Review Lecture: Forensic Science Author(s): A. S. Curry Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.

Series B, Biological Sciences, Vol. 199, No. 1135 (Nov. 14, 1977), pp. 189-198 Published by: The Royal Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/77255 . Accessed: 20/05/2013 12:29
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Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 199, 189-198 (1977) Printed in Great Britain

REVIEW

LECTURE

Forensic science
BY A. S. CURRY Home Office, Horseferry House, Dean Ryle Street, London SWIP 2A W, U.K. (Lecture delivered 26 May 1977 - Typescript received 3 June 1977) The influence of the scientist in the investigation of crime has grown rapidly since the establishment of regional forensic science laboratories about 40 years ago. Eight laboratories with a staff of about 700 now cover the whole of England and Wales and a fictional crime of kidnapping is used to illustrate how the scientist can help the police officer in his enquiries. A broken window with smears of blood on it together with tiny fragments of fibres can reveal a great deal of useful information and the methods of investigation is described; the car the criminals used is defined by an examination of smears of paint on a gatepost, tyre marks in soil and fragments of headlamp lens. The use of computerized information banks dealing with analytical characteristics and their use throughout the country is discussed, together with techniques available for examining traces the criminals may have brought to, or left at the scene. Unsolved problems in forensic science are considered.

INTRODUCTION

I am sure you have all seen in your newspaper the phrase 'forensic scientists have visited the scene '. Some of you may have been on juries in which scientific evidence was given from the forensic science laboratory but I think it would be of help to begin by indicating the size of the crime problem in the United Kingdom. In England and Wales over 2 million crimes come to the attention of the police each year and it is distressing to record that 71 000 of these are offences against the person. This latter figure has doubled in the last ten years and whereas the theft of a radio from one's motor car may not create much more than annoyance it is essential that people should be able to walk the streets in safety and that their houses should be secure from the criminal. Some of you may even have experienced the situation of arriving home in the evening to find all your treasured possessions gone and the house in chaos. The maintenance of law and order is one of the criteria by which society is judged. The responsibility for this rests with the police but they have to act within the confines of the law which is decided by Parliament acting in the interests of society. The police in our country have a reputation second to none but the tightrope between the preservation of law and order and the freedom of the individual is one which has to be walked in such a way that one does not have a police state
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on one side or, if one falls off the tight-rope on the other side, complete freedom for the criminal. Police forces in this country have always been in the vanguard concerning the technical aids that could be used to help them in their enquiries. Their use of science goes back over a hundred years but its harnessing on a national scale is only just over 40 years old. It was in the middle thirties that the Metropolitan Police Laboratory at New Scotland Yard was opened and almost simultaneously, regional forensic science laboratories for use by provincial police forces were opened by the Home Office. Organization of forensic science In England and Wales the laboratories are now situated at Chorley, serving the north-west, Wetherby, the north-east, Nottingham the east midlands, Birmingham the west midlands, Aldermaston, the central southern part of England, and laboratories at Cardiff and Bristol, which will soon be amalgamated into a new laboratory at Chepstow, serve the south-west and south Wales. The total staff in these laboratories and the Metropolitan Police Laboratory number nearly 700 people and in 1976 they dealt with nearly 120 000 cases. This is a major operation and indicates the concentration of science in police work. The laboratories are in the process of being rehoused following the consolidation of their work since the 1930s and by the early 1980s all of them should be in purpose built laboratories. The equipment of the laboratories is highly sophisticated and they stand comparison with any in the world. The national organization of laboratories in this country, although not unique in the world, has great advantages over those countries in which science for use by policemen has been concentrated either in small local laboratories or as a part-time occupation of some departments in universities. The scientist coming from university into the forensic science service enters the Scientific Civil Service and has a career structure which can take him to the highest ranks. The ability to provide this career structure coupled with good working conditions and excellent equipment means that the calibre of science applied to police work is extremely high. In addition to the regional forensic science laboratories there is also the Home Office Central Research Establishment at Aldermaston. About 10 % of the forensic science, budget and staff is invested in this establishment. The establishment provides not only a full time research and development capability but also a core of very large instrumentation such as the availability of neutron activation analysis facilities and other trace element analytical techniques such as X-ray fluorescence and spark source mass spectrometry. New techniques which have been introduced at the research establishment such as organic mass spectrometry, radioimmunoassay and flameless atomic absorption spectroscopy, were first investigated there and are now being introduced into regional laboratories use as fast as money is available. The whole service can draw on the research establishment for investigations into the most serious crimes. The research establisment also provides an information service about which I shall be speaking later.

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Murder, rape, grievous bodily harm, hit-and-run motor car accidents are the stock-in-trade of the forensic scientist. In addition there are the mundane day to day tasks of analysing blood samples for alcohol from drivers suspected of driving over the legal limit and in the last decade we have seen the drugs explosion. About half the cases coming into a forensic science laboratory concern samples of blood for alcohol analysis and a quarter concern drugs. Although the analyses for alcohol may seem like a factory job it is important to realize that intense monitoring of quality control or, some people would say, quality assurance is an integral part of the work of the forensic scientist. It would be entirely invidious if the service could not show that it in fact had overall high standards and that the results in one corner of the country were the same as those in another corner. This monitoring of performance has been enthusiastically welcomed throughout the service and spreads to all areas of its work. Analytical work on drug identification does not stop there: the very careful analysis of traces of other material in the drug sample very often leads to an indication of how the illicit material was made and in terms of natural products like cannabis and opium it can lead to an indication of the country of origin and indeed enable a monitoring by laboratory work of illegal importations. The liaison between the laboratory intelligence and the Central Drugs Intelligence and Illegal Immigration Unit at New Scotland Yard has developed in this country into the marriage of the mass spectrometer to the policeman on the beat. This is in an area which is increasingly becoming important in the role of the laboratory, that is, the provision to the police of information which is relevant, long before a suspect has been found. The pattern of change in laboratory work will be seen in many areas, in that ten or twenty years ago there was very little the scientist could do until the police had a suspect. The role of the laboratory is now becoming very much more important in indicating to the police the line of enquiry which is likely to be most profitable, and in order to demonstrate this I should like to take as my theme of this talk the investigation of a particular crime which is entirely imaginary. Nevertheless it will I hope, in the short time that I have available, demonstrate some facets of the work that is done by forensic scientists. Investigation of an imaginary crime The crime is one of kidnapping. At 7 o'clock one evening the parents of a young boy aged seven left their home leaving the boy, who was their only child, in the care of a neighbour who lives nearby and often babysits. The parents were going to a dinner and did not return until 3 a.m. The babysitter, having put the boy to bed, went to bed herself in the next room and took some sleeping capsules as was her usual habit. Before going to bed the babysitter checked that the boy was in his room and sleeping peacefully. When the parents returned, they found the bedroom disturbed and the boy missing. The house is a large detached double storey building, set in its own grounds with a double drive with gates that are always kept open. The garden frontage, of about 20 yards, is filled with shrubs which shield the front of the house from the road. Entrance to the house was gained
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through the kitchen door. There are glass panels in the door and entrance had been effected by breaking one of the panels, removing part of the glass, inserting a hand and turning the lock from the inside. In the bedroom the bed clothes had been pulled to one side and a torn piece of pyjama material was lying on the floor. The police were informed immediately. A full search of the house and area by 'scenes of crime' officers was made shortly after arrival and the evidence found will be described later. In these situations a special investigation squad is formed as it was apparent that a kidnapping had taken place. The following morning a letter arrived which read 'your son will not be harmed and will be returned to you provided you follow these instructions precisely. Draw ?40 000 in notes - ?20 000 pound notes and ?20 000 in five pound notes. Your house is being watched. We will telephone later. You had better have the money. Do not inform the police of this note or your son will not live another day.' The money was drawn from the bank and following telephoned instructions later in the day, the boy was eventually recovered by the husband of the babysitter. This involved changes of cars in a pub car park and, following instructions, attaching suitcases containing the money to ropes found hanging over a gate, these being pulled over the gate by someone behind. Almost immediately an envelope was thrown over which gave typewritten instructions leading him to the recovery of the boy, who was unharmed. Now I should like to go over this crime to indicate how the forensic scientist can help the police in their enquiries. The laboratory has two roles, first to provide the investigating officer with useful information about the possible person or persons responsible and secondly to provide evidence to convict them if and when they are caught. The first place to look at is the scene of the crime. An examination of the entrance to the house reveals fresh tyre impressions in the soil and from an examination of these it is possible to say, by comparison with a data bank of tyre impressions held at the Central Research Establishment, that one of the tyres on the car was a Dunlop SP180. This gives us some information as to the possible models to which this tyre may be fitted. At the point of entry there is a glass on the floor and by examination of the broken pieces it is possible to say from the striation marks on the edges that the entry had been effected from the outside. A smear of blood indicates that one of the kidnappers had scratched his hand when putting it through the window to open the door. Adhering to the edges of the glass remaining in the window are fragments of fibres presumably from the jacket or sleeve of the criminal. These are very carefully lifted by means of sellotape. An examination at the point of entry reveals several footprints, which after elimination of those of the household and the first police officers, enables the forensic scientist to indicate that there were at least two people involved. The patterns can be referred to the footwear data bank and the size of the shoes measured. In this way we get an indication as to the physical size of the feet of the persons involved. In addition the wear marks provide

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in many cases a degree of individuality which, when the criminals are apprehended, may well enable us to say that that shoe and no other shoe made that mark. Let us now proceed to the bedroom. A careful search reveals several head hairs: some obviously from the boy and his parents but other ones which could possibly have come from the criminal. The search of this particular room is most important and the room is inspected very closely in order to discover any materials which might have adhered to the criminals and which subsequently might be a positive lead in saying that they had been in that particular room. What I am thinking of are traces of fibres from the carpets, from the bedclothes, the blankets, the sheets, from the boy's pyjamas. Household talcum powder had been used in the room and it is possible that traces could be carried away by the criminal. Fortunately the car had collided with the gate post and indeed fragments of a broken headlamp are found near the gatepost. From the markings on the headlamp glass it is possible to say that the car was a Ford Cortina. This has again involved interrogation of the data banks held at the Central Research Establishment at Aldermaston. In doing searches, use has been made of the mini-computer there, in that the relevant data from footwear patterns, tyre patterns, headlamp glasses, of which there are many thousands of items, have been converted to a computer recognizable form so that the collections can be rapidly and easily searched. Experiments are already going ahead in linking regional forensic science laboratories to the computer but at the present time this is limited to two laboratories and on other occasions the information room at the Research Establishment is telephoned direct. Laboratories are fully capable of coding the visual information from the patterns into a form suitable for the computer search. The mini computer is also used for literature searching. Over 25 000 scientific papers which have been collected from the scientific literature over the last ten years have been key worded according to a very strictly controlled thesaurus designed at Aldermaston. Key words are introduced and the relevant numbers of papers bearing those key words are retrieved by the computer. All the papers are given a single unique number and are held on microfilm in all the regional laboratories. I shall be referring to other areas in which the computer is of use to the service. One of these which concerns us here is that the typewritten ransom note will be examined at the forensic science laboratory at Birmingham where all Home Office document examinations are done. They in fact use the CRE mini computer for coding the many thousands of typewriter faces that are held and I have no doubt they will be able to tell us the model of typewriter on which the note was typed. It too will bear characteristic wear marks so that the actual machine used can be positively associated with the note. However, let us take all our pieces of evidence, securely packed and preserved and labelled, into the laboratory and begin to look at them. Let us first look at the smears of paint on the gatepost. By careful mounting and observation under low power microscopy we can see the colour of the top coat, the undercoats and the primers. These colours and their sequence tell us a great deal about the vehicle

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that was used in this crime. For many years manufacturers of motor cars have been supplying to the Forensic Science Service actual painted plates showing the colours and sequences used in the manufacture of cars. The collection numbers many thousands of plates. It has been a major exercise to keep this up to date, particularly with the influx of foreign cars on the roads of the U.K. One of the problems of the forensic scientist is how to be able to communicate colour over a telephone, and a system has been developed which uses standard colour cards that enable us to transfer the colours we have observed under the microscope from the suspect car to an alphanumeric system which can then be used to search the data bank again on the computer. This information tells us that the car was a 1972 green Ford Cortina. This of course is of great value to the investigating police officers. You will remember that it ties up with the information from the headlamp glass. Resprayed cars sometimes cause problems but very often there is the original paint work underneath. We can analyse each layer structure using for example the laser spark emission spectroscope in which a laser beam is focused on to each individual layer in turn and vaporizes it so that the resultant puff of smoke can be analysed by emission spectroscopy. Another new technique which is being investigated and shows promise, is X-ray fluorescence analysis; this is again of value for showing the elemental composition of the paint. Other general chemical techniques, such as the use of infrared spectroscopy and pyrolysis-gas chromatography, enable an analysis of the organic binders to be made if necessary. Let us now consider the glass from the door. When the criminal is found it may be that glass will be found on his clothing and the obvious question will be asked did that glass come from that door? The routine techniques for separating glass samples in the laboratories involve the use of refractive index measurements and here the role of the Central Research Establishment, in providing standards and monitoring quality assurance procedures in all aspects of forensic science, comes into play. The refractive indices of all glasses encountered in crimes as well as other populations, have been studied and because of known and measured accuracies and precisions in the determination of this physical feature, a population envelope has been drawn by the computer which enables one to say whether a particular glass under examination is a very common one or a very rare one. Work has also been done on measuring trace element compositions in many diferent types of glass. This work has been done mainly with the use of spark source mass spectrometry which is a most potent tool of analysis. It is even possible to say from which factory of the major suppliers of window glass in this country the particular sample was made. Despite very high standards in manufacturing quality control there is still sufficient individuality about glass to make the technique worthwhile for the forensic scientist. Let me give you an example, not associated with this crime, but one in which a prisoner in a gaol found powdered glass in his tea. It was found by trace element examination that this had a typical composition of a light bulb envelope. In many other cases the characteristics of

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spectacle glasses have been useful in tying a particular vehicle to a particular scene of a motor car accident. I mentioned that fortunately there were some blood stains on the glass. Human body fluids such as blood, saliva and semen have been the stock-in-trade of the forensic biologist from the earliest days. All types of crime can involve these three very important fluids and a tremendous amount of research has been done at the Metropolitan Police Laboratory and the Central Research Establishment in order to try to provide as much evidence from a sample as from a fingerprint. Two approaches have been used. First, genetic characterization by blood groups and also serum enzymes, and secondly a new development involving the measurement of antibodies in blood stains. There is of course a third approach which is under investigation, that is, the demonstration of a particular drug in a blood stain. As far as blood grouping is concerned the classical A, B, and 0 systems have given rise to nearly 20 other blood group and serum enzyme systems and most of these are in use at the Metropolitan Police Laboratory. I note that in the report of the director of that laboratory in 1975, that he gives details of the blood found at one particular scene that gave reactions which in combinations occur in approximately 1 person in 100 million of the population. Statistically that is to say that only about 40 people in the world have this combination of blood group systems: this gives a measure of the great potential for this type of investigation but it is essential to have a suspect from whom you can take a sample of control blood. The other approach has been researched at the Research Establishment at Aldermaston and is aimed at giving information that would be useful to the police officer in the earlier stages of an enquiry. As you know, the body responds to bacteria or viral approach by protecting itself by the production of antibodies. These are protein molecules which have great length of life in the blood stream; I need only remind you that once you have had measles, immunity lasts virtually the rest of your life. By using simple microscopic techniques it is possible to demonstrate these antibodies in a blood stain. Not only does this enable some information to be obtained about the disease history of the person from whom the blood was shed, it also provides other discriminatory parameters in addition to the A, B and 0 blood group systems. Because the immune response does not appear to develop until after the age of 16 it is possible to give a fair indication as to whether the blood was shed by someone under or over this age group. A second approach has been to use the detection of the antibodies which are developed in allergic conditions. (I am particularly sensitive to cats and my corresponding antibody concentration is extremely high.) This technique has been applied, by using radioimmunoallergen sensitivity testing, to other allergic conditions such as hay fever caused by grasses, and house dust, another common allergic response invoking material. There is yet another spin-off from this approach in that hay fever in North America is not due to the same grass as in the U.K. Sensitivity there is due to a rag weed which does not grow in this country.

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We now have some information about the individuals disease history, his allergic conditions, a possibility of an indication of age and whether at any time he has visited North America. I am not certain whether it is useful to know that the person is allergic to cats! The final piece of information which would be useful to know is whether the blood was shed by a man or a woman and work is proceeding with a microscopic technique for staining up Y chromosome; research thoughts are moving towards the possibility of determining testosterone, a sex hormone, chemically. Let us now turn to the examination of the fibres and hairs that were found at the scene of the crime. One of the aspects of work that has been investigated is how fibres are transferred from one surface to another, how they stay there and for how long they stay there. In addition, techniques for removing fibres from clothing for subsequent microscopic examination have been investigated. The microscope is of great value in identifying fibres and in comparing them. The scanning electron microscope also has many uses and there is one for the Home Office laboratories at Birmingham and the Metropolitan Police Laboratory also has one of its own. White light microscopy, u.v. fluorescence microscopy and polarizing microscopy are all of value and in the case of fibres micro-infrared spectrophotometry is also used. Thin layer chromatographic separations of the dyes in the fibres provide additional information, and recently spark source mass spectrometry has been used to investigate trace element presence in particular acrylic fibres. Discrimination can be achieved, when one has sufficient sample, by the presence of such unusual elements as niobium and indium, often as parts per million range. The application of such techniques from the Research Laboratory into an operational laboratory is one which is under constant review. If anybody knows a method for determining one part per million of indium in a few microgrammes of fibre suitable for use in a regional laboratory I would be most interested to hear of it. Many years ago the trace element composition of hairs was studied by the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment with neutron activation analysis and although this was not suitable as a routine for general biological cases, it is a routine technique for use in cases of suspected arsenical poisoning in which arsenic enters the growing roots of the hair and, if the person does not die, then grows out as a concentrated slug of arsenic moving up the shank of the hair. The work on trace elements in hair has been extended by the use of flameless atomic absorption and this provides some additional degree of discrimination. Unfortunately, as with most hair parameters such as colour, there is such a wide variation across one single head that it can approach the variation across half the population. However, if we have a dyed blonde with a sprayed lacquer which can be examined by scanning electron microscopy and other analytical techniques, a reasonable measure of discrimination can be obtained, say about 1 in 300-400 of the population. Experiments measuring the concentration of lead and copper and other elements along the length of the hair by means of flameless atomic absorption have shown that the concentration varies along the length of the hair; in the case of lead it is greatest at the tips, and although some discrimination can be obtained it is not

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as high as we would like. A contract with Harwell, studying proton-induced X-ray analysis across the width of the hair and longitudinally in minute steps, is being used to see if further discrimination can be obtained. Let us now sum up what the work in the laboratory has shown the investigating officer. It has given him the probable number of people involved, the size of shoes worn, the colour of the hair and the fact that starch grains were found on the hairs examined (suggesting that one suspect is a baker), the make, year and colour of the car used, and in the case of the person who shed blood, the sex, details of whether he was under 16, a disease profile, possible intake of some drugs, what allergies he suffered from and whether he had visited North America. Examination of the fibres from the broken window could well give a mass of detail of the make up of his jacket. I was for ten years Director of the Central Research Establishment and hence I am biased towards possibilities and while not all the techniques I have mentioned are in everyday use in every laboratory, they are available to the Forensic Science Service as a whole and further development of them shows a great potential. You will appreciate that there has also been a great deal of work for the scene of crime officers in collecting what are known as 'control' samples: soil from the garden to be subsequently tested against that on the suspect's shoes, glass from the window which may be found on the jacket when it is submitted; fibres from the bedroom, a sample of the talcum powder - a thousand and one items that have to be looked at, which the criminal may have taken to the scene or unknowingly left behind. Problem areas I have tried to give you a glimpse into some aspects of the work that goes on in a forensic science laboratory but I am going to take this opportunity to mention a few problem areas in which we are seeking solutions. In doing so it will give you a slightly wider aspect that has been possible with our imaginary crime. One of the overriding requirements is that of increased sensitivity, the objective being to be able to get more evidential information from less and less material. We are regularly handling nanogrammes of material; sometimes picogrammes and femtogrammes and attogrammes remain constantly in our thoughts. The introduction of organic mass spectrometry has revolutionized identifications in the drug and poison areas and already, by using high pressure liquid chromatography with a radioimmunoassay and spectrofluorimetry it is possible to detect such potent drugs as LSD in samples of blood. When one considers that the dose is only 100 pg this is a very significant step forward. Similar work has also resulted in the detection of cannabis in blood samples but coupled with the requirement for this increased sensitivity is a requirement for increased speed. It is all very well being able to handle an analysis, but it is of little use if the instrumentation and man power requirements are such that one can only do perhaps one case a month. Another area in which we are greatly interested is in trying to determine when a corpse has been found and what was the time of death. This would be of immense importance to police enquiries. At the moment methods of measurement are not precise. The

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use of whole body counters to measure decay of natural radioactivity in the body has been attempted but without much success. Clearly a parameter which is independent of temperature is required but so far a good one has not been found. I will finish with a challenge to the physicists and computer experts: you will all know that when a bullet is fired from a gun, the manufacturing imperfections on the barrel are imprinted onto the surface of the bullet. Under the high power microscope one can see the complex picture of striation marks which are effectively the fingerprint of the bullet. What is needed is some way of being able to convert this pattern into a computer readable form. It is not a simple problem, for when a bullet has been recovered from a body it is rarely in the good condition shown in the slide; in addition a change in the angle of light illumination alters the pattern of striations. The solution to this problem will enable the international exchange of computer data concerning bullets; at the present time even national comparisons have to be done by the physical examination of suspect bullets in different laboratories by different scientists looking down different microscopes comparing them individually with hundreds of controls. Thus to relate a weapon found by police in say Liverpool with murders in Scotland, Wales and the Isle of Wight requires a formidable amount of work. By using a computer data bank for each murder bullet and for each test bullet fired through recovered weapons, the task of sorting would become much simpler and for any lawyers who may be present let me stress that the ultimate comparison would still be as now - the human witness - all the computer would do would be to enable him to turn to the most probable bullet in his collection in seconds instead of in weeks. Glimmers of light are already beginning to appear on the horizon in this area. Conclusion It has been impossible to do other than indicate a few areas of the work of the forensic scientist which involves many facets of investigation of different materials by a host of analytical techniques, both chemical and biological. Whole areas of work such as the analysis of explosives, detection of poisoning and the examination of questioned documents have had to be left out. However, the subject of forensic science is an exciting part of science involving the application of research from many academic disciplines, as well as providing research problems of its own.

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