iambic Trimeter.

is the ordinary verse of It consists of three measures, each dramatic dialogue. Thus, containing a double iambus (iambic dipody}.

365. The Iambic Trimeter

^
It is

\j

1^;
:

\j

1^

seen in the following

iam \am
effica ci
|

do manus
|

scientiae

supplex et 6|ro regna per

per et Dia|nae non

Proserpinae,

movenjda numina,
|

per atque li|bros carminum valentmm dcfixa cae|16 devoca|re sidera,

Cani(l;a par|ce vocilms tandem sacris, citumque rejtro retro sol|ve turbinem.
|

HOR. Epod.

17.

The last two lines may be movement in English

:

thus translated, to show the

"

Oh stay, 'anidia, stay thy rights of sorcery, Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel
!

"
fly!

a.

The Iambic Trimeter

is

often

used in

lyric poetry, alternating

:

with the Dimeter to form the Iambic Strophe, as follows

412
beatus

Prosody :
il|le

Versification.
negotns, mortalium,
J

365.

qui procul
|

ut prisca gens
solutus

paterna ru|ra bubus ex|ercet suis,

om|m

fen ore;
|

nequ* excita|tur classico miles nequ* horret ijratura mare.

truci,

HOR. Epod.

2.

b. In the Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee (> ) or its equivor an apparent dactyl alent (a cyclic anapaest ( 356./)) Trimay be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody. brach ( (j ) may stand for an Iambus anywhere except in the last

w w

>ww

place.

In the comic poets any of these substitutions

foot except the last
:

may be made
!

in

any

as,
|

lucis al

me

rector
|

]|

et
[ ||

caeli decus
|

qu* alterna cur ru spatia

illdstre lae|tis H exseris
|

flam mifer^. ambiens, terns caput.

SENECA, Here. Fur. 592-94.

quid quaeris? anjnos
II

sexaginlta natus

es.

TERENCE, Heaut.

62,

homo sw huma ni vel me mone|r<? hoc

:
|

II

nz'hfl

a m?

all
I

endm

puto.

11

vel perconjtai! puta.

Heaut. 77, 78.

c.

The CHOLIAMBIC (lame Iambic)

as,
ii

substitutes a trochee for the last

iambus:

^.

_ _
\j est

^.

_w_

w _ L_I _ AH
cdm
scribit:
s-?

aeque

beajtus ac poe|ma
|

tarn gatidet in

se,

tdmque

ip|se miratur.

CATULL.
d.

xxii. 15, 16.

:

The Iambic Trimeter

Catalectic

is

represented as follows

It is

used in combination with other measures (see

in the following
:

372. u),

and

is

shown

Vulcanus arjdens or in English

:

urit of|ficinas.

HOR. Od.

i.

4.

"On
NOTE.

purple peaks a deeper shade descending."

Scott.

regarded, metrically, as "a single foot" time being represented by }/), consisting of three dipodies, and having its (its on the second syllable of the verse, though this is a principal accent, probably, matter of dispute. The spondee in this verse, being a substitute for an iambus, is irrational, and must be shortened to fit the measure of the iambus (represented

The Iambic Trimeter may be

366, 367.]

Other Inmbie Mnisnres.

5.

413

Other Iambic Measures.

of
:

3OO. Other forms

a.
sists

Iambic verse arc the following The Iambic TKTKAMKIKK Catalectic (Septtnarius). This confeet,

of seven iambic
It is

with the same substitutions as in Iambic

:

Trimeter.

used in

lively dialogue
|

as,

r\am idcfrc* arcesjsor, nuptias

quod m*
)

quibus quidem

quam

faci|le potuerat

quiesci

aclparajri sensit. s* hie quiesset!

|

TER. Andria, 690, 691.

The rhythm of the Iambic Septenarius may be thus represented according to our musical notation (see p. 403, foot-note i)
:
II

\j

_w

jL\j

\j

\j

__ A

II

Its

movement is like the following: " In go6d king Charles's golden days, when loyalty no harm meant," etc. Vicar of Bray.

b.

The Iambic Tetrameter

full

of eight meter.

Acatalectic (Octdnarius). This consists iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Tri-

It is also-

used in lively dialogue

fact" aut

as,

hocinest

huma|num
|

quid fllud est? pro

mjceptw? hocmest of[f!cidm patns? deum fidem, quid est, s* hoc non con|tumellast?
|

Andria, 236, 237.

c.

The Iambic DIMETER.

This

may be

either acatalectic or cata-

lectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It used in combination with some longer verse (see 365. a). 2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet It is used only in choruses as, is
:

quonam cruen ta Maenas, praece"ps amo re saevo,

| |

rapitdr

quod im potent!
|

facmus parat
6.

furore?

SEN. Medea, 850-853.

Trochaic Verse.

367. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter catalcctic (Scptcndrius), consisting of four It is repredipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable.
sented metrically thus,

414

Prosody:

Versification.

367,

36a

linw_>l.w_>ll.^_>|rl w- All
or in musical notation,

ad

tz

advenio, spem, salutem,

:

II

consili*

atixili* expetens.

TER.

An Jr.

ii.

18.

In English verse
" Tell

me

not in mournful numbers

life is

but an empty dream."

Longfellow.

resolutions can be substituted only in the even places except in comic poetry, which allows the substitution in any foot but the last : as,
a.
its
;

The spondee and

itid**

sura, pes, sta tura, tonsus,

|

tarn consimilist habet peta(s** ac vestitum: vel labra, oculi, nasum,

J
|

atqu* ego.

malae, mentum,
si

barba, collus;
|

totus! quid ver bis opust ?

|

tergum

ci
|

catricosum,

mhil hoc

similist
|

similius.

PLAUT. Amphitr. 443-446.

b.

Some

in combination with other feet, either as

as,

other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, whole lines or parts of lines :
ne|qu<? atfreum.
in

non ebur

mea remjdet

domojla cunar.

[Dimeter Catalectic.] [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic.]

HOR. Od.
7.

ii.

1 8.

Mixed Measures.
combined
is

NOTE.
ways.

simply joined to a series of another kind (compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music) or (2) single feet of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational
;

Different measures may be Either (i) a series of one kind

in the

same verse

in

two

different

(see

356, Note).

enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a change of rhythm when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.
;

When

368. The following verses, combining different rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry i. GREATER ARCHILOCHIAN (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic
:

Tripody)
solvitur

II

_ oo| _ ool_c?o| _ oo _
II |

\j

_w _>
I

II

acris hi
|

ems gra|ta

vice

||

veris

et
|

Fa|voni.

HOR. Od.

i.

4.

It is possible NOTE. seems more probable.

that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of

measure

368-70.]
2.

Logaccdic

Verse.

4*5

thorn m

Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic PenIambic Dimeter

>

II

_ ww _ w w _
I | |

II

_w_

_w_
id.

II

scrlbere

versicujlos
8.

II

amore per|culsum

iuvat.

Ep.

II.

Logacedic Verse.

positions, irrational

369. Trochaic verses containing in regular prescribed measures or irrational feet, are called
1.

LOGACEDIC.
2.
3.

principal logaoedic forms are Logaoedic Tetrapody (fottrfeet) GLYCONIC. Logaoedic Tripody (three feet) 5 PHERECRATIC.
: :

The

Logacedic Dipody (two feet)

Irrational

this

may be regarded

as a short

Pherecratic.

measures are those in which the syllables do not correspond normal ratio of length (see 355) Such are the Irrational Spondee and the Cyclic DactyL This mixture of various ratios of length gives an effect approachThese measures ing that of prose hence the name Logaoedic (Atfyos, doiSr?) originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the

NOTE.

strictly to the

Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above viz., LogaoeThe so-called dic systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. Logaoedic Pentapody consists of five feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two
:

of the others.

370. Each logaoedic form contains a single dactyl, 1 which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic. Thus,
Glyconic.

Pherecratic.

Hi.

_w
_

|_wl-^/w|_(w)ll-^w|_(w)ll
I

The shorter Pherecratic (dipody), if catalectic, appears to be a simple NOTE. Choriambus ( \j w A) and, in general, the effect of the logacedic forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of CHORIAMBIC. But

they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin.

They may be read (scanned),

them as
logacedic measures;

and the most approved opinion on the

1

therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read that course is followed here, in accordance with subject.

Different

Greek poets adopted

fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyjs.

and so a
tated by

large number of verses arose, each following the Romans as distinct metres.

strict law,

which were imi-

41 6

Prosody :

Versification.

371.

371. The verses constructed upon the several Logacedic

forms or models are the following
I.
:

GLYCONIC (Second

Glyconic, catalectic)

Romae
In English
:

prmcipis

urbilum.

" Forms more

real than living

man."

Shelley.
is

In this and most of the succeeding forms the first foot irrational in Horace, consisting of an apparent spondee ( >).

NOTE.

always

2.

ARISTOPHANIC (First Pherecratic)

temperat

ora

frenis.

Hor.

NOTE.

It is

very likely that this was

made

equal in time to the preceding by

protracting the last two syllables: thus,

3.

ADONIC

(First Pherecratic, shortened)

rr^rrMJf
Terruit
|

urbem.

Hor.

Or perhaps

"-'- Ai

r3cir
:

4.

PHERECRATIC (Second Pherecratic)

eras donaberis haedo.

5.

Hor.
Pherecratic, both cata-

LESSER ASCLEPIADIC (Second and First

lectic):

Maecenas
6.

atavis edite regibds.

Hor.

GREATER ASCLEPIADIC
:

(the same, with a Logacedic

Dipody

inter-

posed)

tu
7.

ne quaesiens

scire nefas

que"m mihi quern

tibi.

Hor.

LESSER SAPPHIC (Loga&dic Pentapody, with

:

dactyl in the third

place)

l!_w|_>l-^w!_wli_|wAH
integer vitae scelerfsque purus.

Hor

371, 372.]

Metres of Horace.

Or

in

English:
" Brilliant hopes,
all

woven

in

gorgeous tissues."
l-'irst
I

Longfellow.

8.

GREATER SAPPHIC (Third Glyconic-,

t

Phcrecratic)-.

||_W|_>|-V^W|L_||--^W|_ w
dcos oro Sybarin
H cfir

L_

wAU
two
tro-

propcras amandS.

Hor.
dactyls,

9.

LESSER ALCAIC (Logacedic Tetrapody* two

:
11

chees)

\j \j

ww

\j

II

vfrginibds puertsque canto.

Hor.

In English (nearly) " lUossom by blossom the Spring begins."

:

Atalanta in Calydon.

10.

GREATER ALCAIC
and dactyl
iust

(Logacedic Pentapody, catalectic, with Ana-

crusis,

in the third place,

compare Lesser Sapphic}

Hor.

llw:__w|__>l-^wl_w)wAH
e*t

tenacem propositf virdm.

NOTE.

Only the above Logacedic forms are employed by Horace.

n. PHALJECIAN
place)
:

(Logacedic Pentapody t with dactyl in the second

ll^>l-^wl__wl_w li_l_ All

quaenam
te

agit praecipit^w fn

mala mens, miselli Raw/di, meos iambos? Catull.

xl.

In English
"
12.

Gorgeous flowerets

in the sunlight shining."

Longfellow.
:

GLYCONIC PHERECRATIC (Metrum Satyricuni)

D Colonia quae cupi's

9.

||

ponte ludere longo.

Catull. xvii.

Metres of Horace.
varieties of

372. The Odes of Horace include nineteen

stanza
i.
;

these are

ALCAIC, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) l : as,

iust* et tenacem propositl virtira non cfvi* ardor prava iubentidm non vdltus tnstantis tyranni
mente
quatit solida

nequ' Adster.
37;

Od.
ii.

in. 3.

(Found

in Od.

i.

9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35,

iii.

i, 3, 5, 7, 9, iv. 4, 9,

u,

13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20;

1

i, 2, 3,

4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26,

list

29;

14, 13.)

The

figures refer to the foregoing

($ 371).

4i 8
NOTE.

Prosody:
The

Versification.

'j$

372.

1 thirty-seven are in this form.

Alcaic Strophe was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes It is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza. The
;

verses were formerly described as, i, 2. spondee, bacchius, two dactyls bacchius, two trochees ; 4. two dactyls, two trochees.

3.

spondee,

2. SAPPHIC (minor) 9 consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and v one Adonic (3) : as,

iam

satis terns nivis atque dirae gran dim's misit pater et rubente dextera sacras iaculatus arces terruit drbem. Od. i. 2.

(Found
iii.

in
1

Od.
8,

i.

2,

10,

12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38;

iv. 2, 6,

ii.

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16;

8,

n,

14,

co, 22, 27;

n.

Carm. Sac?)

The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, NOTE. and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five more frequently than any other except the Alcaic. The Lesser Sapphic Odes verse was formerly described as consisting of a Choriambus preceded by a trochaic dipody and followed by a bacchius.
3.

SAPPHIC

(major'), consisting of
:

one Aristophanic (2) and one

Greater Sapphic (8)

te

as,

Lydia dfc, per o'mnes deos oro, Sybarm cur properas amando.
I.

Od.

i.

8.

4.

(5)

ASCLEPIADEAN as,-

(tntnor), consisting

of

Lesser Asclepiadics

acre perennids exegt monument" regaltque situ pyramid*"* altids.

Od.

iii.

30.

(Found
5.

in

Od.

i.

iii.

30;

iv. 8.)

ASCLEPIADEAN

II.,
:

consisting of

one Glyconic (i) and one

Lesser Asclepiadic (5)

as,

Navis quae tibi creditdm f inibus Atticfs debes Virgilidm, reddas incolumem, precor, dimididm meae. et serves animae

Od.
28;

i.

3.

(Found

in Od.

i.

3, 13, 19,

36;

iii.

9, 15, 19, 24, 25,

iv. i, 3.)

6. ASCLEPIADEAN and one Glyconic (i)

III.,
:

consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5)

as,
sit

Quis deaderio
cantus,

pudor adt modds

praecipe lugubres

tarn cart capitis ?

cui liquidam pate"r Melpomene, vocem cdm cythara dedit. Od. i. 24.
i.

(Found

in

Od.
1

6, 15, 24,

33;

ii.

12;

iii.

10, 16;

iv. 5, 12.)

See the Index below (pp. 420, 421).

372.]
7.

Metres of Horace.

419

ASCLEPIADEAN

IV., consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5),

:

one rhergcratic (4), and one Glyconic (i)

as,

fdns Uaiulusiac splendidior vitro, ddlci dignc Micro, non sine floribds,
eras donSberis hae*d5
cui frons tdrgida cornibds.

Od.
iii.

iii.

13.
iv.

(Found
8.

in

Od.

i.

5, 14, 21,

23;

ii.

7;

7, 13;

13.)

ASCLEPIADEAN V. (major)

consisting of Greater Asclepiadics

(6):

as,td

ne quaesiens ffnem df dedennt tcntarfs numeros.

scire nefas

Ledconoe
Od.
in
i.

quern mihi, que*m nee Babylonios

tibl

n.
i.

(Found
9.

Od.

II, 18;

iv.

10.)

with Tetrameter

ALCMANIAN, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter ( 362) alternating ( 364. a}. (Od. i. 7, 28; Epod. 12.) 10. ARCHILOCHIAN I., consisting of Dactylic Hexameter alternatPenthemim, see
364.
).
iv. 7.)

ing with Trimeter Catalectic (Dactylic

(Od.
ir.

ARCHILOCHIAN
368.

IV.,
i),

(heptaineter^
(

Archilochian consisting of a Greater followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic

Veris et Favom,
adt arator igni,

S^S' ^)-

The

stanza consists of two pairs of verses: as?

solvitur acris

hiems grata vice

||

trahdntque siccas machinae carfnas;

ac neque iam stabulis gaudet pecus, nee prata canis albicant prufnis.
12.
13.
||

Od.

i.

4.

14.

Iambic Trimeter alone (see 365). (Ep. 17.) Iambic Strophe (see 365. a). (Ep. i-io.) Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter
nox
erat, et caelo fulgebat

as,

luna sereno
laesura deorum,

inter

minora

sfdera,

cum
in

lu,

magnorum numen

verba iurabas mea.

Epod.

15.

(So in Ep.
(

14.)

15.

Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter

altera

365); as,

iam

teritur bellfs civtlibus actas,

sufs et ipsa

Roma

viribus ruit.

Epod. 16.

16.

Verse of Four Lesser Ionics

mise>rar>
uiala vino
|

as,
|
|

cst

nequ<f amori dare ludum neque dulci luver^ aut c\|animari mctucnles. Od. iii. 12.
|
I

42O

Prosody:
(

Versification.
Dactylic

372.

17. Iambic Trimeter Iambic Dimeter as,

:

365)

Penthemim

364. U)

Pect! nihil

me

sfcut antea iuvat

scribere versiculos

amore perculsdm

gravi.

Epod. n.
Dactylic

18. Dactylic
(

Hexameter;

Iambic Dimeter;

Penthemim

364. 6)

as,

horrida tempestas caeldm contraxit, et imbres nivesque deducdnt lovem ndnc mare, ndnc siliiae.
:

Epod.
19.

3.

Trochaic Dimeter,

Iambic Trimeter, each

catalectic

(see

367. b}.

INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE.

LIB.
1. I.

Maecenas

atavis
:

4.

2.

lam

satis terris
:

2.

3. 4.
5. 6.

Sic te diva

5.

Solvitur acris hiems: ii.

Vile potabis : 2. tenerae: 7. 22. Integer vitae : 2. Vitas hinnuleo 23. 7.

20.
21.

Dianam

Quis multa : 7. Scriberis Vario

24.
:

Quis desiderio

6.
:

6. 9.

7.
8.

Laudabunt

alii

25. 26. 27. 28.

:

Parcius iunctas

2.

Musis amicus
Natis in

i.
:

9.

10.
11.

12.
13.

Lydia die : 3. Videsutalta: I. Mercuri facunde nepos Tu ne quaesieris 8. Quern virum: 2.

:

usum

i.

2.

maris: 9. 29. Iccibeatis: I.

Te

30. 31.

O Venus: 2. Quid dedicatum:

:

I.

Cum

tu Lydia: 5.
:

14.
15.
16. 17.

O navis
Pastor

7.

cum

traheret
i.
:

6.

Pescimur: 2. 33. Albi ne doleas 34. Parcus deorum

32.

6.
:

I.

matre pulcra : Velox amoenum

I.

diva: 36. Et thure

35.
37. 38.

i.
:

5.

18. 19.

Nullam Vare Mater saeva

8.

Nunc

est

bibendum:
:

i.

5.

Persicos odi

a.

LIB.
1.

II.

Motum

ex Metello :
:

i.

n. Quid
12.

bellicosus
:

i.

2.

Nullus argento

2.

Nolis longa
Ille et

6.
:

3.
4. 5.
6.

Aequam memento: I. Ne sit ancillae 2. Nondum subacta: i.

:

13.

nefasto

I.

14.
15. 16. 17.

7.
8.

9.

10.

Septimi Gades: 2. O saepe mecum : I. Ulla si iuris 2. Non semper imbres Rectius vives: 2.
:

Eheu fugaces i. lampauca: i. Otium divos: I. Cur me querelis

:

i.

18.
:

Non

ebur

19.

I.

19.

Bacchum

in remotis: x,
i.

20.

Nonusitata:

372, 373.]

Index

to

Metres of Horace.
Li I!. III.

421

1. 2.

Odi profanum Angustam anr

lustum
1
'

I.

16. 17.
I.

Inclusam Danae'n

6.

Adi

vctust'*: i.
:

3.
.}.

ct tfii; icom:
>:
:

18. 19.

I.
I.

Faune nympharum Quantum distrt: 5.

2.

5.

Caelo tDnantem
Delicta

20. 21. 22.

Non

6.

maiorum:
:

I.

vides: 2. nata mecum

i.

7.
8.

Quid

fles

7.
:

Montium

custos: 2.
:

Miirtiis caelebs

2.

23. 24. 25. 26.

27.

Caelo supinas

i.

gratus : 5. 10. K\tn.'inum Tanain: 6.

9. 11.

Donee

Intactis opulentior: 5.

Quo me Bacche
Vixi puellis:
:

5.

Mcrcuri

nam

te: 2.

I.

12. 13.
14.

Miscrarum

est: 16.

fons Bandusiae: 7.
:

28.
29.

Impios parrae: Festo quid 5.

2.

Ilerculis ritu

2.
:

15.

Uxor pauperis

5.

30.

Tyrrhena regum i. Exegi monumentura

:

4.

LIB. IV.
1. 2.

Intermissa Venus : 5. Pindaruni quisquis: 2.

9.

Ne

forte credas

i.
:

10.
5.

crudelis

adhuc
:

8.
2.
:

3.

4.
5.
6.

Quern tu Melpomene Qualem ministrum i. Divis orte bonus 6. Dive quern proles 2.
:

11. 12.
13.

Est mihi

nonum

lam

veris comites

6.

14.
15.

7.
8.

Diffugere nives

10.
:

Donarem

pateras

4.

Audivere Lyce: 7. Qua cura patrum: i. Phoebus volentem : i. Carmen Saecularc : 2.

EPODES.
1.

Ibis Liburnis

13.

10.
11.

Mala
Quid

soluta: 13.
tibi vis: 9.

2. 3.

Beat us

ille

13.
:

Pectinihil: 17.

Parentis olim

13.

12. 13.

4.
5.

6.

Lupis et agnis : 13. At O deorum : 13. Quid immerentes :

Horrida tempestas:
Mollis inertia : 14.

18.

14. 13. 15. 16.

17.

Noxerat:
Altera iam

14.
:

7.
8. 9.

Quo quo

scelesti
:

13.

Rogare longo 13. Quando repostum

Iam iam

15. efficaci

12.

13.

373. Other

lyric poets

use other combinations of the

above-mentioned verses.
a. Glyconics with

Thus,
:

one Pherecratic (both imperfect)

Diajnae sumus
|

as,

in fide
|

puel \ae et puer* Dial nam, puer*

|

integri

integri
| |

puel laeque ca na mus.

CATULL.

34.
as,

b. Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with

an Adonic:

nialgis dilri tremujere Hercu|l"? et vi|sum cauis

An

Manes
J

infe[rorum

422
fugit

Prosody
I

Versification.

373, 374.

abrupltis trepildus caltenis? ecce fallilmur: lae|tevenlt vultu,

|
|

tela Poe|as; hume| risque et no|tas popu|lis phajretras gestat Herculis heres. SEN. Here. (Et.

quern

tu|lit
|

1 600-6.

c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number Fur. 830-874, 875-894).

(id.

Here.

10. Miscellaneous.

374. Other measures occur

viz.,
a.

in various styles of poetry

ANAPAESTIC verses of various lengths are

:

found

in

dramatic

The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic poetry. for the anapaest as,

hie
|
| | |

may be

substituted

homost omni^^ homi|num prae|cipuos volupta tibus gau dnsqu* an tepotens.

ita

com moda quae

|

cupi^ e veniunt,
|

quod ago subit, ad secue ita gau d/um sup peditat.

| |
| |

sequitur

PLAUT. Trin.

115-19.

BACCHIAC verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, very either in verses of rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus,
b.

two

feet

freely, as are all

(Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be
multas res
simit
in

resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted: as,

|
|

me5

cor de vorso,
|

mult*
egomet

dolor* in colgitando in|dipiscor me cog^ et majcer^ et deifatigo;

|
|

magister

mih* exer

citor ani

mus nunc est. PLAUT. Trin. 223-226.

|

c.

CRETIC measures occur

in the

same manner
ne fuas
|

as the Bacchiac, with

:

the same substitutions.

The
|

last foot is usually

J
|

incomplete

as,

amor ami cus mihi

his ego
nil eg" is tos
I |

unquam.
|

d* artibus
|

moror

faeceos

facio. gratiam id. 267, 293, 297. mores.

1

d.

SATURNIAN VERSE.

In early Latin

is

found a rude form of verse,

not borrowed from the Greek like the others. The rhythm is Iambic Tetrameter (or Trochaic with Anacrusis), but the Arsis is often syncopated, especially in the middle and at the end of the verse
:

as,

dabdnt

malum

Metellli

1|

Naevijo po|etae.

375.]

Early Prosody.
11.

423

Early Prosody.
differs in several

375. The prosody of the earlier poets 1 respects from that of the later.
a.

not

At the end of words a was only feebly sounded, so that it does make position with a following consonant, and is sometimes cut off
This usage continued in
all

before a vowel.
(

poets

till

Cicero's time

347- ')
b.

The

last syllable

if

the

first is

short.
;

(This
cf.

of any word of two syllables may be made short effect remained in a few words like puts,
348.)

cavg, valg, vidg

Sbest (Cist.
ii.

Thus,

12); Spud {Trin. 196); soror dictast (Enn. 157^); bonas {Stick. 99); domi deaeque (Pseud. 37); dorm {Mil. 194).
I.

test

c. In the same way a long by a short monosyllable as,

:

syllable

may be shortened when preceded

ion);
si

id est profecto {Merc. 372); erit et tib* exoptatum {Mil. hercle {Asin. 414); quid est s* hoc {Andria, 237).
d.

quid"

In a few isolated words position

is

often disregarded. 2

Such are

Ille,

iste, Inde, ttnde, nenipe, gsse (?).

Thus,

ecquis his in aedibust {Bacch. 581).

in a

In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preceding it word of more than three syllables, as in sengctuti, Syracusae. f. At the beginning of a verse many syllables long by position stand
e.

for short

ones

as,
v. i. 18). is

idne tu {Psetid. 442); estne consimilis {Epid.

g.

The
:

original long quantity of

many
is

final syllables

retained.

Thus
1.

Final -a of the

first

declension
sit

often long: as,

n? epistula quid'"* ulla

2.

in aedibus {Asin. 762).

is
:

Final -a of the neuter plural

for it)
|

sometimes long (though there

ta
|

seems no etymological reason

ndnc
1

as,

et

amic5

prosperab^ et

genio

meo mul

bona faciam

{Pf>rs.

263).

Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence of accent (which was originally free in its position, but in Latin became limited to the penult and antepenult). This tendency was arrested by the study of

grammar and by litrraturo, but shows itself again in the Romance many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early
2 Scholars are not yet

languages.
poets.

In

agreed upon the principle or the extent of

this irregularity.

424
3.

Prosody:
The ending -or
dict
is

Versification.

375.

retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel

:

(original r-stems or original s-stems)

as,

modo quom
fta

in

m? ingerebas odium non uxor eram (Asin. 927).

m*

in pector' atque corde, facit

fuisti

atque quanto ndx

4.

am5r incendium (Merc. 500). 16ngior hac proxuma {Amph. 548).

is

The

termination -es (-Itis)

sometimes retained long, as

in

miles, superstes.
5.

vowel

All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the is elsewhere long in inflection as,
:

regredior audfsse

me {Capt. 1023); 248) ; me nominal haec {Epid. 42); infuscabat, amab5 (Cretics,
(TV^r. 11.4.79).

atqu' ut qui fueris et qui nunc (id.

iv.

Cist.

ut fit in bello capitur alter filius

1.8); facial ut semper {Poen. ii, i. 21); qui amet (Merc. 1021); {Capt. 25); tibi sit ad me revisas

h.

sense, or
1

The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially when there is a change of the speaker. 1
it

at a pause in the

The extent

state of texts

of this license is still a question among scholars must sometimes be allowed.

but in the present

MISCELLANEOUS.
1.

Reckoning

of Time.

designated, in earligr times, by the names of the Consuls but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (ad urbe condita, anno urbis condttae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period

NOTE.
;

The Roman Year was

corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754 : e.g. A.U.C. 691 = B.C. 63. (the year of Cicero's consulship) Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of

355 days: March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days; February having 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this Calendar year was too short

Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the Pontifices, a month of varying length (inensis intercalaris) after February 23, and " omitted the rest of February. The Julian year," by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month hence the year was called Bissextllis. The month Quintilis received the name lulius (July), in honor of Julius Caesar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.
for the solar year, the

inserted

376. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are

reckoned as follows
a.
:

The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends). Kalendae is derived from calare, to call, lhe Calends being the NOTE. day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata,
which they
did, originally,

from actual observation.

b. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, were the Idua (/des), the day of Full Moon.

On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the c. fifth of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths). d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month
were reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives
the following rule for determining the date
:

426
If the

Miscellaneous.

376.

given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall, and from the number thus ascertained subtract the

month preceding,
given date
:

thus,
viii.

Non. Mar. (8 4) = Mar. 4. iv.Td. Sept. (14-4) =Sept. 10.

iv.

Kal. Feb. (33

- 8) = Jan.

25.

For peculiar constructions

e.

in dates, see

The days of
January.

the

Roman month by

259. e. the Julian Calendar, as thus

:

ascertained, are given in the following Table

377-81.]

.lfe'<rsf//rs

of Value,

etc.

427

2.

Measures

of Value, etc.

of the Romans was in early times wholly of copwas the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces). actually somewhat less. In the third century B.C. the as was gradually reduced to one-half of its original value. In the same century silver coins were introduced, the Denarius and the Sestertius. The Denarius = 10 asses; the
per.

377. The money

The
unit

Sestertius

2>

asses.

378. The
was equivalent

Sestertius
far

as had been so

was probably introduced at a time when the reduced that the value of the new coin (2^ asses)

(usually abbreviated to IIS or

to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sestertius HS) came to be used as the unit of value,

and nummus,

coin, often means simply sestertius. As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces.

The

value of these coins

is

seen in the following table

2^
10

asses

sestertius or
sestertii
I

nummus
denarius

(HS), value nearly 5 cents.

asses or
sestertii

..."

"20
"

"

loco

sestertium

"

$50.00.

NOTE.
half.

third one, a half.

The word sestertius is a shortened form of semis-tertius, the The abbreviation IIS or HS = duo et semis, 2%, two and a

379. The SSstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of sestertius) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected = $150.00. regularly as a neuter noun : thus, tria sestertia

When sestertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centena mtUa, hundreds of thousands, is to be understood thus deciens sestertium
:

(deciens HS) $50,000. In the statement of large

sums sestertium

is

often omitted:

thus

scxagiens (Rose.

Am.

2) signifies, sexagiens \centSna mllia\ sestertium

(6,000,000 sesterces)

$300,000 (nearly).

380.
the

In the statement of sums of

money
600

in cipher, a line

above

number

indicates thousands; lines above

and
;

at the sides also,

hundred-thousands.
sestertii, or

Thus
;

HS. DC.

sestertii

HS.

DC = 600,000

600 sestertia

H.s. |DCJ

60,000,000 sestertii.

381. The Roman Measures

of Length are the following:

12 inches {unciae} = I Roman Foot (pes : 11.65 English inches). 2^ Feet- I Degree or Step (gradus). \Yi Feet- i Cubit (cttbiiitm).

5 Feet

Pace (fassus).

1000 Paces (milk fassuum)

Mile.

428

Miscellaneous.

381-84.

The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The lugerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman)
feet

long and 120 broad

little less

than

of an English acre.

382. The

Measures of Weight are

12 unciae (ounces)

= one pound
( T 2),
5

(libra,

about f

Ib.

avoirdupois).

Fractional parts (weight or coin) are

1.

( TV), uncia.

5.

quincunx.

9.

2. 3.

(|), sextans.

6.
7.

4.

(),quadrans. Q), /r;.

(), semissis. (J^, septunx.

(f), bessis.

10.

(f), dodrans. (f), dextans.

n. (^},deunx.
12. as.

8.

The Talent (talentum] was a Greek weight

(raXaj/rov)

= 60 librae.

383. The Measures

12 cyathi 1 6 sextarii=

of Capacity are
i
I

= =

sextarius (nearly a pint).

modius (peck).
congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).

sextarii

I
I

8 congii

amphora

(6 gallons).

384. The following are some

in Latin inscriptions
A., absolve, aniiqiio.
A. U.,

of the commonest abbreviations found

in editions of the classic authors.
P. C., patres conscript*.
pi., plebis.

and sometimes

anno

urbis.

A. U. C., ab urbe condita.

C., condemn!), comitialis.
cos.,

pont. max., pontifex

pop., populus.
P. R., populus
ipi. 9

maximus.

consul (cbnsule).

Rdmanus.

coss., consules (consulibus).

praetor.

D., dlvus.

proc., proconsul.
dedit.

D. D.,

dono

Q. B.

F.

F.

Q.

S.,

quod bonum

f'efix

D. D. D., dat, dicat, dedicat.

des., designates.

fausttimque

sif.

Quir., Quirites.
resp., respublica, responded
S.,

D. M.,
eq.

dit

manes.
<?^

Rom.,

Romanus.

salutem, sacrum, senatus.

senatus cbnsultum.
P.,

7.,filius,fastus. Ictus., iuriscbnsultus.

Id., Idus.

s. C.,

S.

D.

salutem

d'icit plurimam.

S. P.

Q. R., Senatus Populusque Ro-

imp., imperator. I. O. M., lovi optima

manus.

maxima.

s.

v. B. E. E. V., si vales bene

est,

ego

K., Kal., Kalendae.

N., nepos, nefastus.

valeo.
pi. tr.,

tribunus plebis.
R.), uti rogas.

N.

L.,

non

liquct.

U. (u.

GLOSSARY
OF TERMS USED
IN

GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY

NOTE. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were Thus when one says, " It gave me as, indeed, they were not. using figures at all
little pleasure," he is unconsciously using Litotes; when he says, "John went 4< the street, James down," Antithesis ; when he says, High as the sky," Hyperbole. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred

no up

Thus med and ted ($ 98. c} were supposed to owe their d to Paragoge, " " BflmpsI its p to Epenthesis. Such a sentence as See my coat, how well it fits was supposed to be an irregularity to be accounted for by Prolepsis. Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often occur and most of them have a historic interest, of one kind or another.
to.
!

385.
:

I.

GRAMMATICAL TERMS.

Anacoluthon a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the first part broken or unfinished.

Anastrophe : inversion of the usual order of words. Apodosis : the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis). Archaism : an adoption of old or obsolete forms. Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions ( 208. ). Barbarism : adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.
Brachylogy : brevity of expression. Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one ( 10. c). Ellipsis : omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense
(

177. note).

Enallage : substitution of one word or form for another. Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable ( \\. c).

Hellenism

use of Greek forms or constructions.

(fv 5ia SuoIV)
:

Hendiadys

the use of two nouns, with a conjunction,

instead of a single modified noun. Hypallage : interchange of constructions.

Hysteron proteron

a reversing of the natural order of ideas.

This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier ami so comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative ct
"

Bred and Born

in

a Brier Bush

"

(Uncle Remus).

43

Glossary.

Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word ( n. d). Paragoge : addition of a letter or letters to the end of a. word.
Parenthesis : insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution). Pleonasm : the use of needless words.

Polysyndeton

the use of an unnecessary

number of

copulative con-

word in the clause preceding the one where it would naturally appear {anticipation). Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis ( 304). Syncope : omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word

junctions. Prolepsis : the use of a

(!!.).
Synesis (constructid ad sensum) : agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form ( 182).

Tmesis : the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words (cutting).
This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from the verbs with which they were afterwards joined so in per ecastor scitua puer, a very fine boy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in Latin; as in cere- comminuit -bruin (Ennius).
;

Zeugma :

the use of a verb with two different words, to only one of

it

which

strictly applies

(yoking}.

386.

II.

RHETORICAL FIGURES.

Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. Alliteration : the use of several words that begin with the same sound.

Analogy: argument from resemblances. the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive : clauses ( 344. /). Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis 344). Antonomasia : use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse as,

Anaphora

sint

Maecenases non deerunt Flacce Marones,

so there be

patrons (like

Maecenas), poets (like Virgil) will not be lacking. ilia furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius);
scourge of

Homeromastix,

Homer

(i.e.

Zoilus).

Aposiopesis : an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. Catachresis: a harsh metaphor (abusid, misuse of words). Chiasmus : a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of

phrases

344. /).

Glossary.
i.r:

43 1

Kupli emism
si

a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. : 'he mild expulsion of a painful or repulsive ide.i:
ei acciderit, if anything

quid
:

happens

to

him

(i.e.

it

he

Euphony the choice of words for their agreeable sound. Hyperbaton : violation of the usual order of words.
Hyperbole : exaggeration for rhetorical effect. Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is meant.
Litotes: the affirming of a thing

by denying

its

contrary

209.

<:).

Metaphor: the

figurative use of words, indicating

an object by some

resemblance.

Metonymy :
thing.

the use of the

name

of one thing to indicate some kindred

Onomatopojia

fitting

of sound to sense in the use of words.

Oxymoron

the use of contradictory words in the

same phrase

as,

Insaniens sapientia, foolish wisdom.

Paronomasia : the use of words of

Prosopopoeia, personification. Synchysis: the interlocked order

like

sound.

344. h}.

Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse.

387.

III.

TERMS OF PROSODY.
(359.
a).

Acatalectic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet

breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures. Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse
Anaclasis
:

(355-)'
Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone
(cf. strophe). the unaccented part of a foot ( 358). Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse.
:

before

Arsis

Casura: the ending of a word within a metrical

catalectic (incomplete,

foot

358. b).
series

Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) 359. a).

making the

Contraction i the use of one long syllable for two short ( 357). Correption : shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons.
Diceresis: the coincidence of the

end of a

foot with the

end of a word

358- 0Dialysis: the use of

(

(consonant) and

as vowels (siliia

= silva

347. d. Rem.). Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable

by emphasis

359./).

432

Glossary.

Dimeter : consisting of two like measures Dipody ; consisting of two like feet. Distich : a system or series of two verses.
the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning with a vowel ( 359. */). Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel
Ecthlipsis:
(

359-

0-

Heptameter : consisting of seven feet. Hexameter : consisting of six measures.

Hexapody: consisting of six feet. Hiatus : the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (
Ictus: the metrical accent
(

359. e).

358. a). Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time ( 356. note). Logaasdic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose ( 369).

Manometer : consisting of a

Mora:

the unit of time

= one short syllable

five

single measure.

355. a).

Pentameter . consisting of

measures.

Pentapody : consisting of five Penthemimeris : consisting of

Protraction
:

feet.
five half-feet.
c).

extension of a syllable beyond its normal length ( 355. Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long ( 357).

Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated.
: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel. Synalozpha: the same as elision ( 359. c. Rem.). Synapheia: elision between two verses ( 359. c. Rem.). Synizesis: the combining of two vowels in one syllable ( 347. c). Syncope : loss of a short vowel.

Synceresis

Systole : shortening of a syllable regularly long. Tetrameter : consisting of four measures.

Tetrapody : consisting of four feet. Tetrastich: a system of four verses. Thesis : the accented part of a foot (

358).

Trimeter : consisting of three measures. Tripody : consisting of three feet.

Tristich
:

a system of three verses,

APPENDIX.
LATIN was
Romans.
originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying

first territory occupied and governed by the This language, and, together with it, Greek, Sanskrit, Zend (Old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the interior of Asia,

south of the Tiber, the

whence the different branches, by successive migrations, passed into Europe and Southern Asia. This Parent Speech is called the Indo-European, and the languages
descended from it are known collectively as the Indo-European Family. By an extended comparison of the corresponding roots, stems, and
forms, as they appear in the different languages of the family, the original Indo-European root, stem, or form can in very many cases be few of these forms are given in the grammar for comdetermined.

parison (see, especially, p. 83).

illustration
:

Others are here added for further

i.

CASE FORMS (Stem VAK,

voice).

434
2.

Appendix.

CARDINAL NUMBERS.

Appendix.

435

have been preserved, in inscriptions, or as cited by Roman antiquarians; and other fragments were probably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect

which formed the basis of the modern

Italian.

The most important

of these ancient languages of Italy were the Oscan of Campania, and the Umbrian of the northern districts. To these should be added the Etruscan, which is of uncertain origin.

Some

of their forms, as compared with the Latin,

:

may be seen

in the

following
LATIN.

436

Appendix.

Latin did not exist as a literary language until about B.C. 200. strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the chief objects of liteiary study and admiration.

The language was then

The most popular plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from the Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular
and the slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. Thus the natural growth of a genuine Roman literature was very considerably checked. Orations, rhetorical works, letters, and histories, dealing seem to be nearly with practical affairs and the passions of politics, The Latin poets of the all that sprang direct from the native soil. Empire were mostly court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious
dialect
class
;

satires

and

epistles alone

keep the flavor of

life.

Roman

manners,

and

exhibit the familiar features of Italian

its

use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part of Europe as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philosophers

In

during the Middle Ages, and in some countries to a much later period as the official language of the Church and Court of Rome, down to the
;

present day as, until recently, the common language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of communication among many
;

learned classes and societies

and as the universal language of Science,

hundred: of Latin especially of the descriptive sciences, so that many known must be derivative or forms, terms, familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of the facts of the natural world, or be
able to recount

them

intelligibly to

men

of science.

In some of these

uses

it

may

still

be regarded as a living language; while, conven-

as the foundation of a liberal education. tionally, it retains its place During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not only
in
its literary

or urban form, but in local dialects,

riistica, far

known by

the col-

lective

name of lingua
Italian,

simpler in their forms of inflection

These dialects, it is probable, were the basis which has preserved many of the ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection: as, orto (hortus), gente (gentem). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, Latin, in its ruder and
than the classic Latin.
of

modern

more popular form, came to be the language of the common people. viz., Hence the modern languages called " Romance" or " Romanic Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern Spain, the Provengal or Troubadour language of the South of France, the " Rouman" or Wallachian of the lower Danube and the " Roumansch" of some districts of Switzerland.
y/
;

(Roumania),

Appendix.

437
will

comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin

serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which reference has been made in the body of this Grammar ( 8. 2), as well as the

degree in which the substance of the language has remained unchanged. Thus, in the verb to be the Romance languages have preserved from the Latin the general tense-system, together with both the stems on

which the verb is built. The personal endings are somewhat abraded, but can be traced throughout. The following table shows the forms assumed by siun in five of the Romance languages. In the others, the alterations are more marked.
LATIN.

438
es

Appendix.

Appendix.

439

C
P.

Valerius Flaccus, Heroic

rapimus

Statius,

C. Silius Italicus,

Poem Argonautica Heroic Poems " Thebais," etc. Heroic Poem " Punica"

"

"...
.

-88
61-96 25-100 40-120 -120

D. Junius Juvenalis (JUVENAL), Satires L. Annaius Floras, Historical Abridgment M. Valerius Martialis (MARTIAL), Epigrams

....
. .

M, Fabius Quintilianus (QUINTILIAN), Rhetoric

C. Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, History, etc C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (PLINY Junior), Letters C. Suetonius Tranquillus, The Tivelvc Ccesars

43-104 40-118 60-118

61-115 70-

Metamorphoses Appuleius, Philosophical Writings, " Noctes Atticae " A.

Gellius, Miscellanies,

"

.... ....
.

"

noabout
1

80

WRITERS OF CHRISTIAN PERIOD.

tQ. Septimius Florens

Tertullianus (TERTULLIAN), Apologist

f M. Minucius Felix, Apologetic Dialogue t Firmianus Lactantius, Theology

D. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems

Marcellinus, Roman History Claudius Claud ianus (CLAUDIAN), Poems, Panegyrics, etc. . t Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems

Ammianus

.....
. .
.

160-240 about 250 250-325

-380
395

t Aurelius Augustinus (ST. AUGUSTINE), Confessions, Discourses, etc. f Hieronymus (ST. JEROME), Homilies, Dialogue:, Epistles, etc. Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philosophical Dialogue
. . .

Maximianus, Elegies
f Christian
writers.

-408 348-410 354-430 -420 470-520 about 500

INDEX OF VERBS.
IN
this index are given all the simple irregular verbs that the student will find in his Compounds are to be looked for under simple verbs. If the simple verb is given

reading.

with no mention of compounds, the compounds are conjugated like the simple verb. If to " statuo the simple verb a compound form is added (as [constituo] "), the compounds If vary from the simple verb, as may be seen under the particular compound mentioned. different compounds of the same verbs present different irregularities, several specimens are appended to the simple verb (see e.g. ago). Full-face figures (thus, 91) designate the " most important among several references. References are to sections, unless p." is used.

ab-do, 3, -didl, -ditum, 130. N. ab-eo, see eo.

regular comps., see ad-igo for others, see cogo, circum-, per-, sat-ago.]
;

ab-nuo, 3,-nuI, -nuitum (-nutum) [-nuo].

ab-oleo,
2, -evi (-ul),

aio,

i8./ N. 144. a.
2, -ul,
,

-itum, 131.

albeo,
albo,

166. b.

ab-olesco,

3, -evi,

[aboleo]

i, reg.,

166. a. 2, b.
,

abs-condo,

3, -dl (-didl),

-ditum [condo].
c.

alesco, 3, -ui,

167. a.

accerso, see arcesso. accidit (impers.), 145, 146.

ac-cio, 4, reg. [-cio]
.

ac-colo,

3, -ul,

[colo],
c.

131, 166. b. al-lego, 3, -egi, -ectum [lego] . al-licio, 3, -lexl, -lectum [-licio] . alo, 3, alul, altum (alitum), 123. b 132.
algeo,
2, alsl,
,

c.

ac-credo, see credo,

ambio,
141_.

-ire,

-ii

(-Ivi),

-Itum (amblbat),

ac-cumbo,
acuo,

3,

-cubul, -itum, 132.

c, 170. b.

3, -ul,

-utum, p. 86, 123. d.

amicio,
a,

4,

amixl

(-cuT),
;

amictum,
122.
c,

133.

ad-eo, see eo.

ad-igo,
3, -egi,

amo, pp. 92, 95

-actum [ago] -emptum [emo],
.

125. a, 126,
10. b

e-g, 127 (synopsis), p. 120, p. 121

9. e, 375. g,.

ad-im5,
ad-nuo,
ad-oleo,

3,

-emi,
-I,

(amat,

amarat,

ad-ipiscor,

-eptus, 135. h.

3, -nul,

-nutum [-nuo]

2, -evi (-ui), 3, -evi,

-ultum, 131.

amans, 113. e; amarim, ainasse, amassem, 128. a. i; amassis, 128. <?. 5; amaturus sum, amandus sum, 129, p.
157, fooj-n.). _ ante-capio, 3, -cepT, -captum [capio].

ad-olesco,

-ultum [adoleo] .

ad-sentior. -in, -sensus, 135. h.

ad-spergo,
ad-sto,

3, -spersl,
,

-spersum [spargo].
3. N.

i, -stiti,

130. N.

ante-cello, 3, [-cello], ante-fero, like fero, 170. a.

,

ad-sum, -esse, -fui, n.yC aequo, i, reg., 166. a. 2.

aestuo,
i, reg.,

ante-sto,
anti-sto,

i, -stetT, i, -steti,

130. N. 130. N.
135. h.

123. d, 166. a. 3.

aperio, 4, aperul, apertum, 133.

apiscor,
-T,

af-fari, affatus, 144. c.

aptus [ad-ipiscor]
3, -plausi,

af-fero, -ferre, attull, allatum, 170. a.

af-fligo, 3, -xi,

ap-plaudo,

-plausum [plaudo],

-ctum

[-fligo].

ag-gredior,
agito,
i,

-gressus, 135. h. reg., 167. b. N.

-I,

arceo, 2, -ul, [co-erceo], 131. N. arcesso (accerso), 3, -Ivi, arcessltum,

132. d.
c.

agnosco,
ago,
t

3, -ovi,

3, egi,

agnltum, 132. actum, 9. c, 124.

ardeo,

2, arsl,

d,

132.

arguo, 3,

-ul,

arsum, 131. -utum, 132. /.

130.

169. b 170. a. N. (agier, 128.

e,

4).

[For

armo,

I, reg.,

Index of Verbs.
aro,
i, reg.,

441

ar-riijf), j. -n-.xi.
!>, 3, -tixl,

pp. 119, 120. -ivrtum [n'go].

certum
cico

est (impers.), 146. c.

cicr>
'Tvi,

(-cio),

citum,

assuin, late
at-tollu,

-ectum [-spicio], form of adsum, \\. f. N.

[tolloj.

131 [ac-cio, ex-

3,,

cingo, 3, cinxl, -cio, see cieo.

cinctum, 132.

a.

Audro, audeiv, ausus, 136 (ausim, 128.

3; sodes, 13. c). audio, 4, audlvT, auditum, pp.
f.

circum-ago, circum
circum-sto,

3, -i-gT,

-acturn [ago],

-dcdi, -datum, 130. N.

4, reg., 170. a.
,

104-5,

circum-munio,

\\ 122.

124. a, 125. a, 126. d, p. 120 (contracted forms, 128. a. 2).

c,

i, -stetl (-stiti),
,

130. N.

aufero, -fcrre, abstull, ablatum, 170. a.

aiu^'o,
2,

clango, 3, clanxl, claudco, 2, ,

132. a.

auxl,

auctum, 131.

ave (have), avete, aveto, i44.yC aveo, 2, 131. N.

, ,

claudo (limp), 3, claudo (close), 3,

cliido], 132. a.

see claudo (limp). N. 132.

, ,

clausl,

clausum

[ex-

bene-dlco,
bibo,

3, -xi,

bene-facio, 3,
3, bibl,

-dictum, 169. b. -fee!, -factum, 19. d.

clepo, 3, clepsi, cleptum, clueo, 2, 131. N.

, ,

132. a.
132. a.

i.

co-emo,

3,

-eml,

-emptum,

bibitum, 132. f.

coepl, -isse, -pturus, 143. a.

bullio, 4, reg., 166. d.

co-erceo,
[oc-cido], 132. 6,

2, -ui,

-itum [arce5] .

cado,

3, cecidi,

casum

co-gnosco, 3, -gnovl, -gnltum, 132. e. cogo, 3, co-egi, co-actum, 10. d [ago],

colligo, 3, -legl, -lectum, 132. e. col-loco, i, reg., 170. a.

ii. a. 2, 124. c, 125. b.

caeco,

i, reg.,

130.
,

caecutio, 4,

-IvI,

133.
,

colo, 3,
10. a,

colul,

cultum

[ex-,

ac-,

in-],

caedo,

3, cecidi,

caesum [oc-cido]

132.

c.

123. c. i, 132. it. cale-facio, like facio, 169. a.

comburo,
como,

3, -ussi,
-i,

-ustum [uro].

com-miniscor,
167. a. N.
a. N., 169. a.

-mentus, 135. h.

calefacto,

i,

169. a.

caleo,

2, -ul, caliturus, 3, -ul,

,
,

131,

calesco,

calleS, 2, -ul,

131, 167. 131. N.

N., 166. b.

caneo,

2, -ul,

131

cano,3,cecinl,tcantum [con-cino] 132. b.

,

cantillo,

i,

reg., 167. d.

capesso,

3,

capesslvi, -Itum, 132. d, 167.

,

c.

in-cipisso, 3,

capio, 3, cepl, captum also ante-capio], 125.

p.

b,

[ac-cipio, etc.; 126. c, 132. c,

3, compsl, comptum, 132. a. comperio, 4, -peri, compertum, 133. comperior, -In, compertus, 135. h. N. 132. c. com-pesco, 3, -cul, com-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 131. com-pungo, 3, -nxi, -nctum [pungo] . con-cino, 3, -ul, f-centum [cano], con-cuplsco, 3, -cuplvi, -cupltum, 167. con-cutio, 3, -cussl, -cussum, 132. a. condio, 4, reg., 166. d. con-do, 3, -didl, -ditum, 130. N.
,

a.

100

(capiet, p. 89, foot-n. 3).

-iturus, 131. N.

co-necto,

3,

-nexui, -nexum,
-tull,

n.

/. N.

careo,

2, -ul,

con-fero, -ferre,
,

carpo,

3, -psl,

-ptum [de-cerpo]
cautum, 131.

124. b,

132. a.
caveo,
2, cavT,

con-ficio, 3, -feel, con-fiteor, -eri, -fessus [fateor]

col-latum, 170. a. -fectum, 170. a. N.

.

con-gruo,

3, -ui,

[-gruo]

cavillor, -an, -atus, 167. d.

cedo (Imperative), cedite (cette), 144. f. cedo, 3, cessl, u./ 1, cessum, n. a. 2, 132. a; ac-cedo, ii.f.^. -ce!15, 132, c (only in comp., see percello, ex-cell5, ante-cello, prae-cello)
.

con-icio, 3, -iecl, -iectum [iaciS], co-nltor [nitor], n./ N.

u.

b. a.

co-niveo [-niveo], n.yC N. con-stat, -are, -aturum, 145, 146. c. con-slituo, 3, -ul, -stitutum [statuo].
con-sto, i, -stitT, -stitum (-statum), 130. N. c5n-sue-facio, like facio, 169. a.

cendo, 3,-cendT,-censum (only in comp., as in-cendo), 132. f.

censeo,
2, -ui,

con-suesco,
con-sulo,

3,

-evi,
c. N.,

-etum (consuerat,
169. a.
c.

ccnsum,

131.
c.

128. a. i), 143.

3, -lul,

cerno, 3, crevl, cretum, 132.

-sultum, 132.

442
con-tingo, 3,
tingit,
-tigi,

Index of Verbs.
-tactum [tango] (conc).

dir-imo,

n.

a. i

impers., 146.

di-ruo, 3, -rui,
a.
.

[emo]. -rutum [ruo] .

6,

coquo,

3, coxi,

coctum, 132.

cor-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio] cor- ruo, 3, -ui, 3. [ruo],

dis-cedo, 3, -cessi, -cessum, 170. b. disco [DIG], 3, didici, disciturus, 132.

u./
.

credo, crepo,

3, didi,
i, -ui,

ditum [-do] -itum, 130.

[So compounds.] dis-crep5, -ui or -avi, 130. N. dis-icio, 3, dis-ieci, -iectum [iacio],
,

p. 86.

cresco, 3, crevi, cretum, 123. criminor, -ari, -atus, 135. f.

crocio, 4,
,
,

b. I, 132. c.

dis-pando,

3,

-di,

-pansum (-pessum)
.

[pando] .
di-sto, i,

133.

cubo, cudo,

i, -ui,

cubitum, 130.
,
,

dis-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo] , 130. N.

,

cucurio, 4,

133.
,

di-vido, 3, -visi, -visum, 132. a.

132. f.

-cusum [in-cudo] -cumbo [CUB] (see ac-cumbo)

3, -cudi,
,
,

do [DA]
foot-n.

cupio,

3, cupivi,

-cupisco, 3, curro, 3, cucurri,

cupitum, 132. see con-cupisco.

132. c. d, p. 86.

N., p. 86, 123.

{g'wt), dSre, dedi, datum, 118. 126. a, 130, p. 157.

(duim, perduim, 128. <?. 2). -do [DHA] (put), 3, -didi, -ditum (only
.

cursum

[in-curro] , 132.

in

comp., see abdo, credo, vendd),

b.
2, -ui, 2, -ui,
i, -ui,

custodio, 4, reg., 166. d.

132^.

doceo,

doctum, 131.
-iturus.

debeo,

2, -ui,

-itum, 10. d.
-oerpsi, -cerptum,

doleo,
146.
c.

de-cerpo,
[carpoj.

3,

domo,
duco,

-itum, 122. d, 130.

3,

duxi,

ductum, 132.

a, 23.

decet (impers.), decere, decuit, 146. de-fendo, 3, -di, -sum, 132. f. de-fetiscor, -i, -fessus, 132. f. N.

(due, 128. c).

ebullio, 4,
i. a.
,

133.
t

de-hisco, 3, -hivi, [hisco]. delectat (impers.), 146. c. deleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 122. c 125. d, 126.
t

edo, 3, edi, esum, eat, 132. e p. 86, 140,

158.

e-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, put forth, 130. N.

ef-fero, -ferre, extuli,

b. 2,

131.
4, -ivi,
,

elatum, 170. a.

dementio,

133.

egeo,

2, -ui,

131. N.

3, dempsi, demptum, 132. a. depso, 3, -sui, -stum, 132. c. de-scendo, 3, -di, -sum [scando] . de-silio, 4, -silui, -sultum [salio],

demo,

e-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum, 170. a, N. [iacio]. e-licio, 3, -ui, -citum, 132. a.

de-sino,

3, -sivi,
,

-situm [sino].
[sapio] . -stitum [sisto] .

e-mico, I, -micui, -micatum, 130. N. e-mineo, 2, -ui, [-mineo] . emo, 3, emi, emptum [ad-, co-, dir-imo],
9. a,

de-sipio, 3,
de-sisto, 3,

132.
I,

e.
, ,

-stiti,

empturio, 4,
e-neco,

167. e.

de-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum, 170. a.

-ui (-avi),

nectum [neco],
119. a.

de-spondeo,

2, -di,

-sum [spondeo] .
[sum] .
i.

ens (in pot-ens, see sum),

de-struo, 3, -struxi, -structum, 170. a.

desum,

-esse, -fui
-i,

eo, ire, ivi (ii), itum, 128. e. i, 141, 158. i. b ; (abiit, etc., 128. b, 2 ; adisse, 144.

de-vertor,

-sus, 135.

dico, 3, dixi, dictum, 123. c. i, 132. a, 169. b, p. 120. (dixti, 128. b; die, 128. f).
dictito, i, reg., 167. b

itum est, 141.0; itur, impers., 146. d\ adeo (adeor), 141. a; ambio, 144.
b. R.;
;

and

dif-fero, -ferre, dis-tuli,

N. di-latum [fero]
.

prodeo, -ire, -ii, -Itum, 144. d). escit, escunt (see sum), 119. b.
est (see

sum)
,

'st

(in

homost,
e.

etc.), 13. b.

dif-fiteor, -eri, -fessus, 135.

esurio, 4,

-itum, 167.

di-gnosco,

3,

-gnovi,

[nosco] .
foot-n.
<?).

e-vado,

3, -vasi,

-vasum, 128.
c.

b.

di-ligo, 3, -lexi, -lectum, p. 103.

e-venit (impers.), 145, 146.

ex-cio, 4,

(di-lectus as adj., 113.

di-luo, 3, -lui,

-lutum [luo].
,

-ii, -Itum (-itum) [-cio]. ex-cello, 3, -cellui, -celsum, 132. c.

di-mic5,

i,

reg., 130. N.

ex-cludo,
a. i

3, -clusi,

-clusum [claudo],

dir-ibeo, 2,

-Itum,

n.

[habeo].

ex-colo, 3, -ui, -cultum [colo].

of Verbs.
ex-erceo,
explico.
2, -cul,

443

-citum [arceo]
;

(praefatur, affarf, profltus, interfitur,

,

I,

(un/t>/J),-\ii, -ituin

(explain)

14. c).

-avi, -at urn, 130. N.

fore,

forem,
,

etc. (see

sum),

119. b. N.;

ex-plodo,
cxsu!5,
I,

3, -si,

-sum [phxudo].
foveo,

147.

c. a.

ex-stinguo, 3, -stinxT, -stinctum, 132. a.

reg., 130, 166. a, 3. exuo, 3, -ui, -utum, 166. c.

2, fovi,

fotum, 131.
3,

frango frem5,

[iKAC,],
e.

fregT,

fractum

[per-

fringoj, 132.

facesso, 3, facessf,
167.
c.

facessitu.m,

132.

/,

3, fremul, fremitum, 132. c. frendo, 3, fresl, fressum, 132. a. frico, i, -ui, frictum (fiicatum), 130.

facio, 3, feel,

factum, 132.
;

e,

142,
e.

170. a. N.
;

frlgeo, 2, frixi,

131.

(fac, 128. c

faxo, -im, 128.

3
;

affici5,

frigo, 3, frixi, frictum (frixum), 132. a.

ii.

/3

confit, defit, Infit, effierl, inter-

fritinni5, 4,

133.
,

fierl, interfiat,

superflo, 142. c

conficio
;

fruor,

-I,

fructus (fruitus)

and other comps.

calefacio,
-fact5, i (in

in -ficio, 142. a

bene-

fuam,

-as, etc. (see

sum),

135. b. 119. b.

facio. etc., 142. b\ consuefacio, 169. a;

id.; calefacto, id.).

fugio, 3, fugl, fugitum, 23. 2, 123. b. 2, 124.

^132.
fugo,
fulgeo, 2,
fulgo, 3,

e.

compounds),
falsum, 132.

169. a.

i, reg.,

166. a. I.

fallo, 3, fefelll,

fulcio, 4, fulsl, fultum, 133.

,

farcio, 3, faisi,

farctum (-turn), [re-fercio]

,

-si,
,

*33fateor, -eri, fassus, [con-fiteor]

fatlsco, 3,
, ,

131. 9. d, 134. 132. /. N., 134.

fusum, 132.
e.

135. h.

fulgurat (impers.), 146. a.

132.

N.

fundo [FUD]
fungor,
-T,

3, fudi,

faveo,

2, favl,

-fendo,

3,

fautum, 131. -fendl, -fensum, I32./! (See de133,

functus, 135. h.

fendo.)
ferio,

c. , 132. furo, 3, furul, fuvimus, fuvisset (see sum), 119. b.

4 (no perfect or supine),

144fero, ferre, tulT,

gannio,
e,

4,

133.

123.
ef-,

latum (fer, 128. c), 23, 158. i. a [af-, au-, con-, dif-,
of-, re-fero].
-IvI,
,

in-

ferocio, 4,

133.
,

ferveo,

2,

ferbuT,

131.

fido, fidere, fisus, 132.

N,

136

[con-

gaudeo, gaudere, gavlsus, 131, 136. gemo, 3, gemul, gemitum, 132. c. gero, 3, gessi, gestum, 132. a, p. 120. 133, 166. d. gestio, 4, -ivT, glgno [GEN] 3, genul, genitum, 9. d, 123.1. 2, 132. c.
,

fido].

gllsco, 3,

135.
,

N.

figo 3, fix!, flxum, findo [FID] 3, fidi, fissum, 123.

,

132. a.

glocio, 4,
c. 3,

-IvI,
,

133.

124.

glubo,

3,

132. /I N.

c.

N.,132./.
,

glutio, 4, reg., 133.

fingo [FIG]

3, finxl,

fictum,
p.

132

a, 124.^.

N
flnio,
4,
-Ivi,

-Itum,

90,

foot-n.

i,

-I, gressus [ag-gredior] grandinat (impers.), 146. a. -gru5 3, see con-, in-gruo.

gradior,

135. A.

166

d.

fio, fieri, factus,

(fit,

142 (see facio), p. 119

a.

habe5,

2,

-ui,

-itum [in-hibeo

debeo

impers., 146. c).

flecto, 3, flexl,
fleo,
2, -evi,

flexum, 132.
128. a. i).

dir-ibeo]. haereo, 2, haesi,

-etum, p. 86, 123.

126. 6,

131
-fllgo,

(fletis,

haurio, 3, hausl, have, see ave.

haesum, 131. haustum (haus-),

133.

flo, -are, -avi,

only in comp., see af-fligo. -atum, 126. a.

,

hlberno,

i,

reg., 166. a. 2.

hiemo,

i, reg.,
,

166. a. 3.
,

floreo, 2, -ui,
fluo, 3, fluxi,

131. N.

hinnip, 4,
hirrio, 4,
,

133.
133.
132. /. N. 131. N.
,

fluxum, 132. a, 166. c. N. fodio, 3, f5di, fossum, 132. e. 126. a, 144. c, 158. i. b [for] fan, fatus,
,

hlsco.

3,

[de-hlsco]
,

horreo,

2,

horrul,

444
Ico, 3, id, ictum, 132. f.

Index of Verbs.
laedo,
.

3, laesT,

laesum
,

[il-lido]

132. a.

Ignosco,

3, -novi,

il-lido, 3, -lisi,

imbuo, im-mineo,
impero,
i,

3, -ui,

-notum [nosco] -Hsum [laedo] -utum (cf. acuo)

. .
,

lambo,

3,

Iambi, lambitum, 132.

2,

/
reg.

langueo,

langui,

131.

lavo, -ere, lavi,

lotum (lautum) (also

e,

-ere,
reg.,

[-mineo].
2.

of ist conj.), 132.

lego,
i, 3, legi,

134.
10.

n.yC

lectum [colligo,

d; see

im-pello, 3, -pull, -pulsum [pello].

also deligo, dlligo, intellego, neglego],

132.
e, 9.

im-petro,

i,

reg. (-assere, 128.

e.

5).

a.

im-ping5,
im-plico, 130. N.

3,
i,

-peg!, -pactum [pango] . -a vl (-111), -atum (-itum),

levo,

i, -avi,

-atum

(-asso, 128. e. 5).

libet (lubet, 10. a), -ere, -uit, 146. c. (libitum est, id. N. ; libens, id.).
licet, -ere,

in-cendo,

3, -di,

-sum, 132.
,

/
.

incesso, 3, incessivi,
in-cido, 3, -cidi,

132. d.

est, 146. c.
-licio,

-iturum, 145, 146. N. licens, id.).

;

c.

(licitum

-casum [cado]
[colo]
.

3 [only in comp., see

,

al-licio, e-licio,

incipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum, 10. d, 143. a.

in-colo, 3, -colul,

pel-licio]

132. a.

in-cudo,

3, -cudi,

in-curro, 3,

-cusum [cudo]. -curri (-cucurri), -cursum

lingo, 3, linxi, linctum, 132. a. lino [Li], 3, levi (livi), litum, 132. e.

linquo [Lie] 3,
,

liqul, -lictum, 132. e.

,

[curro] .

liqueo,
liquor,

2, liqui (licui),
-i, -i,
,

131.

indulgeo, 2, indulsi, indultum, 131. induo, 3, -ui, -utum, in. a, 166. c.

ineptio, 4,

135.

i.

loquor,
166.
c.

locutus (loquutus), 135. h,

-M,

133.

N.

in-fero, -ferre, -tuli, illatum, 170. nunciation, 18. rf.

in-fit,

pro-

luceo,

2, luxi,

-luctum, 131 (lucet, impers.,

146. a).
liido, 3, lusi, liisum, 132. a.
2, luxi, luctum, 131. luo, 3, lui, luitum [de-luo],

see fio.
-ui,

in-gruo^,
in-hibeo,

[-gruo].

lugeo,

2, -ui,

-itum, 131 [habeo],

144. b. Tnsanio, 4, reg., 166. d.

inquam,

maereo,

2,

144.
132. f.

intellego, 3, -lexl, -lectum, p. 103, foot-n. inter-do, -dare, -dedl, -datum, 130. N.
interest, -esse, -fuit

mando,
maneo,

3,
2,

mandl, mansum,

(impers.), 146.
.

c.

n.

a.

2,_i2i.
-eri,

mansi, mansum, [per-maneo], N. 2, 122. d, 131.

,

inter-fatur, 144. c [f for]

medeor,
a.

135.

i.

inter-rumpo,
inter-sto,

3, -rupi,
,

-ruptum, 170.

i, -steti, 130. N. in-tueor, -eri, -tuitus [tueor] .

memini (-to, -tote, -ens), 143. c. mereo or mereor, merere or -ri,

135- g-

meritus,

in-vado, see vado.

irascor,
-i,

mergo,
metior,

3,

mersi,

iratus, 135. h, 167. a.

-iri,

mersum, mensum, 135.

132. a.
h.

iaceo, 2, -ui, -iturus, 131.

iacio, 3, ieci, iactum, 132. e, 170. a. N. [con-icio, etc. ; dis-icio, porricio] .

iubeo, 2, iussi, iussum, 131 (iusso, 128. e. 3)

iudico,
i,

meto, 3, rnessui, messum, 132. c. metuo, 3, -ui, -utum, 166. c. mico, i, micui, 130. -mineo, 2, -ui, [e-, im-, pro-mineo] -miniscor, -i, -mentus, 135. h [com-, re-].
, .

reg. (-assit, 128. e. 5).

minuo,
misceo,

3, -ui,

-utum

(cf.

acuo).
d,

iungo, 3, iunxl, iunctum. , 167. a. iuvenescor, 3, -venuT, iuvo (ad-), i, iuvi, iutum (-aturus), 130.
labasco, 3, labo, i, -avi,
labor,
-i,

miror, mirari, miratus, 135.

2, -cui,

mixtum (mistum), n.

131.
misereor, N.
.

-eri,

miseritus (misertus), 146.

167. a.

, 130. lapsus, 135. h.

miseret, 146. b.

mitesco,
molior,

3,

167. a.
123. b. 166. d.
i,

lacesso, 3, lacessivi, lacessltum, 132. d,

167.
<r.

mitto, 3, misi,

missum,

132. a.

-iri, -itus,

Index of
molo,
3,

Verbs.
osurus

445
(perosus), 143.
b,

moluT, molitum, 132.

2, -in,

<r.

odl,
c.

moneo,

-itum. 122.
b,

c,

pp. 96-97,
I,

odisse, N.

\\ 123. a, 124. a, 125. 1 66. , p. 120.

126. b.

2,

<r,

of-fero, -ferre, obtulT,

oblatum, 170.
,

a.

-oleo (grow) [see ab-, ad-], 131.

121. N. 2,

mordeS,
131.
morior,
i35-_6-

2,

momordl, morsum,
(-Iri),

oleo (smell), 2, olui, 131. operio, 4, operul, opertum, 133.

oportet, -ere, -uit (impers.), 146.
c.

-I

mortuus, (moriturus),

op-pango,
movl, motum, 131 (commorat,
reg., 133.

3, -pegi,

-pactum [pango].

movro.

2,

128. a. i).

mugioi 4,
mulceo,

opperior, -Iri, oppertus, 135. h. ordior, -Iri, orsus, 135. h, 166. d. N. orior (3d), -in, ortus, (oriturus)

(so

2,

mulsi, mtilsum, 131.

(-xl),

comps.), 135. h,
ovare, ovatus, 144.

p. 86.
e.

mulge5,
131-

2, -si

mulsum (mulctum),

multi-plico,

I,

reg., 130. N.
,

paciscor,

-I,

pactus, 135. h.
146.

muttio, 4,

-ivl,

133.

paenitet

(impers.), -ere, -uit, (-turns, -tendus, 146. b. N.).

3,

b
a.

nanciscor, nascor,
-I,

-T,

nactus (nanctus), 135. h.

pando,

pandl,

pansum (passum, n.

natus, 135. h.

2),_[dis-],

132. /._

necesse est (impers.), 146. c. neco, i, -ul, nectum, [e-neco], 130. necto [NEC], 3, nexi (nexul), nexum,
132. a.

3, pegi (pepigl), pactum, [im-pingo; op-pango], 132. b, 23. 2. parco, 3, pepercl (parsl), parsum, 132. b

pango [PAG],

(parcitur, impers., 146. d).

3,

neglego,
n. i.

neglexT, -lectum, p. 103, foot-

pareo,
pario,

2, -ul,

pariturus, 131.

3,

peperl,
,

partum

(pariturus),

neo,

2, -evl,

-etum, 126.

b,

131.

nequeo,

-Ire,

nequitus, 144.

(nequitur,

[com-, re-perio] 132. b. partio, 4, reg., but see next word,

parturio, 4,
partior, partiri, partltus, 135. I^T. e. -Ivl, ,
3,

etc., id.

N).

ningit (impers.), ninxit, 146. a. nltor, -I, nlsus (nixus) [co-nitor], 135. h.

pasco,
pateo,
patior,

nivco,

2, nivi (nixl), 131.

,

2, patul,
-I,

pavl, pastum, 132. 131. N.

,

c.

no,

i, nilvl,

126. a, p. 157. foot-n.

3,

passus [per-petior]
pavl,
,

n.

a.

2,

nosco [GNO],
dl-,

novl,
e,

notum
143.
c.

[ag-, co-,

135. h.
paveo,
2,

Ig-nosco] 132.
3,

N. (nosse,

131.

128. a. i).

pecto, 3, pexl (pexui),

pel-licio, 3, -lexi,

pexum,

132. a.
.

nubo,

nupsl, nuptum, 132. a.

i,

-lectum

[-licio]

nuncio, late form of nuntio, 12. a.

nuntio,
reg., 12. a.

pello, 3,

pepull,

pulsum

[im-pello,
I,

re-

pello], 10. a, p. 86, 123. b.

[ab-,

132.

6.

-nuo,

3, -nul,

-nuitum

ad-nu5] I32./
,

pendeo, 2, pependl, pensum, 131. pendo, 3, pependl, pensum, 132. b.

per-ago,
3, -egl,

ob-llviscor,

-I,

obs-olesco,
ob-tineo,

3, -evl,

oblltus, 135. h. -etus (adj.) [-ole5]

c.

-actum, 170.

a.

N.
c.

per-cello, 3, -cull, -culsum, 132.

obtingit (impers.), 146.

2, -ul,

per-cio, see -cio.

-tentum [teneo].
-tudl,

per-fringo,

3, -fregi,

-fractum [pango]
perrexl,

ob-tundo,

3,

-tusum

(tunsum)

pergo,

3,

(n.

^),

perrectum,
.

[tundo]. ob-venio, 4, -veni, -ventum, 170. a. ob-venit (impers.), 146. c.

oc-cido,
3, -cidi,

132. a.
per-lego, 3, -legT, -lectum [lego]

per-maneo,
f. 3.

2,

-mansl,
,

-mansum fmaneo].

-casum [cado], n.

per-osus [odl]
por-prtior,
-I,

143. b.

oc-cidd, 3, -cidi, -caesuni [caedo]. occulo, occului, occult am, 132. c. oc-curro. 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum,

-pessus, 135. h.
N.

per-terreo,

2, -ul, -hum, 170. c. N. pessum-do, -dSre, -dedi, -datum, 130.

u./.

3.

petisso, 3,

167. c.

446

Index of Verbs.

peto, 3, pefivl, petltum, 122. d, 124. 125. b. N. 2, 132. d.

pro-video,

2, -vidT,

-vTsum, 166.

c.

piget (impers.), -ere, piguit, 146. b (pigi-

tum
121.

est, id. N). 3,

pingo [PIG],
pinso, 3,
pio,
I,

pmxT, plctum, 132. a, p.

pubesco, 3, pubul, 166. b. N. pudet (impers.), pudere, 146. b (pudendus, id. N.) puduit or puditum est. pugno, i, reg. pugnatur (impers.), -an, -atum, 145,
,

-si,

pins- (plnstum, plstum), I32./I

146. d.

reg., 166. a. 2.
2, -ui,

pungo [PUG],3,pupugi,punctum [com-],

132.
punio,
b,

placeo,
c).

-itum (placet, impers., 146.

p. 120.

4, -IvI, -Itum, 166. a. i.

N.

plango, 3, planxl, planctum, 132. a. plaudo, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-plodo, etc. ap-plaudo] 132. a.
;

plecto, 3, plexl (-xul),

plexum,

123, b.

i,

132. a,
-plector,

p. 86.

quaero, 3, quaeslvl, quaesltum [re-quiro] 132. d (cf. quaeso). quaeso, -ere, 144. d (cf. quaero). quasso, i, reg., 167. b.
quatio, 3,
,

-I, -plexus, 135. h. -pleo, 2, -plevl, -pletum (only in

quassum

[con-cutio], 132. a.

comps.,

as com-pleo), 131.
plico,
i, -plicuT,

-plicitum, 130. N.

[com-

pounds], 130.
pluit, 3, pluit (pluvit), p. 86, unt, id. N.).

queo, quire, qulvl, quitus, 144. g. (quitur, etc., nequeo, id. N.). queror, -i, questus, 135. h. quiesco, 3, quievi, quietum, 132. c.
rabo,
3,
, ,

146.

(plu132.

/ N.

pono

[POS], 3, posuT, positum, 132.

3,

c.

rado,

3, rasi,

porr-icio,
170. b.

no

perf.,

-rectum

[iacio],

rapio, 3, mus, 128. b) [cor-ripi5],

rasum, 132. a. rapul, raptum, 132. c (erepse-

posco, 3, poposci (posciturus), 132. b (so comps.). possideo, 2, sedi, sessum [sedeo]
.

raucio, 4, rausl, rausum, 133.

3, -cepi, ceptum [capio] cepso, 128. e, 3). re-cludo, 3, -si, -sum, 170. b. red-do, 3, reddidi, redditum [do] . re-fercio, 4, -fersi, -fertum [farcio] .

re-cipio,

(re-

possum, posse, potul. 137. pot-ens, 119. a (see sum),

,

potior, -In, potltus.

poto,

i,

-avi,

potum, 130.
b. i], 2, -ui,

re-fero,

-ferre,

rettull

(retull),

re-latum

praebeo [n.
prae-cello, 3,

-itum.
[-cello]
.

[fero].
re-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 146. c.

no

perf.,

no sup.

prae-fatur, 144.

c.

re-ficio, 3, -feel,

-fectum, 170.

b.
;

prae-ligo, 3, legl, lectum [lego],

rego,

3, rexl, 24. N.,

,

prae-sens, 119. a (see sum),

pergo, surgo]
reminiscor,
-I,

rectum 132. a, p.

[ar-rigo, etc. 120.

praestat (impers.), 146.

c.

re-linquo, 3, Hqui, -lictum [linquo].

,

prae-sum, -esse, -fui, 137, 347. b. prandeo, 2, prandl, pransum, 131. prehendo (prendo), 3, -di, prehensum,
132-

reor, reri, ratus,

135. i. 126. b, 135. h, 166. b.

re-pello, 3, reppull,

repulsum

[pello]

/
3,

premo,

pressi,

n./ 1, press-

[re-primo]

reperio, 4, repperl, repertum, 133. re-plico, i, reg., 130. N.

132. a.

repo, 132. a, repsi, reptum, 132. a.

prendo, see prehendo.

prod-eo,
4, -ii,

re-primo,

3, -pressi,
-sivi,

-pressum [premo]
.

-itum, 144. d.
c.

re-quiro, 3,

-situm [quaero]

pro-fatus, 144.

re-sipisco, 3, -sipivl (-sipul),

[sapio],
.

pro-ficio, 3, -feel, -fectum.

re-spondeo,
a.

2, -di,

-sum [spondeo]
c.

pro-ficiscor, -I, profectus, 132. h, 167.

pro-fiteor, -eri, -fessus.

N.

restat (impers.), 146.

resto,
i, -stiti,
-i,
,

130. N.

pro-mineo,

-ere,

[-mineo].
pro-fill, 137.

revertor,

promo,

3,

-mpsl, -mptum, 132. a.

rldeo,

2,

reversus, 135. h (8. N.). risi, risum, 131, p. 120.

pro-sum, prod-esse,

rod5,

3, rosi,

rosum, 132.

a.

Index of Verbs.
rudo,
3, rudlvl,

447
,

rudltum, 132.
3, rupl,

d.
e.

sitio, 4, -Ivi,

166. d.

rumpd [KUP],

ruptum, 132.

sodrs (-si

and'"-.), 13. c.

ruo, 3, nil, rutum (ruitum) I23 ./132./

[dl-, cor-],

solco, solere, solitus, 131, 136.

solvo, 3, solvl, solutum, 132. 166. c. N.

124.

/,

saepio, 4, sacpsf, saeptum, 133.

salio, 4, salul
(salil),

sono,
[de-silio],

i,

-ui,-itum (fut. part, also -aturus),

124. a.
-Ivi,

saltum

130,

133salve, salvere, 144. f.

sopi5, 4,
sanxl, sanctum, 124. b. N.,
132. d.

-Itum, 123. a.
,

sancio [SAC]

4,

sorbeo, a.sorbul ( rarely sorpsl) sorptum (so also comps.), 131, i66./ N.

133.
sapio, 3, saplvl (sapul)
,

spargo, 3, sparsi, sparsum [ad-spergo],

,

132. a.

sarcio, 4, sarsl, sartum, 133. sario, see sarrio.

sperno,

3, sprevl,
c.

spretum,

9. d, 124. a.

N.

132.

sarpo, 3, sarpsl, sarptum, 132. a. sarrio, 4, -Ivi (-ul), -Itum. 133. sat-ago, 3, like ago.
satis-do, -dire, -dedl, -dStum, 130. N.

-spicio, 3, -spexl, p. 77. foot-n.

-spectum, 132. a, p. 86,

spondeo,
'st,

2,

for est (in

spopondl, sponsum [re-], 131. homost, etc.), 13. b.

scabo,

3, scabl,

133. e.

stabilio, 4, reg., 166. d.

scalpo, 3, scalpsl, scalptum, 132. a. , scateo, -ere or -ere, 134.

,

statuo, 3, -ul, 166. c.

-utum [con-stituo]

123. d,

scaturio, 4,

133.

scando,
132.
scin'

3,

scandi,

scansum [de-scendo],

sterno, 3, stravi, stratum, 9. d, 86, 124. a. N.

sterto, 3, stertul (stertl) , stimulo, i, reg., 166. a. 2.
,

132.

c, p.

/
,

132. c.

(= scisne) scind5 [SCID], N., 132. /.

128. d}.

13. c, see scio.

3, scidi,

sclssum, 124.

c.

-stinguo, 3,

sci5,4,-lvl,scltum; scin, 13.

sclsco, 3, scivl, scitum,

(scito, -tote,

-stinxl, -stinctum [only in comp., as ex-] 132. a. sto, stare, steti, statum (-stit-), 130, p. 14,
,

132.

c, 167. a.

foot-n. i, 118. N., 126. a, cf. constat., p. 120, p. 157. foot-n. [compounds,
I 3 o. N.]. strepo, 3, strepul, strepitum, 132. c.

scribo, 3, scrips!, scriptum,

n./ 2, 132. a.

sculpo, 3, sculps!, sculptum, 132. a. secerno, 3, -crevl, -cretum, 170. b.

seco,
I, -ul,

strideo, 2, stridl,
stride, 3, stridl,
,

131.

sedeo,
etc.;

2,

sectum (also secaturus), 130. sedl, sessum [dis-, pos-sideo,

,

132. f.

super-sedeo] 131. sens, 119. a (in praesens, absens).

sentio, 4, sensl,
sepelio, 4,

stringo, 3, strinxl, strictum, 132. a. struo, 3, struxl, structum, 132. a.

studeo,

2, -ul,

131. N.

sensum, 132. sepelM, sepultum, 133.

suadeo,

2, suasl,
risl,

suasum,

131.

sub-rideo, 2,
sub-struo,
c.
3,

sequor, -I, secutus (sequutus), 135. h. sero, 3, serul, sertum, entwine, 132. c.
sero, 3, sevi, satum, sow, 126.
c,

risum, 170. c. N. -struxl, -structum, 170. a.

c.

-suesco, 3, -suevl, -suetum, 132.

suf-fero,
s "go.
cf. tollo.

132.

serpo,
servo,

3, serpsi,
-Ivi,

servio, 4,
i,

serptum, 132. a. -Itum, 166. a. I. N. -avl, -atum, 166. a. I. N.

sultis

3 suxl, suetum (sugebo, p. 120). (= si vultis), 13. c (see volo).

esse, 123. e; ful,

sum,

119, 120.

N., 128. e.

6. sid5, 3, sidi (sedl), -sessum, 132. siem, sies, siet, sient, 119. b (see sum).

2, p. 119, p.

120, p. 121, 158.

i.

a (siem,

119. b;

fore,

147. c. 2; escit, escunt,

sile5, 2, -ul,

131. N.

singultio, 4,

-Ivi,

sino,

3,

slvl,

singultum, 133. situm, 121. N. i, 132. c

(siris, etc., 128. a. 2).

sisto [STA], 3, stiti, statum, foot-n. z, 158. z. 3.

132.

6, p. 14,

119. b\ forem, 119. b. N.; fuam, 119. b\ fuvimus, fuvisset, 119. b', ens, fsens, 119. a; homost, etc., 13. b). sumo, 3, sumpsl, sumptum, n. c 132. a. suo, 3, sul, sutum, see acu5. super-do, -dire, -dedl, -datum, 135. N.
t

448
super-fluo, 3,
super-sto,
,

Index of Verbs.
[fluoj.
130. N.

turgeo,

2, tursi,
, ,

131.

super-se^eo, like sedeo.

I, -stetl,
,

tussio,4,
ulciscor,

133.

super-sum, see I4 6.<;)_.

sup-plico,
i,

sum

(superest, impers.,

-T,

ultus, 135. h.
3,

ungo
surrectum, 132. a, 10.
166. b. N.
b.

(-uo) ,
3, ussi,

unxi, unctum.
,

reg., 130. N.

urgeo,
uro,
utor,

2, ursi,

131.

surgo,

3, surrexi,

ustum

(so comps.,

cf.

also

comburo),
tabeo, 2, -ul,
,

-I,

132. a. usus, 135. h.

taceo, 2, -uT, -itum, 131. taedet (impers.) -ere, taeduit,

,

pertaesum
,

est, 146. b.

vacat (impers.), 146. vado, 3, vasi, -vasum

vagip, 4,
-Ivi,
,

c.

[e-]

132. a, 144.

tango [TAG]
123, c._3,
c, e,

3, tetigi,

tactum [con-tingo]
122.
c,

133.
p.

132.

6.
;

veho,
123. b 124.
t

3,

vexl,

vectum, 132. a,

87.

tego, 3, texi, tectum

136.

b,

foot-n.
vello, 3, veil! (vulsi),

132. a, pp.

98-99.

vulsum, 132. /.
,

temno, 3, tempsi, temptum, 123. b. i, 132. a. tendo [TEN] 3, tetendi (-tendl), 132. 6
,
;

ven-do,

3, -didl,

veneo,

4, -Ivi,

-ditum, 258. b. R. -itum (be sold) 258.

b.

R.

venio, 4, veni,

ventum (come), 133,

p. 86.

tensum (tentum), 125. b. N. i. teneo (-tineo) 2, tenui, tentum [ob-tineo]

,

venum-do, -dare,
,

-dedi, -datum, 130. N.

131-

vereor, vereri, veritus, 135. N. , 132. vergo, 3,

,

tergeo, 2, tersT, tersum, 131.

tergo,
tero,
2, tersi,

verro, 3, verri, versum, \yz.f.

tersum, 132.
tritum,
132.

a.

3,

trivl,

(con-,

n.

verto (vorto, 10. d), 3, verti, versum, 132. /; mid., in. a, 124. e.
vescor,
-I,
,

/a).
tex5, 3, texui, textum, 132.
c.

135.

i.
t

timeo,

2, -ul,

131. N.
3, tinxl,

vcsperascit (impers.), 146. a 167. a. veto, i, -ui, -itum, 130.

b.

tingo (tinguo), N. i, 132. a.

tollo, 3, sustull,

tlnctum, 125.

video,

2, vidi,

visum, 131.

videor,-erl,vlsus (seem) (videtur, impers.,

tinnio, 4, reg., 133.

146.^).
[at-tollo]
,

sublatum

132.

vieo, 2,

-etum, 131.

/N.
tondeo,
tono,
2,

vigilo, i, reg., 166. a. 3.

totondl, tonsum, 131.

vin

i, -ul,

-itum, 124.

c,

130.

(= visne, see volo), 13. c. vincio, 4, vinxi, vinctum, 122. d,

vinco [ViC]
,

133.

tortum, 131. torreo, 2, torruT, tostum, 131. traho, 3, traxi, tractum, 132.

torqueo,

2, torsi,

3, vici, 3, visi,

vlso

[VID],

victum, 132. <?. visum, 132. /, 167.

(traxe,

tf.N.

128. b).

vivo, 3, vixi, victum, 132.

(vlxet, 123. b).

132 c. tribuo, 3, tribul, tributum, cf. acuo. trudo, 3, trusi, trusum, 132. a.
tremo,
3,

tremuT,

voco,

i, -avl,

-atum, see p. 87. foot-n., p.

tueor.-eri.tuitus (tutus), 135.^ [in-tueor]. 166. b. tumeo, 2,

, ,

157. foot-n. (vocarier, 128. e. 4). volo, velle, volui, 123. <?, 128. e. 2 (vult, 123. e ; sultis, 13. c\ vin, 13. c).

tundo [TUD]

3,

tutudi,
6.

tunsum (-tusum)

[ob-tundo], 132.

volutum, 132. / vomui, vomitum, 132. voveo, 2, vovi, votum, 131.

volvo,
3, volvi, 3,

vomo,

c.

INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS.

NOTE.
page

(p.) is referred to.

The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which The letters refer to subsections. The letter N. signifies Note;
=*

th
R.,

adverb; apod. =* adj. adjective; apodosis; app. = appositive; comp. = comparison or compound; compar. = comparative; constr. = construction; conj. = conjugation or conjunction; dat. = dative; gen. = genitive; gend. = gender; ind. disc. = indirect discourse; loc. = locative; prep. = preposition; subj. =. subject or subjunctive; vb. = verb; w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty.)
ablative;
ace.

Remark.

Abl.

accusative;

adv.

A,
ft

tity

quantity in increment, 350, 351 of a final, 348. 4.

suffix, 160. c. i.

quan-

freedom,

etc.,
e.

id.

c\

w.

opus and

usus,

id.

Source and material,

or o, Indo-Eur. vowel, p. 142. foot-n. ;

primary

&, characteristic of decl. I., 32; ace. of Gr. nouns in, 63. /; as nom. ending, decl. III., gend., 65. c t 67. d. 5, in decl. I., 32; stem-vowel of conj. I.,
122, 123, 126. a t 166. a\ in subjunctive, 126. b-d\ preps, in -a, adv. use of,

261. d.

244; w. participles, id. a; w. c5nstare, etc., id. c\ w. facere, id. d\ w. nouns, id. e. Cause, 245 w. dignus, etc., id. a causa, gratia, id. c. Agent, 246. Comparison, 247 opini6ne, spe, etc., id. b\ w. alius, id. d\ w. advs., id. <?. Manner, 248 accompaniment, id. a\ means, id. c\ w. dono, etc., 225. d\ w. utor, fruor,
;
; ;

(ab, abs), use, 152. b 153, 260. b, 263 vbs., 170. a\ with abl. of agent, 246; with place from which, 258 with names of towns, id.
t

etc.,

249.
. . .

Degree of
eo, 106.
252;
c,

compounded with
;

quo
251;

difference, 250; 250. R. Quality,

price,

charge or penalty,

expressing position, 260. b ; in comp., with dat., 229; with abl., 243. b\ with abl. of gerund, 301. in apod., Ability, verbs of, constr., 271
a. N. I
;
;

308:

c.

Abbreviations of praenomens, other abbreviations, p. 428.

80.

d\

ABLATIVE, Etymology; meaning, 31. /; in -abus, 36. e\ in -d, 36. / 40.^, 62.
h\ of i-stems, decl. III., 55. e\ rules of form, 57 nouns having abl. in -I, 57. a, b\ of decl. IV., in -ubus,
a, 70.
;

Place, 254; w. verbs and fretus, id. b. Ablative absolute, 255 adverbial use, id. c\ replacing subord. clauses, id. d\ supplying place of perf. act. part., 290. d, Abl. of time, 256; of time w. quam, 262, N. 2; of place from which, 258; names of towns, domus, rus, id. a\ ex urbe Roma, id. b, N. 3; Locative abl., id. e,f\ way by which, \&.g\ with
Specification, 253.
;

220. b.

transitive

compounds,

239. b.

N.

i;

70. d\ abl. used as supine, 71. a\ of adjs., decl. III., %j.a,b\ prepositions

time within which, 259. c\ distance of Abl. with prepositions, time, id. d. en -. 152. b, c, 260-63 w tn ex f r P art
1 '

followed by, 152. b\

cf, 148. f, cf.

adverbial forms

216. c\ with pro (in defence of), 236. R. ; with palam, etc., 261. b\ abl. of

N.

/3.
;

gerund, 301
;

equiv. to pres. part.,

248. c

id.

foot-n. ABLATIVE, Syntax ( 242-255) mean(See N., p. 245.) ing and classification, 242 and N. Abounding, words of, w. abl.,

w.

Separation, 243; w. vbs. of freedom, w. comp., id. b ; w. adjs. of etc., id. a

;

gen., 223. Absence, vbs. of, w. abl., 243. a.

450
Absolute use of

Index of Words and Subjects.

ad
w. refert,
etc.,

vb., 175. b. N. 2, 237. N. ; absolute case, see abl. absolute.

propius,

etc., 261.

w. pridie, ; a ; ace. of gerund,

222. b
a.
of, constr.,

Abstract nouns, gend., 29. 2; in pi., 75. c\ endings, 163. b e,f; w. neut. adj., 187. c, 189. a, b\ abstract quality det

300; of anticipation, 334. c\ subject in

indirect discourse, 336. and Accusing and acquitting, vbs.

noted by neut.

adj., 189. a.

220.

absum,

constr., 231. a.
36.
<?.

-abus, in dat. and abl. pi., decl. I., ac, see atque ac si, see acsi.
;

acer, decl., 84. a\ comp., 89. -aceus, adj., ending. 164.^.

acies,
decl., 74. d.
abl., 254. b.

a.

Acatalectic verse, 359. a.

acquiesce, with
of, id. d.

accedit ut,
Accent, rules
142. b

332.
of,

acsl, with subjunc., 312.

19
;

marks

N.

Actions, names
217.

of,

193 ; nouns

of,

w. gen.,

in decl. II., 40. b\ in

;

comps. of facio,

acceptum,

musical, 358. 292. N. 2.

Active voice, 108.

177. a.

a,

in; change to pass.,

Accidents, p. 163, foot-n. 2. accidit, synopsis, 145 constr., 332. a.

;

accing-5,
etc.,

accommodatus,
Accompaniment,

cons*r., 225. d, w. dat.

nouns denoting, 163. c. acus, gender, 69. a. -acus (-acus), adj. ending,
Acts,

164. c.

of gerund,
orig.

ad, use,

152. a, 153; in

comp., 170. 0;

299. foot-n. abl. of, 248. a\

separate case, p. 245.

w. ace. to denote penalty, 220. c\ in comp., w. dat., 228, 229 ; in comp., w, ace., 228. a\ w. ace. w. adjs., 234. b\

Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjunc., 332. ACCUSATIVE, Etymology, 31. d\ in -m and -S, 33. c origin of -m, p. 205 in
;

end of motion,
of towns, 258.

258,
b.

cf.

225. b\ w.

N. 2; w.

-im, decl.

58 in -a, 63. /; ace. of decl. IV., used as supine, 71. a neut. ace. used as adv., 148. d, cf. N. a\ fern, used as adv., id. e.
;

III., 56. a, b\ in -Is (pi.),

countries, 258. N. 2; 259. f\ in expressions of time, id. b \ following its noun, 263. N. ; w. gerund,

names names of meaning near,

300.

adamas,

decl., 63. e.

ACCUSATIVE, Syntax, 237-40 (see notes additur, constr., 332. pp. 205, 235); w. verbs of remembering, adeo (verb), constr., 228. a. 219 and a, b and gen. w. vbs. of remind- adeo ut, 319. R. -ades, patronymic ending, 164. b. ing, id. c w. impersonals, 221. b, 237. e w. dat., 225 w. compounds of ad, ante, adimo, constr., 229. ob, 228. a verbs varying between ace. Adjective phrase, 179. of end of motion and dat., 225. b w. Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. ad, for dat., 234. b\ after propior, ADJECTIVES, Etymology. Definition, 25. etc., id. e; direct object, 177, 237; w. b; formed like nouns, p. 47; stems, id. foot-n. i. Declension, 81-87 decl. I. iuvo, etc., 227. a; ace. or dat. w. vbs., and II., 81-83; decl. III., 84-87; decl. 227. b, c\ ace. w. verbs of feeling and one taste, 237. b, c; with comps. of cirIII., three terminations, 84. a\ cum and trans, id. d\ cognate ace., termination, 85. Comparison, 89-91; decl. of comparative, 86. a advs. de238; two accusatives, 239; ace. w. rived from adjs., 148; numeral adjs., pass, of verbs of asking, etc., 239. R.
; ; \ ;
;

adverbial use

of,

240. a, b
id.

synecdochid.

94, 95
88.

derivative adjs., 164.

use.

ical ace., id. c\ in

exclamations,
e,

d\

ADJECTIVES, Syntax and

As

advs.,

duration and extent, end of motion, 258

;

256, 257;

domus, rus, id. b; Romam ad urbem, id. N.3; ace. w. ante diem,
259. e subject of inf., 173. 2, 240. f, 272, 330; w. prepositions, 152. a. c; w. ad or in to denote penalty, 220. b. 3 w.
;
;

names of towns,

92), 148. d, e, 191; as nouns 88. a, 188, 189, 218. d\ masc. adjs., 88.
(cf.

b\ adjs. of

com. gend.,

used as

adjs., 88. c t 188.

as adjs., 188. e\
adjs., 291.

88. b\ nouns d, advs. used participles used as

adjs., 186,

Agreement of

187; attribute and predicate, 187. a, b\

of Words
use of neut.
tives with adjs., 185
;

and
af finis,
218. d.

Subjects.
decl.,

45'
constr. w.
gen.,

two comparaAdjs. w. ad-

57. b\

quam,

192.

verbial iorce, 191 ; adj. pronouns, 195203. Gen. of adjs. of decl. III. instead

Affirmative, expressed

by two negatives,

of nom., 214. d. R. Adjs. w. part, gen.,

218
inf.,

w. dat., 234 w. ace., 237. /; w. Po273. d\ w. supine in -Q, 303.

;

expecting affirm, answer, 210. c\ ways of saying yes, 212. and a. Affix, close and open, 24. N. Agency, nouns of, 162; rel. clause equiv150;
alent to, 201. b.

n5nne

sition of adjs., 344. a, b.

Adjective

phrase, 179. adiuv5, w. ace., 227. a.

Agent, dat.

admoduin, use, 93. <fc admonea, const r., 219.

Admonishing, vbs. of, Adonic verse, 371. 3.

w. gerundives, 232; w. a \ abl. of, 246 agent regarded as means, id. b\ animal as
of,

perf. parts., id.

c.

agent, id. N.

constr., 330. 2,331.

adspergS,

constr., 225. d.

adfllor, constr., 227. b. Adverbial ace., 240. a, 6, cf. 238. a. N. Adverbial conjunctions, 25. h. N. Adverbial phrases, 148. N. 9, 179.

ager, decl., 38. aggredior, constr., 228. a. Agnomen, 80. b. agS, forms of, omitted, 205.
Agreeing, verbs (cf. 331- d}.
of,

c.

with gerundive, 294.

of,

Agreement, 181; forms

182; of nouns,

ADVKRBS,
adjs., 88.

defined, 25.

/; formed from
;
;

d and N., 92, 148 case-forms or phrases, p. 123. N. comparison of ndvs., 92; numeral ad vs., 96; correla197; of relatives, 198, 199'; of verbs, tive advs. used as conjs., 107, 208. d. 204, 205. Classification of advs., 149 correlative -al for -ae, decl. I., 36. a ; 347. a. 2. forms of advs. of place, 149. foot-n. -aius in Prosody, 347. d, note i.
;
;

183; in appos., 184; in predicate, 185; of adjs., 186; of demonstrative pronouns, 195; of possessive pronouns,

adjs., 188. e\ adjs. w. -al and -ar, neuters in (decl. III.), 53. c, adverbial force, 191 adverbial ace., 57. a, 67. a. adverbial abl. abs., 255. c. -al, ending, 164. /. 7 list of nouns in, p. 240. a; Special uses, 150, 151. SYNTAX, 207; 30. foot-n. i. adv. w. nouns, 207. d part. gen. w. alacer, decl., 84. a comp., 91. d. advs., 216. a. 4; dat. w. advs., 234. albus, not compared, 89. N. a; comp. of adv. followed by quam, Alcaic verse, 371. 9, 10. adv. as protasis, 310. a. Alcmanian strophe, 364. a. 247. e Adversative conjunctions, 154. a, 2, 155. -ale, noun-ending, 164. i. 7 list of nouns

Advs. used as

ad versus,

152. foot-n. as adv., 261. d.

i
;

w. ace.,
of, 16.
c.

id.

in, p. 29, foot-n. 2.

all-,

ae, diphthong,

sound
pi.,

N. 3, 12.

c.

alienus,

old stem, 83. foot-n. for possessive gen. of alius,

decl.,

aedes, aeger,

sing,

and

78.

83. b t 190, 214. a.

decl., 82. c.
b.

aliqul (-quis),

105.^; derivation
b.

aemulor, constr., 227. Aeneades, decl., 37. Aeneas, dec!., 37.

aequalis,
2;8. d.
decl., 57. a

and use, id. N. ; meaning, 202. a, aliquot, indeclinable, use, 106. a.

-alls, -aris, adj. endings, 164. d.

constr. w. gen.,

alius, decl., 83 and foot-notes; gen., id. a \ compounds, 83. b alius , cf. 214.
;

aeque aequo

ac, 234.
(abl.),

a. N. 2.
b.

w. comp., 247.

aequor,

decl., 49.

aer, decl., 63. /; use of pi., 75. b. aes, decl., 67. b use of pi., 75. b. aetas, decl., 54.
;

ac, nisi, quam, 247. d. alius . . . alius, alter . . . alter, 203. Alphabet, p. i vowels and diphthongs, i consonants, 2 table of vowels and consonants, 2, 5 early forms of letters,
with
abl.,
;
;

6,7.

aether,

decl., 63.

Affecting, ace. of, p. 235.

alter, decl., 83; gen. and comps., id. b\ use, 203 reciprocal use, 99. d, 203.
;

452
.

Index of Words and Subjects.

Antithesis, 344. yC

alter . . alter, 203. altera est res ut, 332, foot-ru alteruter, decl., 83. b use, 203.
;

anus,
a.
e.

gend., 69. a.
adjs. in, 164. c.
hist, perf.), 115. c. 2, 279.

-anus,

Although, how expressed, 313, 320. alvos (alvus), gend., 39. a.

Aorist (=

am-, see amb-.

apage, 144. / a parte, 242. N.;

apertus, comp.
e.

260. b.
of, 89. e.

amb170. b

(am-, an-), inseparable

\

prefix,

-am, adv. ending,

148. N.

ambages, decl., 59. ambo, decl., 94. b. amens, decl., 87. a. amplius, without quam, 247. amussim, ace., 56. 77. 2.
,

apis, decl., 59. Apodosis, defined, 304; introduced bycorb and N. may be subord., id. c forms of, 305, 306 ff. potential subj., 311. a and R. subj. of modesty, id. b\ verbs of necessity, etc., id c complex
rel., id.
;

c.

amb-. an, anne, annon,

an-, see
211.

in

double questions,
suffix, 160.
/i.

apod., id. d\ apodosis omitted, 312; apod, in Ind. Disc., 337. Appointing, verbs of, constr., 239. a.

an

(in,

on), primary

Anacrusis, 355. g. Anapaest, 356. b\ anapaestic verse, 360,

374. a.

Anaphora, 344.

anas,

f. decl., 67. d.

anceps, decl., 87. a. Anchises, decl., 37.

Andromache,

decl., 37.

Apposition, see appositive. Appositive, defined, 184; agreement of, 183, 184. b\ w. locative, id. c\ gen. as appositive to possessive, id. d, 197 e gen. used for app., 214. f, so dat., 231, b rel. clause equivalent to appositive, 201. b ace. as app. to a clause, 240. g\ appositive instead of voc., 241. a; app. in connection with inf., 270. N. 2.
; ; ;

-aneus, adj. ending, 164.^. animal, decl., 52. Animals, gend. of names of,
b
\

aptus ad,
gerund,
29. 2, 30, id.
b.
c.

etc.,

234. b\ aptus, w. dat. of aptus qui, 299, foot-n.

;

320.7.

animi
Anio,

regarded as means, 246. (loc.), w. adjs., 218.

c.

N.
R.
;

apud,
w.
c. 2.

152. a N. 2.

use, 153

in quoting, 258.

verbs, 223.

decl., 67. b. decl., 57. a,

annalis,

aqualis, decl., 57. a. -ar, norn. ending, decl. III., 51. c, 53. c, 57. a p. 30, foot-n. i gend., 65. c, 67. a.
;
;

Answers, forms of, 212. ant, primary suffix, 160. stem endings, 63. e,

-ar, -aris,
;

nouns

in, 67. b.

ant-, ent-,

arbor
arced,

(-os), decl., 48. d.

constr., 225. d. N. 2.

ante,

uses, 153; compounded w. vbs., 170. a] in compounds, w. dat.,

152. a;

Archilochian verse, 368.

228, w. ace., id. a-, adverbial use of, 261. d; followed by quam, 262.

arctus, gend., 39. a. arcus, gend., 69. a. ardeo, w. abl., 245. a.

2.

ante diem,

259.

e.

Antecedent, its use with relative, 198, 200; undefined, constr., 320; see indefinite antecedent.

-aria, suffix, 164. /. 2. -aris, adj. ending, 164. d.

antecedo,

constr., 228. a.

anteeo, constr., 228. a. antegredior, constr., 228.

Antepenult,
N.
2.
e.

-arium, noun ending, 164. /. 3. -arius, adj. ending, 164. h noun, Aristophanic verse, 371. 2. Arrangement of words, 343-46.
;

id.

i. i.

a.

Arsis
Arts,

19. def.

and thesis, 358 and foot-n. names of, decl. I., 37. b.
decl., 70. d.

antequam,

327

in ind. disc., 336. B. a,

artus,

Antibacchlus, 356.
Anticipation, ace. nom., id. R.

of,

334. c\

becomes

as, primary suffix, 160. IT -as, in ace. pi. of Gr. nouns, -as, old gen. ending, 36. b

63.7
;

67. c.

Gr. nom.
164.

ending,

63.

e\

patronymic,

b:

Index of
gend. of nouns
as,
clecl. 67.
:

ir<>rds

and

Subjects.
decl., 57. a.
b.

453

-as, -fttis, in, 65. b 67. d, see at-; adjs. in -us, 164. c.

baccar,

value

of,

377

gen.

of,

B.urliiac verse, 374. Dacch'ius, 356. d.

252. b.

-bam,

Asclepiadic verse, 371. 5, 6. Asking, vbs. of, w. two ace., 239. c\ w. abl., 239. c. N. i; w. subjunc. clause,
331.

tense-ending, p. Bargaining, verbs of, constr. 294. d\ clause, 331. d.

;

gerundive,

Base, p. 13, foot-n.

2, 31.

/.

N.

Aspirates,

-assere,

2. a, 3. in fut. perf., 128. e.

basis, decl., 64. Beginning, verbs

a.

of, constr., 271.

Assertions, direct, in Indie., Assibilation, 12. N.

HI.

Believing, verbs of, with dat., 227. belli, locative use of, 258. d.

bellum,

decl., 38. d. 2.

Assimilation of consonants, ii./ assis, gen. of value, 252. b.

bellus, comp., 91.

-asso, -assere, in ast, 156. b.

fut. perf., 128, e. 5.

Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen., 234. d. bene, comparison, 92; compounds

constr., 227.
e.

of,

-aster, as noun ending, 164.

/'.

12.

Benefiting, verbs

of, constr.,

227.
a.

astus, defect., 77. 3. Asyndeton, 208. b, 346.

At,
\

c.

-ber, names of months in, decl., 84. bi-color, decl., 87. d,f.
;

meaning near, 258. c. N. i. at, use, 156. b at enim, id. 208. e.

87.
.

at vero,
;

85. b. N. -bilis, verbal adj.-ending in, 164. tn.

bi-corpor,

bipennis,
decl.,

decl., 87. b.

at-, patrial stem-ending, 54. 3

59

ater,

decl., 82. c

not compared, 89. N.

Birds, gend. of names of, 29. 2. Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 164. b parts, of, with abl., 224. a.
\

Athos,
Atlas,

decl., 43.

decl., 63. e, 64.

-bo, tense-ending, pp. 119, 120. bonus, decl., 90; w. dat. of gerund,
;

etc.

atque

(ac), use, 156. a; after adjs. of likeness, 234. a. N. 2 after alius,

247. d.

299. foot-n. bos, decl., 60. b, 61.

bri-, stems ending in, 51. b\

84. a.

adjs. in,

atqul, use, 156. b. atrox, decl., 85. a.

Attraction of case of relative, 199. a. Attraction, subjunctive of, 340, 342. Attributive adjective defined, 186.

-brum,

suffix, 163. d.
in, 67. c.

-bs, nouns
a;

-bulum, suffix, 163. d. -bundus, verbals in,

*37-/ buris, decl.,
Buying, verbs
56. a.

164.

/; w.

ace.,

number,

186. d\ takes

gender of near-

est noun, 187. a. -atus, adj. ending, 164. f.

of, constr.,

252. d.

at vero,
aula,

208. e. 92.

audacter, comp.,
decl., 37.

C
91.
rf.

for

gf,

in early

6
N.

for

qu, 7

use and as abbreviation, gend. of nouns in -c, 65.

aureus, not compared,

c\ quantity of final syllables

ending

in,

ausus

as pres. part., 290. b. aut, use, 156. c\ 212. R. autem, use, 156. b, k\ 345. b.

348. 10.

caedes,
caeles,

decl., 59.
decl., 87. b.

Authority in Prosody, p. 394. Author w. apud, 258. c. N. 2.

caelum,
Caere,
/;

with masc.

pi., 78.

b.

decl., 57. a.

avis, decl., 57. b. -ax, verbal adj. ending, 164.

caesius, comp.,
adjs. in,

91. d.
,

with gen., 218. b. -ax, nouns in, 67. e. AYA, as origin of verb-forms, 123. footn.
i.

Caesura, 358. b\ masc. and fem. 362. R. ; bucolic caesura, id.

Calendar, Roman, 376. Calends, 376. a.

calx,

decl., 77. b.

454

Index of Words and Subjects.

Ceasing, vbs.
112. b. N.
of,

campester, decl., 84. a. Can, how expressed in Lat.

canalis, decl., 57. b. cards, decl. and stem, 47. c, CAP, root, 45. a. Capacity, measures of, 383.
220. a.

w. complem.
N. 2.
a.

inf.,

271.

cedo, constr., 226. celeber, decl., 84.

51. a.

celer, forms, 84. a, c. celo, w. ace., 239. d. Celtiber, decl., 41. d.

capitis, gen., with verbs of accusing,

censeo,
212. a.

constr., 331

and

d.

certe, certo, use,

151. c\ in answers,

caput, decl., 46. Capys, decl., 63. g, 64. carbasus, gend., 39. a
Cardinal numbers,
tributives, 95
b,

plur., 78. 2. b.

cete, Greek pi., 39. b. cetera, 82. d\ adverbial use, 240. b\

-us, use, 193
;

94.,
d.\
c.

replaced by disinflection of id.

-I,

use, 203. a.

ceu,

use, 312.
ad., ending, 164.^.

a-e

with ex., 216.

-ceus,

care, comp., 92. card, decl., 61. carus, compared,

Characteristic, clause

89.

of, 320. Characteristic, expr. by participle, 292. Characteristic vowel, 32, 351.

Case-constructions, N., p. 205. Case-endings, 31. i. N. ; final vowels

33- g'> table, 34.

in,

Case-forms, words defect, in, 77. Cases, denned, 31 position of modifyng

;

Charge and penalty, gen. chelys, decl., 63. g, 64. Chiasmus, 344. f, and N. Choliambic trimeter, 365.
Choosing, vbs.
of,

of,

220.

c.

case, 344. a. 2

agreement
of, p.
;

origin
rel.

and meaning

pron., 198, 199. a as before certain conjs., 208. a.

in, 183 205 case of same case after

;

w. 2 ace., 239. a. Choriambic verse, 370. N.

Con-

Ckoriambus, 356. e. ci and ti, interchange of, 12. a. -cinium, noun ending, 163.^

struction of Cases, 213-263; Genitive,

cinnabar!,

indecl. 67. a.

213-223 Dative, 224-236 Accusative, 237-240 Vocative, 241 Ablative, 242255 time and place, 256-259 cases with preps., 260, 258. foot-note.
;
;

-Cio, diminutive ending, 164. a. R. Cip-, stems in, decl. III., 45. a.

circa, circum, circiter, use, 152.

153
;

a,

as advs., 261. d.
after

cassem, decl., 77. 5. castrum, castra, 78.

Catalectic verse, 359. a.

circa,
c.

a noun, 263. N.

w. gerund,

300.

circum, compounds w.
245. c; w. gen. of
dat. w.

vbs.,
;

causa, w. gen.

223.

e,

such comps., 228

170. a; ace., 237. d.

gerund, 318. Causal clauses, w. indie, or

quia (cf. quando,

id.

N. 3), N. 3

circumdS, constr., 225. d. quod, Circumflex accent, 19. N. quoniam, 321; w. circumfundo, constr., 225.
subj.,
;

d.

w. qul, 320.

<?;

with

Circumstances of act, 255 and

ticiple implying, 292. cis, citerior, 91. a.

d.

par-

/; n5n quia, non quod, etc., in the denial of a reason, 321. R. causal clause replaced by part., 292 by

cum,

id.

abl. abs. 255. d. 2.

Causal conjunctions, 154.

particles, 321. Cause, abl. of, 245.

a, 3,

155. c;

Cities, gend. of names of, 29. 2 and citra, after its noun, 263. N. civis, -es, decl., 51. a.

b.

clades,

clam,

decl., 59. constr., 261. c.

of,

Cause, adverb of, 149. c. Caution and effort, vbs. of, constr., 331. e. cave, in prohibitions, 269. a\ ne omitted after, 331.

Classes, names in plu., 76. 2.

gend.

of, 28.

d\ used

R.

Clauses, denned, kinds of, 180; replaced by abl. abs., 255. d\ used as nouns,
214. d\ dependent, syntax of, 316-342
incl.

caveo, constr., 331. -ce, enclitic, 100 and foot-n., 101. a

foot-n,

and

conditional, 316; final, 317, 318

319,

consecutive,

320;

causal,

321;

Tndr.v of

Words and

Subjects.

455

temporal, 322-328; substantive, 329339 incl. infinitive clauses, 330; substantive clauses of purpose, 331 of result, 332; indie, with quod, 333; in; ;

Comparison, particles of, tamquam, quasi, etc., constr., 312. Complementary infinitive, 271 has no subject, id. N. pred. noun or adj.
; ;

direct

questions, course, 335-342.

334;

indirect

dis-

after, id. e

inf.

partly subject, partly

b.

complementary, 270.

Clavis,

decl., 57. b.
(fern,

Completed
c.

Clienta

form), 28. b\ 85.

14. d.

action, tenses of, 115; how formed, 126. g\ in the pass., 147. b;

f
t

Close syllables,

use

of,

279.
constr., 248. c. R., 223.

coepl, 143. a. Cognate ace.,

240. a.

compleo,
148. d. N., 237. c. N., 238,

Complex Complex

conditional sentences, 311. d. sentence, 180. b.

86. b.
decl., 87. b, d.
all word-formation a pro140; comp. to express rela-

Cognomen, 80. a. Collective noun with

COlus, gend.,

complures, compluria,
pi. verb, 205. c. decl., 78. i. a.

compos,
cess

com-

69. a\ (con-), compounded w. vbs., 170. a\ such take dat., 228. Combinations of words, 13.
decl., 37.

Composition,
of, p.

tions of words, pp. 205, 235.

cornetes,

comitium, comitia,
comitor,

words, assimilation in, n./; defined, 168; how formed, 168-170. Commanding, vbs. of, w. .dat., 227; w. inf., 330. 2 and b. 2; w. subj., 331. a Compounds of preps., w. dat., 228 of at), de, ex, 229; w. ace., 237. d, 239. d\ 0*332. A). Commands, expressed by imv., 269; for quantity of, 354. c. condition, 310. b\ in indir. disc., 339; con-, see com-.

79. c. constr., 227. b. Command, see Imperative; in hortatory subj., 266.

Compound Compound Compound Compound

142. a, b.

sentence, defined, 180. stems, imaginary, 164. r. suffixes, 160. b 161.

t

verbs, 170;

comps. of facio,

Compound

in informal ind. disc., 341. a.

Conative
277.
c.

present,

276.

b\

imperfect,

commiseror, w.

ace., 221. b.

committo lit, 332 and e. Common gender, 30; adjs. o f 88. b. Common syllables, 18. 347. d. commonefacio, -fio, constr., 219. c. commoneS, constr., 219. c. communis, w. gen., 218. d. commutare, constr., 252. c.
,

<?,

constr., 331 and c. Concession, hortatory subj. of, 266 and c (cf. 313. a, ') particles of, 313; quam vis, ut, ne, 313. a licet, id. b ;

concede,

etsl, etc., id. c\

cum,

id.

d\

quamindie.,

quam,
id.
;

id.

<?,

g\ quamvis, w.

vbs. of, w. ut, 331. c\ abl. abs.

Comparative conjunctions,
in conditions, 312.

154. b. 2, 155

for concess. clause, 255. d. 3 ; concession implied in part., 292; qul concessive, 320. e.

Comparative
148. d.

suffix, 89, foot-n

of advs.,

Comparatives,
neut. sing, of

decl.,

86;
adj.
;

stem, id. a\

Concessive clauses, see Concession. Concessive conjunctions, 154. b. 3, 155.

d,

comp.
of,

92

meaning
192;
;

93. a

used as adv., two comparpositive w.

;

g\

foil,

by

adversative, 156. b. N.
of,

particles,

use

313.

atives,

comp. and
abl. w.

Conclusion, see Apodosis.

comp., 247 quain w. comp., id. a\ compar. w. quam (ut), quam qul, 320. c, 332. b. Comparison, conjunctions of, 208. a.

quam, id.

Concords, the four, 182.

concors, decl., 85. b, 87. a. Condemning, vbs. of, constr.,

220.

Comparison

of adjs., 89; irregular, 90;

;

Conditional clauses, defined, 180. d. Conditional conjunctions, 154, b.

155- *

x,

w. magis and tnaxime, 89. d\ of advs., 92; prepositions implying, with quam, 262.
defective, 91

Conditional sentences, defined, 180. <f; development, 304, hcad-n. ; protasis

456

Index of Words and

; ;

Subjects.

and apodosis, 304 classification, 305 Consonant stems of nouns, decl. III., 44Pres. and Past, nothing implied, 306 50 stems apparently ending in two conFuture conditions, 307 fut. more vivid, sonants, 54. i cons, stems of adjs., 85
;

id. a, c

fut. less vivid, id. b,

consors, decl., 87. a. tion, id. b cf. c\ General condition, constare, w. abl., 244. c. 309; condition disguised, 310; as part., constituo, constr., 331. d. as exhortation or com- Constructid ad sensum. See etc., id. a;
;

indie, in fut. cond., id. e ; indie, in cont. to fact condifact, 308

t

c ; perf. Contrary to

case-forms, 87

of verbs, 166.

a. 3.
c. 2.

Consonant

suffixes (primary), 160.

Synesis,

tial

mand.id. ; protasis omitted,3ii PotenSubjunc., id. a\ Subjunc. of Mod;

Constructed praegnans, 238. b. Constructions of cases, 213-263 (see

esty, id. b

vbs. of necessity, etc., id. c

under

abl., etc.).

complex conditions, id. d\ Particles of consuevi, use, 279. e. Comparison (conclusion omitted) 312 consul, dec!., 49. Concessive clauses, 313 Proviso, 314 consularis, decl., 57. a. use of 81 and its comps., 315; condi- consulo, w. dat. or ace., 227. c. tional relative clauses, 316; temporal, Contention, words of, constr.,
, ;

229. c t

322, 327. b\

conditional sentences in

248. b.

ind. disc., 337.

contentus, w.
288.
e.

abl., 254. b

w. perf.

inf.,

Conditional Particles, 312. confldo, constr., 254 b. and N. Conjugation, denned, 26. Conjugation of verbs, 122-147 ; how distinguished, 122, a regular forms of, 125. c mixed forms, id. d\ parallel forms, 134; stemvowels of conjugations, 122-125; stems of the four conjugations, how modified, 126 ; paradigms of the four regular con\ \

continerl, w.

abl., 244. c, foot-n.

contingit ut,

332.

Continued action, tenses of, 115. Continuing, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 271.

contra,

derivation, 148. N. /3 ; use, 152. b as adv., 261 ; position, 263. N.

a, 153, 188. e. 2, 254.
;

jugations, pp. 92-105. Conjunctions, defined, 25.

classes of,
;

scm, 13. c\ gen. abl. in -is, 40. b. Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d.
in -I, dat.

Contracted forms, Vin,

and

156 correlative use, id. h\ conjs. repeated, id. SYNTAX of conjs., 208 omitted, id. b use together, id. <?.

154

list of,

155

use

of,

Contraction of vowels,
18. c\ in

10. b

quantity,

prosody, 347. c\ of syllables,

fact,

355- d.

Contrary to

conditions, 308

in ind.

Conjunctive adverb, 25. h. N. Conjunctive phrase, 154. N. 2. Coniuncfivus modestiae, 311. b.

disc., 337. b.

convenio, w.
Co-ordinate
p.
87,

ace., 228. a.

Connecting vowel
foot-n.

(so-called),

conjunctions, 154 a. 155. a-d\ co-ord. clauses, 180. a\ co-ord. words without conj., 208. b\ w. conj.,
id.

Connectives, relatives used as, i8o./

conor, w.
id.

inf.,

331.

e.

i;

cdnor

si,

Copula, 172.
344-

N.,

176.

a\

position

of,

N.

/
;

Consecutive clauses, defined, 180. e\ of Copulative conjunctions, 154. a. i, 155. charact. and result, 319, 320. a \ constr. after, 208 use of, 208. b. Consecutive conjunctions, 154.^.4, 155. i. Copulative verbs, 172. N., 176 a.

consequor ut,
consistere, w.

332.
abl.,

cor,
244.
c,

decl., 67. d, 77. 6.

decl., 49.

foot-n.,

corpus,

254 b. Consonants, classification, 2; changes, ii omission, id. b\ insertion, id. c\

;

Correlatives, 106, 107; rendered by ast 106. b \ by the . . . the, id. c advs. of
;

transposition, id. d, 124. a. N. ; dissimilation, n. e\ assimilation, id./; pro-

place, 149. a\ correlative in

clause, 317. a.

conjs., 156. h, 208.

d\

main

clause, w. final

nunciation, 16, 17.

cos,

decl., 77. 6.

of Words
Countries, names of, g'-ml., 29. 2 and / as end of motion, and place from which, 258. N. 2,
;

and
lie

Subjects.

457

verse, 360; hexameter, 363 ; ele-

-dam,

3'>j; other forms, 364. adverbi.-il ending, 148. N. t\.

'.iti/.a,

Crasis, 347. c.
decl., 63. ere be r, dccl., 82. c.

crater,

damnas, Daphne,
b.

indecl. adj., 87.7^

decl., 37.

credibill, w. comparative, 247.

Daphnis. decl., 63. *, 64. daps, defect., 77. 7 increment

;
.

of,

350.

credo,

position

of,

345.

c.

vl)s. of,

w. compl.

inf.,

271.

Cretic foot, 356. d\ verse, 374. Crime or charge, gen. of, 220.

c.

Dates, how expressed, DATIVE defined, 31. c\

259.

e,

376.

-crum, noun-ending,
crux,
decl., 77. 6.

163. d.

cucumis, decl., 56. a. cuicuimodi, 105. b. N.

cuias, cttius,

in -al, decl. I., 36. a; in -5,bus, decl. I., 36. e\ in -Is for -as, decl. II., 40. b\ in -ubus, decl. IV., 70. d\ in -I (of anus, etc.), 83;

as adv., p. 123. N. y.

cuiusmodl, -culum, noun

105. 215. a.

DATIVE, Syntax, 224-236.

ject,

-culus, dim. ending,

suffix, 163. d. 164. a.

cum, quom
ing,
t

(conj.), form, io4./; mean. . . turn, 107, 156. 156.^; h 208. d\ with clause for part., 290. c,

cum

326. b\

causal, 321;

concess., 313.

d\ causal or conces., 326; temporal, 322, 325 ; sequence, 287. e. N. ; in ind.

cum

disc., 336. B. a. N. 2.

(prep.), 152. b\ joined as enclitic with pronouns, 99. e, 104. c, e ; use of,

Irfdirect ob224; uses of, id.; with transitives, 225; use of donS, etc., id. d; with intransitives, in pass., 225. e; 226; with phrases, id. a; like gen., id. b\ with intransitives, verbs meaning favor, etc., 227 verbs having dat. or ace., 227. c\ with verbal nouns, id. d\ with comps. of satis, etc., id. e\ with comps. of prep, ad, ante, with comps. of ab, de, ex, etc., 228 229; poetic use, 229. c\ with passive
; ;

153; in comp., see com; with plur. adj., 186. d. N. ; with plur. verb, 205; with abl. of manner, 248 ; with abl. of accompaniment, 248. a ; with words of
contention, 248. b\ with words of ex-

used impersonally, 230. Of Possession, 231 ; with comps. of esse, id. a with nomen est, id. b. Of Agency, 232.
;

change, 252. c\ w. abl. of gerund, 301.

Of Service, 233 ; with adjs. or adverbs. 234 ; with adjs. of fitness, etc., 234. a with similis, id. R. Of Reference, 235 ethical dat., 236. With words of con\ ;

-cumque, added
N.
;

to relatives, 105.

a and

temporal particles with, 322. -cundus, verbal adj. ending, 164. p. cup-, stem-ending, 45. a.

tention (poetic), 248. b. Of End of Motion, 258. N. i; w. infin., 272. a; dat. of gerund, 299. (Note on, p. 218.) Dativus commodl aut incommodl, 235. N.

cupio, constr., 331. b and N. euro, constr., 331; Ciira (imv.),

269.^.

de, use,
use,

152. b t 153; in comp. w. vbs., 170. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 229; in comp. w. vbs., w. abl., 243. b\ \v.

-cus, nouns
fix,

in, decl. IV.,

i.

70.^; -cus, suf-

159. N., 164.

9.

Customary action, 277, CUBtos, decl., 67. d.

309. b.

instead of part, gen., 216. c\ w. vbs. of reminding, 219. c. N. ; w. abl. to denote the crime, 220. c\ w. place
abl.

from which, 258 position of de, 263. N. ; de w. abl. of gerund, 301.

;

changed to 8, n. a. 2; -d. final anciently t, 12. c\ -d in abl., decl. I., 36. /; decl. II., 40. <f; decl. III., 62. a; decl. IV., 70. h\ ted, 98. i.e\

dea,

debe5,

decl., 36. e. in apod., 308. c.

debul, w.

pres.

inf.,

288. a.

med,

decerno,
decet, w.

constr., 331. d. 2.

-e in advs. originally -ed, 148. a. N.

-d as neut. pron. ending,

2
;

p. 49, foot-n.

ace., 237. e; in apodosis, 308. c.

w.

dat., id. N. 2;

loss of

-d., p.
\

245.

Dactyl, 356. b

cyclic, id. N.

i.itivisentence, 171. a\ pressed in ind. disc., 336.

how

ex*

458

Index of Words and

195
;

Sttbjects.
in relative clause, 201. e. N.

Declension defined, 26; characteristics terminaof, 32 ; general rules for, 33 II., 38tions, 34. Of Nouns, I., 35-37 43; III., 44-67; IV., 68-71; V., 72-74; decl. IV. compared with III., 68. N. ; decl. V. comp. with I., 74. b. Of Adjs.,
;

Po-

sition, 344. b.

denarius, value

of,

377.

decl. I.-IL, 81-83; decl. III., 84-85; of comparatives, 86 ; of participles, 85.

Denominative verbs, 165, 166. Dependent clauses, subj. used in, 265. 6. Dependent constructions, N., p. 227. Deponent verbs defined, in. b\ how
conjugated, 122. N,; paradigms, 135;
participles, id.
id.

a,b.

fut. inf., id.

used

Decreeing, verbs of, 331. d. dedl, as reduplicated stem, 117. N.

reflexively, 135. e\
;

in

passive sense,

quantity of penult, 351. b. Defective nouns, 75 ; in number, 76 ; in case-forms, 77 ; of decl. IV., 71. b\ of
decl. V., 74. d.

135.

/; list of irreg. deponent verbs, h\ defective deponents, id. i;

Defective adjectives, 82. d, 87. f. Defective comparison, 91.

Defective verbs, 143-144. Defective verb-forms, no, 143, 144.

semi-deponents, 136. Depriving, constr. with verbs of, 243. a. Derivation of Words, 157-170. Derivative forms of nouns, 162, 163; of
adjs., 164 ; of verbs, 166, 167, Derivative verbs, defined, 165.

Derivatives, quantity of, 354.

defendo,
deflcio,

constr., 227. a. constr., 227. a.

c. i,

-des, nouns
279; sequence
;

in, 164. b.

Definite perfect, 115.

of, 287. a.

Description, imperf. used in, 115. b\ scription implied in part., 292. Descriptive abl., see abl. of quality.
(in -urio), 167. w. gen., 218. a.
e.

Definitions of Syntax, 171-181

in

grammar,
ff.

rhetoric,

of figures deses, decl., 87. b. and prosody, Desiderative verbs

Desire, adjs.
of,

p. 429.

deflt, 142.

c.

despero,
of, 149. c.

constr., 227. b.

degener,

85. b. N., 87. a.

Degree, adverbs

deterior, comp. of, 91. d. Determinative compounds,

Determining, vbs.
dis-

168. b.

Degrees of Comparison, 89. Degree of difference, abl. of, 250;

of, constr.,

321. d.
90.

delude, denique,
151. d.

tance expressed by, 257. in enumerations,

deus, decl., 40. / dexter, decl., 82. b

di- see dis-.
Diceresis, 358.
c.

comp.

delectat, constr., 237. e. delecto, w. ace., 227. a. delector, w. abl., 254. b.

Deliberative subjunctive, 268; in indir.
questions, 334. b\ in indir. disc., 338. a. -ia, -iae, 78. 2. b, Delivering, vbs. of, w. genitive, 294. d.
a, cf. 67. b.
rj.

Diastole, 359. f.

die, imperative, 128.

c.

delicium,

dicionis, defect., 77. 5. dico, forms of, omitted, 206. c. dicto, w. comp., 247. b. -dicus, adjs. in, comparison of,

89. c.

Dido,

Delos, decl., 43. delphln, decl., 63.

diem
dies,
74-

decl., 63. A, 64. dlcere, w. dat. of

gerund,

etc.,

299. a.
decl.,

-dem,

adverbial ending, 148. N.

72; gender, 73; form dil

Demanding,

vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d.

Demonstrative adverbs, as correlatives, 107 ; equivalent to demonstr. pron. w.

prep., 207. a.

Difference, abl.
difficilis,

of, degree of, 250. constr., comparison, 89. b

;

Position, 344.

b.

303- Rdecl.,

Demonstrative pronouns, 100-102; 101 ; of ist person, 102. a of 2d

;

dig-nor, with

abl.,

245

a. 2.

pers.,

dignus, with

abl., 245.

with relative

id.

c : of

3d

pers., id. b

supply place
t

clause, 320. f.

of pers. prons.of 3d. pers., 194. c 195; formation, p. 65, luot-note. Syntax,

Dimexer, Iambic verse, 366. c. Diminutive endings, with comparatives.

<>f

]\'<in?s

an,/ Subjects.

450

89. f\ nouns verbs, 167. d.

and

adjectives, 164. a;

dummodo, 314, 328.

duo,
decl., 94. b.

din-, stem-ending,

48. b.
of, 16,

dupli, with
17; quan-

^detuning, 220.
of, 240.

a.

Diphthongs,
tity, 18. b,

i;

sound
b.

Duration, ace.
256. b.

et 256;

abl. of,

347.

Diptotes, 77. 3. Direct cases, y.. g. N. Direct object, 177, 237.

-dus, participle in. See Gerundive. Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 308. c.

dux,

decl., 46.

Direct question, defined, p. 201. Direct quotation, 335 and R.

e, inserted in decl.

II.,

42; abl. of neu-

Direct reflexive, 196.

Direction, 235.
b.

a. I.

/'.

ters in, 57. a, 3; final, quantity of, 348.

5;

dis- (dl), inseparable prefix, 170. b. Disjunctive conjunctions, 155. a\ case of

e, stem-vowel, conj. II., 122, 123. a, 126.^; e stem-vowel, conj. III., 122,
t

123. b, 126. c.

noun

after, 208.

e as adv. ending,
e.

148. a, c.

Dissimilation,

n.

dissimilis, comp., 89. 6. Distance, ace. or abl., 257.

259. d.

-e neuters in, decl. III. ,57. a, 65. c,(yj,a. -e, abl. of adjs. of 2 and 3 terminations,
b.
\

of time,
b.

84, b. N., 85, 87. a.

Distributive numerals, 95; use, 95 Distributive pronouns, 202. d, e.

e shortened in future, p. 89, e in stem of decl. V., 72. e (preposition). See ex.
-e, Gr. voc., 63. z; in

foot-n. 3.

diu, comp., 92.

gen. of decl. V., 74.

dives,

decl., 85. b t 87. d.

divum (divom), for deSrum, 40. /

d5, with inf., 273. a. do, adverbial ending, 148. N. rj. -do, nouns in, from st. din-, 48. b gend.,
;

in dat., id. -e for ae (oe), 12. c, 16. N. 3.

\

ea causa,
-ebus, 107. eae, 101. c.
p. 423.

317. a.
c.

65.*'

fyj.b.
d. N.

Early forms of alphabet, 6-7 ; of prosody,

doceo, constr., 239. c and doml, locative, 258. d.

ebur,
70. /; double

decl., 49.
etc.), 101. d.

domus,
stem

gend. 69. a

decl.,

ecce (eccum,
ecquis,
edico,

of, 70./; locative form, 70. 40, foot-n.

p.

decl., 105. Ecthlipsis, 359. d.

d\ meaning,

i.

domum, 258. id.

domo,

id. b.

constr., 331. d. 2.

donee, with ind. or subj., 328. dono, double constr. of, 225. d.
dos, decl., 54. 2. Double consonants, 3. a, 18. d. Double questions, 211; answers
212. b.

edo

(eat), conj., 140.

Effecting, verbs of, with perf. part., 271.

d\ with ut-clause, 332. h. efflcio ut, 332.

to,

effieri, 142.

c.

Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 319. Doubtful gender, 30. a.

d.

effigies, decl., 74. d. Effort, verbs of, with perf. part., 292. d\ with clause of result, 331. e.

Dual forms,

p. 60, foot-n.

Dubitative subj., see Deliberative.

dubito an,
quin,
id. N. 2.

210.
;

/ R. non
;

egens, decl., 85. egeo, constr., 223, 243.^

decl., 98.
inf.,

dubito ego,
ei,

332. <f. R.

non dubito, w.
c.
t\ \

due,

imperative, 128.

dum, derivation,

with present, with clause for pres. and perf. partic., 290. c, d w. subjunctive of proviso, 314,328; of time,
148. N.

diphthong, i; sound of, 16, 17. c. -eis, patronymic, 164. b. -eius, patronymic, 164. b. -eius, adj. ending, 164. c in Prosody
\

276. e\ with past, id.

347. d, N.

i. <,

eiusrnodl, 101. Electra, dec!

215.

32$

of purpose, 328.

Elegiac stanza, 363.

460
elephans,
-elis,
63. e.

Index of Words and Subjects.

ergo,
use, 156. e ; w. gen., 223. e.

-enus,

adj. endings, 164. c, d.

Elision, 359. c.
Ellipsis, 177. c. N.

Elliptical sentence, 177. c. N. ellum, etc., 101. d.

-erim, -ero, as tense-ending. -ernus, adj. ending, 164. <?. ero-, noun stems in, decl. II., 41 adj. stems in, 82. a.
ES, root of

-ellus, diminutive ending, 164. a.

eluvies, decl., 74. </ Emphasis, 344. -en, nouns in, 67. b\ -en, nouns en, w. demonstrative, 101. d.

in, id.

esse, n. a\ p. 83, note. pi. of Gr. nouns, 63. /; gend. of nouns in, 65. a. -s,-idis(-Itis); -es,-edis; -es,-edis; -es, -etis -es, -etis, nouns in, 67. d. -es, nom. ending, 67. a list of nouns in,
-es, in

nom.

Enclitics, accent, 19. c\ quantity, 348. i;

51, foot-n.;
163. a.

gend., 65. b\

formation,

104. c e; -met, -te, -pte, 99. /; -pse, 100. c, p. 67, foot-n. ; -quo, see under that word.
<?,
t

cum, 99.

-es, gen. of

Greek nouns

in, decl. II., 43.

End

of motion, ace.

of,
;

258

w. vbs. that
;

also take dat., 225. b

259. h.

dat. of, 258. N. i

two or more places as end of motion,

Endings, signification
161-167; en dings of verb, 117. 2, 118. See Personal Endings, and Terminations.
of,

gen. ending, decl. V., 74. a. esse, conj., 119; forms of, in other languages, p. 83, note; compounds of, 120; case after, 176. b\ dat. of poss.
\

w., 231; future part, w., 293. a, c\ position of forms of, 344. c j.
t

English derivatives from Lat., spelling of, 15 ; Eng. words cognate with Lat.,
id.

est, united with other words, 13. b est qul, 320. a est cum, 322. R. est ut, 33 2 a. 3.
\

Esteeming, verbs

of, constr., 239. a.

-ester (-estris),
/,

adj. ending, 164. e\

/'.

English method of pronunciation, 17.. enim, use, 156. d; position, 156.

345-

&
(or

12. noun-ending, 164. et, use, 156. a ; et . . et, 156. h peated or omitted, 208. b. i.
.

et

re-

-ensimus

-esimus), numeral
c.
. .

adj.

etenim,

use, 156. d, 208. e.

ending, 94. N. -ensis, gentile ending, 164.

Ethical dative, 236. etiam, use, 151. a; in answers, 212. a.

Enumeration,
151. d.

prlmum

deinde, etiamsi,

concessive, 313.
i
;

c.

etsi, use, 156.

313.

c.

-enus,

adj. ending, 164. c.

-etum, noun-ending,

164.

i.

8.

Envy, verbs of, w, dat., 227. eo, used w. supine in -um, 258.
302, R.

ETYMOLOGY,
R.,

-e us,

Euphonic Greek names

ing, 164. c,g,
i.

1-170. change, see Phonetic change.

in,

43

-eus (-eus),
;

eo, used with quo, 106. c\ w. compar., 250. R.; approaching abl. of cause,
250. N.

patronymic ending,
10.

164. b

adj. end-

evenit ut,

e5 consiliS

ut, 317. a. Epicene nouns, 30. b.

Epistolary tenses, 282.
decl., 37.
pi.

ex

332. (e), 152. b\ use, 153, 260. b, 244. a, R. ; in compounds, 170. a, 243. b abl. w., instead of part, gen., 216. c ; ex\

epitome,

epulum,

-ae, 78.

2. b.

pressing position, 260. b\ in vbs. w. dat., 229 ; to express place from which,

equester,

decl., 84. a.

er, primary suffix, see as. er-, stem-ending, 48. d, -er, nom. ending, decl. II., 41-43; decl. III., 48. c 53. b, 54. i gend., 65. a, 67. a, b ; -er in adjs., 82, 84. a ; comp. of
t ;

258 after its noun, 263. N. gerund, 301. -ex (-ex), nouns in, 67. e. excello, w. dat., 227. a.
;

w. abl. of

erga, w.

these, 89. a. ace. after adjs., 234.

Exchanging, vbs. of, 252. c. Exclamation, form of, 210. e. R.; ace. nom. in. in, 240. d\ w. infin., 274;
241.
c.

c.

I>K{<:\'

of Words and Subjects.

ace. in,
-for,

461
41
c.
;

Exclamatory sentences,
240. d\

171. c;
c.

compounds
conj., 139;

of,

decl., 82. b.

nom.
;.

in, 241. c.
-us,

fer, imperative, 128.

332.

fer5,
of,

acceptum (exp5r>
2.

-ner.il

expressions

320. a.
infin.

sura) ferre,
Festivals, plural

292. N.

exlex, defect.,
ting,

87.

/ 3.
etc.,

names

of, 76. i.

hoping,

vbs.

of,

w.

clause, 330.

/
292. N. 2.
abl., 245. a. 2.

-ficus, adjs. in, comparison fides, decl., 72.

of, 89. c.

expensum,
exspes,

fido (confidS), semi-deponent, 136;

with abl., 254.
b.

Explosives, sec Mutes.

exsilid, exsulto, w.
defect,

fldus, comp., 91.

d.

87./
b.

fieri, constr. with abl.,

^4.

d.

exsulto, w.

abl., 245. a. 2.

Fifth declension, 72-74.

exteri, use, 91. exterior, 91. b.

fig-ura
foot-n.
Filling,

etymologica,
;

344.

m.
c.

f ilia, decl., 36. e

fllius, voc., 40.

extremus, form, p. 56, exuo, constr., 225. d.

faber,
decl., 82. c.
t

words

of,

with

abl., 248. c. 2.
ofj

Final Clauses, denned, 180. e\ constr. 317, 318 ; as subst. clauses, 331.
154. b. 5, 155. i.

fac, imv., 128. c

142; use, 269.^;

fac

ne, in prohibition, 269. a. facies, decl., 74 d. facilis, comp., 89. b ; constr., 303. R. facio, forms ol, omitted, 206. e; w. abl., 244. d; accent of comp. of, 19. d. i;
faciS, w. names of authors, 292. facere ut, 332 and e.
Factitative ace., p. 235; verbs, 175.
in compounds, 169. faenebris, decl., 84. a. N. faex, decl., 77. 6.
e.

Final conjunctions, Final syllables, rules of quantity, 348; vowels, id. 1-8.
finis, decl., 57. b. Finite verb, denned, 173. N.; subject of,
173. i. fio, conj., 142; in compounds, id. b\ defective compounds of, id. c\ quantity

N.

N.

of i in, 347. a, 3. First declension, 35-37.

First conjugation, prin. parts, 122. c
;

-facto,

a.

pres.

stem,

how formed,
a
;

123. a; formation,

126. a, 166.

fallit, w. ace., 237. e. falsus, comp., 91. d.

verbs

of,

130;

paradigms, pp. 92-95 ; verbs of, how formed,

166. a.

fames,

abl. of, 57. c, cf. p. 41, foot-n. i.

etc., 36. b.

familiaris, decl., 57. b. families, in pater familias,

far, decl., 67.
b;

fisus, as pres. part, 290. b. fit ut, 332. a. Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 234.

a, b.

fas indecl., faux, decl.,

Favor, verbs

77. i

w. supine in -u, 303.

dat., 227.

54. 2, 77. 5, 79. c.

of,

flagito, constr., 331. flocci, gen. of value, 252. b. For, when expressed by pro, 236. R.

w.

fax,

decl., 77. 6.
of,

fora?, 77. fore, 147.

3, 148.
c,

N.

fore ut, 288./

332.

e.

Fearing, verbs

w.

inf.,

271; (ne, ut),

forem,
fores,

119. R.

pi. only, 76. 3.

febris, decl., 56. b 57.

t

b.
;

Feeling,

nouns of, with gen., 217 impersonal verbs of, 146. b, 221. b animi, with adjs. of, 218. c. R.; gen. with verbs animi, w. vbs. of, 223. c, ace. of, 221 with, 237. b; with quod-clause, 333. b.
; ;

Forgetting, vbs. of, 219; w. inf., 271. foris (locative), 77. 3, 148. N. 358. Formation of words, 157-170.
,

d,

Forms

of the verb, 117.

ff.

fors, forte, 77. 3. forsitan (fors sit an), 148. N.

(for-

Feet in Prosody, 355-3571 N., p. 405.

fel, decl., 67. b.

felix, comp., 89.

Feminine, rule for gender, 29.

san), 311. a. Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 122. c; pres. stem, how formed, 123. a, 126. d\ paradigm, p. 104; list of verbs, 133;
verbs,

femur,

decl., 78. i./.

how formed,

166. d.

462

Index of Words and

Subjects.

Fourth Declension, 68-71.

Fractional expressions, 97. d, 382. Freedom, adjs. of, with abl., 243. d\ vbs.
of,

243. a.

Frequentative verbs, 167. b. French, derivations through, 15, foot-note. fretus, with abl., 254. b.
Fricatives, 3. a. frugl, defect, noun, 77. 5; as adj., 87. /; comparison, 90 ; constr., 233. a. N.

65; according to stems, 66; of nouns, decl. IV., 69; decl. V., 73; Syntax, ag' cement in gend., 181; of appositives. 184. b; of adjs., 186; adjs. with nouns of different genders, 187, cf. 189. c\ of
rel.,

199. b.

General conditions,

defined, 304. d. ; constr. of, 309; relatives in, 316. <z. General truths after past tcr.se i'irt

sequence of tenses),

287. d\

in pros..

fruor, fungor, with

;

abl.,

249; w. ace.,

id. b gerundive, 296. R. fugit, w. ace., 237. e.

276; in general condition, 309. a, GENITIVE. Etymology. Definition, 31. i terminations of, 32 ; plural in -urn, 33

f ul, derivation of, 120. N.

gen. in -ai and -as, decl.

in
-I

Fulness, adjs.

of, 218. a.

funebris,

decl., 84. a.

N.

fungor,

see fruor.
in ind. disc.,

I., 36. a, b\ decl. II., 40. b \ in -I of prop, nouns of decl. III., 43. a\ gen. plur. in -urn (-6m), for -orum, 40. e\

for

ii,

-um

fur, decl., 54. 2. Future Conditions, 307;

337- a.

for-ium,

/
;

decl. III., 59; -6s for -is, 63. contracted in decl. IV., 68. N. ; gen.

Future Tense, use, 115. a. i, 278; of infinitive pass., how formed, 147. c\ indicfor imper., 264. c, 269. /; of imperative, 269. d\ uses of, 278; in indirect questions, 334. a fut. ind. for

plur. in -um, 70. c ; in -I or -e for -el, decl. V., 74. a gen. plu. wanting, 77. 6 of adjs. in -ius, 83 ; gen. plur. in
;

ative

-ium

or

-um,

87. c t d.

GENITIVE.

imv., 269. f. Futu; e Perfect, 115. a,

tions, 307. c.

i use of, 281 represented in subj., 386. R. in condi; ; ;

Syntax, 213-223; general use, 213. Subjective gen., 214. Possessive gen., id. a-d\ in appos. w. poss. pron., 197. e\ compared w. dat., 231.

Future

Infinitive,

how

expressed

with

formed, no. d.; fore or futiirum

in contrary to

esse, 288. /; (rarely)

3-

fact conditions in ind. disc., 337. b. N.

R.; gen. in predicate, 214. c, d\ gen. of adj. for neut. nom., 214. R. ; gen. of substance or material, 214. e\ for appositive, 214. /; gen. of quality, 215. Partitive, 216. Objective gen., 217; w. adjectives, 218, 234. d\ w. verbs of memory, 219 ; charge and penalty, 220
;

Future Participle, use,

113. f, 290, 293,

308. d\ fut. pass, part., 294.

Future Perfect Subjunc. wanting, no. a. Future Subjunctive wanting, no. a. futurum esse ut, see fore ut futurum fuisse ut, 337. b. 3 and N. 2. Futiirum inprcsterito, p. 320, foot-note.
;

of feeling, 221 w. impers., miseret, etc., 221. b\ w. refert and interest, 222 of plenty and want, 223 of exclamation, 223 w. potior, id. a w. other vbs., id. b w. egeo and indig;
;

eo, 223, 243. /; gen. for abl., id./ R,; gen. replaced by dat., 226. b of value.
;

G (the character), 6.
Games,
plural

215.
I.

c,

252. a, b

gen. of gerundive, 298.

80. a.

names

of,

76.

genius, voc. of, 40. c. gens, or family, names,

Gentile adjectives, 164.
C.

gaudeo,

quod
39- a.

conj., 136; with abl., 254. b\ w. or ind. disc., 333. b.

of,

Gems, gender
Gender, kinds
29;
decl.

names

of,

2 and b t 29,

gentilis, 57. a. genii, decl., 68 gend.,

;

69, b.
decl., 82. b.

of,

28; general rules for,

genus, decl., 49. -ger, compounds

of,

41

common,
I.,

doubtful,

epicene, 30;

change of gend.,
decl. III.,

p. 21, foot-n.; nouns,

Gerund, form, 109. b\ use, 114. a\ gerundive used instead, 296. SYNTAX,
295-301; purpose,
gen.
id.
of, 298; pred. use, R.; w. obj. gen., id. a;

gend., 35; decl.

II., 39; nouns, gend. according to endings,

Imlc.v <>f
dat. of, 299; in law phrases abl. of, 301;

Words and
b
;

Subjects.

etc., id.

ace. of, 300;

:.li\v.

gerund

in

apposition, 301. R.

meaning and form,

d\
in

109. a,

hactenus, 260. N. Hadria, gender, 35. haec for hae, 101. a. haereO, w. dat., 227.^,3;

w. abl.,

or -undus, 12. d, p. 89, foot-n. 2; of dep. use as part, or adj., V'.-ib, 135. d\ 294; of utor, id. c\ to denote purp. used for alter certain vbs., id. d\ Gerundive construcgerund, 296.
foot-n.,

113.

-endus

Happening, verbs of, constr., 332. a. Have, perl, with, origin, 292. c, foot-n. have (ave), defective verb, 144. /. Having, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 214. d.

hebes,

cases, gen., 298; dat., 299; Impersonal w. 300; abl., 301. esse, w. ace., 237. g.
ace.,

tions in

decl., 87. a\ comp., 89. Help, verbs of, with dat., 227. Hemiolic measures, 356. d.
decl., 67. d.

hepar,
heros,
verbs

Heroic verse, 362.

decl., 64.
of,

gibber,
gfin-,

decl., 82. b.

stem-ending, 48. b. Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d.

Hesitation, clauses
of, constr.,

w. quln, 319. d\
i
;

271.
adjs., 87. f.

glaber,

decl., 82. c.
decl., 74. d.
2.

Heteroclite nouns, 78.

glacies,

Heterogeneous nouns,

78. 2.

glis, decl., 54.

Hexameter
Hiatus, 359.
i, 12.

verse, 362.
e.

glorior, w. abl., 254. b. Glyconic verse, 369, 370, 371.

hibus,
48. b\
102.

101. a.
decl.,
10,
c,

Gnomic

perfect, 279. c.
in,

hie, p. 65, foot-note;

-go, nouns
gend., 65.

from stem gin-,

a,f\ quantity, 348.

(for
87.

101; Ex.
67.

use,

b, 67. b.

hiemps

hiems), n.

gracilis,

87.7; comp., 89. b. Grammar, how developed, pp. 163, 164. Grammatical gender, 28. c. gratia, w. gen., 223. e, 245. c\ w. gen. of gerund, 318.
decl.,

hilaris (-us),

/
102. N.
of,

Himself"(ipse, se),
Hindering, verbs

with
331.

ne
e.

or
2;

quo332.

minus,
g-

or

Inf.,

gratiae,

defect, 77. 4.
dat., 227. c.

gratificor, w.

Hindrance, verbs of, with quominus, 319. c\ with negatives, followed by

,

gratulor, w. dat., 227. c. Greek accusative ( synecdochical') 240. c. Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. 14,
19, 22, 26, 47, 51, 55, 59, 78, 81, 83, 113,

quln, id. d; 332. g. Historical infinitive, 275. Historical present, 276. d\

Historical perfect, 115
c. 2,

followed oy
c.

primary or secondary tenses, 287.

119, 122, 142, 143, 152, 155. Greek nouns, decl. I., 37; decl. II., 43; decl. III., 63, 64.

hodie,

loc. form, 74. c,

279. 148. N. 8.

honor
33- /

(-6s), decl., 218. d.

of,

Greek proper names, quantity

a. 5.

of,

347.

Hoping, verbs
Horace, metres

with infinitive clause,

pp. 287-291.
in

Groups of words, conjuncs. grus, decl., 60. a.

w., 208. b. 2.

of,

horizSn,

decl., 63. d.

Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. d.

Hortatory subjunctive, 266;

conces-

gumrnl,

indecl., 67. a.

sion, id. c (cf. 313. /); in proviso, 314; in obligation, 266. a ; w. lorce of, protasis, 310. b.

hortor, constr., 331. hospes, decl., 87. b. Prosody, 347. a 359. c. habeS, with infinitive, 273. a with per- hospita (fem. of hospes), fect participle, 292. c; future imperative hfliusmodl, ici. e.
ii. b. i;
; \

(breathing), 3. b\ omitted in sound, omitted in spelling, 12. b\ in

85. c.

habeto
h.iV.iiK
loot-n.

in

sen
dat.

v/-,

296. e.
etc.,

huml,

40. a. locative

use

of,

258. d.

w.

of

gerund,

299,

humilis, comp., 89. b. Hundreds, how declined,

94. d.

464
I,
i, I,

Index of Words and Subjects.

and as
cons., p.
i, 4.

as vowel

iens (part of eo),

-ier in
inf.

decl., 85. b.

primary
in

suffix, 160. c. I.

Greek
;

II., 126. b.
c. i

for e in conj. ; in conj. III., 126. vbs. in 16- of conj. III., id. e\ in
voc., 63. 2] for i,

64

pass., 128. e. 4. -ies, in decl. V. = -ia, decl.

I.,

74. b\

such are a-stems,

-ies,

id. foot-n.

nom. ending,

163. e.

verb replaced by cons., 123. b. i in- igitur, meaning, 156. e\ position, id. k. serted in vb. stem, id. 2; suppressed in ignis, decl., 57. b. obicit, etc., 10. d\ i (single} in gen. of ii, iis, for I, is, from is, 101. c. nouns in -ius (-ium),4o. b\ in gen. -il (or -l), in gen., decl. II., 40. b, and
;

in -es, 43. a\ in abl. of decl. 57; in neut. nom., 65. c; in gen. decl. IV., 70. a; in gen., dat., decl. V., 74. a\ in dat. of unus, etc., 83.

of

noun

foot-n.

of adjs., 81.

a.

III.,

-l,

in perfect, 118. N.

i-

stems, decl. III., 51-59; confused, p. 35, foot-note 2; signs of, 55; in adjectives, 81, foot-n., 84; cases retaining -i, 84. b, cf. 55, 57, 87. a i-stems in verbs,
;

-He, noun-ending, 164. i, 6. -His, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 164. m. -ilis, nominal adj. ending, 164. d. Illative conjunctions, 154. a. 4, 155. c. ille, forms 100. a; decl., 101; use, 102. b,f\ combined with -ce, 101.
illic, decl., 101.

136.4
-ia,

nom., ace.

pi. decl. III., 55. b\

of

verbs ending in, 167. d. illus, diminutive ending, 164. a. illustris, decl., 84. a, N.
-illo,

adjs., 84. b. -ia for -ies, decl. V., 74. b.

-ia,
<?.

-im, accus. ending, decl. n. 2 55,56.

;

III., p. 20, foot-

-im in pres. subj., 128. e, 2. ending of abstract nouns, 163. Iambic verse, 360; trimeter, 365; other imber, decl., 51. b, 54, 57. b,
forms, 366.

67. a.

immane quantum,
a.

334.

e.

Iambus, 356.

immo, how
conj. IV., 128.
e. r.
e.

used, 209. d.
b,

-ibam

for

-iebam,

Imperative mood, 108.

c\
b,

tenses

of,

no.

Iber, decl., 41. d. -ibo for -iam, 128.

used, 112.*:; terminations, 116. 126. e w. iam dudum, 276. a. N.

;

how
in

ibus, 101.

c. c.

commands, 269
;

3d. pers., 269. c ;

fut.,

ic- as stem-ending, 45. -icius, 164.^.

forms in indirect discourse, 339;

269. d, e
.

Ictus, 19 d. N., 164.^-, 355. R., 358.

-icus, -icius, 164.

id-,

c,

h,g.
b.

stem-ending, 63.

die, due, fac, fer, 128. c\ some verbs used chiefly in, 144. /; various periphrases for imv., 26g.f,g\ Imperative as protasis, 310. b.

id genus, 240. b. id quod, 200. e. id temporis, 216.

idcircS, as

a,

240. b.

correl., 156. e, 317. a.

Idem,
w.
id.

decl.,

dat., 234.

101; derivation, 100. c\ or N. i w. atque or rel.,

;

Imperative Sentence, 171. d. Imperfect tense, denned, 115. b\ use, 277 in descriptions, id. a with iam diu, etc., id. b\ inceptive and conaof surtive, id. c\ with iam, id. N.
;
; ;

prise, id. d\ in dialogue, id. e\

etc.,

could,

N. 2; used emphatically, 195. c\ equiv. to adv., id. e.

id./; epistolary, 282

represented

by

Ides (i3th or I5th of month), how reckoned, 376. b. -ides, (-ides) in patronymics, 164. b. idoneus, comparison, 89. d: w. dat. of

sequence, zK'j.f.g] imp.

perf. subj., 287. b. 3; imperf. subj., inf., 288. a. N. i.

impero,

constr., 331.
i, c.

Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin.

clause, 330. a. 2, b.

gerund,

etc.,

299, foot-n.
320,

Impersonal
classified,

Verbs,
146
;

idoneus qul,
Tdus,
decl.

/
(See
/.

synopsis of, 145; passive of intransitives,

IV., gender, 69. a.

Ides.)

-idus, verbal adj. ending, 164.

c, 230; impersonals, miseret, with gen., 221. b\ libet, licet, with dat., 227. e ace. w. decet, etc.

146.

etc.,

-ie, in voc. of adjs. in -iiis, 81. a.

237.

tf.

Index of Words and Subjects.

tmpertlO,
constr., 225. d.
infin. in ind. disc., 336.

A;

tenses of

impetrO, constr., 331. Impetus, defect., 77. 4. impleS, constr., 223, 248.
ImpliCO,

subjunc., 336.

15;

on
c.

pcrf. inf.,
;

id.

R.

impono,
Impure

constr., 225 d. constr., 260. a.

14. c.

tio),

secondary id. a. Conditional sentences in

Questions
in ind.
in,

subjunr. depending N.; pres. and tense (A'efrafsenta-

ind. disc., 337;

Imus,

syllables, p. 56, foot-n.

338;

Deliberative subjunc.
in ind. disc.,

id.

a;

Commands
c.
,

339; prohibidisc., 340,

in, neg. prefix, 170.

tion, id.

N.

Informal ind.

in, prep., use, 152. c 153 ; comp. w. vbs., 170. a ; in w. ace. or abl., 259. b (cf.
t

w. ace., penalty, 220. b\ vbs. comp., \v. dat., 228 ; in w. ace., w. adjs., 234. c\ in citations, 258. c. 2. N. 2; place where, 258. c. i; in idioms of
260. a)
;

341. Indirect Questions, defined, p. 201 syntax, 210. R., 334; fut. tense in, id. a;
;

deliberative subj. in, id. b;

indie, in

(early Lat.), id. d. (See Note, p. 367.) Indirect quotation, 335.

time, 259. b ; w. abl. of gerund, 301. in-, stem-ending, 48. b In-, 63. a.
\

Indirect object, 177, 224, 227. N.

and

N. 225, 226,
i.

in,

primary

suffix.

See an.

Indirect reflexive, 196. a, id. 2.

Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 167. a. Inclination, adjs. of constr., 234. a, c.

Indo-European forms,
435-

120. N., pp. 434,

inclutus, comp.

91. d.
of.

Incomplete action, tenses

indued, w. names of See Con- induo, double constr.

ineo, constr., 228.
a.

authors, 292,
of,

e.

N.

225. d.

tinued action. Increment, defined, 349. a\ of nouns and adjs., 350; of verbs, 351.

ineptus,

constr., 299. foot-n.

inermis or

-us, 87.

Indeclinable nouns, gender

of,

of, 29. c\

list

77. I.

Infera, defect., comp., 91. b.

infer!, use, 91.

82. d, cf. p. 56. foot-n;

Indefinite antecedent, relative with, with subjunc., 320. a and N.

Indefinite pronouns, decl., 104, 105. Syntax, 202, 203; indef. relative may intro-

b.

inferior, comparison, 91. a. Infinitive used as noun, gender, 29. c\

with gen., 214. d.
(See, also, Infinitive

duce conditional clause, 304.

;

a. N., 316.

Mood,

Syntax.)

Indefinite subject omitted, 206. b\ use of 2d person for, 266. a in general conditions, 309. a; licet

INFINITIVE MOOD, Etymology, 108. b> and foot-n.; tenses of, no. d; how
used,
112.

clarum

fieri,

d\

how
128.
e,

272. a. N. Indefinite value, 252. a, b. Indicative mood, 108. b\ how used, 112.
a,

pass, in -ier,

deponents, 135
173. 2, 240.

120; 4; fut. inf. of in ace., f\ subject

e.

formed, p.

/
infin.,

264;

in apod, of conditions conb, c,

trary to fact, 308.

311. c\ in causal

INFINITIVE MOOD, Syntax, 270-275; used as subject, 270; complementary

inf.,

clauses, 321

in clause with

quod,

333.

271

verbs having subj. or

;

indigeo, with gen., 223, 243. / indlgnus, with abl., 245. a w. qui and
\

subjunc., 320 Indirect Cases, 31. N.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE,
p. 369;
list

origin, etc., note, of verbs that take ind. disc., p. 370, foot-n. ; direct and indir. quotation, 325.

331 inf. for subjunc. clause, 331.^; with subject ace., 272; case of predicate noun, id. b\ inf. of purpose, 273; w. adjs., in poetry, id. d\ of reas pure noun, id. A in sult, id. g
id. a, cf.
; t

Moods in

ind. disc., 336

verb

exclamations, 274 (sequence, 285. N. i). Tenses of inf., Historical inf., 275. 288; perf. instead of pres., id. d, e\

of saying implied, id. N. 2. Subj. ace., id. a. Subord. clause when explanatory, id. b\

fore ut,
on

etc., for fut. inf., id./.

;

Inf. in

Indir. disc., 336

tenses, 336. A.

(Note
330;

clauses w.

rel. c.

equiv. to demonstr., id.

which is Tenses of

infin., p. 283.)

Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj.,

466

Index of Words and Subjects.

Interrogative pronouns, 104, 105; use, 210. e \ position, 344. b. Interrogative sentences, 171. b\ forms 210-212.
of,

w. pass, verbs, id. a-d. See also Indi rect Discourse. Cf., also, 272.
Infitias, defect., 77. 2; use, 258. b. R. Inflection, defined, 20; terminations of id. b ; how modified, 24 ; of decl. and

intra (interior), 91;

N./3.

derivation, 148.

conjugation, 26.
Influence, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 331. a. Informal Indirect Discourse, 340, 341.

Intransitive verbs, 175. a, 177 ; used impersonally in pass., 146. d\ dat. with,

Infra, use, 152.

a, 153.

226

ff.

used

ingens,

decl., 87.

transitively,
e.

w. ace. and

comp., 91. d.

dat., 227.

Inherited differences of form, 8. i; in vowels, 9. a-d\ transposition of vowel

/ (cf. 237.

N. 3).
etc.,

and

-Inus, adj. ending, 164. c. inutilis, w. dat. of gerund,

foot-n.

299.

liquid, id. d.

initiria, as abl. of manner, 248. R.

iniussu, defect., 71. b. inops, decl., 87. a, d. inquam, inquit, 144. b\ position
345. c
;

invictus, comp., 91. d. invidia, w. dat., 227. d. invltus, comp., 91. d.

of,
i.

-io,

in direct quotation, 336. N.

noun-ending, 163. b\ gend., 65.

verbs
in, conj. III., 123. b, 2;

b,

67.6.
-io,

Inseparable particles, 170. b. Insertion of consonants (p in II. C I p. 429, N.

forms

sumpsi),

msidiae,

dat. with, 227. d.

126. c, e\ paradigm, p. 100; conj. IV., 126. d\ derivation, 166. d. Ionic measure, 356. c verse, 372. 16.
of,
;

lnsperg-5, constr., 225. d. instar, indecl., 77. i w. gen., 223. Insto, constr., 331. Xnsulam, ad, 258. b. N. 3.
;

ip-, stem-ending, 45. a.

e.

ipse, formation, 100. c; decl., 101; use, 102. d and N., igS-f-I; used instead of
reflexive, 196. a, 2. N. i. irl, in fut. infin. pass., 141, 147. c.

Instrument, abl. of, 248. c. Instrumental case, 31. i (cf. pp. 205, 245) ; as adv., p. 123. N. 18 source of
;

Ironical statement not

diff.

in

form from

question, 210.

b.

N.

several abl. constructions, 248. head-n.

integer,

decl., 82. c.
of,

Integral part, subjunc.

340, 342.
e.

Irrational measures, 356, N., 369. N. is, decl., 101 ; use, 102. d, f, 106 ; use emphatically, 195. c; used instead of
reflexive, 196. a, 2. N.,
i.

integrum est

ut, 332. Intensive pronoun, 100. c, 102.

(cf. c).
;

and

N.

-Is,

I95-/-/. Intensive verbs, 167. b

gend., 65. b\ list of words, 67. a\ -is, -eris, 67. b\ -is,

-idis, id. d\ -is, patronymic, 164. b. dropped in perf., 128.
b.

nom. ending,

tater, use 152.

vbs.

153 in comp., 170. a comp. with, 228 position, 263. N inter se, 99. d, I96./; inter slcarios, 220. c ; inter, w. gerund, 300.
a,
;
;

-is-, -iss-, -sis-,

-Is,

ace. pi., decl. III., 58 (cf. p. 30, foot-n. 2) ; of adjs., 84. b, 87. c\

nom. and

Inter se (reciprocal), 99. d, 196. f. Intercludo, constr., 225. d and N. 2. interdico, constr., 225. d, N. i. Interest, constr., 222 with ad, id. b. interior, comp., 91. a.
;

Greek nom. ending,

-is,

63. c.

see

it-.

Islands, names of, loc. use, 258. c, 2 and R. ; to which, 258. b, from which, a.

-isse,-issexn,verb-ending,seeN.,p.ii9ff. isso, verbs ending in, 167. c.

Interjections, def., 25;

dat., 235. e.

list,

p. 139;

w.

.ste,

shortened to ste, 100. b

c.
;

decl., 101.

Interlocked order of words, 344. h. Intermediate Clauses, Syntax of, 340-342.

Interrogative advs., use, 210. e\ position, 344. .

use, 102. stic, decl., 101.

[T as sign of
!t-

N.

c.

Impersonals, 145, foot-n. as stem-ending, 45. b decl., 59, 87. b. in answers, 212. Lta, correl. with ut, 107
;

Interrogative particles,
use, 210.

list

of,

149.

d\

a ; ita ut, 319. R. talian dialects, Appendix,

p. 434.

TnJc.r of
Itaque, accent, 19. c; comp.m-il with erg5, 156. e\ used with ergo, 208. *;
position of, 345. b. Iter, stem of, 60. c, cf. 349. b.
Iterative verbs (-t5, -it6, -86), 167.
.

am!
Kintb

Subjects.

467
-iish, 15,

ct

ndix.

Kindred
Kno'.'.

signification, ace. of, 238.

.
,

-id

inf.,

271,

272, 330.

I.

-it5, verbs in, 167. b. -itus, adj.-ending, i64./

Knowledge,

adjs. of,

w. gen., 218. a.
,67. b\ adj.-

-ium, noun-ending, -ium, gen. plitr., decl.

;uljs.,

163. f, 164. A.
III.,
.

n.
a;
of

L; nouns

in

-1,

gend., 65.

55.

84. b, 85, 87.

stems in 1-, 85. la, see ra.

Labials, 3; stems, decl. III., 45. a; gend., 66. c\ forms of inflections, 67. c.

-ius, gen. sing, ending, 83; quantity, id.

foot-n., 347. a, i.

-ius, adjs. in, gen., voc., 81. a. of adjs. in, 164. ,.f, m.
-Iv-, in perf., 132. a.

formation

Iab5r5, w.

abl. 245. a. 2.

-Ivus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. -tx (-ix), nouns in, 67. e.

k.

dat. and abl. -ubus, 70. d. laedS, constr., w. ace., 227. a. laetor, laetus, w. abl., 254. b.

lac, decl., 67. d. lacus, decl., 68;

pi.

in

(the character), 4. N. i; Eng. sound,

id. N. 2.

lampas,
lateo,
\v.

decl., 63.

/ 64.
d; w.
e.

ace., 239.

dat., id. N. 2,

iam,

derivation, 148. N. w. imperf., 277. c. N.

277. b.

i\ \

use, 151. b

latet, w. ace., 237.

latifundium,

168. b.

iaiL.diu, w. pres., 276. a; w. imperf.,

iamdudum,
perf.,

w. pres., 276. a\ w. im277. b\ w. imperative, 276. a.

Latin language, origin and comparative forms of; earlier forms languages derived from ; see Appendix.
;

latus,

part., derivation, 139, foot-n.

N.

2.

iecur,
60.
c,

decl.,

forms from different stems,

iocus, iubar, decl., 57. iubeo, w. ace.,

330.
2.
,

78. i. pi. in -I or -a, 78. 2. b.

a.

Learning, verbs of, w. inf., 271. Length, expressed by gen., 215. b. -lens, -lentus, see -olens, -olentus. leo, decl., 49.

Leoni-ias,
w.
inf.,

227. a;

271.

b,

decl., 37. Letters, classification of, 1-5.

2,

331. a.
I.

iucundus,

constr., 303. R.
;

levis, decl., 84; comp., 89. leviter. comp., 92.

b
;

defect, 77. 4 decl., 78. measure, 381. head-n. 376. e. Julian Calendar, 376,
;

iugerum,

liber, adj., decl., 41,

c,

82. b.

Liber,

decl., 41. c.
c,

llberl, noun, 41.

76. 2.
;

iungS, w.
a. R.

abl. or dat., 227.

e.

N.,

248.

luppiter, stem and

75-

decl., 60. b

plural,

libet, impers., 146. d w. dat., 227. *. licet, impers., synopsis, 145; use. 146. c\ w. dat., 227. e\ w. predicate dat., 272.

ius, decl., 67.

b, 77. 6.

a\ w. subjunctive, meaning although, licet earn, licet Ire, 313. b\

me

iussu. defect., 71. , 77. 2, iusto, w. compar., 247. b. iuvat, w. ace., 237. e. iuvenis, masc. adj., 88. b\ how compared, 91. c\ decl., 59. iuvo, with ace., 227. a.

licet

mihi

ire, 331.
of,

and

N. 3.

Likeness, adjs.
gen., id. d.

w. dat., 234. a; w.

Limiting word, meaning of, 178. b. ; Linguals, 3; stems in, decl. III., 45. gend. of, 66. d\ forms of inflection,
67. d.

iuxta,

position, 263. N.
6.

linter,

decl., 51. b, 54. i

3.
of,

gend., 67.

<i.

K, supplanted by C,
ka, primary

N.

Liquids,

suffix, 160. A.

gend.
67. <.

stems of, decl. III., 48-50; 66. b\ forms of inflections,

;

Kalendae,

376. a.

468
-lis, adjs. in,

Index of Words and Subjects.

comp., 89.
b.

Litotes, 209. c.

mal5, conj., 138. malus, comparison, 90.

-lium, noun-ending, 163.^

11-,

as stem-ending, 48. e. Locative abl., 254, 258. c. i; idiomatic use, id. a ; adverbial forms, 148. N. S. LOCATIVE case, 31. h, p. 218 ; akin to dat.,
id.; in abl., p. 245, p. 260; of decl. I., 36. c\ decl. II.. 40; decl. III., 62; decl. IV. (domi), jo./foot-n.; decl.

man, primary suffix, 160. v, mando, constr., 331. mane, defect, noun, 57. c, 77. a. maneo, with abl., 254. b. mansuetus, 159. c. manus, decl., 68 gender, 69.
;

Manner, adv.
distinguish

of, 148.

Abl.

of,

hard

to

V., 74. c\ as adverb, 148. N. S\ forms, 258. c. 2, d. With abl. in apposition, 184.

specification, 253. N. Manner implied in part., 292. Manner, abl. of, 248. and R.

from

c i relative adverb used to refer to, 201. /; animi, 218. c. R., 223. c. Locative compared with dat., 224. N. ; locative

mare,
marl,

decl., 57. a, 59.

loc., 258.
/.

mas,

decl., 54. 2.

used to express where, 258. c\ domi,

etc., id. d.

Masculines, rule for gender, 29.

loco, loco,

abl.

without prep., 258. f.

i.

Masculine adjectives, 88. b. Masculine caesura, 362. R.

etc.,

locum capere, w.
299. a.

verb., constr., 260. a. dat. of

gerund,

Material, adjectives denoting, 164. ; gen. of, 214. e,f\ abl. of, 244. and c-e. as of maxime, sign superl., 89. d.

locus, pi. -I or -a, 78. 2. b. Logacedic Verse, 369-371.

369.

Note on,

May, how expressed in Latin, 312. b. N. Means, nouns denoting, 163. c; abl. of, 248. and c participle implying means,
\

Long and

Short, see Quantity.

247. c.

292.

longlus, without quam, ludicer, decl., 82. c.

lues, defect., 77. lux, decl., 77. 6.
4.

Measure, gen. of, 215. b (cf. 257. a). Measures in Prosody, 355-357; names fi 356 ; contracted or resolved, 357. Measures of value, 377-380; of length,

lynx,

decl., 63.

/
359. b. R., d\ inserted

medeor, medicor,

381; of weight, 382; of capacity, 383. with dat. or ace.,

227. b.
decl., 84. a. N.

M,

final, elision of,

in verb-root, 123. c. 3.

mediocris,
;

-m, sign of

ace., origin, p. 205

lost, 116.
17.

omitted

in inscriptions, 38. N.

-m

(verb-ending),

N.

Meditative verbs, 167. c. medius (middle part of), 193. medius fldius, 240. d. N. 2.

ma, primary suffix, 160. macer, decl., 82. c.

mel, decl., 67. melior, decl.,

constr., 241.

b.

86.

macte
and

virtute, use and

N.

d melius est, with infin., 288. e. meminl, conj., 143. c in pres. sense,
;

143.

magis,

as sign of comparative, 89. d\ comps. of, w. quam, 262. N.

N., 279. e

mini

; imperative of, 269. e with pres. infin., 336. A, N.

mei.

magnl,
Main

gen. of value, 252. a.

memor,
Memory,

decl., 87. a.

magnus,

comparison, 90.

adjs. of, constr., 218.

verbs

clause, defined, 180. b.

of, constr.,

219.
suffix, 160. v.

maiestatis, with words of accusing, men, primary

etc., 220. a.

maior natu,
maiores,
93-

91. c.

signification of, 76. 2,

76. b,

-men, -mentum, noun-endings, -men, gend., 65. c, 67. b. mensis, decl., 59.
merldies, gend.,
73.
a.

163. c

/
of,

Making, verbs of, constr., 239. a. male, comp., 92; compounds

dat., 227. e.

-met
with

(enclitic), 99. f.

Metathesis, n. d, 124. Metre, see Prosody.

N.

Index of Words and SH?

metuO, with
dat. or ace., 227. c\
\v.

469

sub-

moneo",
b.

conj., p. 96; constr., 219. c t 238.

junc., 331. /. metus, with dat. or ace., 227. c. us (voc. ml, 81. a. N.), 40. c, 81. a,

N.

-mOnia, -mOnium, noun-endings,

Monoptotes,
77. 2.

me

99. a; syntax of, 197. a, 214. a. Middle voice, in. a. and N., 118.

Monosyllables, quantity, 348. 1-3.

N.,

Months, griuU-r of names

decl. of
of,

240.

c.

N., 249. N.

Mile, English feet in, 381.

of, 29. I and a\ of in -ber, 84. a ; names 376, head-n ; divisions of, In Roman

names

miles,

decl., 46.

Calendar, 376.

Military expressions, dat. in, 233. b\ abl. dat. in, 233. b \ abl. of accomp. without

Moods, names and uses of, 108 note on origin and nature of,
Syntax

b,

112;

p.

274

cum,

248. a. N.

militiae (locative), 258. d. mille (mllia), decl. and constr.,

Moods

264-275. in temporal clauses,

of,

how

distin-

94. c. -mini, as personal ending, p. 78, foot-n.

guished, 323. Mora, in Prosody, 355. a.

minime,
212. a.

compar., 92; use, 93. e\ w. neg. force, 209. e\ in answer ("no"),

morigerus,

decl., 82. a.

mos

est ut,

332.
a,

ministro, w. infin., 273. a. minor natu, 91. c. minoris, gen. of value, 252.
;

Mother, Motion,
243. b
\

name of, w. prep., 244. a, R. how expressed, 225. b, 229.

a, d.

minores, signification, 93. f. minus, compar., 92 use, 93. e with si Motive, how expressed, 245. b. and quo, = not, 209. e constr. without Mountains, names of, gender, and a. quam, 247. c. -minus, -mnus, verbal adjective-end- -ms (-mps), noun in, 67. Mulciber, decl., 41. e. ings, 164.
;

indicated by compounds, 237, d\ implied, 259. g. Motion, end of, see End of Motion.
29.
z

miror

si,

333.

b. R.

mirum quam (quantum),

misceo
dicative, 334. e, with abl. or dat., 227. a. R.

with in-

muliebris, decl., 84. a. N. multa nocte, 193. N. Multiplication by distributives,

Multiplicatives, 97.

95.

c.

e. N.,

248.

multum
munus,
332.

(-5), comp., 92.

mis, tis, 98. i. c. miser, decl., 82 comp. misere, comp., 92.

;

multus, comparison,
89. a.

90.

decl., 78. i./;

munus est tit,

misereor, with gen., 221. a. miseresco, with gen., 221. a. miseret, 146. b\ with gen. and
other constr., c, d. miseror, with ace., 221. a.
221. b
;

mus, decl., 54, cf. 54. 2. musica (-e), decl., 37.

ace.,

Musical accent, 358.

mutare,

constr., 252.

c.

misy, decl., 67. a. -mnus, see -minus. Modern languages compared with
see Appendix. Modesty, subjunc.
of,

Mutes, 2. 0,3; mute-stems, decl. 44-47; apparent, 47. a, 54.

III.,

mythos,
Latin,

decl., 43.

N,
311.
b.

2.

Modification of subj. or pred., 178. Modifiers, position of, 343, 344 of nega;

(Ie5n-), 48. a. n, preceding stem-vowel of verb, 123. b. i inserted in verb-root (frang6), 123. c,
;

N as final letter of stem

3; 124.
.

adulter'tnum, id.

tive, 345. d.

N.
160. 5.

modo modo, 208. d. modo (modo ne) with subjunctive

. . .

na, primary suffix, of nais, decl., 64.

mod5

proviso, 314. as abl. of manner, 248. R.

decl., 57 a.

nam

(enclitic), in questions,

2io./
*.

molaris,

nam, namque, use, 156. d, 208. Names of men and women, 80.

470
Naming, vbs.
Nasals,
2. b,

Index of Words and Subjects.

of,
;

w. two aces., 239.

a.

inserted in verb-root, 123.

nequeo, conj., 144. ne quidem, use,

.
. .

'3natalis,
decl., 57. b.

209.

position
149.
e.

of,

151. e\ after 345. b ; after

non,

non

modo,
a.

natu (maior, minor), 91. c. natus, etc., w. abl. of source, 244.

navis,
decl., 57. b.

nequis, decl., 105. d. nesciS an, 210. / R. nescio quis, use, 202. a; as

indefinite

without subj., 334. e. -nd, -nt, vowel short before, iS.yC -ndus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. o\ ger- -neus, adj.-ending, 164.^ undive in, 113. d. Neuter ace. as adv., 148. d cf. b. N. Neuter adjs., special uses of, 189. -ne (enclitic) use in questions, 210. a-d in double questions, 211; w. force of Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs.
t ,
;

nonne,2io.^;orig.meaning, id. N.; in exclamatory questions, 332. c\ quantity,

Neuter gender, general rule for, 29. c\ cases alike in, 33. b\ endings of decl.
III., 65. c.

348.

I.

ne, neg. of hortatory

subj., 266. R.

w.

in subjunctive of proviso, 312. a\ prohibitions, 269. a\ in concessions, 313. a\ in final clauses, 317; = nedum,3i7. c. R.; in substantive clauses,

Neuter pron. as cognate ace., 238. b. Neuter passives, 136. Neuter verbs, 175, 176; with cognate ace.,
238; having passive sense, with ab,
246. a.

with verbs of hindering, 331. e. 2; of omitted after cave, fearing, id. /;

id.

Neuter passives,

136.

nex,
ni,

decl., 77. 6.
suffix, 160. e.

N.

primary

ne non,

w. vbs. of fearing, 331. f. Nearness, adjs. of, with dat., 234, a

gen., id. d.

ni, nisi, 304, N.; use of, 315. a.

;

w.

-nia -nium, noun-endings, 163.^ niger, decl., 82 ; distinct from ater, 91.
d.

nee enim, 156. d. necesse, indecl., 171;

lit, 332. a. Necessity, verbs

N.

necesse est

288.

a?;

of, with perf. pass, inf., in apodosis, 308. ct 311. c\ with

c.

nihil, indecl., 77. i ; contr. to nil, 347. c. nihill, gen. of value, 252. b. nimirum quam, used as indefinite

without subjunc., 334.

e.

ut-clause, 331.

iiecne
nefas,
303-

in

double questions, 211.

c.

nedum,

317.

R.

and N.
;

ningit, 146. a. nisi and si non, 315. a\ nisi si, id.; nisivero (forte), id. b\ nisi in sense
of only, id. d. nisi vero, nisi forte, 315. nitor, with abl., 254. b.
b.

indecl., 77. i

with latter supine,

Negation, perfect preferred in, 279. d. Negative answer, 210. c\ 212. and a. Negative particles, list of, 149. e\ two use of, 209 negatives, 150, 209. a
;

nix (stem and

7S>*. No, in answers,

decl.), p. 26, foot-n

plur.,

form

different

from English,

209. b\

neg. answers, 212 ; neg. proviso, 314. a ; neg. condition, 315. a\ purpose, 317;
result, 319. a,

expressed, 212. noli, in prohibitions, 269. a. nolo, conj., 138 ; part., as dat. of reference, 235.
80. a.
f.
;
,

how

R.

position
. . .

of,

345. d.

nomen, decl., 49 nomen

denoting gens,
b, c.

nego,
b,

better than

dico

non,

209.

336 (4th quotation).

nSmen est, with

pred. dat., 231.

nomina abundantia^ 78. i. negStium do ut, 331. nemo, use of, 202./; nemo non, 150. b. Nominal adjectives, 164. a-k. neque (nee), and not, 156. a\ neque NOMINATIVE defined, 31. a how formed from stem, 32. b nom. suffix, p. 205 enim, use, 156. d\ neque after a
\

nequam.
90.

neg., 209. a. in decl., 87. /;

comparison

of,

neut. pi. nom. and ace. alike, 33. b in decl. II., N., p. 16; in decl. III., 44,
;

45, 48, 51; of neuters, i-stems, 51. c\

of
in

//',>/,

A and
94;

47'
iinals,
.

a-stems,
<!
[

dorl.

IV., p. 40,

N.

in

e-stcnis,

96; others,

\nvi-,
173.

.*;.

p.
;

205)

as

97.

numeral
d\

ad;s., 344. b.

subject,

in
-mi-lit
;

predicate,
with, 204
in
;

176. b,

numquis,
tiirm, id.

decl., 105.
/'.

mcanin
151. b.

185

for vocative, 241. a id. c (cf. 240. d)

predicate, 243.

e.

R.

nunc, compared with lain, with opus in nunc nunc, 208. d. nom. of gerund nurus, gend., 6,.
.
.
.

rxelam

supplied by

non,

295. R. derivation, 148. N. a;

inf.,
;

-nus, adj. ending, 164.

d.

compounds

of, 150. a, b

in answers, 212. a.

O
o
-6 -5

n5n dubito quin, 319. d\ 332.,^. R. no a modo, after a negative, 209. a. non modo ... no ... quidem, 149.
nonne,
in questions, 210. c.

or a, Indo-European vowel, p. 142, foot-n, p. 433, foot-n. after or V, 7 ; in decl. II., 38. N. for

e.

final in

amo = a + m,

ii'

n5n nemo, non nullus, etc., 150. a. non quia. non quod, non quo, non
quin,
etc., 156.
e.

48. a; gend., 65. a, 67. b\ in fern. abl. of Gr. adjs., 82. d. N.

in

nom.,

/ 321.
376.
c.

R.

non

satis, 93.

-5, -onis, noun-ending, 162. c, 164. g. O-stems, decl. II., 38, p. 22, foot-n.; in verbs from o-stems, 166. adjs., 82, 83
;

Nones (nonae),
nos, decl., 98. i noster, for poss.
;

a. 2.

for ego, 98. i. b. gen., 99. a, 197. a,

c,

O
//.

si,

w. subjunc. of wish, 267.

b.

and

N.

i.

nostri, as objective gen., 99.

194.

ob, use, 152. a, 153; in comp., 170. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 228 to express
; ;

nostrum, as partitive gen., 99. b, 194. b. cause, 245. b w. gerund, 300. novendecim, 94. c. obeo, constr., 228. a. Noun and adj., forms of verb, 109, p. 120. Obeying, vbs. of, 227 w. ace., id.
;

a.

Noun-stem, treated as

Nouns
forms
88.
\v.
e,

defined, 25.

root, 123. d. a\ in decl., gend.,

29. c\ declension

0^32-78; derivative

as adjectives, of, 161-163; used 188. d\ rule of agreement, 183;

Object cases, 177. b. Object clauses, infin., 330 subj., 331, 332. Object defined, 177; becomes subject of pass., id. a, 237. a; ace. of direct w.
;

dat. of indir. obj., 225

secondary

obj.,

part, gen,, 216;

ace., 237.

w. obj. gen., 217;

/; noun as
prot-

governing
asis,

239. 2; obj. of anticipation, 334. c. Objective case expressed in Latin

gen., dat., ace., or abl., 177. b. Objective compounds, 168. c.

by

310. a. Nouns of agency, 161

formation, 162.

nox,

decl., 54.

-ns, as noun-ending, 67. d\ as adjective-

ending, 85. a participles in, decl., 85, 87. d; w. gen., 218. b\ w. ace., id. N.
;

Objective genitive, mel,ctc.,99.r; defined, 213.2; with nouns, 217; with adjs., 218. Obligation, unfulfilled, hort. subj., 266. e. Oblique cases, 31. g\ origin of names of,
p. 205.

and

2.

-nt, stems in, decl., 87. b.

obvius (obviam),
0; as

derivation. 148. N.
;

nubes, decl., 52. nub5, with dat., 227.

nullus,
decl., 83.

apparent

adj., 188. e. I

with

dat.,

e.

228. b.

ocior, comp., 91.

d.

num,

force of, 210. c\ in indirect ques-

Occasion, expressed by participle, 292.

tions,

id./
31
;

R.

octodecim.
in, 75, 77. 5,
r

Number,
id. b, c\

nouns, defect,

odl, conj., 143. a

ent, 279. e.

w. meaning of pres*

uses,

in verbs, 108. d; 181; with appositives. 184. a with adjs., 186, 187, d\ with verbs, 204,

number

ment
205.

in,

c.

e (long), n. c\ for -I in nom. pi., decl. II., offendS, constr., 228. a. Old forms of pronouns; mis, tis, 98. i. c
oe. written
.;
\

Numeral

advs., 96.

mod,

ted,

id. b.

472
olens, -olentus,
ollus

Index of Words and Subjects.

adj. endings, 164. k. (ille), 100. a. diminutive ending, 164. a.

-olus, Omission, of consonant, n. b\ of posof antecedent, 200. c. sessive, 197. c

;

-os, -odis, 67. d. os-, stem of comparatives, 86. a. -OS for -us, in nom. sing., decl.

II., 38.

as Greek ending, 43; as gen. ending in Greek nouns, decl. III.,

N.
;

omnes; nos omnes (instead of omnes

nostrum),
216.
e.

63-

/
;

-5n, Greek ending, decl. -on, -onis, nouns in, 67.

II.,

43.
c.

b.

6s, oris, decl., 77. 6. b, os, ossis, stem, p. 26, foot-n. 2 decl., 61. Oscan forms compared with Latin, Appendix, p. 435.

-on, gen. plur., decl. II., 43.

-on, nom. ending, 63. c, d. on- stem-ending, 48. a, see 160. v. 6n-, stem-ending, 63. f. ont-, nom. -on, 63. d.

ossu, ossua
164. k.

(def.)

69. foot-n.

-osus, -olens, -olentus, adj.-endings,

ovat

(defective)

144. e.
e.

onyx, decl., 67. c. Open syllables, 14. d. opera, with gen., 246.

ovis, decl., 57. b. -6x, nouns in, 67.

b.

oxys,

decl., 67. a.

operam

do,w.

dat. of gerund, etc., 299.

a; with subjunc., 331. Operations of nature, 146. a. opiniSne, with compar., 247.

pacto, as
b.

P, parasitic after (sumpsi), n. abl. of manner, 248. R. Paeon, 356. d.

;
;

c.

paenitet, 146. b constr., 221. b-d. opinor, position of, 345. c. oportet, 146. c; with ace. of object, palana, as apparent adj., 188. e. 3 with 237- e i n apod., 308. c\ imperfect reabl., 207. b, 261. b.
\

fers to present, plupf. to past, 311.

c.

R.

Palatals,
67. e.

w. subjunc. or inf., 331. i. oportuit, w. pres., inf., 288.

3; stems, decl. III., 45. c; gender, 66. e\ forms of inflection,

decl., 84. a.

a.

oppidum, ad, 258. b. N. 3. oppugnS, w. ace., 228. a.

ops,
46; defect., 77. 5. Optative, derivation and comparison w. subjunc., p. 274. Optative subj. ( wish} , 267 w. utinam, etc., id. b\ velim, etc., w. subjunc.,
decl.,
;

paluster,

Panthus,
par,

vocative

of, 43. b, 63.

/'.

decl., 85. b, 87.

a; with gen., 218. d;

w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. foot-n. Parallel verb-forms, 134. Parasitic sounds, n. c.
Parataxis, p. 164, p. 274.

equiv.

to, id. c.

paratus, with
76. 2. a.
i
;

infin., of,

273. b.
dat., 227.

optimates, 54. 3, opus, indecl., 77.

Pardoning, verbs

with

opus and usus, parelion,

\

decl., 43.

w. abl., 243. e\ as pred. nom., id. R.; w. participle, 292. b w. supine in -u,
SOS-

Parisyllabic nouns of
adjectives, 84.

decl. III., 53. a;

pariter, use, 234.

or, suffix, see as.

or-, stem-ending, decl. III., 48. d.
-or, noun-ending, 163. a.
-or, -6ris,

a. N. 2. adverbial use, 240. b. parte, locative use, without preposition,

partem,
258.
48. d\

/
decl., 87. b, d.

nouns in, 67. b. or or -6s, nom. ending,

65. a, 67.

particeps,
gend.,
310. a.

Participial clause

implying
25. e
;

condition,

__

Oratio obllqua, see Indirect Discourse. Order of words, 343-346. Ordinal Numbers, 94; decl., 94. f.

PARTICIPLES, defined,
of, 89. e
;

number

of, 109.

comparison a how used,

;

-orius, adj.-ending, 164. h.

113; as adjs., id. e\ as nouns, id./; used predicatively as adjs., id.,,f ; parts.
in -ns, used as adjs., with gen., 218. b\ clause equivalent to part., 201. b ; parts, in abl. absolute, 255.

6ro,
-6s,

constr., 331.
decl., 43.
\

Orpheus,

nom. ending, 48. d. gend., 65.

a. 67. b.

Index of Words and Subjects.

PARTICIPLES, Syntax; 288-294; agree- penes, following noun, ment, 186 and N. meaning and form, 3 63;

173
263. N.

289 tenses, 290 present in sped. ill. a pres. pass, part., how supplied,
.

Penult, defined, 19;

id.

rules

of quantity,

how supplied, id. d\ parts, of deponent verbs, 135. a, b, 290. b, d\ adjective use, 291 predicate use, 292 with opus, id. b\ perf. with habeo,
c\ perf. act.,
;
;

id. c\

part.,

present with facio, id. e\ future 293; with past tenses of esse, id. gerundive, use as part, or adj., 294
;

349-354penus, gend., 69. a decl., 78. i. c. per, prep., 152. a; use, 153; w. ace. of agent, 246. b. Adverbial prefix, w. adjs., 170. c (cf. 93 d); w. verbs, 170. c. N. Perceiving, verbs of, constr., 272, 330.
;

perendie

future part, in indirect questions, 334. a; part, as protasis, 310. a. Particles defined, 27; forms and classification,

(loc.), 74. c, 148. N. 8. Perfect participle, used to form tenses, no. b\ other uses, 113. c. i; of deponents, 135. b\ used as nouns, retain adv., 207. c\ dat. of agent with, 232. a;

p.

122;

p.

123;

interrogative,

note on formation, 149. d\ nega-

abl. w.

opus and USUB,

343.

e,

292. b.

PERFECT TENSE
id. c,

distinguished from im-

in compounds, 170; tive, id. e, 209; Syntax, 207-212; use of interrogative particles, 210. a, d\ conditional particles, 304. a, 315 particles of compari;

perf., 115. b, c\ perf. def.

and
;

perf. hist.,

279; personal endings, 116. a; origin of i and s in, 118. N. stem, how formed, 124, 126; of conj. I., 126. a.
2;

son, 312. Particular conditions defined, 304. d,

Partitive numerals, 97. c. Partitive genitive, 216; nostrum, etc.,

contracted

perf.,
e.

128.

a,

b\

perf.

subj. in -sim, 128.

irreg.

forms of

conj. I., 130; of conj. II., 131; various, of conj. III., 132; of conj. IV'., 133.

99.*. Parts of Speech, 25.

PERFECT TENSE, Syntax.

279; in
fut.

partus,

decl., 70. a.

Perf. Ind., use, conditions, 307. e\ in general conditions, 279. , 309. c\ gnomic

parum,

comp., 92; meaning, parvl, gen. of value, 252. a.

93. e.

parvus, comp.,
forms wanting

90.
;

279. c. Perf. Subj., hortatory, 266 ; in prohibitions, 266. b, 269. a ; optative, 267. a ; in fut. conditions, 307. c potenperf.,
;

Passive voice, 108. a

in,

origin, 118. foot-n.

tial,

no.

b\ signification,
;

meaning, id. N., 118. N. deponents, in. b\ completed tenses, how formed, 126.^; passive used impersonally, 141. a, 146. d\ 230,
a-c, 331. h.
cf.

in;

reflexive

Perf. Inf., in exclamations, 311. a. 274. N. ; special uses, 288. d, e in indir. disc., 336. A. N. i. Sequence of Tenses,
\

perf. ind., 287. 336. B. N. 2.

subjunc., id. b t c
/.

inf.,

330.

Pericles,
Period, 346

decl., 63.
;

pater families,
patiens, comp.
patior,

decl., 36. b.
of, 89. e.

constr., 331. c. Patrials in -as, decl., 54. 3, 87. b.

note on, p. 392. Periphrastic conjugations, 113. b. N., d. N. ; paradigms, 129 periphrastic forms in conjugation, 147; use in contrary to
;

fact apodosis, 308. d\ in ind. questions,

etc.),

Patronymics (-ad.es, -Ides, -eus,

164. b.

334-

<*

pauper,

decl., 87. b.

pax, decl., 77. 6. pecu, gend., 69. b\ decl., 78. i. e. pecuniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing,
a.

Permission, vbs. of, constr., 331. permittS, w. dat., 227. c. permuto, w. abl., 252. c.

c.

pernox,
220.

decl., 87.

and

N.

perpes, Perses,

decl., 87. a.
decl., 37.

pedester, decl., 84. a. pelag-us (plur. pelage), gend.

pelvis,
decl., 57. b.
of,

of, 39. b.

Person, 108. d; agreement, 181; of vbs., 204 and a with different persons, 205. a ; order of the three persons, id.
;

Penalty, gen.

220 and N.

abl. of, id. b.

P. -phonal

constr. of passive with infini-

Penates,

decl., 54. 3 (cf. 76. 2).

tive, 330. a, b, d.

474

Index of Words and Subjects.

cont. to fact, 308. c ; in general conditions, 309. c. Pluperf. Subj., hortatory, 266. e ; optative, 267 ; in conditions, 308

Personal endings, 116, and foot-n., 117. 2. Personal pronouns, 98, 99, p. 178, hcad-n.;
Syntax, 194
pi., id.
;

omitted, 194. a, 206. a; gen.

pers., id. c.

3d

persuaded,

constr., 331.
dat., 227.

pertaesum
pes, comps.

Persuading, verbs of, with est, 221. b.

(sequence, 287. /); potential, 311. a. N. Plural, wanting in decl. V., 74. d; used in sense different from sing., 75. a-c,
79. c\
pi.

of, decl., 87. d.

used as advs.,
189. b.

alone used, 76; plur. ace. neut. pi. of adjs. t 148. e

;

Pet names, gend., 28. b. N. peto with ab, 239. c. N. i

33 1 ph. only in Greek words,
of, 16.

w. subjunc.,
3
;

Pluralia tantum, 76.

2. a,

sound

pluris, gen. of value, 252. a, d. plus, decl., 86 and b\ comp., 90; without

N.

I.

quam,

247.

c.

Phalaecian verse, 371. n. Pherecratic verse, 369, 370, 371. 4, 12. Phonetic variations, 8; phonetic decay, 8. 2; vowels, 10; consonants, n; phonetic method of pronunciation, 16.

poenitet, see paenitet.

poema,

decl., 47. b.
2.

pondo, defect., 77. pono, w. abl., 260.

por-, prefix, 170.
b.

a.

Phorcys,

porticus, gend., 69. a. portus, decl., 70. d. Phrase, defined, 179. Phrases, neut., 29.^; phrases and clauses Position, expressed by ab, ex, 260. b. grown into advsT, 148. N. 6 adverbial Position in Prosody, 18, 347. d\ does not affect final vowel, id. e. R. phrases, 179 phrases~lfmued by gen., pnTSse or clause in abl. abs., posse, as fut. inf., 288. /
decl., 63. a.
;

;ical qualities, abl., 251. a.

piger, piget,
Pity,

decl., 82. c.

constr., 221. b-d.

of, constr.,

how expressed, 99. a\ dat. 231 compared w. gen., id. R. Possessive compounds, 167. d. Possessive genitive, 214. a-d\ dat. of
Possession,
of,
;

verbs

221. a.

plus, comp., 89. pix, decl., 77. 6.

Place, advs.

d. N., 91. d.

of, 149.

a; relations

of, re-

quire prep., 229.

birth, abl., 244. b
c,

a, 258. a, c;

place of

reference used instead, 235. a. Possessive pronouns, 99. a, p. 64 ; w. gen. in appos., 184. d\ agreement, 197; instead of gen., id. a\ special meanings, id. b\ omission, id. c\ used substan197. d\ used for gen. p 214. a\ for obj. gen., 190. b, 217. a. Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 308. c.
tively, 190. a,

; place where, 254, 258. d\ place to or from which, 258 prep. when omitted, 258. foot-n., a, b g\
; t

f
t

locative case, 258. c. 2, d, e. Placing, vbs. of, constr., 260. a.

Plants, gend. of names of, 29. 2 decl. of plant names in -US, 78.

possum,
and
i. a.

in apodosis, 308. c.

post, vbs. comp. w., w. dat., 228. post, adverbial use of, 261. d\

with

quam,
postera,

262.
defect., 82.
b.

plaudo, w.
w.

dat., 227. e.

d\ comp., 91. b\

Plautus, use of atrior, 89.

indie., 325. a. N., sodial forms, 367. a, 374.

poster!, 91. 326. N. 3; pro- posterior, 91.

;

of

quom

a, b.

b,

375.

Pleasing, verbs

of, constr., 227.

Postpositive conjunctions, 156. k. postquam (posteaquam), in tem-

plebes,

decl., p. 41, foot-n. i.

poral clauses, 324.

Plenty, verbs

plenus,

223, 248. c. construction, 223, 248. c. R.

of, constr.,

postremo,

in

enumerations, 151. d.

-plex, numeral adjectives in, 97. pluit (impers.), 146. a\ used personally,
id. N.

postridie, with gen., 223. e\ with accH 207. b, 261. a with quam, 262.
-,

postulo ab,
33iPotential
112. N.

239.

c.

N. i

postulo ut,
in Latin,

Pluperfect Indicative, use of, 280; epistolary, 282; plup. indie, in conditions

mood, how expressed

<>/

l\'i>nk

and .SV
prep*, following the noon, ^3, \..

475

Potential subjunetive, 311. a.

potis, pote, 8 7 ./ 4

*>5-)
,/.
,

potior potior

(adj.). eoinp., 91.

(veil)),
ii; <-(>nj..
;il>!.,

decl., 85;
:

ij;
j.j.y;

a, 240.

w.

with gen., 223. w. .u e., id. ^.

;

from root,
a\
'

123.
'i

gerundive, 296. R.

iam

did,

etc., 276.
<

potius, coinp., 92. potui, w. pres. infin., 288. a. Tower, adjs. of, w. gen., 218.
Prart ice,
vtis. of,

b\ for

fut., id.

torical,
d.

id.

d\

with

dum,

id.

e\

in

167.

quotations, id. f\ sequence, 286, 287. e, h\ pres. inf. w. potui, etc., 288. a;
participle, 290-292. disc, referring t
<

prae, 152. <5; use, 153; in comp., 93. d; in comp., w. dat., 228; in comp., w. quara, 262. N. i quantity of, in compounds, 347. b.
;

I'res. inf.

in ind.

Present subjunc. in -im, 128.

e. 2. e.

Preteritive verbs, 143. N., 279.

praecedo, constr., 228. a. praeceps, decl., 85. b, 87.

praecipio,

a.

Preventing, verbs, of, constr., 225. Price, abl. or gen., 252.

e,

c.

N. 2.

constr., 331. J'i-aeHinnen, 80. a; abbreviations, id. d,

decl., 87. d.

pridie, form, 74. c\ with gen., 223.

<;

praepes,

with ace., 207. b\ constr. as prep, or adv., 261. a\ with quam, 262.

praes, decl., praestolor,

67. d, 77. 6.

praesum,

constr., 227. b. w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. a.

Primary suffixes, defined, 159, Primary tenses, 285. i, 286. primipilaris, decl., 57. a.
Primitive verbs, 165.

160.

praeter, use, 152. a, 153. praeterit, w. ace., 237. e. preci. defect., 77. 5.

primo, primum, meanings,

primoris,
defect., 87.

151. d.

/
,

precor,

constr., 331.

primus,
denned, 172;

form, p. 56, foot-n.

decl., 87. b.

Predicate, pp. 163, 164; modified, 178; pred.

etc.,

prmceps,

noun or

adj.,

Principal parts of verb, 122.

d.

172. N., 176; case, 176. b\ pred.

nom.,

185; pred. noun referring to two or more sing, nouns, id. b adjective, 186. b,c d\ agreement in, 187. a, b\ in rel. clause, 199 pred. adj. in neut. pi.,
;

prior, comparison, 91. prius, with quam, 262; priusquam in temporal clause, 327 in indir. disc.,
;

336. B. a. N. 2.

187. c\ pred. adj. in relative clause, 200.

ace., 239 and a; adj. as pred. ace., id. N. I ; pred. ace. becomes pred. nom. in the pass., id. N. 2; predicate gen., 214. c t d; predicate use of parti-

d\ pred.

Privation expressed by abl., 243. 152. b\ use, 153; in comp., w. dat., 228 ; to express for, 236. R. pro bo w. dat., 227. e \ 232. c. N.

pro,

Proceleusmatic, 356.

e.

ciples, 292.

Predicate
2,

noun or
272. a. 2

adj. after

inf.,

270. N.

procerus, decl., 82. a. procul with abl., 261. b. prohibeo, constr. of, 225.
Prohibitions, 266. b, 269 ind. disc., 339. N.

d.

271.

c,

and

N., b.

and

a, b. N.

in

Prepositions, assimilation of, n. /; defined, 25. g\ derivation of, p. 127 \\ foot-n. ; list of preps, w. ace., 152. a
;

Promising,

etc.,

Pronominal

verbs of, 330. roots, 157, 159; as

\

primary

abl., id. b\

with either,

id. c\

how

dis

suffixes, id.

tinguished from advs., p. 127, foot-n. idiomatic uses, 153; compounded w vbs. and adjs., 170. a, c ; noun w. prep.,
instead of obj. gen., 217. c\ in composition \v. vbs., w. dat., 228, 229 ; ace. in

PRONOUNS

defined, 25. c

decl. of, 98-

105; personal and reflexive, 98; gen., how used, 99. a-c ; demonstrative, 100-

102; relative, interrog., and indef., 103-

105; pron. contained in verb-ending,

116. foot-n., 174. 2.

compos., 239. b\ w. abl. of separation, 243. a\ prep, omitted in relations of use of, 260-263 place, 258. a, b f, g
t \
>

Pu'\

.r,

104-203; Personal,

194; Demonstrative, 195;

idem,

id,

476
c,

Index of Words and Subjects.

e\

ipse,
in

id. f-l\
;

Possessive, 197
relative

Reflexive, 196; Relative, 186. N., 198

;

und or gerundive
R.
;

as predicate gen., 298.

of,

ways of expressing, 318. Clauses

;
;

protasis,

316;
/,

202.

Prons. w. part, Position of prons., 344.

their

Indefinite, gen., 216. a;

345.

e.

Note
;

and classified, 317 use of qu5 in, id. b main clause omitted, id, c\ nedum, id. R. and N. Sub180. e\ defined

on

Pronunciation,
lish

use and meaning, p. 178. Roman method, 16 Eng17.

stantive clauses

of,

used

after certain
\

verbs, 331
mitting, id.

method,

of wishing, id. b c\ of determining,

e
\

id.

of perd\ of
id. /.

pronuntio, constr., 331. prope, comp., 91. a; use,

caution,
152. a.

etc., id.

of fearing,

prope est

ut, 332.
;

Proper names, 80 Proper nouns, 25.

plur., 75, 76. i.

a.

(Note on, p. 340.) Purpose or end, dat. of, 233. -pus, compounds of, 67. d.

puter,

decl., 84. a.

properus, decl., 82. a. propinquus, with gen., 218. d. propior (propius), comparison, 91. a
constr., 234.
e,

qua
;

qua

208. d,

quadrupes,

decl., 87. d.
,

261.

a and N.
c,

quae res
quaer5,

Proportional numerals, 97. a. Propriety, vbs. of, in apodosis, 308.

311c.

(or id quod) constr. (ex or

200.

e.

de), 239.
of,

c.

N.
c.

2 ; w. subjunc., 331. quaesS, conj., 144. d; position

345.

proprius, with gen., 234. propter, use, 152. a, 153

N.
;
;

d.
;

qualis,

105.^-.

position, 263.

denoting motive, 245. b. PROSODY, p. 394 rules and definitions, 347-375; early peculiarities, 375.

Qualities (abstract), gend., 29. 2. Qualities of an object compared, 192.

Quality, adjs. of, 164. /; gen. of, 215, 251. a; to denote price, 252. a, b\ abl. of,

prosper

prospicio, w.
;

(-us), decl., 82. b. dat. or ace., 227.

251
c.

(cf.

215. N.).
\

quam, with superlative, 93. b

of, p. 123. e;
;

etymology

Protasis (see Conditional Clauses), 304 loose use of tenses in Eng., 305. R. ff.
relative in prot., 316
in,
;

correlative w. tarn, 107;

temporal particles
in,

322

ante-quam, priusquam

327. b\ prot. in ind. disc., 337. i. Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 225. d. N. 2.

Protraction of long syllables, 355.

c.

w. compar. and positive or w. two positives, 192. b\ with comparatives, 247. a, e; after alms, id. d\ w. compar. of advs., id. <?; with ante, post, 262; with subj. after comparatives, 320. c\ followed by result-clause, 332. b in in\

provides, w.
by

dat. or ace., 227. c.

Proviso, subj. used

modo,
b,

in, 266. d\ introduced etc., 314; result-clause as,

direct questions, 334. e; in indirect dis* course, 336. a. R., c. N. 2.

quamdiu,

328. N.

i.
c,

319.

320. d.
261. a, 234.
e.
<?.

quamlibet,

proximo, constr., 207. b, proximus, constr., 234.

-ps, nouns
foot-n.
in, 67. c.

quam ob quam qul, quam

quamquam, 105.
indie., 313. e\

concessive, 266. causam, 242. N.

b.

313.

ut, with subj., 320. c. N.; use, 156. i'; with

-pse, -pte (enclitic), 99.

/ 100. c
<?.

p. 67,

tion =

and yet, id./; w.

156.
/
;

introducing a proposisubj., id.^.

subj. or ind. with>

pubes, decl., 78. i. e, 87. pudet, 146. b constr., 221. puer, decl., 38 (cf. 41. a). pulcher, decl., 82. c.
;

b-d.

quam si, 312. quam vis, use,

266.
c,

313. #, g. (interrog.), derivation, 148. N.

indef., id.
;

quandd
rj;

puls, decl., 67. d. Punishment, abl. of,

meaning, 156.^;
;

causal

220. b.

(since}, 321. N. 3
14. c.

temporal, 322.
252. a.
of,

puppis, decl., 56. b, 57. b. Pure and impure syllables,

quantl, gen. of price,

Quantity, gen. of adjs.
252. a,

denoting price,
of,

Purpose, infin. of, 273; expressed by gerundive after certain vbs., 294. d; by ger-

Quantity in Prosody,

marks

5; gen-

Index of Wonts and Subjects.

eral rules of, 18, 347; nature of, p. 394. N. final syllables, 348; penultimate syl;

477

quis,

dat. or abl. plur., 104, d.

105.
/.

quisnam,
quispiam,
202. a.

lables, 349-354-

105.

c,

use

of,

105.

d.

N,

quantS,

\v.

tantS,
(with
e.

quantum

250. R. mirum), in indirect

106.
c,

quisquam,
N., id.
//,

decl.,
t

105. c;

use,

ions, 334.

202. b

c.

quantumvls, concessive, quantus, 105.,^.

quasi, with primary tenses,

313.

quisque, form and

decl.,
;

105. e\

use

312. R. (intensive), 167. b. -que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 105. f, as conjunction, use, 156. a, 208. <J. 3;

quasso

with superlative, 93. in gener sertions, 202. d; in t! iause, with plural verb, 205. c. 2. id. e
\

quisquis, decl., 105. quivis, decl., 105. c;

b.

use, 202.
<

c.
').

quantity, 348.

i.
..f.

quo, approaching abl.

que5
ques,

(defective), 144.

quo
quo

in

final

clauses

(=
to

ut eo)
321. R.

N. with

old nom. plur., 104. d. Questions, direct, in indie., 112. a, 210R; double ques212; indirect, id. tions, 211 question and answer, 212 result clause in exclam. questions, 332. c\

subj., 317. b\ 106. c\ . . . eo,

non quo,

denote deg. of

difference, 250. R.

mood

in indirect question, 334; in inin informal ind. direct discourse, 338

;

quoad (purpose, etc.), 328. quod for id quod, 200. c. N. quod (conj.), 156. /; mood
;

disc., 341. a.

qui

(relative), decl., 103; (interrog. and indef.), 104 and a ; in compounds, 105 ;

with, 321; in indirect discourse, id. a; subst. clause with, 333 as ace. of specification, id. a\ with verbs of feeling, id. b\

quod
and
R.

in intermediate clauses, 341.

c.

qui = ut
causal

is, with subj., 317, 319;

qui

and concessive,
c.

320.

e.

qui

(adverbial), 104.
104. c.

quod sciam quod si, use,

(proviso), 320. d.
156. b, 240. b.
7, 156.^-.

quicum,
quia, use,
of

quom

(see

cum),

156. /; causal, 321 ; w. verbs in intermediate feeling, 333. b\

decl., 105. a. in excl., 240. d. N. i.
decl., 105. c
c.
;

quSminus

(= ut of hindering, 317.

eo minus)
b.

w. vbs.
331.
e.

N.

i,

319.

c,

clauses, 341. d.

quoniam, meaning,
quoque,
of,

156. /;

in

causal
b.

qulcumque,
quid,
a
;

clauses, 321. use, 151. a

quidam, quidem,
195. c
;

meaning

202.

quot,

; position, 345. indeclinable, 106. a.

with ex, 216.

position

use, 151. e\ with is or

of,

Idem,

Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in, direct and indir., 335. 258. c. 2. N. 2
;

345. b. quilibet, decl., 105. c ; use, 202. c. Quin, w. indie, equivalent to command,
269. /; in result-clause (= qui non) 319. d\ w. vbs. of hindering, 332.
,

quotus quisque, quu- (cu-),7.

105. e.

quum

(conjunction), 7 (see

cum).

non dubito
quinquatrus,
76.1.

quin,

332. g. R.
d.

Quinary or hemiolic measures, 356.

gend., 69. a\
pi.

subst. for 8 between sonants, n. a, p. 26, foot-n. 2; r- in adj. stems, 85; rrin noun-stems, 48. e.
i.

only,

ra (la), primary suffix, 160. rastrum, plu. in -a and -I,

ratiSne, as abl. of manner, ratus, as pres. part., 290. b. ravis, decl.. $f>. a.
b.

78. 2. b.

quippe, with
with

relative clause, 320.

e.

N. i

248. R,

cum,

326. N.

i.

Quirites, 79. c. quis, decl., 104; distinguished from qui re- or red- (prefix), 170. in use, id. a. and N.; compounds of reapse, too. c.
(aliquis.
etc.),

105;

quis with
of,

si,

ne, 105. d\ indeC use quis est qui, 320. a.

num.

202. a.

of, w. gerundive, 204. d. Reciprocal (each other) how expressed,

Receiving, vbs.
99. d, 196.

478
recorder, with

Index of Words and Subjects.

ace., 219. b.

rectum

est ut,

352.
p. 120, 158. c ;

-rem, verb-ending, p. 120. Remembering, vbs. of, constr., 219;

inf.,

\r.

red-, see re-. Reduplication, 123. in perfect of con j.

271.

c,

124.

c,

III., id.; list

of verbs,
;

Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 219. c. Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 243. a,
[ren]
,

132. b\ lost in fidi, etc., id. 132. f. N.

decl., 54. 2.

rule for quantity, 351.

c.

repetundarum,
adj.,

220. a.

refert, with gen. or possessive other constr., id. b.

222;

Repeated action as general condition,

309. b.

Reference, object of, 218. Reference, pronouns of, 195. a commonly omitted, id. b dative of, 235 gen. of
\ ;

Repraesentatio, 276. d. N.; in ind. disc., 336. B. a.

Requesting, vbs.

of, constr.,

330. 2.
;

specification, 218.

c.

requies,
res,

decl., p. 41, foot-n. i

78.

i. e.

Reflexive pronouns, 98. 2. a, b, 102. e. N. ; Syntax of, 196 ; of ist and 2d person,
id. h.

decl., 72.

Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive), 118. foot-n., 135. e\ use of passive, HI.

Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 227, 319. d. Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 357. Resolving, verbs of, constr. (subjunc. or
inf.),

331. d.
a.

with object ace., 240. N. Refusing, vbs. of, w. quominus, 319. c. Regular verb, 121-136. Relationship, nouns of, 164. b. Relative adjectives, w. gen., 218, with a, b.
N. I
;

restat, with ut, 332.

Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 107 ; used to connect independent sentences, 180. /, 201. e\ pronoun with prep.,
207. a
\

restis, decl., 56. b. Restriction in subjunctive clause, 320. d. Result, clauses of, 180. <?, p. 343; sequence of tenses in, 287. c\ infin. of, Subjunctive with relatives or 273. g. ut, 319 negative result with ut non,
;

etc., id. a, d.

R.

result-clause equiva-

referring to locative, 2oi./;

instead of rel. pron., id. f. 2, 207. ; in relative clauses of purpose, 317

result,

used a used
;

lent to proviso, id. b\

with

quSmi-

of

position, 201. c. Relative clauses, defined, 180. c\ w. rela-

319

tive advs., 201. h. Syntax, 3 16-328;

ditional, 316; final, 317, 318;

tive,

conconsecu-

321

319; characteristic, 320; causal, temporal, 323-328 rel. clauses in hid. disc., 340; position of rel. clause,
;

of id. d\ characteristic, 320; with expressions of existence and non-existence, id. a\ with unus and solus, id. b\ with comparatives, id. c with dignus, etc., id. Subst. clauses of result after facio, etc., 332 as subject, id. a ; after

nus,

id.

c\

with

quin,

quaxn, id. b
id.

in

c\

tantum abest
result,

exclamatory questions, ut, id. d\

345.

e.

(Note on origin and

;

classifica-

thought as

id./
c.

tion, p. 339.)

Result, nouns, denoting, 163.

Relative pronouns, decl., 103

forms

how rete,
rex,

decl., 57. a. decl., 46.

distinguished from interrogative and indef., 104. a ; compounds of, 105 ; relatives as connectives,

Rhetorical questions in ind. disc., 338.

i8o./ Syntax 198t

201

two

rules of agreement, 198, 199 ; w. antecedents, 198. a\ rel. in agree-

rims, decl., 67. a. Rhythm, development

nature
of,

of,

Note, p. 402;

355.

ment w. appos., etc., 199; use of the antecedent, 200; special uses of rel., 201 ; never om. in Lat., 201. a pers. of
;

Rhythmical reading, 359. R.

adj.-stems in, 84. a. ritu, abl. of manner, 248. R.
ri-,

verb agreeing w., 204. a\ abl. of rel. after comp., 247. a. N. ; position, 345. <?.

rivalis, decl., 57.

Rivers,

b.

names

of,

gender, 29.
c,

and

a.

Note on, p. 186. relinquitur ut, 332. a. reliquum est ut, 332.
reliquus,
use, 193
;

ro-stems, decl.

II.,

38; adj.-stems, 82.

rogG,
a.

constr. of, 239.

and

R., d. N.

w,

subjunc., 331.
a.

reliqul, use, 203.

Roman method

of pronunciation, 16.

Index of
Roman
writers,

and

Subjects.
of, constr.,

479
330; in p
123.

Appendix,

p. 439.

Saying, verbs
id. a, b,

Romance

(or

Romanic) languages, Ap; ;

336.

prndix, p. 437; comparative forms, id. Root, defined, 22, 157 of vbs., 117. 1. N. noun-stc-m treated as root, 123. d\ roots ending in vowel, 123. /; consciousness of roots lost in Lat., 22. N. root used as stem, 123. e,f, 158 as word, p. 103.
; ;

BC preceding stem-vowel of verb,

b.
i.

scaber,

decl., S.

Scanning, 359. b, 356. N. scilicet, derivation, 148. scln, contracted form for scisne,

13. c.

r6s,
-fa,
rt-,

decl., 77. 6.

Sclpiades,
c.

37.
of, 269. e.

rr-, as

stem ending, 48.

in, 67. d.

sci5, imperative

nouns
stems

in, decl., 87. b.

sciscS, constr., 331. scito, scitote, imperative forms,

269.
e.

128.

c,

ruber,

decl., 82. c.
a, b t d.

ruri, locative, 62, 258. d. rus, 07. b, 77. 6. a constr., 258.

;

-SCO

(inceptive), verbs
decl., 54. 2.

ending

in, 167. a.

scrobs,
;

to r, n. a. I ; p. 26, foot.-n. 2 substituted for d. or t, n. a. 2; 8 final

changed

se- or sed-, insepar. prefix, 170. b. se, reflexive, decl., 98. 2. b\ use, 196; inter se, 99. d.

n. .3; -s as sign of nom., 32. 38, 44, 72, 85. foot-n., p. 205; -3 omitted in inscriptions, 38. N. -s, noun-ending, decl. III., gend., 65. b\ s suppressed in verb-forms, 128. b
elided,
b,
;
;

Second Conjugation,

prin. parts., 122. c\

;

formapres. stem, how formed, 123. a tion of conj. II., 126. b\ paradigm, p.
96; verbs
of,

131

derivation, 166. b.
;

in early Lat., 375. a.

Second Declension, nouns, 38-43 accent of gen. and voc. of nouns in -ius, 19. d. 2,
Secondary accent, 19. b. N. Secondary object, 239. 2. Secondary suffixes, denned, 159. Secondary tenses, 285; rule for use
\

8- as stem-ending, 48. d, 60. d\ p. 41, of adjs., 85. 6. N. of comfoot-n. i paratives, 86. a apparent s-stcms,
;
;

p. 26, foot-n. 2. 8 as suffix of perfect, 124. b list of vbs. of conj. III. w. perf. in s, 132. a. sacer, decl., 82. c\ comp., 91. d.
;

of,

286; perf. def. more commonly secondary, 287. a perf. subj. in clauses of
result

used

after, 287. c;

hist, pres., id.

saepe, comp.,

92.

e\ imperf.

and

pluperf. subj., id. f,

if

g\

sal, decl., 77. 6.

present used as

secondary, by synesis,
;

Salamis, decl., 63. a. saluber, decl., 84. a. salutem, 240. d. N. 2.

salve,
defective, 144.

secundum,
secundus,
securis,

152. a prep, use, 153. derivation, 94. foot-n.

56. b, 57. a.
;

/
14, 26, 81,

tlecl.,

sane quam,
sanguis,

334.

e.

secus,

decl., 67. b.

Sanskrit forms, see notes, pp.

83, 433. 434-

secus secutus

noun, 77. i (adv.), comp., 92.

indecl.

use, 240.
b.

b.

(as pres. part.), 290.

sed,-, see se-.

sapiens, decl., 57. b. Sapphic verse, 371. 6,

sed compared
7.

with

verum,

etc., 156. b.

sedes,
sedile,
of,

decl., 59.

satago, with
satias, decl.,
dat., 227. e;

gen., 223.
p. 41. foot-n. i.

decl., 52. Selling, vbs. of, 252. d.

satis, comp., 92;

compounds
e\

non

satis, 93. e\
perf.

pounds of, w. dat., 227. est (satis habe5), with

288.
e.

with sementis, decl., 56. b, 57. b. com- Semi-deponents, 136. satis seminecl. defect., 87. /. Semi-vowels, i and V (u), 4. infin., senati, senatuos, forms of gen.
decl. IV., 70. senex, decl., 60.
.

in

satur, genitive comp., 91. d.

of,

41. b\

decl., 82. b;

c,

61

adj. masc., 88. 6\

Saturnian verse, 374. d.

comparison, 91.

c.

480
sens, as

Index of Words and

participle of

Sztbjects.

esse, 119.
;

a.

Sentence, development, p. 163 defined, 171; simple or compound, 180 (com-

Singularia tantum, 75. sinister, decl., 82. a. sino, constr., 331. c.

-sio, noun-ending, 163. b.

pare Note, p. 339) sentis, decl., 77. 7.

Separation, dat.

incomplete, 206.

siquis,

decl., 105. d.

of, after

comps. of ab,
229
;

-sis-,

dropped

in perf., 128. b.
cf.

de, ex, and

243
;

after

adimo,
;

abl.,

sitis, decl., 52,

56. a.

gen. for abl., 223. b. 3, 243. Sequence of tenses, 285-287 in ind.

R.

disc.,

336. B. ; in conditional sentences, in ind. disc., 337. b.

Situation or direction, 235. b. sive (seu) . . . sive, use, 156. Smell, verbs of, with ace., 237. c.
-s5, verbs in, 167. b. -so, old form of fut. perfect, 128.

c,

315.

&

sequester, decl., 78. i. sequitur, with ut, 332. sequor, conj., 135. sera nocte, 193. N.
series,
decl., 74. d.

b.

e. 3.

a.

socrus,

gend., 62. a.

sodes

(si

audes),

13.

c,

136. a.

sol, decl., 77. 6.

Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 234. a. Service, dat. of, 233. a, with foot-n.

soleo, semi-dep., 136. solito, with comp., 247. b. solitus as pres. part., 290. solus,
;

b.

Serving, verbs

of,

with dat., 227.

decl.,

83;

with relative clause,

servus (servos), decl., 38. 320. b. sestertium, sestertius, 377-379 how Sonants,
written in cipher, 380.

2. a, 3.

-sor, see -tor.

(sive), 156. c, 315. c. Sharing, adjs. of, with gen., 218. a. Should (auxiliary), how expressed in Lat., III. b. N. Showing, verbs of, with two aces., 239. a.
-si, perfect

seu

Soracte,

decl., 57. d.

sordem,

defect., 77. 5.

Source, expressed by abl., 244. -soria, noun-ending, 164. /. 4 -sSrius,

;

adj-ending,
ing, id.
i.

id.

-sorium, noun-end-

ending, 118. N.
b.

5.

si, p.

320 ; w. subj. of wish, 267.

its

N. I

Si
;

Sospita, fem.

adj. form, 85. c.

and
si

compounds,

use, 304. a, N., 315

n5n
sl

=
-

distinguished from nisi, 315. whether, 334. /; mlror si,

Sounds, see Pronunciation. Space, extent of, expressed by

ace., 257.

333-

Sparing, verbs of, with dat., 227. spe, with comp., 247. b.
Special verb-forms, 128.

Sibilants, 3. sic, correl. with ut, 107, 319. R.; with Si,

species,

decl., 74. d.

304.

b.

siem (sim),

119. b.

Specification, gen. of, with adjs., 218. c\ ace. of, 240. c; abl. of, 253.

Significant endings, 161-164.

specus,

silentio, without preposition, 248. R.

-silis, adj.-ending, 164. Silvester, decl., 84. a.

m.
subj., 128. e. 3.
;

gend., 69. a. Spelling, variations of, 12. spes, decl., 72. N., p. 41. foot-n. a.
Spirants, 3. a. Spondaic verse, 362. a.

-sim, old form of perf.

dat., 234. d. 2.

similis, comparison, 89. b

with gen. and

similiter, use, 234.

a,

N. 2.

Spondee, 356. b. spontis.-e, defect., 77. Stanza or Strophe, 361.

3.

Simois, decl., 64. Simple sentences,

180.
b.

Bimul

with abl., 261.

.

prep., 260. a; w. inl or subjunc., 331. d. Statutes, fut. imv. in, 269. d. 3.

statuo, without

simul, simul atque (ac), simul simul, 208. d.

.
.

324.

ste

sin, 304. a. N.
indecl., 67. a. Singular, nouns defect, in, 77. 5.

for iste, etc., 100, b. Stella, decl., 35. Stems, defined, 21, classified, 157;

how

sinapl,

formed from root, 23, 158, 159; hovr found in nouns, 32. a a-stems, deck
;

I) idex

of Words and Subjects.

II.,

481
,

I.,

35; adjs., 8l
;

O-strms, d-d.

38

and foot-n. adjs., Si; in duel. mute stem 3,44; liquid stems, 48
;
;

III.,

stems, 51; u-strms, d<-d. IV., 68; tu-, 71; of verb, 117. I and N.
ent, perfect,

in

334 nature and Infm. ) 32^ clauses, 330; clauses of Purpose, 331; of Result, 332 'iuod. 333; Ind: -ns, 334; adj. w. subst.
;

classes

of,

and supine,

121.

clauses, 189. d.

formed, p. 86; from root, 123; perf. stem, 124; supine stem, 125. Tenses arranged by stems, synopsis,
stem,
127.

how

Substantive use of adjs., 188; of possessive prons., 190. a, 197. d.

Substantive verb (ease), 172. N.

Stem-building, 22. N. 8t5, w. ablative, 254. b.

strigilis, decl., 57. b.

subter, 152. c use, 260. suetus, w. infin., 273. b.

\

d.

Suffixes, 159; primary,

nificant, 161-164.

list

of,

160; sig-

strix, decl., 54. 2. Structure of Latin sentences, 346. head-n.

sul, decl., 98. c\

use, 196;

w. gen. of

gerund, 298.

a.

strues,

decl., 59.
e.

sum,

studeo, w. dat., 227. Styx, decl., 67. e.

conj., 119; as copula, 172. N; as substantive vb., id.; omitted, 206. c\ w. dat. of possession, 231 ; position,

suadeo,
sub,
228
;

w.

dat., 227.
c,

344- c,j.
in comp., w. dat.,
170. c

use, 152.

153

summus,
193-

form, p. 56. foot-n.

320. a.

(top of) ,

of time, 259. If. sub-, in comp. w. adjs., 93. verbs, 170. a, c, N. subeo, w. ace., 228. a.

c,

w.

sunt qul,

Subject, pp. 163, 164; defined, 172; how expressed, 173, 174; modified, 178; vb. agrees w., 204 two or more subjs.,
;

suovetaurilia, 168. a. supellex, decl., 60. c. super, 152. c\ use, 153, 260.
170. a; in

c\ in

comp.,
;

comp., w.

dat., 228.
(cf. p. 56. foot-n.)

supera,

defect., 82.
\

205; subj. omitted, 206; accusative, 272; in indirect discourse, 336; position of subject, 343. Subject clauses (infm.), 270, 330; (subjunc.), 331. head-n., 332. head-n. and

comp., 91. b super!, id. superior, comparison, 91.

Superlative, suffix, 89. foot-n. 89. a of adjs. in -lis, id. b
;

b.
;

in

-rimua,

with

max-

a,d. Subjective genitive, defined, 213. i

214.

use,

d\ of eminence, 93. b\ with ime, vel or unUs, id. with quisque, id. c\ takes gender of partitive,
id.

quam
187. e\

denoting order, succession, 193.

a, b.

Subjunctive mood, 108. b ; tenses wanting in, no. a\ how used and translated, 112. b and N.; tenses how used, 115. d\ vowel of pres. subj., 126. a. i,
t

superstes, decl., 87. Supine, noun of decl.

b. i, c. i,

d
;

p. 120.

Classification of
;

IV., 71. a\ use of, 114. b\ stem, 121. c\ formation, 125, 126. a-d (cf. p. 121) ; irregular forms of, conj. I., 130; conj. II., 131; allied

uses, 265

general use, 265

hortatory
delib;

with

forms

in

-tor,

162.
of,

a.

N.

subj., 266; optative subj., 267;

Former Supine, use

303;

302;

Latter.

erative, 268

tenses of subj., 283-287 temporal clauses, 284; potential subj., 311. a; subj. of modesty, id. b\ subj. in ind. disc., 336 in informal ind. disc.,
;
;

as abl. of specification, 253. a.

341

of integral part, 342.

decl., 59.

suppetias, defect., 77. 2. supplex, decl., 87. b, d. supplico, w. dat., 227.*, 3. supra, use of, 152. a, 153.
-sura, noun-ending, 163.
Surds.
2. a, 3.

suboles,
;

b.

Subordinate clauses, defined, 180. b\ use, 316-328 in ind. disc., 336, 339. Subordinate conjunctions, 154. b, 155.
e-i.

Substance, gen.

of,

214. e\ abl. of, 244.

-suriO, vbs. in, 167. e. -BUS. phonetic form of -tus, 71 ending, 163. b. BUS, decl., 60. a, 6l.

noun-

482
suus,
use, 196.
of,

Index of Words and

Subjects.

Swearing, vbs.

constr., 238. c, 330. f. Syllables, rules for division of, 14 pure, open, etc., id. d, e \ long and short, 18.
;

-te (enclitic), 99. f. Teaching, vbs. of (two aces.) 239.

,

c.

Synasresis, 347.

c,

d. R.
t

conj., p. 98. Telling, vbs. of, constr., 272, 330. Temporal clauses, denned, 180. c\ 322-

tego,

Synalcepha, 359. c R. Synchysis, 344. A.

Syncope, 10. c. Synecdoche, defined, see Glossary. Synecdochical accusative, 240. c. Synesis, defined, 182. a; in gend. and number, 187. d\ in sequence of tenses,
287. h.

328 as protasis, 322 two uses, 323 w. postquam, etc., 324 w. cum, 325 w. antequam and priusquam, 327; w. dum, donee, quoad, 328; re; ; ;
; ;

placed by abl. absolute, 255.

d.

Temporal numerals,
155- A.

97. b\ conjunctions,

tempus

Synopsis of tenses (amo), 127; of impersonal verbs, 145.

Syntactic compounds, 170.

est abire, 298. N. Tendency, adjectives denoting, 164. /. tener, decl., 82. b. TENSES, 108. c\ of passive voice, in;
participles, 113;
classification,

oi

SYNTAX, 171-346; ment of, N., pp.

164.

historical

develop-

meanid.

163, 164; outline, p.

Important rules of Syntax, p.

ing and use, 115; of the ind., of the subj., id. a?; endings, 118
tion of, 126. f,g\ synopsis
for
264. a.
of,

a-c\
Ind.

forma;

381 ff. Syntaxis and parataxis, p. 164.

127

Eng. subjunctive, 264. b\ of Ind.,

classified, p.

cbiuaged to s, n. a. 2, 125 t for d (set, aput), 12. e\ t preceding stemvowel of vb., 123. b. i; t-(s-), supine
;

TENSES, Syntax, 276-288;

stem-ending, 125, 126.

-t,

a. 2, b. 2, c. 2, d.

291; Present tense, 276; Imperfect, 277; Future, 278; of Completed action, of 279-281 Epistolary tenses, 282
;

nouns

in,

gend., 65.

c.

ta, primary suffix, 160. c. 2, 162. b. taedet, impersonal, 146. b constr., 221.
;

subjunctive, 283-285 sequence of, 285287; tenses of the infinitive, 288; tense
;

emphatic, 344. d. 3
ind. disc., 336. ind. disc., 336.

tenses of

inf. in

b-d.

taeter, Taking away,

Talent, value

decl., 82. c.

tenses of subjunc. in B; affected by reprce;

vbs.
of,

of,

229.

sentatio, id.
disc., 337.

a;

in

condition in ind.

382. tails, 105. g, 106. tails ut, etc., 319. R.

Notes on origin of syntax,

;

pp. 274, 291.

tenus,
107
;

constr., w. gen., 223. e

;

w.

abl.,

tarn, correl. with ut, 319. R.

quam,

correl.

w.

position, 263. N., 345. a. -ter, in alter, etc., p. 49. foot-n. ; -ter,

260. e

tamen,

156.

i,

k\ as correlative, id.
use, 156.
i,

i.

tametsi, concessive

313.

c.
;

teres,

tamquam,
tandem,

in conditional clauses, 312 with primary tenses, id. R.

adv. ending, 148. b, c. decl., 87. a\ comp., 91. d. -terior, ending, p. 56. foot-n. Terminations of inflection, meaning
20. b\

of,

in questions, 210.
a,

/
;

open and

close affixes, 24. N;

tanti, gen. of value, 252. ut, 332.

tanti est

tanto following quanto, 106. c, 250. R. tantum, with subjunctive of proviso,

3i4-

terminations of nouns, 34; of verbs, 118. (See Endings.) -ternus, as adj.-ending, 164. e as noun;

ending,

id.

i.

12.

terra marique,
ut, 332.
106
;

258. d.

tantum abest
tantus,
105.

d.

terrester,
ut, 319. R.

decl., 84. a.

tantus

tar, primary suffix, 160. f. -tas, -tia, noun-endings, 163. e. Taste, verbs of, with ace., 237. c.
tat-, as stem-ending, 54. 2.

-terus, ending, p. 56. foot-n. Tetrameter, Iambic, 366. a. Than, how expressed, 247.

The as

correlative, 106.

c.

and

foot-n.

Thesis and Arsis, 358 and foot-n.

In<ft'.r

cf
and

//;///

Subjects.

483

Thinking, vbs.
inf.,

of,

constr. with ace.

272, 330.
prin. parts,
123. 3;

Third conjugation, of verbs,

122. c\ pres. stem,

how formed,

decl., 83; nouns w., in abl. without prep, (place where), 258. /. 2. Towns, names of, gend., 29, 39. a names of towns in -e, decl., 57. d\ locative of,

tOtus,

formation, 123. b, 126. c\ paradigm, p. 98; in -15, paradigm, p. 100; list, p. list of verbs, with principal 101. N.
;

258. c. 2 as place from which, as place to which, 258. b.

;

id.

tr-,

stems in (pater,

etc.), 48. c.

parts, 132; 166. c.

derivation of vbs. in -uo,

Third declension, of nouns, 44-67; mute stems, 44-47; liquid stems, 48-50; vowel stems, 51-59; case forms, 56; peculiar forms, 60, 61; Greek nouns, rules of gender, 65, 66 forms 63, 64
;

tra, primary suffix, 160. o. traiciS, constr., 239. b. R. traiectus 16ra, id. trans, 152. a use, 153 comps. of, w.
; ; ;

ace.,

and

237. R.

d\

w. two aces., 229. b

of inflection classified by stems, 67. Though, see Although.

Transitive adjectives, 218. Transitive verbs, 175. b, 177; absolute use, 175. b. N. 2 how translated, 177.
;

Thought, considered as

result, 332.

c\ w. dat., 225.

Threatening, vbs. of, 227, 330. thfis, see tus. ti, primary suffix, 160. c. 2. ft. -tia (-ties), noun-ending, 163.*. -ticus, adj.-ending, 164.^.
tigris, decl., 64.
-tills, adj.-ending, 164.

Transposition of vowel and liquid, 9. d, 124. a. N.; of consonants, n. d. Trees, names of, gend., 29. 2. tres, decl. 94. c. tri-, stem-ending of nouns, 51.^, 54. i; of adjs., 84. a.
Tribe, abl.
of, 244. b.

m.
N.
e.

N.
b.

-tim, adverbs

in, 56. a. 3, 148.

Time

(see

Temporal Clauses),
149. b.
of,
;

264. a;

Tribrach, 356. a. tribulis, decl., 57.

284, 323.

Time, advs. of, Time, duration

256
;

256 and b time when, corresponding to Eng. place, 259. a\ time during or within which, w.

tribus, gend., 69. a ; decl., 70. d* tridens, decl., 57. b. Trimeter, Iambic, 365.
Triptotes, 77. 4.
decl., 57. b. -tris, adj.-ending, 164. e.

triremis,

ordinal, id. c\ distance of time, id. d\ abl. abs. to denote time, 255. and d. i.

triumpho,

w.

abl., 245. a. 2.

Time, mode of reckoning,

p. 425.
;

timeo, w.

dat.,

or ace., 227. c

with sube.

junctive, 331.
-tio,

/
p. 56, foot-n.
b,
;

-trlx, see -tor. -tr5, advs. in, p. 123. N. y. R. Trochaic verse, 360, 367.

-tlmus, adj.-ending,
-tio (-sio),

164.

Trochee, 356. a

noun-ending, 160.

163. b.

-trum, noun-ending,

irrational, id. N., 369, 163. d.

-tura.-tus (-tutis), noun- Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 227. b. tu, primary suffix, 160. c. 2. y. tu, decl., 98. I (see tute, tutimet). -tium, noun-ending, 163. / -tu, -sii, supine-endings, 114. b. -tlvus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. I. -tud5, -tus, noun-endings, 163. e. -tS,-it5, frequentative verbs in, 167. b. To (so as to), 319. d. R. tull (tetull), 139; derivation, id., footToo n. to, 320. c. quantity, 351. b, Ex. -tor (-sor), -trlx. nouns of agency in, -turn, -sum, supine endings, 114. b. 162. a\ used as adjs., 88. c, 188. d. turn, tune, use, 149. b\ correl.w.cum.
endings, 163.
. . .
;

-tSrla, noun-ending, 164. i. 4. -tSrium, noun-ending, 160. b, 164. 5. -tCrius, adj.-ending, 160. b\ as noun/'.

107, 156 h.

turn

ending, 164. h. tot, use, 106 and

a.

turn, 208. d. -tura, -tus, noun-ending, 163. -turlO, vbs. in, 167. e. turrls, decl., 52 (cf. 56. b).
. . .

d.

totidem,

use, 106. a.

-turnus, adj.-ending,

164.

e.

484
e.

Index of Words and Subjects.

-urio, desiderative verbs
in, 167. e.
e.
;

-tus, adj. -ending, 164. /; noun-ending,

71, 163.

-urnus, adj.-ending,
rj.

164.

-tus, adv.-ending, 148. N.

-urus,
293.

fut.
c,

tus (thus),

tussis, tute, 99. /; tutimet,

decl., 77. 6. decl., 56. a.

part, in, 113. b, 293 w. fui, 308. a in ind. questions, 334.

;

a;

-urus fuisse,

99.

Two Two

accusatives, 239.
datives, 233. a.

-us, nom.-ending, -er in Gr. nouns, decl.

in ind. disc., 337. b. decl. 1 1., 28, 39; -us for

II., 43. b\

-us
;

nom.-ending
65. c, 67. b
;

in decl.

1 1 1. ,48.
;

d\ gend.,

decl. IV., 68

gend., 69

U(v),

as consonant, 4; after q, g, s, 4. not to follow u or V, 7 u for e N. 3

; ;

in conj. III., 126. c. U, primary suffix, 160.

i. c. i.
;

neut.-ending, 163. a. -us, Gr. nom.-ending, 63. e 67. d\ -us, -utis, id.

-us, -udis,

Use, adjs.

of,

constr., 234. b.

U-stems, of nouns, decl. III., 60. a, 61 of verbs, p. 86, 123. d, decl. IV., 68
;

usquam,
usque,

use, 105. h. w. ace., 261. a.

166. a. 3,

c.

usus
b, 87. c.

fiber, decl., 85.

ut
S
;

ubi, derivation, 148. N.

clauses, 322, 324.

in

temporal

(need}, w. abl., 243. e. (uti), correlative w. ita, sic, 107; to denote concession, 266. c, 313. a w. optative subjunc., 267. b in clauses of
\
;

ubiubi, 105. -ubus, in dat. and

b.

-uis (-uos),

abl. pi., decl. IV., 70. d. in gen., decl. IV., 68. N.,

purp., 317 331. e. i. N.

of result, 319
;

ut ne,

id.
;

ut non, etc., 319. d.

;

R.

ut

70. a. -ulis, adj.-ending, 164. d.

temporal, 322, 324; verbs followed by clauses w. ut, 331, 332 omission after
certain verbs, 331.

R.,

i.

N. i

and

2;

ullus, decl., 83 ulterior, comparison, 91. a. ultra, 152. a; use, 153; following noun,
;

use, 105. h, 202. b,

c.

263. N.

w. verbs of fearing, 331. and foot-n. ; used elliptically in exclamations, 332. c. ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 320. e. N. I w. CUm, 326. N. I.

-ulus, diminutive ending, 164. a; verbal

adj.-ending,
id.
/.

-urn
e\

for

-arum,

-um

194. b\ -um in gen. pi. of adjs., 87. d\ for

decl. IV., 68. N., 70.
c.

36. d; for -orum, 40. in gen. pi. of personal prons., for -ium, decl. III., 59;

ut prlmum, 324. ut semel, 324. uter, interrog. and

uter,

decl., 51. b, 54.

indef. pron., 104.^. i, 88. a.

decl., 105.
<?;

uterque, form and

202. d\

use,

-uum,
Lat., p.

constr. in

agreement and as

Umbrian forms compared with

435-

utervis,
uti,

partitive, 216. d. use, 202.

c.

Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. Unorganized forms of expression, p. 163

w. subj. of wish, 267. b. utilis, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. foot-n.

utinam,

utpote qui,
iitor,
etc.,

320.

e.

N.

i.

and

foot-n.

unquam,
unus,

use, 105. h.
63.
.

unt-, stem-ending,
decl.

[w. superl., 93. b.

a,

w. abl., 249; w. ace., id. b\ gerundive use of, 294. c. N, 296. R. utrum . an, 211 and d.
.

unus qui, w. subj., 320. b. unus quisque, decl., 105. e

uo, suffix, see va. -uo, vbs. in, 166. c.
-uos, see -uis. -ur, nouns in, 65.

83

meaning, 94.
;

95. b

utsi, constr., 312. and R.

use, 202. d.

-utus, adj.-ending, 164. / utut, 105. b. -uus, rare nom.-ending, decl. IV., 68.
70. b; verbal adj.-ending, 164.
/.

N.,

-ux (-ux) nouns

,

in, 67. e.

c\ -ur, -Sris, 67. b\

-ur, -uris, -ur, -uris, id.

urbs,

decl.,

54

use in relations of place,

with ut, 331.

258. b. N. 3.

Urging, vbs.

of,

(u), p. i; 4, 7; omitted, n. b. 2; in suffix of perf., 124. a, 16. N. 126. a. 2, b. 2, c. 2, d, p. 120; suppressed in perf., 128. a; list of vbs. in

tenuis,

Index of Words and Subjects.

conj. III. w.

485
272. R., 330. o-c;
.

in pert., 132. c\

often

om.

in

perf.

of

e6 and

its

comps.

336; passive use in ports and i.it

of,

1.

d.

141. b;

by synificsis, 347.
;

c.

Va, primary sutlix, 160. 0. vafer, Uecl., 82. c comp.,

nouns with Verbal no

196.
</.

dat., 227. d.
fc

w ith

reflexive,

91. d.

valde,

use, 93. d\

valde quam,
a.

334.

e.

Value, gen. of indefinite, 2^2. Value, measures of, 377-380.

adjectives, 164. /-/; in -&JC, with gen., 218. b.

Verbal roots, 157.

i. i
;

vannus,
vapulS,
i)le

gend., 39. a. neutral passive, 136.

vereor, with
b.

gen., 223. b.

w. subjunc..

331b\ p. 41.

/
t

nouns, 78, 79

(cf. 74.

foot-n. i).

veritus, as pres. part., 290. b. vero, 156. b k\ in answers, 212. a; position of, 345. b.

Variations, see Phonetic Variations and Inherited Differences.

Verse, 359.
Versification, 359-375;

Variations of spelling, 12.

forms of verse,

vas, decl., 77. 6. vas, decl., 60. d\ vates, decl., 59.

360.
78. i. b.

versus,

position

of,

345. a.

-ve, vel, use, 156. c, 212. R. vel (see -ve), w. superl., 93. b. velim, vellem, subj. of modesty, 311. b. velim, vellem, w. subjunc. (=opt.), 267. c (= imv.) 269. g.
,

verto, constr., 252. c. veru, gend., 69. b decl., 70. d. verum or vero, use, 156. b, k. vescor, with abl., 249; w. ace.,
;

id.

b\

gerundive, 294.

c. N.,

296. R.

vellem,

see

velim.
R.

vesper, vesperl

decl., 41.

b.

veluti, velutsi, 312.

venerat = aderat, 279. e. veto, w. ace. and b.2. VERBS, Etymology. Verb, defined, 25.^; noun and adj. vetus, decl., 85. inflection, 108-110;
forms
of,

veneS (venum eo), 136. b, 258. b. venum, defect., 77. 3 (cf. veneo).

vester, decl., vestrl as obj.

(loc.), 41. b, 258. d. 82. c (see p. 64).

gen., 99.

c,

194. b. 194. b,
cf.

vestrum as part, gen., 99. b,

inf.,

N.

271.

b,

330.

2,

and

b,

87. e\

comparison,

109

signification, of forms,

89. a, 91. d.

111-115; personal endings, 1 16; forms of the verb, 117, 118 (note on origin and hist, of vb.-forms, pp. 119-121) table of endings, n3 the three stems,
; ;

-vl in perfect, 118. N. via, abl. of manner, 248. R.

vicis, decl., 77.

7.
of,

vie em, adverbial use

240. b.

influence of analogy, 121. N. 2, regular verbs, 122-136; the four conjugations, 122 and a prin. parts of, 122. b,
121
;
;

vlcmus,
video

with gen., 218. d.

148. N. 9.

videlicet, derivation,
ut, 331. videor, with dat., 232.

c\ mixed verbs, id. d\ deponents, 135 semi-deponents, 136; irregular verbs, 137-142; defective, 143, 144; impersonal, 145, 146; periphrastic forms, 147; compound verbs, 170; vowels in comp. verbs, 170. a. N. Derivation of
;

c.

vin (visne),

13. c.

vir, decl., 38, 41. b.

virgS, decl., 49. Virus, gender of,

39. b.

VIS, stem, 54. 2; decl., 61.

verbs, 165-167.

viscera,
vlso, 167.

79.
e.

c.

VERBS, Syntax.
;

Subject implied in ending, 174. 2; rules of agreement, 204206 verb omitted, 206. c rules of SynCases w. vbs., see under tax, 264-342. Accusative, etc. Position of verb, 343, 344. d, j. (See under the names of the
\

voc&lis,

decl., 57. b.

VOCATIVE,
nouns

31. e; form, 33. a. 3; in -I of in -ius, decl. II., 40. c t d\ of adjs. in -ius, 81. a; of Greek nouns,

etc.)

Syntax, 241. 43. b. Voices, 108. a, in; middle voice,

Jl8. N., 135. e.

scntiwfa ft dedorandi, 373, 330,

486
VOl6, and comps.,
271 and N.; part,
235. c
d. N.
;
;

Index of Words and Subjects.

conj., 138 ; w. infin., as dat. of reference,

Way by which

(abl.), 258.^.
of,
;

of,

Weight, measures

382.

w. perl

part., 288.
inf.,

w. subj. or

d and N., 292. Whole, gen. of, 216 numbers expressing the whole, 216. e. 331. b and N.
Wills, fut. imv. in, 269. d. 3. Winds, gender of names of, 29.

volucer,

decl., 84. a.

volucris, decl., 59. -volus, adj. in, comparison, 89. c. vos, 98. i. voster, etc., see vester. voti damnatus, 220. a. Vowels, I long and short, how marked, 5 vowels and consonants form scale,
;

Wish, expressed
condition, 310.
ind. disc., 341. b.

by
b;

subj., 267; as a wish in informal

Wishing, verbs
271. a)
;

3 1 ?-

of, with inf., 288. d (cf. with subst. clause of purp., d, 331. b\ with ace. and infin.,

id.

N.

inherited differences

in,

con-

traction, 10. b\

syncope,

id. c\ inser-

330- 3 331Without, with verbal noun, 292. N.

I.

tion, id. d\ shortening, id. e\ dissimilation, 11. e\ pronunciation, 16, 17;

Women, names

of, 80. c.

long and short, 18; quantity of final vowels in case-endings, 33. g; vowel modified in noun-stems, decl. III., 45;

Words, formation of, 157-170; arrangement of, 343-346. Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed
in Lat., 112. b. N.

lengthened in root, 123.

158. b.

c.

i,

124. d,

and N.

list

of vbs. w. vowelIII., 132. e.

X, nom.-ending,

44; gend., 65.

b, 67. e\

lengthening in perf., conj. Vowel-changes, 10. Vowel-roots of verbs, 126. a,

from

B, in verbs, 132. a.

b.

Y, of Greek

origin, p. i.
c.

Vowel-suffixes (primary), 160. c. i. Vowel-stems, decl. III., 51-59; gend., 66. a; noun-forms, 67. a; of verbs,
165 and foot-n.

-y, noun-ending, gend., 65. YA, verb-root.

ya

(primary suffix) 160.

,

*.

Year, p. 425;
gend., 39.
164.
b.
/.

months
276.

of,

pp. 425, 426;

vulgus (volgus),

date, 259.

e,

-vus, verbal adj.-ending,

Yes in Lat., 212. -ys, nom.-ending, 63.,^, 64, 67. 65. b \ quantity, 348. 9.

gend.,

W, not in

Latin alphabet, p. Want, words of, with abl., 243

223. 243.

i.
;

with gen.,

Z, of Greek origin, p.

I, 6.

N.

ABBREVIATIONS
USED
IN CITING

AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS.

Appuleius: Met., Metamorphoses.

B. C., Bellum Civile. B. G., Bellum Gallicum. B. Afr., Bellum Afnca-

Lig., pro Ltgario. Manil.,/r0 Lege Manilla. Marc., pro Marcello. Mil., pro Milone.

Liv., Livy. Lucr., Lucretius. Mart., Martial.

Nepos.
Ov., Ovid:
F., Fasti.

Mur., pro Murena. N. D., de Natura Deo-

num. Cato:
R. R.,
Cic.,

rum.
Off.,

de

Officiis.

M., Metamorphoses. Epist. ex P., Epistulae ex

Ponto.
Trist., Tristia.

De Re
:

Rustica.

Or., Orator.

Catull., Catullus.

Cicero

Paradoxa. Part. Or., de Partitione

Par.,

Pers., Persius.

Ac., Acad., Academica.

Oratoria.
Phil., Philippicae.

Phaed., Phaedrus.
Plaut., Plautus.

Arch., pro Archia. Att., ad Atticum.

Caec., pro Caecina.
Gael., pro M. Caelio. Cat., in Catilinam.

Plane., pro Plancio. Pis., in Pisonem.

Am., Amphitruo.
Asin.,

Asinana.

Quinct.,

pro Quinctio.

Aul., Aulularia.

Q.

Fr.,

ad Q. Fratrem.
pro Rabino.

Bac.,

Bace hides.

pro Cluentio. C. M., Cat. Maj., Cato Major.

Clu.,
Inv.,

Rabir.,

Rep., de Republica. Rose. Am., pro Roscio

Capt., Captivi. Cist., Cistellaria.

Cure., Curculio.
Epid., Epidicus.

de Inventione.

Amerino.
Rose. Com., pro Roscw

Deiot.,

pro Deiotaro.

Merc., Mercator.
Mil., Miles Gloriosus. Most., Mostellaria. Pers., Persa.

Or., de Oratore. Div., de Divmatione. Caecil., Divinatio in Cae-

De

Com of do.
pro Sestio. Sulla, pro Sulla.
Sest.,

cilium.

Fam., ad Familiares.
Fat.,

Top., Topica. Tusc., Tusculanae Disputationes. Univ., de Universe.

Poen., Poenulus. Ps., Pseud., Pseudolus.

de Fato.

Rud., Rudens.
Stich., Stichus.

Fin., de Finibus.

pro Flacco. pro M. Fonteio. Ad. Her., \ad HerenFlac.,

Font.,

Vat in., in I'atmium. Verrem. Verr.,

Tr., Trin.,

Tnnummus.

Enn., Ennius.
Gell.,

True., Truculentus. Plin., Pliny, senior :

nium."\

A. Gellius.
:

H. N., HistonaNaturalis.
Plin., Pliny,

Inv.

R., de Rhetorica.

Inventione

Hor., Horace

junior:

A.

P.,

De Arte Poetica.

Ep., Eputulae.
Prop., Propertius.

Lael., Laelius {de

citia).

Ami-

Ep., Epistulae.

Epod., Epodes.
Od., Odes.
Sat., Satires.
Juv., Juvenal.

Q. C., Q. Curtius.
Sail.,

Legg., de Legibus.

Leg. Agr., de Lege Agraria.

Quint., Quintilian. Sallust

:

Cat.. Catilina.

488
Ep.
Mithrid., Mithridatis.

Abbreviations Used.
Epistula
Sil. It., Silius Italicus.

Suet., Suetonius.

Jug., Jugurtha. Sen., Seneca:

Tac., Tacitus:
Agr., Agricola.
A.,

Eun., Eunuchus. Heaut., Heautontimorumenos.

Hec., Hecyra.
Ph.,

Ep., Epistulae.

Ann., Annales.
:

Phormio.
:

Here. Oct., Hercules Oetaeus.

H., Historiae.

Virg., Virgil

Ten, Terence

^En., ALneid.
E.,

Q. N., Quaestiones Naturales.

Ad., Adelphi.

Eclogae.

And., Andria.

G., Georgtia*

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Edited, with Introduction, Modi-Is for Writt

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"

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more

elementary guide. The author holds that students should be taught to read, and to understand as they read, without translation, from the very beginning. The aim from the outset should be to learn to read Latin. This is not so difficult, in the opinion of the author, as it seems, and pupils in secondary schools can with proper instruction acquire considerable
facility in this direction.

For a well-graded

series of selections for higher schools nothing

better can be found than Ritchie's Fabulae Faciles, Romae Viri Inlustres, and Gellius' Noctcs Atticae.
this

book have accordingly been made from these Fabulae Faciles may be used to advantage during the latter half of the the selections from / "/';/' first year and the first part of the second Romae come next in difficulty, and then those from Gellius. It has been the plan of the author to afford sufficient and suitable material for the entire preparatory course. The quantities are marked.
;

Lhomond The selections of three sources. The

From considerable experience with classes in sight reading, and from the experience and publications of others, Professor D'Ooge has compiled and formulated in a few introductory pages some hints and suggestions that will be found useful in teaching the art of reading Latin. These are followed by a few models for written lessons, which
be of practical use to the young student. The increasing and very proper emphasis placed upon translation at sight in the curricula of all our best higher schools and colleges has insured a cordial welcome to this little book.
will

QlNN

&

COMPANY,
New
York.

Publishers,
Atlanta.
Dallas.

Boston.

Chicago.

Via Latina
By

AN EASY
LATIN READER.

Head-Master of Roxhtry AVI I I I C C(\l I AP WILLIAM C. CULUAK, Latin Boston.

School,

AM

With VOCABULABY by

CLARENCE W. GLEASON,
X2tno. Cloth. 203 pages.

Masttr in Roxbury Latin School.

For introduction,

75 cents.

is an attempt to bridge the gap between the Latin manual, covering forms and simple constructions, and a continuous classical work, like the "Lives of Nepos" or Caesar's " Gallic War." It has been proved by experi-

This book

first

ence that discouragement and great loss of time result from plunging beginners too early into difficult Latin. This book is designed for a few months of rapid reading, beginning with selections from "The New Gradatim," and ending with the "Life of Caesar" and the "Alcibiades" of

Nepos

slightly simplified.

E. C. Warriner, Principal of High School (East Side), Saginaw, Mich. : It is an excellent selection of easy Latin reading, and a book which is admirably suited for the purpose intended.

Emma

A. Scudder, Teacher of Latin, English High School, Cam-

bridge, Mass. : The subject-matter is interesting, well arranged, and attractive in every respect. I wish we might have such a work intro-

duced into our school to precede Nepos and Caesar.

Thomas Fitz-Hugh, Professor of Latin, University of Texas, Austin, Tex. : It shows the same eminently practical and efficient qualities that characterize all of Mr. Collar's text-books. I entirely approve of the general plan. I can imagine no more useful and available manual for every purpose involved in our discussions.
C. C. Ramsey, Principal of High School, Fall River, Mass. : A capital Latin reader the notes and vocabulary are excellent and the selections could not be better.
;

QINN & COMPANY,

Boston.

Publishers,
Dallas.

New York.

Chicago.

Atlanta.

V'

t-

Allen, Joseph Henry

Allen & Oreenough's Latin grammar

PA 208? A35