Catena 78 (2009) 250259

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Stratigraphy and sedimentology at Bir Sahara, Egypt: Environments, climate change and the Middle Paleolithic
Christopher L. Hill
Department of Anthropology and Environmental Studies Program, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho, 83725-1950, United States

a r t i c l e
Keywords: Geoarchaeology Pleistocene Climate Paleolithic Africa

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Bir Sahara, situated in northeast Africa, contains a set of sedimentary sequences that imply episodic changes in climate and environment during the Middle and Late Pleistocene. Some of the stratigraphic contexts are associated with Middle Paleolithic artifact assemblages. The artifact assemblages are typically in sands that underlie deposits composed of high amounts of carbonate or ne clastics (muds) indicative of expanding lakes and wetter climates. The wetter climates may have provided landscapes that were periodically inhabitable by Pleistocene hominids. 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The eastern Sahara Desert, in northeastern Africa, is presently one of the most arid regions on Earth (Alaily and Pohlmann, 1995). However, it contains evidence of landscape evolution and changing environmental conditions that can be related to Quaternary climate and hominids. Geologic, paleontologic, and archaeologic studies have documented that the arid conditions of today are the result of changes in Holocene climate (Wendorf and Schild, 2001; Foley et al., 2003; Nicoll, 2004; Smith et al., 2004a; Kuper and Kropelin, 2006; Bubenzer and Riemer, 2007). In Egypt, Pleistocene archaeological occurrences (Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic artifacts) are also known to exist and in some instances these assemblages are embedded in sedimentary deposits (Wendorf and Schild,1980; Wendorf et al.,1993; Hill, 2001; Smith et al., 2004a). The sediments can be used to evaluate environmental settings and site formational processes associated with the presence of Paleolithic artifacts. In addition, the stratigraphic sequences can be used to examine broader scale patterns of climate change and hydrologic models linked to arid region landscape evolution (Said, 1975; Said, 1983; Embabi, 1999; Maxwell and Haynes, 2001; Ghoneim and El-Baz, 2007). These patterns may have implications for the presence of suitable landscapes for human habitation in the eastern Sahara and human migration out of Africa during the Pleistocene (Vermeersh, 2001; Clark et al., 2003; Smith, 2004b; Derricourt, 2005; Vaks et al., 2007). 2. Area description, methods, and material studied The Bir Sahara region is situated in the eastern Saharan portion of northeast Africa (Fig. 1). The study area is at about 22o56 north

E-mail address: chill2@boisestate.edu. 0341-8162/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2009.02.003

latitude and 28o45 east longitude (about 300 km westnorthwest of Abu Simbel in the Nile Valley, about 400 km east of the Egyptian/ Libyan border, and 100 km north of the Egyptian/Sudanese border). Within the area known as the Atmur Peneplain (Issawi, 1978) and the Selima Sand Sheet (Haynes, 1982) is a large patch of Quaternary rocks (Klitzsch et al., 1987). On the east side of this patch is the El Tawila Mass (or Tarfawi Mass) composed of Precambrian granites and gneisses. Overlying the igneous rocks in the Bir Sahara region are Upper Cretaceous quartzitic sandstones of the Nubia Formation. The Quaternary deposits overlie a structural basin formed of Nubia Sandstone. The northeast corner of the Selima Sand Sheet contains a set of deational basins. The largest of these have been designated as Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara (Wendorf et al., 1993; Embabi, 1999). Comyn (1908) recorded the location of Bir Tarfawi (Terfaui) based on his traverse in 1906. The 1925 el Din expedition passed through Tarfaoui while traveling in southwest Egypt (Bovier-Lapierre, 1929). Ball (1927) noted the presence of sandhills covered with tamarisk bushes and surface water about 13 km west of Bir Tarfawi. Beadnell (1931) dug a well in 1927 that was designated as Bir el Sahara, about 35 km from the largest depression at Bir Tarfawi. Beadnell's map shows the presence of tamarisk in a northsouth elongated depression about 8 km from the locality designated as Bir Terfawi along the route to the well. Bagnold (1935, p. 121) also reported the presence of tamarisk cones west of Bir Terfawi. Beadnell's Bir el Sahara was situated about 15 km southwest of an elongated deational basin that contains some vegetation and a set of sedimentary remnants, designated as either Bir Sahara, Bir Sahara East, or Tarfawi West (Schild and Wendorf, 1975; Issawi, 1978; Schild and Wendorf, 1981; Klitzsch et al., 1987). The Egyptian Bedouin refer to this area as Bir Sahara. The lower part of the depression contains acacia and tamarisk associated with phytogenic dunes and surface water. This region was rst studied in 1973 and 1974 by the Combined Prehistoric Expedition. The Expedition documented the presence of

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251

Fig. 1. Map showing location of Bir Sahara in southern Egypt, northeast Africa.

Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic artifacts associated with lake and spring deposits (Wendorf and Schild, 1980; Schild and Wendorf, 1981). This region was reinvestigated in 19861988, leading to detailed geological, paleontological and archaeological studies (Wendorf et al., 1993). At the south end of the Bir Sahara depression there are a set of sedimentary remnants associated with Acheulian artifacts (Schild and Wendorf, 1981; Hill, 2001). To the north, a series of sedimentary remnants are associated with Middle Paleolithic artifacts. In this paper, the lithostratigraphic record from the northern section of the Bir Sahara depression is described and interpreted in terms of its implications for site formational processes of Middle Paleolithic archaeological occurrences, landscape evolution, and paleoclimates. Information obtained from eld and laboratory methods form the basis of the interpretations of the stratigraphic sequences at Bir Sahara. Geologic eld studies included the examination and description of natural exposures as well as trenches and bore-holes. The description and sampling procedure consisted of cleaning the prole, making a scale drawing of the stratigraphy (almost always at 1 mm = 1 cm, or 1:10 scale), noting the characteristics of the sedimentary deposits, and sampling (starting from the base of the sequence). The basic characteristics noted for each stratigraphic sequence were thickness of deposit, dominant color, state of coherence or cementation, prominent bedding and structures, nature of boundaries, a eld assessment of texture and composition, as well as fossil and artifactual content. Colors were determined on dry samples using color charts (Munsell, 1975). Textural and compositional analyses were undertaken using laboratory techniques that estimate particle size and relative amounts of siliciclastics, organics, and carbonates of the deposits (Folk, 1980; Singer and Janitsky, 1986; Lindholm, 1987; McManus, 1988; Gale and Hoare, 1991; Burt, 2004). For particle size analysis, sediments were pretreated to remove carbonates and organics, and a dispersal solution was added. Carbonates were removed using hydrochloric acid and organic matter was removed using hydrogen peroxide or sodium hypochlorite. The dispersal solution contained both sodium hexametaphosphate and sodium carbonate. Separation of coarse (gravel and sand) and ne (mud) fractions used wet sieving with a vacuum aspirator system, and size separation of the ne fraction used the pipette technique. Organic and carbonate content was determined using a loss on ignition procedure (Dean, 1974). Classications and interpretations of these data are based on principles outlined or

reviewed in Folk (1980), Lindholm (1987), Nichols (1999), Selley (2000), Cojan and Renard (2002), and Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2003); sediment size fraction designations are based on the Wentworth scale. 3. Results and analyses Three sets of stratigraphic sequences were studied. The results of laboratory studies are presented in Table 1. One sequence is represented by the sediments at Trench 14/88 (T-14/88). This trench is part of a transect in the northwestern section of the study area (Fig. 2). Another sequence is related to the archaeological assemblage at Bir Sahara site 11 (BS-11), situated in the south-central part of the study area. The third set of deposits is associated with archaeological occurrences at Egypt site 1988-11 (E-88-11), Bir Sahara site 1 (BS-1) and Bir Sahara site 12 (BS-12) on the southeast side of the study area. This study set also includes samples from Trench 4/88 and Trench 10/ 73 located on the southeast remnant (Table 1). Age estimates for some of these deposits are presented in Table 2. The sedimentary sequence in the northwest part of the study area is known from 22 stratigraphic trenches and 10 bore-holes placed over an 800 m transect. The sedimentology at T-14/88 provides a record of deposition near the center of a Pleistocene basin (Fig. 3). The lowest unit, documented only in boreholes, is a white (ca. N9 and 10YR 8/2) poorly sorted to very poorly sorted slightly gravelly quartz sand (samples 1b and 2b). This is overlain by a weakly cemented, yellow (2.5Y 8/6) very poorly sorted, mostly ne sand with some gravel and some carbonate concretions (sample 3b). The sand fraction is about 90% of the clastic component. The overlying unit consists of a weakly cemented, grayish brown (10YR 5/2) very poorly sorted muddy sand (sample 4b) that grades into a light brownish grey (10YR 6/2) calcic, slightly gravelly muddy sands (sample 5b). The upper section of this unit is composed of a white (2.5Y 8/0-2) limestone (sample 6) as well as lenses of carbonates, sands, and silts. The limestone is a carbonate mud; carbonate content is about 96% while the clastic component consists of 38% silt and 44% clay. Another set of sands overlie these deposits at T-14/88. The sediments are cemented (weakly coherent to strongly cemented), and either pale yellow (2.5Y 8/4) ne sand and mud (samples 7 and 8) or white to light gray (5Y 8/2 to 10YR 7/2) calcareous sand (sample 1t).

252 Table 1 Sedimentological data from northern Bir Sahara. Sample % % clastics number carbonate Gravel Very Coarse Medium Fine sand sand coarse sand sand T-14/88 012t 24.5 011t 36 010t 74 009t 25.5 008t 2 007t 63.5 006t 49.5 005t 27 004t 31 003t 92.5 002t 84.5 001t 27 006b 96.5 005b 6.5 004b 1 003b 0.5 002b 0.5 001b 0.2 BS-11 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 BS-12 1 2 3 4 1.39 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.2 0 0.02 0 1.01 0.99 4.88 1.33 0.56 1.58 0.71 0.44 0 0.02 0 0.15 1.79 1.27 13.21 0.89 9.02 13.37 28.16 22.45 0.84 8.36 5.57 4.74 10.7 9.49 2.28 1.11 0.87 1.35 5.35 8.28 37.3 0.22 6.58 7.78 13.3 11.9 11 17.91 14.13 13.44 28.88 38.26 12.53 2.17 2.33 4.52 14.29 26.76 28.49 3.05 14.52 16.25 12.73 15 34.93 26.06 20.34 19.77 30.3 29.82 10.26 3.09 2.04 5.11 16.07 17.19 12.12 5.98 19.19 21.83 18.21 20.92 29.63

C.L. Hill / Catena 78 (2009) 250259

Very ne sand 13.94 17.09 15.02 11.31 12.19 7.98 6.4 5.24 6.92 17.86 14.65 3 7.25 22.86 25.39 18.13 21.58 14.73

Silt

Clay

26.13 4.88 32.48 9.89 33.59 11.86 13.25 4.86 9.63 0.17 64.1 2.85 80.56 6.62 78.6 10.92 71.42 10.53 5.93 35.71 25.48 6.37 4.36 3.28 38.17 44.53 21.71 6.1 11.53 3.85 6.32 2.11 3.83 3.29 3.79 0.25

0.2 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 2 1 2

0.87 3.52 2.25 1 0.39 0.68 2.75 1.35 0.44 1.27 0

10.65 11.95 13.16 7.43 6.27 7.56 17.84 16.25 3.14 9.16 2.95

8.33 6.82 11.3 11.4 11.3 12.6 17.1 17.1 9.77 14.6 5.98

29.05 18.47 25.51 23.04 25.07 30.65 28.23 31.68 18.59 30.16 13.93

30.61 16.73 1.73 24.78 20.9 11.36 25.48 15.97 4.54 33.56 18.03 5.42 33.8 17.29 4.43 29.79 15.61 1.35 23.94 10 0.44 20.7 9.32 2.25 18.94 16.75 29.67 24.81 13.53 5.99 13.21 18.39 37.06

2.03 2.2 0.78 0.17 1.45 1.76 0.4 1.31 2.62 0.49 8.48

0.1 0.5 0.5 1

0 0 0 0

1.47 2.89 2.97 1.78

14.7 20.3 27.5 21.6

33.57 36.83 35.4 31.67

31.05 21.36 18.29 19.44

15.45 13.27 11.8 14.02

2.45 3.49 1.35 6.7

1.33 1.9 1.71 4.84

T-10/73 1 0.5 2 0.5 3 0.5 4 2.5 5 2.5 6 2 7 78.5 8 86.5 9 4.5 10 5.5 11 70.5 12 85 E-88-11 1 5 6 7 8 9

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.42 0 0 0

0.51 0.43 1.05 0.15 0 0.04 0 0.86 2.31 0.25 0 0

9.84 13 10.7 2.23 0.15 1 1.62 1.54 2.5 0.99 0.68 1.08

37.66 40.66 25.93 5.94 0.87 1.57 3.24 1.36 2.67 3.11 1.03 1.19

26.97 17.13 28.04 14.87 43.35 10.87 4.46 9.66 2.18 9.45 3.84 12.1 4.87 14.59 5.99 20.53 3.03 7.85 4.23 13.56 5.48 20.55 4.32 16.2

7.64 3.37 2.62 66.9 82.8 70.49 48.65 42.77 67.73 67.79 50.06 53.99

0.25 0.21 5.44 10.7 4.51 11 27 26.9 7.49 10.07 22.6 23.22

0.5 0.5 1 2 20.5 10.5

0 0.11 1.56 0 0 0

1.44 2.59 11.12 0.93 1.68 2.06

16.7 18.3 23.6 15 10.5 9.42

38.45 38.79 30.25 34.84 30.67 22.84

24.66 13.63 23.74 12.24 17.26 10.3 22.38 10.9 21.31 13.56 28.26 14.19

2.95 2.58 3.66 15.36 15.59 14.19

2.22 1.67 2.24 0.58 6.74 7.1

E-88-1 (T-4/88) 1 0 2 0.5 3 1.5 4 4.5 5 4 6 3.5 7 14.5 8 61 9 35 10 3.5

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1.82 1.75 0.84 0.15 0.61 0.21 1.57 1.67 0 5.08

20.1 21 7.55 3.41 1.92 2.08 1.57 11.2 0.2 24.4

38.98 32.25 13.41 5.54 3.27 4.31 16.53 15.03 11.24 21.38

24.09 25.36 9.33 5.68 3.97 4.69 14.78 10.5 63.71 22.54

14.55 12.09 11.22 13.2 12.94 12.83 18 18.62 24.85 15.73

0 0.45 7.5 0 37.73 19.92 67.85 4.17 44.81 32.65 59.96 16.16 35.71 2.94 42.96 0 0 0 8.46 2.45

The detrital component is 92% quartz sand and 8% mud, while carbonate is about 27%. There are two luminescence ages from this deposit at T-14/88 (Wendorf et al., 1994). These age estimates are centered on 291,000 and 71,000 years ago. The sands underlie a sequence of white (ca. N9 to 10YR 7/2) sandy limestone or marl (samples 2t and 3t). The carbonate content is 8491%. The clastic component is very poorly sorted muddy sand (mostly medium to very ne sand). These are overlain by marl or calcareous mud deposits containing 2730% carbonate and 7080% silt in the clastic component (samples 4t and 5t). The lower section is strongly cemented, white to light gray (10YR 8-7/2) while the top is weakly cemented and white (5Y 8/2). An erosional surface separates these deposits from a weakly cemented, white (5Y 8/2) to pale olive (5Y 6/4) marlstone or calcareous silt. Clastic and carbonate proportions are about equal, with silt composing over 80% of the clastic component (sample 6t). A slightly cemented to very strongly cemented, cellular, white (10YR 8/2) muddy limestone or marl (sample 7t) lies above. It contains abut 63% carbonate and the clastic component is mostly silt. Sand forms over 90% of the overlying unit (sample 8t). It is an uncemented, very pale brown to light gray (10YR 7/3-2) calcic, poorly sorted sand. At T-14/88, two luminescence ages centered on 84,000 and 114,000 years ago are available for this sand (Wendorf et al., 1994). An erosional surface separates this from the overlying deposit. Above this unconformity, sediments contain Melanoides tuberculata, Gyraulus costlatus, and Biomphalaria alexandria. Carbonate content is as high as 74% in the overlying pinkish light grey (5YR 7/2) sandy limestone (sample 10t). Melanoides is also present in white (5YR 8/1) to grayish brown (10YR 5/2) marl or calcareous sand (sample 11t). Carbonate is about 36% and nearly 70% of the clastic component is ne sand to silt. The top of the sequence consists of a dark reddish gray (5YR 4/2) calcareous sand (sample 12t); carbonate content is about 24%. Deposits above these sediments at an adjacent trench (Trench 15/88, Fig. 2) have been dated to around 56,000 years ago (Wendorf et al., 1994). BS-11 is situated in the south-central section of the study area (Fig. 2). The lowest deposits consist of white to yellow (10YR 8/1 and 2.5Y 8/6), slightly gravelly sand or slightly gravelly, muddy sand (Fig. 4, samples 13). The upper surface of this sand is an erosional surface. These sands are overlain by a cross-bedded, uncemented to weakly cemented, light grey (10YR 7/1) slightly gravelly sand (samples 58). The sand contains Middle Paleolithic artifacts. The bedding consists of concave laminations which dip towards the northwest. These deposits are interpreted as reecting a lake margin setting consisting of either beach or dune sands. The slight increase in coarse sand and mean particle size may indicate that these deposits were formed by an encroaching beach or regressing lake margin. A darker colored deposit, consisting of slightly gravelly sand or slightly gravelly muddy sand (samples 9, 10), also contains some artifacts in its lower section. The sand is variable in color, ranging from gray, grayish brown to yellow brown (10YR 5/1-3) to dark grayish brown (10YR 4/3). The detrital component is composed of 6795% sand. Vertical and horizontal carbonate cemented tubes might be biogenic in origin (rhizoconcretions). The dark color of this deposit appears to reect the presence of secondary manganese. The overlying deposits seem to be linked to an increase in moisture. They consist of a light grey to brownish yellow (10YR 7/16/8), slightly gravelly sand to poorly sorted muddy sand (samples 11 and 12). These deposits appear to reect short-term intervals of lake transgression and regression. Lithied limestones (platey and spongy evaporates of Schild and Wendorf, 1981) containing fossilized reed stems overlie this sequence. Uranium series ages on these carbonates have large standard deviations but are centered on 381,000 307,000 years ago (Wendorf et al., 1994). Pleistocene sediments are also exposed to the east of BS-11. The eastern sedimentary remnant has been extensively studied primarily in conjunction with the excavation of Middle Paleolithic archaeological occurrences at sites E-88-11, BS-1, and BS-12 (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Map of study area, northern Bir Sahara (data source: Wendorf et al., 1993). There are three areas that contain surface exposures of Pleistocene lake-related sediments. Trench 14/88 (T-14/88) and Trench 15/88 (T-15/88) are situated in the northwest part of the study area. The sequence at BS-11 is covered by limestones in the central part of the area. The sedimentary remnant on the east side of the study area contains strata associated with Sites BS-12, BS-1, and E-88-11. The excavation and trench locations in the E-88-11 area are also depicted.

Sedimentological studies of some of these deposits were previously conducted by Kossakowaska-Such and Wesolowsk (Schild and Wendorf, 1981). Fig. 5 provides a cross-section for the north part of the remnant in the vicinity of E-88-11. At Site E-88-11 (Fig. 6) most of the sediments are composed of coarse clastics (samples 17). For example, the artifact-bearing zone is mostly sand with some gravel (sample 6). The sands are laminated, uncemented, very pale brown (10YR 7/4), and contain trace fossils. These seem to be lake margin deposits. Trace fossils at the artifact zone may represent an interval of stabilization by vegetation. The sands above this horizon have an optical luminescence age centered on 104,000 years ago (Wendorf et al.,

1994). The upper deposits contain increased amounts of carbonate and mud, which appear to reect the onset of a wet interval. To the east, at Trench 4-88 (T-4/88), Middle Paleolithic artifacts are also found within sands (Fig. 7, samples 1 and 2). The lower section of these sands is a massive, weakly cemented, white (10YR 8/ 2), poorly sorted sand (sample 1). Loose to weakly coherent, mottled white (10YR 8/2) to yellow (10YR 7/6) sediments above this are composed of poorly sorted sands (sample 2). These deposits are overlain at T-4/88 by a sequence that is initially characterized by an increase in silt and clay (ne siliciclastics, samples 37) and then by high amounts of carbonate (sample 8). The lowest

Table 2 Chronometric measurements from the north area of Bir Sahara. Location Tr. 14/88 (T-14/88), Unit 4 Tr. 14/88 (T-14/88), Unit 4 Tr. 14/88 (T-14/88), Unit 6 Tr. 14/88 (T-14/88), Unit 6 Tr. 15/88 (T-15/88), above Unit 7 at 14/88 BS-11, limestone overlying sequence BS-11, limestone overlying sequence E-88-11, Unit 1, above main artifact zone E-88-11, Unit 2 E-88-11, Unit 3 E-88-11, Unit 3 E-88-11, Unit 3 BS-12, Tr. 5/73 (T-5/73), Unit 1 BS-1, Unit 2 BS-1, Unit 2 BS-1, Tr. 7/73 (T-7/73), Unit 4 Data source: Wendorf et al. (1994). Age 291 71.1 114 84 55.9 381 339 103.9 203 257 148 307 84 105.4 108.6 105 Plus 65 2.8 9.8 91 17.3 96 156 9.5 71 171 60 110 10 10.5 10.6 15 Minus 65 6 11.2 91 14.1 96 156 13.2 71 171 60 110 10 10.5 10.6 15 Sample no. GdTL-200 OXOD748(S)-3a OXOD748(S)-3 GdTL-201 OXOD748(S)-4 87BSH-11 87BSH-12 OXOD748(S)-2 87BHS-13 87BSH-10:2 87BSH-10:1 87BSH-7 GdTL-164 OXTL506a OXTL506b GdTL-166 Material Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Carbonate Carbonate Sand Carbonate Marl Marl Limestone Sand Burned Silt Burned Silt Sand Method TL Optical Optical TL Optical U-Series U-Series Optical U-Series U-Series U-Series U-Series TL TL TL TL

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Fig. 3. Trench 14/88 (T-14/88) sedimentology. Sample numbers designate location of samples from trench and borehole. Three pluvial events dating to OIS 5 or earlier appear to be represented by the stratigraphic sequence.

part of this sequence is composed of pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4) ne and very ne sand and mud (sample 3). This is overlain by a 2 cm thick, very weakly cemented, reddish yellow (5YR 6/6) sandy silt (sample 4). A weakly cemented, light gray (5Y 7/2) sandy mudstone (sample 5) above this contains high amounts of silt and clay. An uncemented to weakly cemented deposit containing over 60% silt (sample 6) is also present. The overlying sediment shows an increase in carbonate to around 15% with almost twice as much sand as mud (sample 7). Carbonates from this set of deposits have provided a U-series measurement with a large standard deviation centered on 203,000 years ago (Wendorf et al., 1994). A white (10YR 8/2) cemented carbonate interbedded with thin lenses of sands and silts (sample 8) appears to signal a major lake expansion, and perhaps seasonal expansion and contraction of a pe-

rennial lake. Three U-series measurements suggest that these carbonates may range in age from about 307,000 to 148,000 years ago, although they are associated with large standard deviations (Wendorf et al., 1994). The top of the section shows an increase in coarse clastics (70% sand), reecting a lake regression interval. A similar pattern is reected at BS-1 and BS-12 (Fig. 8). At both of these localities sandy deposits containing artifacts are overlain by deposits composed of high amounts of carbonates or ne siliciclastics, apparently formed as a result of a wet climate and the presence of a lake. Luminescence ages for the sand deposits range from about 109,000 to 84,000 years ago (Wendorf et al., 1994). The sediments associated with the paleolake can be subdivided into ve major lithofacies. One facies coincides with the initial presence of moisture, perhaps related to rising ground water and the development

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Fig. 4. Bir Sahara site 11 (BS-11) sedimentology. Dark circles with white numbers show location of sediment samples. Paleolithic artifacts are found under strata that reect a transgressive lake event, as indicated by ne siliciclastics. These strata are elsewhere overlain by limestones.

of hydromorphic conditions within sands. The presence of running water during the beginning of a wet climate interval is suggested by a second facies consisting of redeposited sands, basin wash sands, and foredune and lake margin deposits, perhaps before the presence of substantial vegetation around the periphery of the basin could reduce erosion. This lithofacies is characterized by high amounts of coarse clastics. A third lithofacies is characterized by episodic deposition of high frequencies of muds. This lithofacies appears to reect low energy sedimentation within an overall expanding playa-lake setting. A larger,

possibly perennial lake is reected by a fourth lithofacies characterized by high amounts of carbonates. Finally, a fth lithofacies consisting of clastics interbedded with carbonates and duricrusts appears to reect drier conditions associated with uctuating water levels, perhaps on a seasonal basis. In the BS-12 area (Fig. 9), the hydromorphic deposit contains high amounts of very ne sand and higher amounts of silt and clay (Trench 10/73, sample 1). A slight transgressive phase is reected in the increase in clay content in overlying deposits (samples 2 and 3). Above

Fig. 5. Stratigraphic cross-section in the vicinity of Egypt site 1988-11 (E-88-11). Paleolithic artifacts are found in sands (unit 1). These sands are overlain by strata formed by an episode of wetter climate (compare detailed sedimentology depicted in Figs. 6 and 7).

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Fig. 6. Egypt site 1988-11 (E-88-11) sedimentology. Dark circles with white numbers show location of sediment samples.

this, sediments contain 45 times as much carbonate, and also show a change in the ratio of coarse to ne clastics (samples 4 and 5). Throughout the sequence there is a trend towards increased mud and carbonate, indicating an expanding lake. Clay peaks within the sequence may hint at the presence of several transgressive episodes.

4. Discussion and conclusions The sedimentology of Pleistocene stratigraphic sequences at Bir Sahara provides information useful in examining the environmental contexts and site formational processes associated with several Middle

Fig. 7. Trench 4/88 (T-4/88) sedimentology, east of E-88-11.

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Fig. 8. Bir Sahara site 1 (BS-1) and Bir Sahara site 12 (BS-12) stratigraphic cross-section (data source: Wendorf and Schild, 1980). Luminescence measurements from these strata imply the sequence was formed during OIS 5.

Paleolithic localities. In addition, the stratigraphic sequences appear to document changes that can be examined in the context of broader climate events and landscape evolution. The deposits at BS-11 contain a set of artifacts assigned to the Middle Paleolithic or Mousterian (Wendorf and Schild, 1980). Along with retouched akes (mostly denticulates and notches), the collection includes Levallois akes, cores, and debitage. The sands containing artifacts show a slight coarsening upward trend; these appear to be eolian or beach-margin sediments associated with a lake regression. They are overlain by sediments interpreted associated with a subsequent lake event. The horizontal spatial distribution of artifacts from BS-11 (Wendorf et al., 1993) does not appear to show any substantial redistribution based on the size of the artifacts. The stratigraphic sequence at BS-11 is overlain by limestones associated with

a lake transgression and associated with U-series age estimates of around 381,000 to 339,000 years ago (Table 2). At the eastern remnant, Middle Paleolithic artifacts at E-88-11, BS-1, and BS-12 are found in sands that underlie evidence of a major lake event. At BS-12, Middle Paleolithic artifacts were recovered embedded within dark, manganese-enriched sands. Trace fossil horizons occur at BS-1, E-88-11, and BS-12. Some of these trace fossil horizons may be the result of aquatic macrophytes and other biologic activity (such as burrowing animals) within the deposits of shallow lake margins (Klappa, 1980; Cohen, 1982; Mount and Cohen, 1984). Some may also be the result of vegetation on the edges of water basins and nearby eolian deposits (Glennie and Evamy, 1968; Plaziat and Mahmondi, 1990). Artifacts were found embedded in these deposits at E-88-11 and BS-1. From a paleogeographic perspective,

Fig. 9. Bir Sahara site 12 (BS-12) area sedimentology. Dark circles with white numbers show location of sediment samples. The sediments dominated by siliciclastics at BS-12 contain Middle Paleolithic artifacts. At Trench 10/73 (T-7/73) the sediments dominated by sands are overlain by a stratigraphic sequence indicating a transgressive lake event (higher silts, clays, and carbonates).

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Fig. 10. Age measurements from Bir Sahara compared to broader scale patterns of global climate change. The episodes of lake transgression and regression indicated by the sedimentary sequences appear to coincide with OIS 5 or older climate events (see Table 2). The sediments indicate the episodic presence of landscapes inhabitable by hominids possibly as early as OIS 11.

the trace fossil horizons imply stabilized land surfaces. Artifacts embedded in these horizons may have been vertically displaced by bioturbation. At trenches east of E-88-11 artifacts are found in redeposited sands underlying lake muds and limestones. If the trace fossil horizon at E-88-11 represents the stabilization of the sand substrate by vegetation cover, perhaps around the margin of an emergent groundwater marsh setting, then the interval of Middle Paleolithic presence at this locality may be related to this environmental context. The possibility of a short erosion and deposition interval is indicated by a subtle unconformity at the top of the artifact zone. This truncated surface is marked by a peak in the frequency of very coarse sand within the site's stratigraphic sequence (sample 6). The presence of artifacts within this boundary argues for the possibility that the horizontal spatial pattern may be partially a function of geologic structuring. The artifact zone at the site is 10 to 30 cm thick; artifacts are embedded in sands below the trace fossil horizon and within the horizon. The vertical distribution of these artifacts may have been rearranged by bioturbation. Sediments composed of high amounts of mud may have formed as a result of deposition of suspended particles away from the margin of the basin and nearer the center of the playa or lake basin. The relationship between the ratios of coarse to ne clastics and silt to clay can be used to evaluate the relative energy regime at the locality of deposition. The relationship is also reected in the graphic mean statistic, where the smaller mean grain size (or a larger mean phi index) implies a lower depositional regime and more distance from the basin margin. The depositional setting associated with the biochemical precipitation of carbonate within a lake basin is similar to the setting associated with ne clastics. Limestones and marls are generally deposited in quiet, low energy settings except for some types of traverties and tufas. The T-14/88 depositional sequence provides direct evidence of three major lake events within the same basin (Fig. 3). The depositional cycles are broadly similar. Within any episode there is a decrease in coarse siliciclastics relative to ne clastics. Increasing proportions of mud and carbonate content reect lake expansions. A similar pattern occurs at the other localities that were examined. The sedimentary rem-

nants in the south part of the study area appear to reect sedimentological variations associated with a single drywetdry hydrologic cycle. The timing of the wetter hydrologic conditions at Bir Sahara can be estimated based on luminescence and U-series ages. Because of the large standard deviations associated with the chronometric measurements (Table 2), these events cannot be assigned precise ages or correlated with a high degree of condence. These chronometric analyses suggest that the wet episodes could date to the late Middle and early Late Pleistocene (Fig. 10). The Bir Sahara strata can be compared to other regional evidence for climate and hydrologic change. Using Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data, Ghoneim and El-Baz (2007) have proposed the presence of a large drainage system in southwest Egypt activated by wet climate episodes. This drainage system owed eastward from the highlands in western Egypt and northern Sudan and is considered to have formed the largest paleo-lake in Egypt at Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara. This model may provide a mechanism for the presence for the hydrologic conditions documented at Bir Sahara. The age determinations from Bir Sahara (Table 2) can be compared to other chronometric analyses on sediments from this region of southern Egypt and Sudan as well as deposits studied to the north such as at Kurkur Oasis and Kharga Oasis. In the vicinity of Bir Sahara and Bir Tarfawi, limestones and marls have been dated to N 350,000, and around 277,000, 233,000, 155,000, and 45,000 years ago (Szabo et al., 1989; Szabo et al., 1995). Other U-series ages from localities in southern Egypt and northern Sudan indicate paleolake episodes dating from about 320,000 to 250,000, 240,000 to 190,000, 155,000 to 120,000, and 90,000 to65,000 years ago (Szabo et al., 1995). The most precise ages from Bir Tarfawi, based on thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) U-series analyses of ostrich egg-shell fragments, have a range from about 137,000 to 126,000 years ago (Schwartz, 1992). These imply the presence of pluvial conditions during marine oxygen isotope stage (OIS) 6 and OIS 5. At Kurkur Oasis, U-series dating of travertines suggest the presence of humid intervals at greater than 260,000, 220,000 to 191,000, and 160,000 to 70,000 years ago which have been linked to increased precipitation as a consequence of insolation forcing and enhanced Atlantic and Indian monsoons (Crombie et al., 1997). From Kharga Oasis, U-series determinations on tufa of greater than 450,000, and centered on 286,000 to 272,000, 185,000, and 45,000 years ago (Sultan et al., 1997; Hamdan et al., 1999) have been linked to local rainfall under cool, wet climates. Precise U-series ages of spring-deposited carbonates at Kharga ranging from about 137,000 to 114,00 years ago have been related to Middle Paleolithic artifacts and humid conditions related to late OIS 6 and OIS 5 (Smith et al., 2007). Osmand and Dabous (2003) suggested that U-series measurements indicated pluvial conditions occurred during OIS 6, OIS 5 and OIS 4. The episodes of lake expansion and regression at Bir Sahara described in this paper suggest the presence of habitable landscapes from around 400,000 years ago until after 100,000 years ago, corresponding to uctuating global climates between OIS 11-OIS 3 (Fig. 10). The sequence of three wet-episodes at T-14/88 indicate habitable conditions probably during OIS 5, although a TL age from unit 4 (Table 2) would imply that the underling pluvial deposits (unit 3, samples 5b and 6b) are related to OIS 9 or an older climate event. The two U-series measurements of limestone stratigraphically overlying the BS-11 sequence (Table 2, Fig. 10) also would suggest the presence of pluvial conditions before or during OIS 9. The luminescence measurements from the strata at the sedimentary remnant containing BS1, BS-12, and E-88-11 are associated with OIS 5. If this is so, they may reect environmental conditions contemporaneous with the pluvial episodes at T-14/88. The U-series measurements from this sedimentary remnant suggest the occurrence of older pluvial events, from OIS 9-6 (Fig. 10). Regardless of the exact timing of the wet climate events, stratigraphic and sedimentologic evidence from Bir Sahara provides

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documentation of environmental change and geohydrologic events that could help explain human migration out of Africa during the Middle and Late Pleistocene (Van Peer, 1998; Clark et al., 2003; Derricourt, 2005; Vaks et al., 2007). Wet climate intervals may be connected with habitable landscapes and migrations into the Sahara, while arid conditions may have motivated human groups to move out of the region. Thus, the changing environments and landscapes documented at Bir Sahara may help to explain Pleistocene human migrations into and out of North Africa. Acknowledgments Field research was conducted as a member of the Combined Prehistoric Expedition, under the leadership of Fred Wendorf and Romuald Schild. I am especially grateful to Roman Schild for the opportunity to conduct sedimentological studies of the strata from Bir Sahara; this research builds on his geologic studies in the region. Laboratory studies were conducted at the University of Minnesota's Archaeometry Laboratory, directed by Rip Rapp. This research was supported by National Science Foundation grants BNS-8415650, BNS8518574, and BNS-8718908 to Fred Wendorf as well as funds from Sigma Xi, the Scientic Research Society. Thanks to Cheryl Lynn Wofford Hill for the preparation of gures and tables. References
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