Math 109b - Problem Set 8 Evan Dummit

2 1 2 1 4.3.1. Setting F = 0 in equations 4.3.2 yields G1 11 = Eu 2 E , G11 = - Ev 2 G, G12 = Ev 2 E , G12 = Gu 2 G, G22 = - Gu 2 E ,

G2 22 = Gv 2 G. So multiplying equation 4.3.5 by 2 yields

- 2 E K = HGu GLu - H- Ev GLv + HEv GL H- Ev 2 GL + HGu GL HGu 2 GL - H- Ev GL HGv 2 GL - HEu EL HGu 2 GL.

Equivalently, - 2 K = Gu u E G + Gu 2 2 E G2 + Ev v E G + Ev 2 2 E G2 + Ev Gv 2 E G2 + Eu Gu 2 E2 G, or
K=1 2 EG

Ev v HE GL+HEv 2L HEv G+E Gv L HE GL32

Gu u HE GL+HGu 2L HEu G+E Gu L HE GL32

N=-

1 2 1 EG

Ev EG Ev EG

O +K
v

Gu EG Gu EG

O .
u

4.3.2. By the previous exercise, as F = 0 one obtains K = K=

1 - 2 lHu,vL lv JJ l N v lu +J l N N u

1 - 2 lHu,vL

HHln lLv v + Hln lLu u L = l = Iu2 + v2 + cM

2 1 -2 2 -2 2

EG

1 - 2 lHu,vL

DHln lL.

O +K
v

O , so E = G = lHu, vL gives
u

Particularly,
K=
1 -2 2

Iu + v + cM H- 2L DIlnIu + v + cMM =
2 2 2

when

Iu + v + cM H- 2L 4 cIu + v + cM
2 2 2

this

gives
-2

= 4 c as claimed.

x-1. We show the more general result that for any (nonintersecting) planar graph, F - E + V = C , where C is the number of edgeconnected components of the graph. To prove this, induct on the number E of edges. For zero edges the result is trivial, since the only configurations with no edges are collections of some number of isolated vertices; then the number of components is the same as the number of vertices and there are no edges or faces, so F - E + V = C as required. Now suppose the result holds for all graphs with up to n - 1 edges, and let G be a graph with n edges, for n > 0. Since G is nonempty, let e1 be an edge belonging to G (namely, an edge contained in at most one face). If e1 does not belong to a face, removing e1 will yield a graph G ' with one more component than G, since it will disconnect the vertices that were formerly joined by e1 (they could not still be connected afterward as otherwise e1 would have belonged to some face). By the inductive hypothesis, F ' - E ' + V ' = C '; since F ' = F , E ' = E - 1, V ' = V , C ' = C + 1, this yields F - HE - 1L + V = HC + 1L or F - E + V = C so the result also holds for G. If e1 does belong to a face, then removing e1 will not disconnect the component of G containing this face as the path around the remaining edges of the face will still connect the endpoints of e1 . By the inductive hypothesis, F ' - E ' + V ' = C '; since F ' = F - 1, E ' = E - 1, V ' = V , C ' = C , this yields HF - 1L - HE - 1L + V = C or F - E + V = C so the result again holds for G. In both cases the inductive step holds, so the result is true for all planar graphs G, as claimed. Restricting to the case where all faces are triangles and C = 1 gives the desired result. by definition T ' consists of some triangles si, j for 1 j ri for some ri e , 1 i n, where ji=1 si, j = ti -- i.e., the si, j are the
r r

x-2. Let T be a triangulation of the regular surface R such that T consists of the triangles t1 , , tn . If T ' is a refinement of T then

n i refinement in T ' of the triangle ti in T . Now define the triangulations Tk = Ik i=1 j=1 si, j M Ii=k +1 ti M for 1 j n -- then the Tk

are a series of refinements from T0 = T to Tn = T ' such that Tk is the refinement of Tk -1 that refines the one triangle tk into the

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Math 109b - Problem Set 8 solutions.nb

triangles sk , j . But by the result of the previous problem, since ti is a triangle and hence planar, the triangulation of tk into the triangles sk , j leaves the value F - E + V invariant, so Fk -1 - Ek -1 + Vk -1 = Fk - Ek + Vk , where Fk , Ek , Vk are the numbers of faces, edges, and vertices of Tk . Chaining the k equalities together gives F0 - E0 + V0 = Fn - En + Vn , which is the desired result. x-3. We show that gluing a handle onto any surface S decreases the Euler characteristic by 2. Since the Euler characteristic of the usual torus T 2 is 0, a trivial induction yields that the characteristic of a torus with g holes is 2 - 2 g . To show the result, first triangulate S . Then the action of gluing a handle (which is homeomorphic to a cylinder) becomes the action of adjoining two disjoint "top" and "bottom" faces in the the triangulation of a handle to two disjoint triangles in the triangulation of S . A triangulation of the handle is given in the diagram below, where the left and right edges are identified in the obvious way. The triangulation has 6 vertices, 6 faces, and 12 edges. The action of gluing the top and bottom faces (i.e., those formed by vertices 1,2,3 and those formed by vertices 4,5,6, as labeled in the diagram) then has a net effect of adding 4 faces (6 added from handle, 2 removed by the action of gluing), adding 6 edges (12 added from handle, 6 removed by the action of gluing), and leaving the number of vertices unchanged. The net change to the characteristic c = F - E + V is therefore 4 - 6 + 0 = - 2, so adjoining a handle does decrease the Euler characteristic by 2 as claimed.

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