Azuela 1 Lauren Azuela Troy AP Lit P.2 Feb.

26, 2014 Cultural Rituals in Africa In this paper I will address the cultural norms in Africa and the deeply rooted religious beliefs which dictate the actions of individuals, families, and tribes. Specifically, the cultural rituals I will be addressing pertain to the opinions of African tribes on the topic of menstruation, widow cleansing, and coming of age initiations in the Congo, Ghana, Tanzania, Rwanda and Kenya. In the Congo the boys of the Wagenia ethnic group - comprised of six large villages along the Congo River - the coming of age ceremony or rite de passage consists of shaving of the head and circumcision. The shaving and circumcision are the first and second phases of the ceremony, followed by a third and final phase, a ceremonial bath in the river symbolizing reintegration into the tribe as a man. The ceremonies last for long periods of time (five months) and roughly 13,000 boys from the age of five to twenty years of age participate (Droogers 140). For a time these ceremonies were put on hold due to political unrest during the rule of Mobutu, which led to civil conflict in Kingsani. Because the boys are required to remain in the initiation camps for the entirety of their initiation. It was not safe to hold them in or near the city. During the time span of these rituals the boys initiated are separated from their mothers and male maternal relatives assume the role of caretaker to the boys (Droogers 143). As a part of the ceremonies the numerous areas where the ceremonies take place takes on a ludic overtone where boys and men step out of their usual cultural roles and are free to express themselves in ways that

Azuela 2 are less common. Within the initiation camps, there is an exclusively male presence. Women are prohibited from entering the camp but many women defy these unspoken rules and choose to covertly watch over what is going on the camps. The mothers role is ended the day before her son is to be circumcised, at this point the only role the mother holds is to shave her sons head after which she is allowed little interaction besides praising him (from behind closed doors, though many women break tradition and venture outside) as he is carried back from the riverbanks where the circumcision took place. A certain stigma surrounds the camps; technically women are not supposed to know the rules (some of which are created solely to exclude women) of the camp, but many women do. The lack of feminine presence furthers the traditional gender roles in Africa which often subordinate or devalue women. The inequality women in Africa are subjected to brings me to the topic of menstruation or ekila. In speech, ekila can refer to menstruation, blood, taboo, a hunters meat, animals power to harm humans, and particular dangers to human reproduction, production, health, and sanity. (Lewis 298). I will be using the term ekila in regards to a womans menstruation. In the Mbendjele forest culture the color red or motele, is associated with high potency, health, and strength. When women menstruate they are marked with a red paste and is thought to be symbolic of fruit at its ripest a fruit that is most likely to be harvested. Although red symbolizes strength it is also seen as a threat to the womans husband. The reason menstruation is a problem in the Mbendjele culture is because there are many animals that will track down the smell and attack. Animals such as elephant. If you are mobeku, animals attack you. In big forest full of large game, having sex is mobeku a huge ekila. This is because we are in conict (bita) with the animals. If they smell the odor of women, some are frightened and ee you. Others come from far away and follow you, only you. Thats why women are frightened in the forest. The

Azuela 3 animals smell them (Lewis 302, Kabelo). Mobeku is ambiguous but simply put seems to refer to an incident (such as a nose-bleed) that, if not properly handled, can result in danger and suffering to humans, or is taken as a sign that ekila has been ruined and certain valued activities should be avoided (Lewis 299). There are menstrual taboos that are followed by the tribe to prevent misfortune while hunting; these include women working in loud groups while on their period to deter animals and men discluding themselves from the hunt to prevent animals sensing them and attacking or from scaring the animals away with the scent of ekila. It is custom in the Mbendjele culture for men and their wives to remain within their homes or close to camp for their own safety while the wife is menstruating. Unmarried men or young boys who live with menstruating women are also careful during this time and often build their own lean-tos to free themselves of the limitations their sisters or other family members put upon them (Lewis 306). When a woman becomes pregnant a different set of rules is followed; there are still limitations on a man but many different precautions are made in relation to the mans ekila. When a man that is in contact with a pregnant woman must go hunting he takes the precaution of using an esiyo or red paste ball with the womans blood on it to ward off edio spirits who are much attached to blood, and become jealous and nasty when deprived of it. They need blood to exist. Thats why a menstruating woman leaves her ekila blood in the forest. These spirits eat that blood and like it more than other blood. They get used to it, and will look out for her. When her man cuts her moon, those spirits miss many meals (Lewis 308). Moon refers to a womans periods which is with the moon a womans biggest husband is the moon, which the Mbendjele tribe believes brings on menstruation to every woman (Lewis 298). This notion of ekila drives every person of the culture to go about doing certain tasks to maintain their own ekila, which translates into: being a good hunter, being a faithful husband or wife, or as a young girl or

Azuela 4 woman, keeping yourself and your family safe from the many dangers of the forest. The men and women of the Kano-Angola village in the Nyanza province of Kenya faced a difficult crossroads due to the recent rise of HIV/AIDS in Africa. This particular region of Kenya has the highest percentage of HIV positive citizens in Kenya (Kenya is about the same size as Texas). A traditional term called widow cleansing is a cultural rite and part of the reason for the high rate of HIV infection in the Nyanza province. Widow cleansing is the tradition obligating Luo women, after the death of their spouse, to have unprotected sex ostensibly to allow their husband's spirit to roam free in the afterlife (Robson 10). By having sex with women whose husbands were recently deceased the men were doing the family a favor. Many families and women seek out these male cleansers to do this job, it puts their minds at rest that their loved ones will be free in the afterlife and also allows the wife of the deceased to be accepted back into the community as an eligible wife. Often times this act of cleansing also entails the woman to be absorbed or adopted into the family of the male cleanser if it is her husbands brother or another relative of his. The process of widow cleansing is very formal; from the time the husband dies and mourning begins, the woman is ostracized by family and tribe members and leads an isolated life where she may not participate in community events. Once the mourning period is over the widow must find a male cleanser and pay him a fee which is often $100 USD or the equivalent of a single cow. Once this is all decided the woman must purchase new bedding and travel back to her childhood home; this journey is called doko (R. Ayikukwei et al. 588). Once she arrives home she prepares for her second wedding. The widow returns with foods that are considered delicacies and is met by friends, family and clan members who she treats to a banquet. After the banquet she is left with the cleanser to have intercourse. The act of cleansing is finalized when a rope made of banana called okala tied about the womans waist is

Azuela 5 broken during intercourse. The breaking of the rope signifies the sin of death being removed and can only be done by the males semen (R. Ayikukwei et al. 589). This subject is rarely discussed in public and with its discussion a morose overtone is also present. Members of the Luo tribe admitted that they believed a Luo could not die because of that virus (Robson 10). The misconception has inadvertently resulted in 15% of the population in Nyanza to be HIV positive, 63% of which live below the poverty line (Robson 10). Due to the high amounts of HIV positive results, some young men have become reluctant to cleanse widows but the allure of being paid the price of a cow for just one night with a woman is very appealing (Robson 10). Some men have come forward to talk about what they have done to advocate safer sex and the use of ARVs (antiretrovirals) to prevent the spread of the disease. Men such as Esban Ochanga, whose own wife died after she contracted it due to Ochanga, who contracted it from a widow he cleansed, hopes that advocation will stop widow cleansing from being the norm in places like Zambia, Rwanda and Kenya (R. Ayikukwei et al. 589). Ochanga says that [His] grandfather did it, [his] father did it, so [he] was not afraid of doing it. But the sons of [his] village will cease to do it (Robson 10). The cultural norms of the tribes of Africa differ drastically in comparison to American customs and evoke a sense of wonder while at the same time causing people to surmise that all Africans must have strange rituals and ceremonies and strong tendencies to undervalue women. This is not true, although historically women were given no formal education forever under the control of either their husband or male relatives could not inherit or own property nor could they participate fully in public life and the decision making process within their immediate community had no right over the children they bear and were mostly the victims of domestic violence, the trend is now shifting (Afisi 235). Since the independence of the totality of African

Azuela 6 countries from colonialism, families are realizing the importance of educating all children irrespective of gender. Early marriages have drastically reduced, and women occupy every profession including: professors, doctors, judges, engineers, lawyers and pilots (Afisi 235). This positive shift is deserving of immense recognition, though it is not often given. Few people realize that the first female African president was elected in Liberia and in Nigeria and a large number of women are now getting ministerial and state commissionership appointments (Afisi 235). The previous fact and the whole of this paper should enlighten people about the ways of a culture that does not often get the spotlight for its diverse beliefs and practices and the leaps and bounds it is making, which in some cases surpass American taboos such as a female President. Becoming aware of beliefs other than what one is most familiar with allows there to be room for understanding and lessons to be learned.

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Works Cited Afisi, Oseni Taiwo. Power and Womanhood in Africa: An Introductory Evaluation. The Journal of Pan African Studies 3.6 (2010) : 229-237. Web. 26 Feb. 2014.

Ayikukwei, Rose et al. HIV/AIDS and Cultural Practices in Western Kenya: The Impact of Sexual Cleansing Rituals on Sexual Behaviours. Cultural Health and Sexuality 10(6): 587-599. Web 26 Feb. 2014

Droogers, Andr. Enjoying an Emerging Alternative World: Ritual In Its Own Ludic Right. Social Analysis 48.2 (2004) : 138-153. Web. 26 Feb. 2014.

Lewis, Jerome. Ekila: Blood, Bodies, and Egalitarian Societies. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S.) 14. 2008 : 297-313. Web. 26 Feb. 2014

Robson, Angela. Male Cleansers for Hire. New Internationalist April 2009 : 10. Web. 26 Feb.2014

Lauren Azuela P.2 Troy March 23, 2014 MLA Citation: Afisi, Oseni Taiwo. Power and Womanhood in Africa: An Introductory

Azuela 8 Evaluation. The Journal of Pan African Studies 3.6 (2010) : 229-237. Web. 26 Feb. 2014.

Information About Author: Oseni Taiwo Afisi is a professor at Lagos State University in Nigeria where he works in the Philosophy Department and has lectured for five years. His experience has led him to pursue a Phd from the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand.

Synopsis: Afisi analyzes the gender roles in Africa beginning in colonialism into the current era. His analysis includes how gender roles before colonialism were fairly equal, men and womens duties throughout society were codependent and necessary for survival, women were even seen as more powerful because of their ability to create life. Afisi noted that after colonialism, roles changed and more societal duties put men in power impeding women from attaining the power position they once held. The inequality, though has now changed and is moving toward more gender equality and a higher value associated with education which Afisi believes is a huge part of achieving gender equality. Quotation or Significant Idea: Africa is not left out in this pedestrian of change. The first female African president, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, has emerged in Liberia. (Afisi 235) Discussion/Explanation: My first thought after reading that there had been a female president in Liberia was: why hasnt there been a female in the US yet? Recently I realized just how unequal gender rights in the US are and it upset me. I could not believe how differently women were treated in comparison to men, and reading that there had been a female President shocked me because I thought that of all places the United States would have had a female President by now. The quote made me realize that even though the United States is a great place for freedom and a multitude of rights, there has not been truly equal opportunity for women; being a young woman in the US, this had me deeply concerned and elicited emotions about the injustice women face, that I had never felt before. Quotation or Significant Idea: Going by Hunters assertion, the face of African society on gender equality changed owing to the influence of colonialism. Women began to suffer oppression from men. The Shackles imposed by law, custom, religion and attitudes forced women to play the second fiddle. In fact, women mostly remained relegated to the last rung of the social and political ladder. Women no longer were giving the opportunity to exercise any power except those supervised by men. (Afisi 234)

Discussion/Explanation: The effects colonialism had African society interested me greatly. In general colonialism sounds beneficial, but from previous knowledge I know that colonialism, at

Azuela 9 least in the US has displaced thousands of Native Americans and led to horrible injustices and subjugation of a once strong a proud culture. Because of this knowledge it is not difficult for me to imagine how the colonialism of Africa would also end with negative results. By introducing new societal aspects, the colonists who inhabited Africa brought new jobs and positions in society that were not suitable for both genders or codependent of each other as all previous African societal positions were. It makes sense that by introducing these roles, the absence of gender inequality would change, that is how things are, once one person is given power another person must be subjected to that power or else power would be pointless.

Other Citations: Zelizer, Craig. "Oseni Taiwo Afisisi's Page." Peace and Collaborative Development Network. Craig Zelizer, 21 Apr. 2010. Web. 22 Mar. 2014.

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Lauren Azuela P.2 Troy March 22, 2014 MLA Citation: Droogers, Andr. Enjoying an Emerging Alternative World: Ritual In Its Own Ludic Right. Social Analysis 48.2 (2004) : 138-153. Web. 26 Feb. 2014. Information About Author: Andr Droogers was born in Rotterdam on August 8, 1941. Droogers earned his BA degree in Social Geography and an MA in Cultural Anthropology from State University Utrecht. Later in his career Droogers earned a Phd from Vrije Universiteit. While he was working towards earning a Phd Droogers traveled to Africa and observed the religion and religious practices of the Wagenia tribe in Kingsani, Zaire. During his stay, he lectured on Cultural Anthropology in the departments of Social Science and Theology at Kingsani University. Droogers has been published numerous times and has guest lectured in places such as Brazil, Argentina and Chile. Synopsis: The cultural rituals of the Wagenia tribe in Kingsani, Zaire are analyzed in this article. Droogers focuses specifically on tribal initiations involving mass circumcisions. In said rituals Droogers delves into the roles of the men who are in charge of organizing such an event and identifies a playful undertone that Droogers believes is present in every ritualistic ceremony. The ritual, which happens over roughly five months involves full support from the community, including women, which although the role is small is important none the less. Young men ranging in ages five to twenty are gathered for a three part ceremony which culminates in their reintegration into the tribe as men. Quotation or Significant Idea: Fifty years ago, four feasts per village or group of villages were held, but when many of the Wagenia children started to go to school, more periods for

Azuela 11 circumcision were required. Those boys who did not attend school spent much more time in the camps than their colleagues who had to wait until the summer vacation in July before they could enter the camp. Some of the Protestant churches forbade their members to send their boys to initiation, but sometimes boys went on their own initiative. Once in the camp, they were not allowed to leave, not even when their parents commanded them to do so. (Droogers 124) Discussion/Explanation: Its interesting to me how social advances affected the events going on in the initiation camps, this is similar to how American traditions changed in the early to mid 1900s when families stopped having their children drop out of school at an early age to join the family business or work on the farm. In other ways this detail Droogers focuses on reminds me of the separation of church and state that the United States has. Would a ceremony such as the one the Wagenia tribe organizes be allowed in the United States? Even though Droogers mentions Protestants who did not agree with what was going on in the camps, I believe that the people of the tribe should still have the right and have that right be protected, to practice what they please. On the other hand, the boys who are missing school should be given the opportunity to continue the school work while in the camps, because by taking them out of school for extended periods of time, the boys are losing valuable learning time. Quotation or Significant Idea: The women were excluded from entering this male world, yet they were indispensable as an audience, sometimes literally so in that they were supposed to hear the sounds that came from the camp. (Droogers 143) Discussion/Explanation: It seems that in the majority of the African rituals I have researched, women are subordinate to men. In a part of the world where physical ability to do hard labor is highly valued this makes some sense, but I do not understand why women are explicitly excluded from rituals that affects their own children. Is there any significance to this or is it just a tradition that the men of the Wagenia tribe adhere to because their fathers and their fathers, fathers did before them. If the latter is true, maybe this exclusion of women can be changed to better include all parties and create more equal gender roles. Other Citations: Drooger, Andr. "Participants." European Research Network on Global Pentecostalism. GloPent, 30 Jan. 2008. Web. 24 Mar. 2014.

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