The Performance of Lateritic Gravel Pavements

K.G. Sharp B.E., Grad.Dip.HTE, M.Eng., CPEng. Manager ALF Program ARRB Transport Research Ltd 500 Burwood Highway, Vermont South, Victoria, 3133 Australia tel: +61-3-9881 1624; fax: +61-3-9887 8104 e-mail: kierans@arrb.org.au B.E., M.Eng.Sc. Senior Research Scientist, ARRB Transport Research Ltd 500 Burwood Highway, Vermont South, Victoria, 3133 Australia tel: +61-3-9881 1591; fax: +61-3-9887 8104 e-mail: binhv@arrb.org.au B.S., M.S., Ph.D., P.E., M.ASCE Waterways Experiment Station 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS, 39180-6199 USA tel: +601 634 3139; fax: +601 634 3020 e-mail: rollinr@mail.wes.army.mil B.E. Engineer Pavement Testing Services Queensland Department of Main Roads, PO Box 9, Nundah, Queensland, 4012 Australia B.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S., F.I.E.Aust., F.I.C.E. Institute for Recyclable Materials Louisiana State University 1419 CEBA, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-6, USA tel: +225 388 8650; fax: +225 388 4945 e-mail: johnbm@mail.eng.lsu.edu

B.T. Vuong

R.S. Rollings

E. Baran

J.B. Metcalf

K.G. Sharp et al.

Abstract
This paper summarises an evaluation of a range of laterite (ferricrete) materials under both accelerated loading, using the Accelerated Loading Facility, and in the laboratory. The trial was conducted under contract to the Louisiana Transport Research Centre on behalf of the US Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station (WES). Two sites were also tested for Queensland Department of Main Roads (QDMR). The broad aims of the trial were to validate the WES tentative classification scheme for lateritic gravels for road and airfield pavement construction; gain an absolute measure of the performance of gap-graded ridge gravels and a relative measure of the performance of "good" and "poor" lateritic gravels; compare the performance of the lateritic gravels when they are constructed to two compaction standards; and compare the performance of lateritic gravels when they were constructed "full depth" (300 mm in two layers on a clay subgrade) and 150 mm in one layer on a cement-treated sub-base (CTSB). The trial was also of interest because it represented the first occasion when detailed data were collected using Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) gauges, a system developed by CSIRO and adapted, by QDMR, for the measurement of moisture movement in pavements. The TDR gauges were able to record the higher moisture levels in the wheelpath during ALF trafficking which in turn offered a tangible explanation for the performance during the second stage of trafficking compared to that observed during the first stage of trafficking.

K.G. Sharp et al.

INTRODUCTION
The development and harmonisation of National standards for roads is the responsibility of Austroads, the Association of Australian State Road Authorities. The need for a Nationally-based approach to pavement research in Australia was recognised with the publication of a Strategy for Pavement Research and Development in 1987, which was updated in 1992 and 1995 and is being updated again in 1999. One of the objectives of the Strategy is to foster the development and implementation of cost-effective rehabilitation technology as the primary road network nears completion and increasing emphasis is placed on maintaining and rehabilitating existing facilities. One way of achieving this is to extend the range and use of natural and/or non-standard pavement materials. It is also pointed out in the Strategy that, whilst much of the overseas practice is applicable to Australia, significant differences in climate, materials, construction practices and vehicle loadings give rise to different practices and in some cases different technologies. Nevertheless, it is important that developments overseas be implemented into Australian practice if applicable to avoid costly duplication of effort. To this end, the request by the US Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station (WES), Vicksburg, Mississippi, for ARRB Transport Research to evaluate the performance of a range of lateritic gravel pavements using the Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) provided a unique opportunity to address some of the objectives contained in the APRG Strategy, enhance the trial to address current Australian practice and perceived future use, and work in a cooperative manner with an established and well-respected overseas organisation. Maintenance and rehabilitation improvement is a continuing commitment on all roads, so any process which allows a reduction in the cost of undertaking this work should be pursued. In this case, the trial proposed by WES presented an ideal opportunity to explore the performance of two types of ferricrete material as a base material at a much reduced cost. Such a comparison matched perfectly with the requirements of WES who wished to evaluate the use of ferricrete for airfield pavement applications in tropical regions. The broad aims of the trial were to: carry out accelerated loading tests on materials specified by WES and validate the WES tentative classification scheme for lateritic gravels for road and airfield pavement construction; gain an absolute measure of the performance of gap-graded ridge gravels and a relative measure of the performance of "good" and "poor" lateritic gravels; compare the performance of the lateritic gravels when they are constructed to two compaction standards (WES Modified compaction; QDMR - Standard compaction); and compare the performance of lateritic gravels when they were constructed "full depth" (300 mm in two layers on a clay subgrade) and 150 mm in one layer on a cement-treated sub-base (CTSB). The ALF trial was conducted at a site in Queensland, Australia, under contract to the Louisiana Transport Research Centre (LTRC) on behalf of WES. Associated with this testing was a series of trials conducted for Queensland Department of Main Roads (QDMR). In addition, some laboratory repeated load triaxial (RLT) testing was also conducted on the lateritic gravels to determine their resilient modulus and permanent strain characteristics. The laboratory data obtained from the RLT test program were used to predict pavement performance in an attempt to establish relationships between laboratory predicted and field performance. The trial was also of interest because it represented the first occasion when detailed data were collected using Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) gauges, a system developed by CSIRO and adapted, by QDMR, for the measurement of moisture movement in pavements. This paper presents a summary of the trial, full details of which are contained in (1), whilst the data are presented in (2) and (3). Details of the ALF are presented in a companion paper to this Conference (4).

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRIAL
During the 1970s WES had conducted a review of lateritic gravels specifications, together with limited field surveys and laboratory testing. This work had resulted in the tentative classification scheme for the use of lateritic gravels in military pavements shown in Table 1.

K.G. Sharp et al.

During the early 1990s, WES were undertaking a Research and Development program examining the use of substandard materials in pavements, including lateritic gravels, and especially the problems associated with pavement construction in tropical areas. Whilst it was hypothesised that this tentative classification scheme would adequately differentiate between "good" and "poor" laterites for pavement construction, and the Corps of Engineers (CoE) had widespread experience with the use of laterites for the construction of lightly-trafficked road pavements in tropical regions, there have been no controlled loading experiments to compare different qualities of material, and the Corps has not had sufficient involvement with the construction of these materials to allow the classification scheme to be validated.
Table 1 Tentative CoE Classification Scheme for the Use of Lateritic Gravels in Military Pavement Applications

Criterion

Class I Airfield Road 80 min. 35 max.

Class III

soaked CBR Liquid Limit (LL) LL x (% passing No. 200 (0.075 mm)sieve) Plasticity Index (PI) PI x (% passing No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve) Aggregate Crushing Value Los Angeles Abrasion (%)

100 min. 40 max.

50 min.

600 max. 10 max. 15 max.

1250 max.

200 max. < 35 < 65

600 max. 40-15

Ferricrete (laterite) gravels had also been used in pavement construction on a number of QDMR roads in south-west Queensland depending on the economic proximity of sources to the projects. In some cases, as with most natural paving materials, costly modification of the ferricrete properties had been required to correct specification deficiencies (grading and plastic properties involving screening and crushing). At best, therefore, if the experiment showed that unmodified ferricrete of lesser quality performed adequately, then the cost of modification could be saved on future projects. On the other hand, if the experiment confirmed the need for current practice to continue, then there would be no monetary advantage in using the material but rather confirmation of current practice. QDMR's experience with much poorer quality paving material, e.g. white rock and Winton sandstone, had indicated that, provided such materials were sealed in a dry condition, that cross-section design was adequate, and that appropriate maintenance strategies were adopted to maintain these weak materials in a dry state, then quite adequate performance could be realised. Hence there could be reasonable confidence in the performance of unmodified ferricrete provided strict controls on sealing moisture were observed. It was hoped that the trial would provide further evidence that these poor quality materials could perform in service.

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DETAILS OF THE TRIAL

Details of Test Sites
A plan view and cross-section of the test sites is shown in Figure 1. The following sections were constructed: (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) 150 mm of "poor" (WES Class III) laterite base constructed to WES standards (Modified compaction) on a cement-treated sub-base (CTSB); 150 mm of "good" (WES Class I) laterite base constructed to WES standards (Modified compaction) on a cement-treated sub-base (CTSB); 150 mm of "good" (WES Class I) laterite base constructed to QDMR standards (Standard compaction) on a cement-treated sub-base (CTSB); 150 mm of "good" (WES Class I) laterite base and 150 mm of medium laterite base, with both layers constructed to QDMR standards (Standard compaction); and 300 mm of "good" (WES Class I) laterite base constructed to WES standards (Modified compaction) and 150 mm of medium laterite base constructed to QDMR standards (Standard compaction). This site was planned, but not proceeded with.

Figure 1: Plan and layout of test sites

The sections were constructed on the basis that the following direct comparisons would be possible: "good" and "poor" laterite base on CTSB WES (Modified) compaction standard (Sites A and B); WES (Modified) and QDMR (Standard) compaction standards 150 mm of good laterite base on CTSB (Sites B and C); 150 mm of good laterite base on CTSB and 150 mm of good laterite base on unbound sub-base (Sites C and D); and

K.G. Sharp et al.

WES (Modified) and QDMR (Standard) compaction standards 150 mm of "good" laterite base on unbound sub-base (Sites D and E).

Insitu Pavement Instrumentation

The only insitu pavement instrumentation installed in the test sections were Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) gauges which were installed by QDMR and monitored by them continuously to ascertain moisture movement within the pavement. In this method, the volumetric moisture content is measured by the gauges in a non-destructive manner and the volumetric moisture content is related to the gravimetric water content, whilst the degree of saturation, is related to the gravimetric water content and the volumetric moisture content (see (5) and (1)). No ALF trafficking was conducted directly over the TDRs but close to them in order that the data being recorded by them could be assumed to be typical of that operating in the actual test section.

SELECTION OF LATERITIC GRAVEL MATERIALS

In selecting the materials to be tested, emphasis was placed on locating material that met with, as far as practicable, WES requirements. Although it was initially planned to test two qualities of material which would correspond, as closely as possible, to the Class I and Class III material as classified by WES, and which were to be loosely referred to as good quality and poor quality, three qualities of lateritic gravel were eventually installed as follows: The materials in two stockpiles (1 and 1A) were combined as a "good" material in line with WES criteria for Class I material. This material was therefore selected as the base in Sites B, C, D and E. The material in another stockpile (2) was originally thought to be in line with the WES Class III criteria and it was planned to use this material as the poor base in Site A. However, when the material was delivered to the site, it was found that its plasticity and Linear Shrinkage properties were superior to those specified for a Class III material but not good enough to be classed as a Class I material. It was decided, therefore, to use this medium material as a sub-base and select fill material in Sites D and E. The material in a third stockpile (3) was a "poor" material in line with WES plasticity criteria for Class III material and this material was therefore selected as the base in Site A.

100

80 Percentage Passing Stockpile 3 Stockpile 1+1A CoE - upper bound 40 CoE - low er bound

60

20

0 0.01

0.1

1 Sieve Size (m m)

10

100

Figure 2: Comparison of grading of lateritic gravels (Stockpiles 1+1A and 3) with Corps of Engineers recommendations

K.G. Sharp et al.

The good lateritic gravel had a low PI value (7%) and therefore complied with the US Army Corps of Engineers (6) specification for Class 1 sub-base material. The poor lateritic gravel had a higher PI value (about 11%) and was therefore considered as a Class 2 sub-base material according to the CoE specification. This material also had higher Liquid Limit and Linear Shrinkage values (26% and 7% respectively) compared to those of the good lateritic gravel (23% and 4% respectively). Figure 2 compares the grading of the samples obtained from Stockpile 1+1A and Stockpile 3 with that recommended by the CoE for basecourse materials. It can be seen from the Figure that the differences in the grading of the materials in the two stockpiles were very minor and both materials were close to the upper limit of the grading envelope allowed by the CoE.

CONSTRUCTION OF TEST SITES

The subgrade was constructed by removing the top 300 mm of the imported silty-sand subgrade layer from the existing site and reworking the remaining 300 mm of imported material to provide a uniform working platform above the natural silty-clay/sand subgrade. The subgrade was then sealed with an emulsion prime to protect it against any erosion due to rainfall before the placement of the CTSB. The average insitu density and moisture content of the top subgrade measured during construction was about 2.08 t/m3 (100% Standard Compaction) and 8.6% respectively. It was noted by QDMR staff during construction that the subgrade in Site D was weaker then that in Site E, a fact confirmed during the analysis when the moduli of the pavement layers were back-calculated. The sub-base crushed rock was treated with a target 2.4% cement and compacted at a target moisture content of 7.6% in order to achieve a maximum dry density (MDD) of 2.19 t/m3, and a maximum unconfined shear strength (UCS) of 3.0 MPa. Field tests conducted at 10 locations on the CTSB showed that the average field moisture content was 6.2% and that the average field compaction was 102% of Modified MDD.
Table 2 Results of Insitu Density and Determination at the Completion of Construction

Property

Corps of Engineers Site A Site B 2.476 2.610 2.546 7.5 Site C 2.425 2.547 2.476 7.5

Queensland DMR Site D 2.549 2.595 2.570 7.5 2.333 2.268 2.508 2.438 Site E 2.663 2.600 2.622 7.5

Wet Density (t/m3)

Min. Max. Mean

2.298 2.380 2.340 7.5 2.155 2.317 100% Mod. 101

Insitu Moisture Content (%) Mean MDD (t/m3) Est. MWD (t/m3) Modified Standard Modified Standard

Target Compaction (%) Compaction Achieved (%) Modified Standard

100% Mod. 101.5 104.4 0.3 mm

100% Std. 98.7 101.5

100% Std. 102.5 105.4 1.0 mm

100% Mod. 104.5 107.5 0.5-0.6 mm

Indicative Max. Deflection

MDD: Maximum Dry Density. MWD:

Maximum Wet Density.

Compaction standard achieved based on field wet density values and estimated maximum wet density based on maximum dry density data.

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Local QDMR practice for the compaction of the ferricrete base material is to use a single-drum SP2110 roller (10 tonne, dual amplitude (0.7/1.4 mm) and 23-28 Hz), followed by finishing with a 20 tonne multi-wheel roller. However, the steel vibrating roller was considered to be unsuitable for compacting granular bases when they are located on cement-treated sub-bases and past experience had suggested that a high frequency/low amplitude asphalt roller was more suited for this situation. On that basis, a CC42 (9.8-11 t, dual amplitude (0.4/0.8 mm and 42 Hz)) dual-drum roller was used to compact the bases in Sites A, B and C. The sections were surfaced with a cutback bitumen prime and a thin (20 mm thick) polymer modified (5% SBS) bitumen seal. Whilst local QDMR practice is to use a spray seal followed by a 10 mm seal after six months, the thin asphalt seal was considered to be more suitable for pavements subjected to ALF loading: the shearing and torsional action of the ALF wheels as they move onto the pavement surface tends to strip a spray seal surface. It was clearly imperative that the surface seal not be damaged by this action, lest water enter into the base layers and effect the results of testing. Table 2 shows the results of insitu density testing conducted after the completion of construction and prior to the commencement of ALF trafficking in May 1993. It can be seen from the Table that the compaction levels achieved were higher than the target values and that, whilst 100% Standard compaction had been targeted in Site D, the final values were more in line with Modified compaction levels.

RESULTS OF REPEATED LOAD TRIAXIAL TESTING

Density, Moisture and Grading
Two batches of poor and good lateritic gravels were obtained from Sites A and B, respectively for the purposes of conducting repeated load triaxial (RLT) testing. The bulk samples were dried at 50oC and then sieved through a 19 mm sieve to extract all coarse particles, which were then broken to smaller size particles and recombined with the original batch. The recombined batch was then split into four samples for the purpose of preparing RLT specimens. Specimens 100 mm in diameter and 200 mm in height were prepared using dynamic compaction to moisture contents and dry densities conditions which covered the insitu moisture contents and dry densities observed during ALF testing of Sites A and B in order that the laboratory results could be compared with the field performance under ALF loading. Testing for permanent strain and resilient modulus was undertaken in accordance with Australian Standard AS 1289.6.8.1. In the permanent strain test, vertical and confining stresses of 350 kPa and 50 kPa respectively were applied to the specimen. Whilst the standard procedure for permanent strain testing requires quite a long duration, viz. over two days, to complete 50,000 cycles, for most of the specimens tested in this program, the strain rate after 1,000 cycles was negligible. It was therefore decided to apply only 1,000 cycles during the permanent strain loading stage in order to reduce the testing time. The results obtained from the permanent strain testing program indicated that there was a linear relationship between log (permanent strain) and log (number of loading cycles). The VESYS model (developed by the US Federal Highway Administration) was used to predict the vertical deformation for an extrapolated number of load cycles. Full details are contained in (1). It was found that at a moisture content of 95% of OMC the influence of density on the performance of the gravel was not significant, i.e. there was about a 1% reduction in resilient strain (or a 1% increase in stiffness) and a 1% reduction in permanent strain for an increase in density of 1% of MDD. It was also found, however, that, for the good lateritic gravel, the effects of moisture content on resilient strain were very significant. Above 95% of OMC, an increase in relative moisture content of 10% of OMC (or 0.7% moisture content) resulted in about a 200% increase in permanent strain. Whilst there was no data for the poor lateritic gravel at moisture contents greater than 95% of OMC, it would be expected that the poor lateritic gravel would show trends similar to those observed for the good lateritic gravel. After the permanent strain test, resilient modulus testing was also conducted in an attempt to determine the stressdependent characteristics of the resilient modulus of the samples concerned. It should be noted that the Standard procedure for resilient modulus testing requires the use of very large step sizes of stresses which can result in

K.G. Sharp et al.

unfavourable stress paths (i.e. stress ratios greater than 10) which can cause early failure in the specimen and hence unreliable results. The stress paths suggested by Transport, South Australia, which have smaller step sizes, were therefore used to avoid the possibility of early failure of the specimens. It was found that, for both the poor and good lateritic gravels, the effects of moisture content on modulus were very significant. For example, the modulus of the poor lateritic gravel decreased from 1,200 MPa at 85% of OMC to 600 MPa at 95% of OMC, i.e. a reduction of 50% in modulus for an increase in relative moisture content of 10% of OMC (or 0.9% moisture content). Similarly, the modulus of the good lateritic gravel decreased from 400 MPa at 95% of OMC to 100 MPa at 135% of OMC, i.e. a reduction of 20% in modulus for an increase in relative moisture content of 10% of OMC (or 0.7 % moisture content).

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

ALF Trafficking
Details of the ALF experiments conducted on the five sites are shown in Table 3. All testing was conducted at an offset which corresponded to one of the offsets where the TDR gauges were located. All trafficking was conducted in the same direction using the ALF dual-wheel load. The loading was applied over a normal transverse distribution of +0.375 m, which meant that the outer edges of the tyres reached + 0.7 m, from the centreline (i.e. a trafficked width of 1.4 m). During the trial, about 930,000 cycles of the ALF 50 kN, 60 kN and 80 kN dual-wheel load were applied to the five test sections during nine experiments. The first seven experiments were conducted between June 1993 and October 1993, whilst the last two experiments were conducted on Sites A and B during March 1994. The later experiments were conducted at the specific request of WES, who wished to observe the performance of the pavements after they had been exposed to a tropical summer season for about six months in an effort to determine if there had been any moisture penetration into the pavements during this period and, if so, what effect this had on performance.
Table 3 Summary of ALF Experiments Number of Cycles Exp. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Site A B C D E E E A B Pavement poor laterite on CTSB good laterite on CTSB good laterite on CTSB good laterite base med. laterite sub-base good laterite base med. laterite sub-base good laterite base med. laterite sub-base good laterite base med. laterite sub-base bad laterite on CTSB good laterite on CTSB Compaction 100% Mod. 100% Mod. 100% Std. 100% Std. 100% Std. 100% Mod. 100% Std. 100% Mod. 100% Std. 100% Mod. 100% Std. 100% Mod. 100% Mod. 173,268 144,369 50 kN 10,023 10,000 10,075 56,130 87,040 101,260 100,000 20,642 102,663 613,536 43,109 60 kN 80 kN 59,926 47,773 129,788 155,744 ESAs* 935,286 788,782 2,101,205 2,847,179 212,499 512,629 1,600,000 330,272 1,642,608 10,970,461 Dates of Testing Start 16/06/93 26/06/93 04/07/93 27/07/93 30/08/93 22/09/93 06/10/93 12/03/94 16/03/94 Finish Finish 26/06/93 04/07/93 26/07/93 29/08/93 22/09/93 06/10/93 19/10/93 15/03/94

Total Cycles

good laterite: Stockpiles 1 and 1A; poor laterite: Stockpile 3; medium laterite: Stockpile 2. * Calculated assuming fourth power law.

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10

Insitu Moisture Content and Dry Density After Trafficking

After the completion of Experiments 8 and 9, the insitu density and moisture content of the lateritic gravel layer at the locations of the TDR gauges in Sites A and B was measured with the NDG and the results are given in Table 4. Referring back to Figure 1, the offsets shown in Table 3 are: 0.8 m: near the inner wheelpath (IWP) between the location of ALF trafficking and the centreline of the pavement; 2.0 m: very close to the offset of the centreline of ALF testing (2.15 m); 2.7 m: between the location of ALF testing and the edge of the pavement in fact, this offset represents the extreme location of any ALF trafficking when the wide transverse distribution of loading is adopted; and 3.0 m: in line with the outer array of TDR gauges and about 0.5 m from the pavement edge.
Table 4 Results of Insitu Density and Moisture Content Determination After Completion of Testing

Section

Offset

Chainage (m) 669.5 670.5 689.5 669.5 670.5 689.5 669.5 670.5 689.5 669.5 670.5 689.5 690.5 700.5 710.5 690.5 700.5 710.5 690.5 700.5 710.5 690.5 700.5 710.5

Moisture Content (%) 9.2 8.8 9.2 8.9 8.1 8.9 8.5 8.2 8.5 7.3 8.1 7.3 8.8 5.7 6.2 8.1 5.9 6.0 8.2 6.0 5.7 8.1 6.6 6.2

OMC (%) 9.0

Rel. MC (%) 102.2 97.8 102.2 98.9 90.0 98.9 94.4 91.1 94.4 81.1 90.0 81.1

Dry Density (t/m3) 2.036 2.118 2.036 2.138 2.163 2.138 2.118 2.158 2.118 2.144 2.099 2.144 2.118 2.351 2.462 2.163 2.433 2.495 2.158 2.477 2.464 2.099 2.460 2.411

MDD (t/m3) 2.174

Rel. Comp. (%) 93.7 97.4 93.7 98.3 99.5 98.3 97.4 99.3 97.4 98.6 96.6 98.6

0.8 m L

2.0 m L

2.7 m L

3.0 m L

0.8 m L

6.6

133.3 86.4 93.9 131.8 89.4 90.9 124.2 90.9 86.4 131.8 100.0 93.9

2.350

90.1 100.0 104.8 92.0 103.5 106.2 91.8 105.4 104.9 89.3 104.7 102.6

2.0 m L

2.7 m L

3.0 m L

Division between Sections A and B at chainage 690 m.

It appears from the results that, apart from the data at 689.5 m and 690.5 m, the compaction levels in Site A (i.e. about 99% MDDmod) in the area of ALF testing had decreased compared to the levels at construction (i.e. 101% MDDmod) whilst those in Site B (i.e. about 105% MDDmod) in the area of ALF testing were higher than the initial values(i.e. 101% MDDmod). The low values of both relative compaction and relative moisture content at locations near the construction joint (i.e. at chainage 690 m) suggest that water had penetrated the pavement near this location. Generally there appeared to be little difference in the moisture content and compaction levels according to offset, though the relative compaction levels at offset 0.8 m tended to be lower then the values at the other offsets.

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11

Environmental Conditions During ALF Experiments

Rainfall During the five-month period between June 1993 and October 1993 (i.e. during Stage 1 of testing), the total rainfall was about 315 mm, corresponding to an average daily rainfall of 2.2 mm. This suggests that the first seven Experiments 1-7 were conducted during a dry period. About 30% of this rainfall occurred during a six-day period towards the end of August 1993, which corresponded with the final period of trafficking of Site D, the performance of which was much inferior of that of Site E. The average daily rainfall between the two stages of testing (i.e. 20th October 1993 and 11th March 1994) was 7.5 mm, or about three times that during Stage 1 of testing. Of particular relevance is the fact that almost 300 mm of rain fell during the 10-day period prior to the commencement of Stage 2 of testing, including 150 mm on one day (2nd March 1994). The average daily rainfall during Stage 2 of testing (4.6 mm/day) was about twice that during Stage 1 of testing (2.2 mm/day). TDR Data As already discussed, Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) gauges had been installed in the base layers of all sites and these were continually monitored by QDMR staff during the trial. The gauges were located along the centreline of each trafficked section (i.e. at chainage 670 m for Site A, 710 m for Site B, 750 m for Site C, 790 m for Site D and 830 m for Site E) and at three transverse offsets across the pavement (i.e. at the outer wheelpath (OWP) or centre of the ALF trafficking area, edge or 0.85 m from OWP towards the pavement edge, and centre or 0.85 m from OWP towards the pavement centre).

ALF Beerburrum Laterite Gravel Trial Moisture Content at Site A

11 160

Expt. 1
GRAVIMETRIC MOISTURE CONTENT (% 10

Expt. 8
140

120 9 RAIN FALL (mm) Rainfall 20 A: EDGE A: OWP 5 0 50 100 150 200 DAYS (0=19/5/93) 250 300 0 350 A:CENTRE 100

80

60 7 40 6

Figure 3: TDR results for Site A

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12

Typical TDR data (Site A) are shown in Figure 3. The main findings of the analysis of the TDR data were as follows: The moisture contents at the pavement edge in all sites were generally lower than those at the OWP and centre and slightly fluctuated over time, indicating that water did not infiltrate into the pavement through the shoulder (probably due to the steep shoulder surface and the pavement crossfall of 3%). The moisture contents in the OWP and centre in all sites at the completion of the first stage of trafficking in 1993 were slightly higher than the initial values, particularly for Sites A, B and D. Whilst the actual reasons for this are not known, it is possible that the lateritic materials may have drawn some moisture from the adjacent crushed rock sites tested the previous year. After the heavy rainfall during the first three months of 1994, the moisture contents in Sites A and B along the OWP (i.e. the location of ALF trafficking) were higher than at the other offsets. This was no doubt due to moisture penetration through the surface seal during trafficking that was conducted on these sites between 12th March and 31st March 1994. This problem would have been exacerbated by the structural failure of the surface seal under loading, which would have allowed rainfall to penetrate directly into the base layers. It should be noted that the moisture variation in Site B (after Experiment 9) was not as high as that in Site A, which suggests that the seal condition in Site A may have been inferior to that in Site B but also that the good lateritic gravel base in Site B was less affected by an increase in moisture content. As discussed shortly, Sites A and B performed equally well during the first stage of testing during the dry season (i.e. at equilibrium moisture conditions). There was no change in the moisture condition of Sites D and E, suggesting that the surface seal in these sites was still in good condition. On the other hand, no trafficking of these sites was conducted after the heavy rainfall that occurred during the first three months of 1994.
16 Site E, Exp.5, 6 & 7 Site D, Experiment 4 Site C, Experiment 3 12 Mean Deformation (mm) Site B, Experiment 2 Site A, Experiment 1 80 kN

Sites D & E loading regime

Mean of east & west w/paths Site E Expt 5 to 7, chainage 9 to 12 l

loading
8 50 kN 60 kN

loading

loading
4

50 kN

80 kN 0 0 20

loading

loading
40 60 80

Sites A, B & C loading regime

100 120 140 160 180 200 \l 220 i \fi 240 260 d f l 280

K cycles

Figure 4: Relationship between mean transverse deformation, load and load cycles (Sites A to E: first stage of testing)

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13

RESULTS OF ANALYSIS
Deformation/Rutting
Figure 4 compares the progression of mean transverse deformation, ALF load and the number of load cycles for all five sites during the first seven experiments, i.e. the first stage of testing conducted during 1993. The deformation data induced under load during the first phase of trafficking are analysed in full in (1). A summary of the findings is as follows: About 50 to 65% of the deformation recorded in Sites A, B and C after 60 kcycles of loading had occurred after approximately 10 kcycles of loading, and the greater the magnitude of the initial load the lower the number of cycles required for this bedding in period to occur. Following this bedding in period, the rate of increase of transverse deformation was independent of the magnitude of the load. In terms of rate of accumulation of deformation, the performance of the good laterite compacted at the lower (Standard) compactive effort in Site C was nominally superior to that in Site B (Modified compaction) during the period of loading after the bedding-in period. The performance of all three Sites A, B and C, however, was excellent, with the deformation in Site C after 140 kcycles of load (or about 2 million ESAs) being less than 3 mm. The rate of increase in mean deformation of Site D was about 25% greater than the maximum rates of increase observed in Sites A to C and the rate of increase in deformation over the same cumulative load repetitions as Sites A to C (i.e. between 10 and 60 kcycles of loading) was approximately three times greater. However, it was observed by QDMR staff during construction that the subgrade in Site D was weaker than that in Site E, a fact confirmed during the analysis when the moduli of the pavement layers were back-calculated. In addition, about 30% of the rainfall during Stage 1 of testing occurred during a six-day period towards the end of August 1993, which corresponded with the final period of trafficking of Site D. The deformation in Site E (4 mm) was slightly higher than that of Sites A, B and C, especially Site C (deformation of less than 3 mm) which was subjected to a similar number of load cycles and constructed to the same (Standard) compaction standard. However, Sites A, B and C were constructed on a CTSB rather than an unbound subbase. The performance of Site E was far superior to that of Site D. However, as already discussed, the higher deformation in Site D appeared to be related to subgrade strength rather than to material quality of compaction standard.

Surface Deflection Data

The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) was used to assess the strength and uniformity of the CTSB along Sites A, B and C at 5 m intervals at three offsets prior to the commencement of trafficking. In addition, with the exception of Site A, which had already been trafficked prior to the arrival of the FWD on site, all the other sites were tested with the FWD prior to ALF trafficking at 1 m intervals along the offset where ALF trafficking took place. Some testing was also undertaken along the seal edge adjacent to the sections of Sites B and C which were subject to ALF loading. In the case of Site A, data were collected from either side of the trafficked section in order that some comparisons could be made. FWD testing was also conducted following the completion of trafficking. Benkelman Beam (BB) deflection data was also collected along Sites A to C at three loading stages An examination of the surface deflection data collected using both the FWD and the BB suggested the following. The FWD maximum deflections measured on the surface of the CTSB were similar in Sites A, B and C and uniform along each site, except for a 10 m length along one offset in Site C which was outside the location of ALF trafficking. The FWD maximum deflections of the full depth lateritic pavement in Site D prior to the commencement of trafficking were much higher than those measured in Site E. However, the curvature (D0/D200) values were similar, suggesting that the difference in maximum deflection, and later observed deformation performance, was due to a lower subgrade strength in Site D compared to Site E rather than the differences in compaction standards.

K.G. Sharp et al.

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The changes in FWD maximum deflection in Sites B, C and E after trafficking compared to before trafficking varied between a 16% increase and an 11% decrease along the 12 m trafficked sections of pavement. Statistical analysis of the mean and standard deviation data for Sites B and C indicated that the changes in mean maximum deflection were very significant and not due to sample variability. Significant changes in the mean maximum deflection in some untrafficked sections of pavement in Site D indicated that the FWD deflection data were affected by moisture changes during the four-months drying-back period (between the two FWD surveys conducted on this site). In other words, the reduction in moisture content was not related to ALF loading but rather to environmental effects. The Benkelman Beam deflection data for Sites A and B showed a similar trend with respect to the increase in mean maximum deflection with increasing loading cycles but Site C showed a reverse trend. The pattern for each of the three contiguous sections within Sites D and E was almost identical: once loading with the 80 kN load commenced, a bedding-in period of between 2.5 to 10 kcycles of load was experienced, during which the rebound deflection commenced to stabilise.

Comparison of Performance of Sites A and B (Stages 1 and 2 of Testing)

In an attempt to compare the performance of Sites A and B during the two stages of testing, and the performance of Sites D and E during the first stage of testing, it was decided to more closely examine the data, both from the point of view of uniformity of performance along the entire test length and also the difference in observed deformation in the East and West wheelpaths, i.e. the deformation under each wheel of the dual-wheel set. A close perusal of the raw deformation data indicted that the transverse deformation profiles were not symmetrical, with the deformation near the pavement edge always being much lower that the deformation near the pavement centre. As already discussed, this was considered largely due to the lower level of moisture content at locations nearer to the pavement edge than those at locations towards the pavement centreline (e.g. Figure 3). Because the moisture contents near the pavement centreline did not vary much and were also very close to the equilibrium values, it was decided to re-examine the maximum deformation data in this wheelpath, and relevant deflection data, in an attempt to address these issues.

Beerburrum Lateritic Gravel ALF Trial Site B, Experiments 2 &9

50.0 45.0 40.0 Maximum Deformation (mm) 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0

Exp. 9
Avg 5.5-6.5 m Avg 7-12 m Avg 1-4 m

Exp. 2
10.0 5.0 0.0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 ALF Loading Cycles (kcycle) 140 160 180

Figure 5: Variation in maximum surface deformation with loading cycles Site B: Experiments 2 & 9

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By way of example, Figure 5 shows the variation in mean maximum surface deformation in Site B with the number of load cycles, whilst Figure 6 compares the mean maximum BB deflection along the length of Site B. In these Figures, the data for the first 58,000 cycles pertain to Experiment 1, with the remaining data pertaining to Experiment 9. Note also that the deformation data shown after 58 kcycles relate to the end of Stage 1 of trafficking. The data for Stage 2 of testing therefore represent the increase in deformation compared with that at the conclusion of Stage 1.

Lateritic Gravel ALF Trial Site B

2.500 BB Maximum Deflection (mm)

2.000

Exp. 2: 10 kcycles Exp. 2: 32.2 kcycles

1.500

Exp. 2:57.8 kcycles Exp. 9: 0 kcycles

1.000

Exp. 9: 12.9 kcycles Exp. 9: 71.4 kcycles

0.500

Exp. 9: 103 kcycles

0.000 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 ALF Chainage (m)

Figure 6: Variation in maximum BB deflection with ALF chainage Site B: Experiments 2 & 9

It can be seen that, whilst the deformation and deflection which occurred along the length of the pavement in Experiment 2 was very uniform, there were significant variations in deformation and deflection along the length of the pavement section at the end of Experiment 9. The pavement could, in fact, be divided into three sub-sections: between ALF chainages 1-4 m, 5.5-6.5 m and 7-12 m. The sub-section between chainages 1-4 m was the weakest, with BB deflections of up to 2 mm at the completion of Experiment 9. This suggests that the seal in this sub-section deteriorated during trafficking and that water penetrated into the base layers. The sub-section between chainages 712 m was the strongest, with BB deflections similar to those recorded during Experiment 2. This suggests that the surface seal in this sub-section retained its integrity and that water did not penetrate into the pavement layers in this location. At the commencement of Experiment 9, the deformation in the sub-section between ALF chainages 5.5-6.5 m was similar to that of the strong sub-section between chainages 7-12 m. However, the rate of deformation in the former section was higher under load, probably as a result of the deterioration of the surface seal in this sub-section.

Assessment of the Relative Performance of Sites D and E

As already discussed, the performance of Site D was inferior to that of Site E, even though the pavements were nominally the same expect for the method of compaction adopted for the base layers. It has also previously been recorded that QDMR staff had observed during construction that the subgrade in Site D appeared to be weaker than that in Site E and, if that was the case, then this would explain the difference in observed behaviour and be more critical to performance than the difference in compaction method. In order to assess the influence of pavement strength on observed performance, back-analyses of layer moduli from the FWD deflection bowl data collected at these two sites was conducted using EFROMD2 (7).

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Table 5 shows characteristic (average) FWD deflection bowls for Sites D and E respectively. The deflections were recorded at seven offsets from the centre of the load, i.e. 0, 200, 300, 450, 600, 900 and 1500 mm. It should be noted that the FWD testing was conducted at a stress level of 600 kPa, which was lower than the tyre pressure of 690 kPa adopted for ALF testing. Table 6 shows the pavement structures of the pavements in Sites D and E adopted for the back-analysis.
Table 5 Site Average FWD Deflections for Sites D and E Site Chainage (m) FWD Stress (kPa) FWD Deflection (mm)

D0

D200

D300

D450

D600

D900

D1500

D E

784-796 824-836

583 612

383 651

204 360

145 252

95 164

70 114

47 61

25 24

Table 6

Pavement Configuration Used in Back-Analysis

Modulus Layer Thickness (mm) 85 85 100 100 100 250 350 500 infinity Fixed Poissons Ratio 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 Seed (MPa) 500 500 300 300 300 100 100 100 100 Range Allowed (MPa) 50-2,000 50-2,000 50-2,000 50-2,000 50-2,000 20-2,000 20-2,000 20-2,000 20-2,000

Top base (GR1) including seal Bottom base (GR2) Top subbase (GR3) Middle subbase (GR3) Bottom subbase (GR4) Top silty sand(SG1) Middle silty sand (SG2) Bottom silty sand (SG3) Stiff subgrade (SG4)

The basis for the selection of the layer elastic properties was as follows: Because there was insufficient FWD deflection data within the first 200 mm radial distance from the FWD loading plate, it was impossible to back-calculate the elastic modulus of the thin double-seal surface layer. It was therefore decided to combine this layer with the base layer. The combined base layer was then divided into two sub-layers, each 85 mm thick. The 150 mm select fill and 150 mm subbase were combined into a 300 mm thick sub-base layer and was then divided into three sub-layers, each 100 mm thick. They were assumed to have fixed Poissons Ratios of 0.35 (refer to Table 8.6 of the Austroads Pavement Design Guide (8)). A seed base modulus of 300 MPa was used to back-calculate the final base modulus in the range 50-1,000 MPa. Due to the influence of the (varying) height of the water-table, it was decided to sub-divide the top 1,100 mm of the subgrade into three sub-layers 250, 350 and 500 mm thick. They were assumed to have fixed Poissons Ratios of 0.45 (refer to Table 8.6 of the Austroads Pavement Design Guide). A seed subgrade modulus of 100 MPa was used to back-calculate the final subgrade modulus in the range 20-1,000 MPa.

K.G. Sharp et al.

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The underlying natural subgrade was assumed to have a fixed Poissons Ratio of 0.45 (refer to Table 8.6 in the Austroads Pavement Design Guide). A seed subgrade modulus of 100 MPa was used to back-calculate the final subgrade modulus in the range 20-1,000 MPa. Results of Back-Analysis of Layer Moduli Table 7 summarises the results of the back-calculation of the layer moduli from the characteristic FWD deflection bowls obtained from Sites D and E. The deflection errors (i.e. the percentage differences between the measured and theoretical bowls) are also given in the Table in order that the reliability of the back-calculated results can be assessed if required. It can be seen from Table 7 that the back-calculated moduli of all the sub-layers in Sites D and E differed. For example: The moduli of the top subgrade layers (i.e. SG1 and SG2) in Site D (107-125 MPa) were much lower than those in Site E (211-364 MPa). This confirmed the QDMR observation during construction regarding the relevant strengths of the two subgrades. The moduli of the bottom subbase sub-layers (i.e. SB2 and SB3) in Site D (184-191 MPa) were also much lower than those in Site E (369-979 MPa). Whilst a modulus of 979 MPa is unlikely for a subbase layer, even the lowest value of 369 MPa is higher than the values in Site D. It is likely that the subbase in Site E became drier in some locations, and hence stiffer, due to moisture loss to the underlying dry subgrade layer; whereas the subbase in Site D became wetter, and hence weaker, due to moisture gain from the underlying wet subgrade.
Table 7 Back-Calculated Layer Moduli of Lateritic Gravel Sites D and E

Site

Site Chainage (m)

FWD Stress (kPa)

Layer Modulus (MPa) B1 B2 437 829 -47.3 SB1 200 206 -2.9 SB2 191 396 -51.8 SB3 184 979 -81.2 SG1 125 364 -65.7 SG2 107 211 -49.3 SG3 201 291 -30.9 SG4 328 330 -0.6

Defln Error (%)

D E

784-796 824-836

583 583

497 998 -50.2

0.02 1.5

% Difference

The moduli of the base sub-layers (i.e. B1 and B2) in Site D (437-497 MPa) were also much lower than those (SB2 and SB3) in site E (829-998 MPa) although, once again, it is unlikely that moduli of the base layers would be this high the errors, however, are small. On this basis, it is likely that the base in Site E was also drier and had a higher density than that in Site D. In summary, the back-calculation of characteristic FWD deflection bowl data confirmed both observation at construction, and the trend in the maximum deflection data, that the subgrade in Site D was much weaker than that in Site E, and it is this parameter which has influenced the relative performance of the two sites rather than the difference in compaction standard adopted for the base layer.

EFFECT OF MATERIAL QUALITY AND LEVEL OF COMPACTION ON PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE

One of the purposes of the trial was to compare the performance of the pavements having the same thickness and constructed to the same standards, but having different quality materials in the base layers. Sites A and B were designed and installed for this purpose (good and bad material, Modified compaction). In order to compare the performance of Sites A and B in more detail, it was necessary to examine performance data obtained from uniform sections of both pavements, and when they were tested during the first stage of trafficking when the condition of the surface seal was sound (i.e. Experiments 1 and 2) in order to minimise the effects of the

K.G. Sharp et al.

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seal and environmental condition on the performance of the pavements tested. Figure 7 compares the BB maximum deflections during the period when the pavement was tested with both the 50 kN and 80 kN axle load with the number of cycles, whilst Figure 8 compares the maximum deformations recorded on the two sites with the number of load cycles.

0.450 0.400

0.600

0.500 BB Maximum Deflection (mm) BB Maximum Deflection (mm) 0.350 0.300 0.250 0.200 0.150 0.100 0.050 0.000 0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 ALF Loading Cycle (kcycle) 0.000 0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 ALF Loading Cycle (kcycle) Site A: 50 kN Site B: 50 kN Site C: 50 kN

0.400 Site A: 80 kN 0.300 Site B: 80 kN Site C: 80 kN 0.200

0.100

(a) Under ALF 50 kN wheel load

(b) Under ALF 80 kN wheel load

Figure 7: Comparison of BB max deflection for the three sites having different material quality and compaction

Beerburrum Lateritic Gravels ALF Trial

16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 0 20 40 60 80 ALF Loading Cycles (kcycle) 100 120 140 Site A - Poor material, Modified compaction, good seal, dry season Site B - Good material, Modified compaction, good seal, dry season Maximum Deformation (mm) Site C - Good material, Standard compaction, good seal, dry season

Figure 8: Comparison of maximum deformation for the three sites having different material quality and compaction (good seal and dry condition)

As shown in these Figures: the BB deflections in the two sections were similar during trafficking with both loads (Figure 7); and the deformations in Sites A and B were similar (see Figure 8).

K.G. Sharp et al.

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On the basis of this data, and the data previously presented, it is considered that material quality was not significant in determining the performance of the two test sites during Stage 1 of trafficking (60 kcycles of loading) when the pavements were in a dry condition. Another purpose of the trial was to compare the performance of pavements having the same thickness and material quality but constructed to different compaction standards. Sites B and C were designed and installed for this purpose. When comparing the performance of these pavements, it was again decided to use the performance data obtained from uniform sections of the pavements when they were tested during the dry season and when the condition of the surface seal was good (i.e. Experiments 2 and 3) in order to minimise the effects of seal and environmental condition on performance. As shown in Figures 7 and 8: The BB deflections in Site B (Modified compaction) were higher than those in Site C (Standard compaction). As discussed earlier, the results of the laboratory RLT testing on the good lateritic gravel indicated that the effects of compaction on material stiffness were insignificant compared to the effects of moisture content. On that basis, it is likely that the moisture content of the base layer in Site C was lower than that in Site B. Despite having higher deflections, the deformation in Site B (Modified compaction) over the first 58,000 cycles was similar to that in Site C (Standard compaction). Whilst the comparison of the performance data could be biased because the moisture regimes (dependent on the moisture content at sealing) in the pavements may not have been be the same, it may be inferred from the above results that, under similar moisture conditions, the deformation in Site C (Standard compaction) could be higher than that in Site B (Modified compaction). This was supported by the results of the laboratory RLT testing on the good lateritic gravel, where a lower level of compaction resulted in slightly higher deformations. However, the effects of compaction were insignificant compared to the effects of moisture content.

COMPARISON OF LABORATORY-PREDICTED AND FIELD PERFORMANCE

The results of permanent strain and resilient modulus testing conducted using laboratory RLT testing of gravel samples prepared using dynamic compaction were presented earlier. Because permanent strain and resilient modulus are dependent on the stress level, it is necessary to conduct structural analyses to determine the stresses in the pavement layers, which are then used to determine the permanent strain and modulus of the layers concerned. The procedures for determining the laboratory-predicted pavement response and deformation are reported in Vuong et al. (1998). The observed field performance was compared with the laboratory-predicted values using NONCIRL, a program, written by ARRB TR (9) which, using CIRCLY as its base, takes account of non-linear material characteristics. The results of this analysis suggested that the base layer moduli in Sites A and B were in the range of 270-860 MPa and 370-510 MPa respectively, depending on the moisture content. The laboratory-predicted base layer moduli in Site B (good) were within the range of the base layer moduli back-calculated from FWD deflection bowl data for Sites D and E (i.e. in the range of 440-1,000 MPa). The changes in maximum pavement deflection were relatively small compared to the changes in base moduli. The laboratory-predicted maximum deflections in Site A were comparable with the field values, whereas the laboratory-predicted pavement deflections in Site B were higher than the field values. The net maximum deformation measured in Sites A and B during Stage 1 of testing were within the range of predicted values. Whilst this can be regarded as most encouraging, the comparative study between laboratorypredicted and field deformation cannot be considered as conclusive because of the small deformation values induced under ALF loading.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper has summarised the results of a field and laboratory evaluation of a range of lateritic gravel pavements. Field testing was conducted using the ALF and, during the trial, about 930,000 cycles of the ALF 50 kN, 60 kN and 80 kN dual-wheel load were applied to the five test sections during nine experiments. The first seven experiments were conducted between June 1993 and October 1993, whilst the last two experiments were conducted on Sites A and B during March 1994 after these sections had been exposed to sub-tropical summer conditions, and associated

K.G. Sharp et al.

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rainfall, for a period of about six months. These later experiments were conducted at the specific request of WES, who wished to observe the performance of the pavements after they had been exposed to a tropical summer season for about six months in an effort to determine if there had been any moisture penetration into the pavements during this period and, if so, what effect this had on performance. The main findings of the trial were as follows: The results of insitu density testing conducted after the completion of construction and prior to the commencement of ALF trafficking suggested that the compaction levels achieved were higher than the target values and that, whilst 100% Standard compaction had been targeted in Site D, the final values were more in line with Modified compaction levels. The results of repeat load triaxial testing showed that the influence of density on performance was not significant, but that the influence of moisture content was highly significant. For example, above 95% of OMC, an increase in relative moisture content of 10% of OMC (or 0.7% moisture content) of the good lateritic gravel resulted in a 25% increase in the resilient strain (or a 25% reduction in stiffness), a 200% increase in the value of , and a 30% increase in the value of . Whilst there was no data for the poor lateritic gravel at moisture contents greater than 95% of OMC, it would be expected that the poor lateritic gravel would show trends similar to those observed for the good lateritic gravel. The effects of moisture content on modulus were also very significant for both the poor and good lateritic gravels. For example, the modulus of the poor lateritic gravel decreased from 1,200 MPa at 85% of OMC to 600 MPa at 95% of OMC, i.e. a reduction of 50% in modulus for an increase in relative moisture content of 10% of OMC (or 0.9% moisture content). The quality of the data recorded by the TDR gauges was very high and it was gratifying that the gauges were able to record the higher moisture levels in the wheelpath during ALF trafficking which in turn offered a tangible explanation for the performance of Sites A and B during the second stage of trafficking compared to that observed during the first stage of trafficking. In view of the good results obtained with the TDR gauges during this trial, it is recommended that further studies of this type be conducted. The FWD maximum deflections measured on the surface of the cement-treated subbase (CTSB) were similar in Sites A, B and C and uniform along each site, except for a 10 m length along one offset in Site C which was not, however, located at the site of any ALF trafficking. The performance of Sites A and B during Stage 1 of testing in the dry state was independent of material quality, with the poor laterite performing equally as well as the good laterite. In addition, the performance of Sites B and C during Stage 1 of testing indicated that the level of compaction was not a major factor affecting performance, although the level of compaction in Site C was above that normally accepted as Standard compaction. About 50 to 65% of the deformation recorded in Sites A, B and C after 60 kcycles of loading had occurred after approximately 10 kcycles of loading, and the greater the magnitude of the initial load the lower the number of cycles required for this bedding in period to occur. Following this bedding in: period, the rate of increase of transverse deformation was independent of the magnitude of the load. The FWD maximum deflections measured on the surface of the CTSB were similar in Sites A, B and C and uniform along each site, except for a 10 m length along one offset in Site C. In terms of rate of accumulation of deformation, the performance of the good laterite compacted at the lower (Standard) compactive effort in Site C was nominally superior to that in Site B (Modified compaction) during the period of loading after the bedding-in period. The performance of all three Sites A, B and C, however, was excellent, with the mean deformation in Site C after 140 kcycles of load (or about 2 million ESAs) being less than 3 mm. Whilst the performance of Sites A and B during the first stage of testing was satisfactory, both sections failed shortly after the recommencement of trafficking in March 1994 after a six months break, during which there had been heavy rainfall, particularly not long before trafficking recommenced. While the trends in the deformation and deflection along the length of Sites A and B during Stage 1 of testing were very uniform, there were variations in deformation and deflection along the length of the pavement during Stage 2, and both sections could be divided into sub-sections, with some of the sub-sections much stronger than other sub-sections. This suggests that the seal in the weaker sub-section deteriorated during trafficking and that water penetrated into the base

K.G. Sharp et al.

21

layers. This was supported by the fact that Benkelman Beam deflections and pavement deformation increased rapidly in the weaker sections once trafficking commenced. The FWD maximum deflections in the full depth lateritic pavement in Site D prior to the commencement of trafficking were much higher than those measured in Site E. However, the D0/D200 values were very similar, suggesting that the difference in maximum deflection, and later observed deformation performance, was due to a lower subgrade strength in Site D compared to Site E rather than the differences in compaction standards. The rate of increase in mean deformation of Site D was about 25% greater than the maximum rates of increase observed in Sites A to C and the rate of increase in deformation over the same cumulative load repetitions as Sites A to C (i.e. between 10 and 60 kcycles of loading) was approximately three times greater. About 30% of the total rainfall during Stage 1 of testing occurred during a six-day period towards the end of August 1993, which corresponded with the final period of trafficking of Site D. The back-calculation of characteristic FWD deflection bowl data confirmed both observation at construction, and the trend in the maximum deflection data, that the subgrade in Site D was much weaker than that in Site E, and that it was this parameter which influenced the relative performance of the two sites rather than the difference in compaction standard adopted for the base layer. The performance of Site E was satisfactory and very similar to that of Sites A, B and C, especially Site C which was subjected to a similar number of load cycles and constructed to the same (Standard) compaction standard. It is suggested that the slightly higher mean average deformation observed in Site D compared to Site C would be more than offset by the cost savings inherent in constructing an unbound subbase layer rather than a CTSB. In an attempt to compare the observed field performance with laboratory-predicted values analysis was conducted using NONCIRL. Whilst the results of this analysis were encouraging, the comparative study between laboratory-predicted and field deformation is not conclusive because of the small deformation values induced under ALF loading.

REFERENCES
1. Vuong, B.T., Sharp, K.G., Foley, G.D., Johnson-Clarke, J.R., Baran, E.J. and Rollings, R.S. The Performance of Lateritic Gravel Pavements Under Accelerated Loading. ARRB Transport Research Working Document WD RI98/017, June 1998. Johnson-Clarke, J.R. and Fossey, D.W. ALF Beerburrum Lateritic Gravel Trial - Data Collected During Trafficking of Sites D and E. Contract Report prepared for Waterways Experiment Station and Queensland Transport, June 1994. Johnson-Clarke, J.R. and Fossey, D.W. ALF Beerburrum Lateritic Gravel Trial - Data Collected During Continuation of Trafficking of Sites A, B and C. Contract Report prepared for Waterways Experiment Station, July 1994. Sharp, K.G., Johnson-Clarke, J.R. and Fossey, D.W. A Review of the Australian ALF Program. Proc. Int. Conf. on Accelerated Pavement Testing, Reno, October 1999. Austroads Pavement Research Group. TDR gauges. APRG Technical Note No. 7, July 1997. Corps of Engineers. Liquid and Plastic Limits of Soils. Method 103. Military Standard MIL-STD 621A, 22 December 1964. Vuong, B.T. Program EFROMD2 Back-Calculation of Elastic Properties of Materials Layers from Pavement Deflection Bowls Description and Users Manual. Australian Road Research Board, 1991. Austroads. Pavement Design A Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements. Austroads, Sydney, 1992. Vuong, B.T. NONCIRL A Program for Structural Analysis of Pavements Having Non-Linear Material Characteristics. Australian Road Research Board, 1991.

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