Introduction To Vibration Monitoring (Compatibility Mode)

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin
Vibration monitoring
Assoc Prof Assoc. Prof. Dr Dr. Pelin Gundes Bakir
Istanbul Tecnical University
g gundesbakir@yahoo.com @y
References
Pete Avitable Avitables s web page http://faculty.uml.edu/pavitabile/22.515/ME22515_PDF_downloads.htm Safak E., Structural monitoring, what is it, why is it done, how is it done, and what is it worth?,Sixth worth? Sixth National Conference on Earthquake Engineering Engineering, 16 16-20 20 October 2007, Istanbul, Turkey Celebi M. Seismic instrumentation of buildings, USGS Open-File Report 00-157, 2000. 2000 Heylen W., Lammens S. And Sas P., Modal Analysis Theory and Testing, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1997. Ewins D.J., Modal Testing, Theory, Practice, and Application (Mechanical Engineering Research Studies Engineering Design Series), Research Studies Pre; 2 edition ( (August g 2001) ) ISBN-13: 978-0863802188 Maia, N. M. M. and Silva, J. M. M.Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis Research Studies Press Ltd,, Hertfordshire, 1997, 488 pp.,ISBN 0863802087
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Vibration based structural health monitoring
The aim Th i of f vibration ib ti monitoring it i is i to t describe d ib a structure t t in i terms t of f its it modal parameters which are the frequency, damping and mode shapes. If we explain modal analysis in terms of the modes of vibration of a simple plate:
Suppose we apply a sinusoidal force. We will change the rate of oscillation of the frequency but the peak force will always be the same. We will also measure the th response of f the th plate l t due d t to the th excitation it ti with ith an accelerometer attached to one corner of the plate.
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If we measure the th response of f the th plate, we will notice that the amplitude changes as we change the rate of oscillation of the input force. There will be increases as well as decreases in amplitude at different points as we sweep in time. ti The response amplifies as we apply l af force with ith a rate t of f oscillation that gets closer and closer to the natural frequency (or resonant frequency) of the system and reaches a maximum when the rate of oscillation is at the resonant frequency of the system.
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Modal analysis
The time Th i data d provides id very useful f li information. f i B But if we take k the h time data and transform it to the frequency domain using the Fast Fourier Transform then we can compute something called the frequency response function. Now, there are some very interesting items to note. We see that there are peaks in this function which occur at the resonant frequencies of the system. Now, we notice that these peaks occur at frequencies where the time response was observed to have maximum response corresponding to the rate of oscillation of the input excitation.
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Modal analysis
Now, if we overlay N l the h time i trace with i h the h f frequency trace what h we will notice is that the frequency of oscillation at the time at which the time trace reaches its maximum value corresponds to the frequency where peaks in the frequency response function reach a maximum. So we can see that we can either use the time trace to determine the frequency at which the maximum amplitude increases occur or the frequency response function to determine where these natural f frequencies i occur. Clearly Cl l th the f frequency response f function ti i is easier i to evaluate.
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The figure shows the deformation patterns that will result when the excitation coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system.
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We see that when we dwell at the first natural frequency, q y there is a first bending deformation pattern in the plate shown in blue. When we dwell at the second natural frequency, there is a first twisting deformation pattern in plate shown in red. the p
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When we dwell at the third and fourth natural frequencies, q , the second bending g and second twisting deformation patterns are seen in green and magenta, respectively. These deformation patterns are referred to as the mode shapes of the structure.
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Now these natural frequencies and mode shapes occur in all structures that we design. Basically, there are characteristics that depend on the weight and stiffness of my structure which determine where these natural frequencies and mode shapes will exist exist. As a design engineer, I need to identify these frequencies and know how they y might g affect the response p of my y structure when a force excites the structure. Understanding the mode shape and how the structure will vibrate when excited helps the design engineer to design better structures structures. Now we can better understand what modal analysis is all about-it is the study of the natural characteristics of structures. Both the natural frequency and mode shape (which depends on the mass and stiffness distributions in my structure) are used to help design my structural applications.
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How many points are enough for a vibration measurement?

For a total F l of f 45 measurement points i , we can see that h there h are sufficient number of points to describe the mode shape for each mode.
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How many yp points are enough g for a vibration measurement?

For a total of 5 measurement points along one edge of the plate, if we compare mode 1 and 3, we see that there are not enough points to adequately describe the mode shape for each mode. The same conclusion can be drawn from the comparison of modes 2 and 4 4.
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If we increase the number of measurement points to 15, we see that the modes can be measured well only if the measurement points are selected with care care. If we select the points as shown in the figure, then it will be very hard to distinguish between modes 1 and 3. The mode shapes look almost the same.
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If we only take measurements along the front and back edges of the plate, then it would be very hard to distinguish between the first rigid body mode and the first flexural mode.
From all these simple examples above, it becomes obvious that we need a distribution of points located appropriately such that each mode shape can be uniquely distinguished.

If I am only interested in characterizing modes 1 and 2, then possibly I could get a fairly good decription with only 6 points as shown but fewer p points than that would be difficult especially p y if we needed to distingish the flexible modes from the rigid body modes.
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If the only accessible surfaces are the 3 exterior surfaces surfaces, and we can not get any measurement from inside, modes 2 and 4 or modes 5 and 6 can not be distinguished. The second storey beams are in phase for these two modes but the first storey beams are out of phase.
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What is the difference between time domain and the frequency domain and the modal space?
First lets consider a simple cantilever beam and imagine that the beam is excited by a pulse at the tip of the beam. The response at the tip of the beam will contain the response of f all ll th the modes d of f th the system t (shown in the black time response plot); notice that there appears to response at se several eral different frequencies.
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The time response at the tip of the beam can be converted to the frequency domain by performing a Fourier Transform of the signal. Th frequency The f domain d i representation of this converted time signal is often referred to as the frequency response function function, or FRF for short (shown in the black frequency plot); notice that there are peaks in the plot which correspond to the natural frequencies of the system.
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We know that the cantilever beam will have many natural frequencies of vibration. At each of these natural frequencies, the structural deformation will take on a very definite pattern, called a mode shape. For this beam, we see that there is a first bending mode shown in blue, a second bending mode shown in red, and a third bending mode shown in green. Of course there are also other higher modes not shown but only three modes will be discussed here.
Now, the physical beam could also be evaluated using an analytical lumped mass model or finite element model (shown in black in the upper right part of the figure). figure) This model will generally be evaluated using some set of equations where there is an interrelationship, or coupling, between the different points, or degrees of freedom used to model the structure. This means you pull on one of the dofs in the model, the other dofs are also affected and also move.
This coupling means that the equations are more complicated in order to determine how the system behaves. As the number of equations used to describe the system get larger and larger, larger the complication in the equations become more involved. We often use matrices to help p organize g all of the equations of motion describing how the system behaves which looks like:
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Usually, the mass is a diagonal matrix and the damping and the stiffness matrices are symmetric with off-diagonal terms indicating the degree of coupling between the different equations or dofs describing the system. The size of the matrices depend on the number of equations that we e use se to describe o our rs system. stem
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Mathematically, we perform something called an eigensolution and use the modal transformation equation to convert these coupled equations into a set of uncoupled single degree of freedom systems described by diagonal matrices of modal mass mass, modal damping and modal stiffness in a new coordinate system called modal space described as:
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We can see that the transformation from physical space to modal space using the modal transformation equation is a process whereby we convert a complicated set of coupled physical equations into a set of simple uncoupled single dof systems.
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And we see in the figure that the analytical model can be broken down into a set of single dof systems where the single dof describing mode 1 is shown in blue, mode 2 is shown in red and mode 3 is shown in green. Modal space allows us to describe the system easily using simple single dof s systems. stems
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Now lets go back to the time and frequency responses shown in black We know that the total black. response can be obtained from the contribution of each of the modes The total response shown modes. in black comes from the summation of the effects of the response p of the model shown in blue for mode 1, red for mode 2, and green for mode 3. This applies pp whether I describe the system in the time domain or the frequency domain. Each domain is equivalent and just presents the data from a different viewpoint.
So we can see that the total time response is made up of the time response due to the contribution of the time response of mode 1 shown in blue, mode 2 in red and mode 3 in green green. We can also see that the total FRF is made up of the part of the FRF due to the contribution of the FRF of mode 1 shown in blue, mode 2 in red and mode 3 in green.
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Please note that we have only shown the magnitude part of the FRF here, here this function is actually complex which is correctly displayed using both magnitude and phase or real and imaginary parts of the FRF. Since we can break the analytical model up into a set of single dof systems, we could determine the FRF for each of the single dof systems as shown with mode 1 in blue, mode 2 in red, and mode 3 in green.
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We could also determine the time response for each of these single dof systems due to the pulse input Or we could simply inverse Fourier transform the FRF for each of the single dof systems systems. Or we could also measure the response of the beam at the tip due to the pulse and filter the response of each modes of the system, and we we would see the response of each of the modes of the system with mode 1 in blue, mode 2 in red, and mode 3 in green green.
As a result, we see that there is no difference between the time domain frequency domain , modal domain, space and physical space. Each domain is just a convenient way for presenting or viewing the data data. However, sometimes one domain is much easier to see things than another domain. domain For instance instance, the total time response does not clearly identify how many modes there are contributing to the response of the beam.
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But the total FRF in the frequency domain is much clearer in showing how many modes are activated and the frequency of each of the modes. modes So often, we transform one d domain i t to another th d domain i simply i l because the data is much easier to interpret.
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Single degree of freedom systems
System equation and transfer function

The force equilibrium for a viscously damped SDOF structure:
&(t ) + Cx & (t ) + Kx(t ) = f (t ) M& x

Transforming this time domain equation into the Laplace domain:
( Mp 2 + Cp + K ) X ( p ) = F ( p ) or Z ( p) X ( p) = F ( p)
where Z is the dynamic stiffness. Inverting Z gives the transfer function:
H ( p) =
1/ M X ( p) = 2 F ( p ) p + (C / M ) p + ( K / M )
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System poles, natural frequencies, damping ratios

Th d The denominator i t of f th the equation ti
H ( p) =
X ( p) 1/ M = 2 F ( p ) p + (C / M ) p + ( K / M )
is referred to as the system characteristic equation. Its roots are called the system poles which are given by:
1, 2 = (C / 2M ) (C / 2M ) 2 ( K / M )
If there h is i no damping, d i the h system under d consideration id i i is a conservative i system (C=0).The undamped natural frequency (rad/s) is then defined as:
1 = K / M
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System poles poles, natural frequencies, damping ratios

The critical damping Cc is the damping value that makes the term under the square root of the equation
1, 2 = (C / 2M ) (C / 2 M ) 2 ( K / M )
equal to zero:
Cc = 2 M K / M
Fraction of critical damping or damping ratio is:
1 = C / Cc
The first equation yields in the time domain a solution to the homogeneous system equation: 1t 2 t
x(t ) = x1e + x2 e
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System poles poles, natural frequencies, damping ratios

Depending on the value of the damping ratio, the systems are classified as overdamped (1>1), critically damped (1=1) or underdamped (1<1) systems. The response of overdamped systems consist of a decay only. They have no tendency to oscillation. The response of underdamped systems is a decaying oscillation. Critically damped systems form the border case between over and underdamped systems. For real world systems, the damping ratio is rarely larger than ten percent unless the system contains some active damping mechanisms. Here only the underdamped case will be considered.
System poles poles, natural frequencies, q damping p g ratios

The equation
1, 2 = (C / 2M ) (C / 2M ) 2 ( K / M )
Yields two complex conjugate roots
1 = 1 + j1
1* = 1 j1
Where 1 is the damping factor and 1 is the damped natural frequency
1 = ( 1 + j 1 12 )1
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Residues
With the knowledge g of the equation q
1 = 1 + j1
the equation for the transfer function
H ( p) =
1* = 1 j1
becomes:
X ( p) 1/ M = 2 F ( p ) p + (C / M ) p + ( K / M )
H ( p) =
1/ M ( p 1 )( p * ) 1
Applying the theory of partial fraction expansion yields:
A1* A1 H ( p) = + * ( p 1 ) ( p 1 )
In this formula A1 and A1* are the residues.
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with A1 =
1/ M j 21
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Frequency response function

The previous section discussed the relation between input (force) and output (displacement) of a single degree of freedom system in the Laplace domain. This relation can also be expressed in the frequency domain. The transfer function evaluated along the frequency axis (j) is called the frequency response function (FRF).
H ( p)
p = j
A1* A1 = H ( ) = + * ( j 1 ) ( j 1 )
The FRF is a subset of the transfer function. The contribution of the complex conjugate part (or negative frequency part) is negligible around resonance Therefore resonance. Therefore, the FRF for SDOF system is often approximated by:
A1 H ( ) = ( j 1 )
Impulse response function

Inverse Laplace transforming the expression for the transfer function
H ( p)
p = j
A1* A1 = H ( j ) = + * ( j 1 ) ( j 1 )
* t * 1
yields the expression in the time domain: the impulse response function.
h(t ) = A1e + A1 e
1t
= e 1t ( A1e j1t + A1*e j1t )
The residue A1 is the real part of the pole which defines the initial amplitude 1 is the imaginary part of the pole which defines the decay rate amplitude, and 1 is the frequency of oscillation. The impulse Th i l response of f a system t is i th the system t response t to a Dirac Di impulse at time t=0.
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Multi degree of freedom systems
System equation and the transfer function The Th equation ti of f motion ti is: i
&}+ [C ]{x &}+ [ K ]{x} = { f } [ M ]{& x
If we transform this time domain equation into the Laplace domain (variable p), assuming the initial displacements and velocities are zero yields:
[Z ( p)]{X ( p)} = {F ( p)}
( p 2 [M ] + p[C ] + [K ]){X ( p )} = {F ( p )}
where [Z(p)] is the dynamic stiffness matrix. The inverse of [Z(p)] is [H(p)]
{X ( p)} = [H ( p)]{F ( p)}

System equation and the transfer function

Standard calculus proves that the inverse of a matrix can be calculated from its adjoint matrix:
[H ( p)] = [Z ( p)]
adj[Z ( p )] = Z ( p)
Where adj([Z(p)]) is the adjoint matrix of [Z(p)] which can be expressed as.
adj ([ Z ( p )]) = [ ij Z ij ]t Z ij : the determinant of [ Z ( p)], without row i and column j
ij = 1, if i + j is even; = -1 if i + j is odd
Z ( p ) : the determinant of [ Z ( p)]
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System equation and the transfer function

The frequency response function can be written as:
[ H ( p )] p = j = [ H ( j )] =
k =1
* [ Ak ] [ Ak ] + ( j k ) ( j * k)
The individual term can be written as:
hij ( j ) =
k =1
aijk ( j k )
aijk
( j * k)
hij() means a particular output response at point i due to an input force at point j. Since [M], [C], [K] are symmetric, [H(j )] is also symmetric. This implies that hij=h hji which is called reciprocity. This means that you can measure the FRF by impacting point i and measuring the response at point j and get exactly the same FRF as impacting point j and measuring the response at point i. This is what is meant by reciprocity.
Residues
The residues are directly related to mode shapes and a scaling factor as:
This shows that the frequency response function can be written in terms of residues. id When written as a mode shape, p , then it becomes very y clear that if the value of the mode shape at the reference point is zero (or almost zero) then that mode will not be seen in the frequency response function. Always select a reference point where all the modes can be seen all the time from that reference point.
Residues
Never select the reference point at the node of a mode!
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The big picture

FRFs can be generated from residues and poles. The residues are directly related to the mode shapes and the poles are the frequency and damping of the system.
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The big picture

First let's start with an analytical representation such as the finite element model shown. Basically, we use the FEM to approximate a lumped mass system that is interconnected by springs to represent the physical system. Since the analytical approximation is described in terms of a force balance for each mass that is described in the system, we end up with one equation for each mass (or degree of freedom) used to approximate the system.
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The big picture

Since we need many small little finite elements to accurately describe the system, I end up with many equation and unknowns. Right away, it becomes convenient to describe all these equations using i matrices. ti N Now once I h have assembled all these equations, a mathematical routine called an eigensolution is used to represent the system in simpler terms - the system's frequencies and mode shapes This is what we do in the shapes. finite element process.
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The big picture

I can take those same equations and transform them into the Laplace domain. Now in the Laplace domain, we have, [B(s)], the system equation and its inverse,[Hs)], the system t transfer f function. f ti Now N we know k that th t this inverse is the adjoint of the system matrix (or the cofactors of the system matrix) divided by the determinant of the system matrix. This inverse is described in all vibrations text books
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The big picture

It turns out that the adjoint matrix contains the modal vectors and we call this the Residue Matrix. The determinant of [B(s)] contains the roots, or poles of the system. Well, this is the same basic i f information ti that th t is i obtained bt i d f from th the analytical model. So we could determine the system dynamic characteristics from either the analytical model or from the Laplace domain representation they both will give the same results. .
The big picture

Now another important p relationship p is the Frequency Response Function, FRF. This is the system transfer function evaluated along the j axis. The FRF is actually a matrix of terms, [H(j)]. Well, since we are dealing with a matrix, it is convenient to identify input-output p p measurements with a subscript. So a particular output response at point 'i' due to an input force at p point 'j' j is called hij(j). ) .
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The big picture

Now what we need to realize is that those FRFs that were generated (synthesized) contain information relative to the system characteristics. Remember that the FRFs can be generated from residues and poles. And that the residues are directly related to the mode shapes p and the poles are the frequency and damping of the system.
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The big picture
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The big picture

Up p until now we have only y discussed using the mass, damping and stiffness approximations to compute system characteristics from the finite element model or from the Laplace domain representation of the system. Both these approaches use approximations of the physical parameters of mass, p , damping p g and stiffness to describe the system and so they will both provide the same basic information.
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The big picture

If there were some other way y to estimate those FRFs without assuming physical properties then I could employ the modal parameter estimation techniques to extract the desired information. This is where modal testing comes in. Basically, my structure is excited with some measured force. The response of the system due to the applied force is measured along with the force. Now this time data is transformed to the frequency domain using the FFT and basically a ratio of output response to input force is computed to form an approximation of the FRF.
The big picture

So we could measure one input-output p p FRF based on this approach. If we used a shaker to excite the structure and move the accelerometer to many points then we could measure a column of the FRF matrix. So the big advantage of making measurements is that I measure the response of the system due to the applied force I don't ever make any assumptions as to th mass, d the damping i and d stiffness tiff of f th the system - and I avoid any erroneous approximations I may make. Of co rse I need to make s course, sure re that I make very good measurements otherwise I will distort my system characteristics characteristics.
Vib ti Vibration monitoring it i in i buildings
Seismic behaviour and performance of structural systems

There are three main approaches to evaluate seismic behavior and performance of structural systems (Celebi et al al.): ): 1. 2. 3. Laboratory Testing Computerised analysis Natural Laboratory of the Earth:Integral to the natural laboratory approach is the advance instrumentation of selected structures so that their responses can be recorded during future earthquakes.
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Structural response
The methods used in studying structural response records are quite diverse: (a) ( ) Mathematical modeling g( (finite element models varying y g from crude to very y detailed, subjected to timehistory, response spectrum or modal analyses). The procedure requires the blueprints of the structures which may not be readily accessible; (b) System identification techniques: single input/single output or multi input/multi output. In these procedures, the parameters of a model are adjusted for consistency with input and output data (Ljung (Ljung, 1987); (c) Spectral analyses: response spectra, Fourier amplitude spectra, autospectra Sx or Sy, cross-spectral autospectra, cross spectral amplitudes Sxy, and coherence functions ( ) [using the equation : 2xy (f) = S2xy (f)/ Sx (f)Sy (f)] and associated phase angles
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Why do we instrument buildings?

Improve our understanding of the behavior and potential for damage in structures under the dynamic loads of earthquakes. Emergency response : A detailed real time hazard analysis i urban in b environments i t Improvement in mathematical models: An instrumentation program should provide enough information to reconstruct the response of the structure in enough detail to compare with the response predicted by mathematical models and those observed in laboratories.

Damage detection: Explain the reasons for any damage to structures Quantify the interaction of the soil and the structure: The nearby freefield and ground-level ground level time history should be known in order to quantify the interaction of soil and structure. Determine the importance of nonlinear behavior on the overall and local response of f the th structure, t t
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Follow the spreading nonlinear behavior throughout the structure as the response increases and determine the effect of this nonlinear behavior on the frequency and damping Correlate the damage with inelastic behavior Determine the ground ground-motion motion parameters that correlate well with building response damage Make recommendations to improve the building codes Facilitate decisions to retrofit/strengthen the structural system as well as securing the contents within the structures
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Determine whether the structure has to be retrofitted or not in an objective way following big earthquakes and aftershocks Determining the structural members and parts that have to be retrofitted in the structure Determine the best retrofit technique Evaluating whether the intended benefit from retrofitting is obtained or not Determine the maximum interstory drifts in the structure Providing an early warning system for traffic closure when the bridges are subjected to excessive wind loading

Prediction of the behaviour of the buildings under future earthquakes by monitoring their behaviour under small magnitude earthquakes or ambient vibrations. Real time assessment of the performance level of the structure following catastrophic earthquakes and aftershocks. Immediate occupancy? Life safety performance level? Collapse prevention? Collapse??
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The most widely Th id l used d code d i in the h United States, the Uniform Building Code (UBC-1997 and prior editions), recommends, for seismic zones 3 and 4 a minimum of three accelerographs g p be placed:
in every building over six stories with an aggregate floor areas of 5500m2 or more in every building over ten stories regardless of the floor area.
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UBC-Code UBC Code type instrumentation is illustrated in Figure. Experiences from past earthquakes show that the UBC minimum guidelines do not ensure sufficient ffi i t data d t to t perform f meaningful model verifications. As an example, three horizontal accelerometers are required to define the horizontal motion of a floor (two translations and torsion).
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Rojahn and Matthiesen (1977) concluded that the predominant response of a high-rise building can be described by the participation of the first four modes of each of the three sets of modes (two translations and torsion). Therefore, a minimum of 12 accelerometers would be necessary to record these modes.

If vertical motion and rocking are expected to be significant and need to be recorded, recorded at least three vertical accelerometers are required at the basement level. This type of Thi f instrumentation i i scheme h is i called ll d the h id ideal l extensive i instrumentation scheme herein and is illustrated in the Figure.
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Diaphragm effects are best captured by adding sensors at the center of the diaphragm as well as the edges.
Performance of base-isolated systems and effectiveness of the isolators are best captured by measuring tri-axial motions at top and bottom of the isolators as well as the rest of the superstructure.
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Engineers use se free-field free field motions as input inp t motion at the foundation fo ndation level, or they obtain the motion at foundation level by convoluting the motion through assumed or determined layers of strata to base rock and deconvoluting the motion back to foundation level level. To confirm these processes requires downhole instrumentation near or di directly l b beneath h a structure. D Downhole h l d data are especially i ll scarce, although a few such arrays have been developed outside of the United States. These downhole arrays will serve to yield data on:
(1) the characteristics of ground motion at bedrock at a defined distance from a source (2) the amplification of seismic waves in layered strata.
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Steps in instrumenting structures
Selection of Structures to be Instrumented

1. Structural parameters: the construction material, structural system system, geometry geometry, discontinuity discontinuity, and age 2 Site-related 2. Site related parameters: a. Se a Severity-of-shaking e ty o s a g factor acto to be ass assigned g ed to eac each structure on the basis of its closeness to one or more of the main faults within the boundaries of the area considered (e (e.g. g for the San Francisco Bay area area, the San Andreas, Hayward, and Calaveras faults are considered).

b. Probability of a large earthquake (M = 6.5 or 7 occurring on the fault(s) within the next 30 years was obtained. The purpose of this parameter is to consider the regions where there is strong chance of recording useful data within an approximately useful life of a structure. c. Expected value of strong shaking at the site, determined as the product of a and b. 3. Building usage, functionality, occupancy and relevance to life safety requirements following damaging earthquakes. 4. Other parameters of interest to owners or public officials.
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Once the particular structure to be instrumented is identified, the engineering staff obtains instrumentation permits for selected structures gathers information relative to the project including structural plans and design and model information directs structural evaluation and if necessary performs ambient response studies.
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study of available design and analysis information after permission for instrumenting is granted by the owner, site visit required analytical studies and tests, if feasible and necessary. In general, the following information, if available, will be required: (1) relevant blueprints and design calculations (2) ( ) dynamic y analysis y (mode ( shapes p and frequencies) q ) (3) if available, forced-vibration test results, and ambient-vibration test results.

Seldom is all this information available for any structure. The collected set of data is then used as a basis for determining transducer locations that will ill adeq adequately atel define the response of the str structure ct re d during ring a strong earthquake. After the sensor locations have been agreed upon by the engineering staff staff, the installation team, a representative of the owner of the structure, and an electrical contractor is called in to plan placement of the data cable. The installation Th i ll i team works k with i h the h contractor d during i this hi phase h and d subsequently calibrates and installs sensors and recording systems. A final step is a complete documentation of each transducer location and orientation, characteristics of total system y response, p and any yp peculiarities of the instrumentation or access to required sites.
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Importance of Building Specific FreeFree Field Station

If physically feasible, it is advisable to include into the instrumentation scheme, a building specific free-field station. Such a free-field station is usually deployed at a distance greater than 1.5-2 times the height of the nearest/tallest building. This is due to the desire that motions recorded by a free-field station should not be influenced by the shaking of the buildings buildings. In general, free-field and ground-level motions should be known in order to quantify the interaction of the soil and the structure structure. However, data recorded at building specific free-field stations can be used to augment data bases used for structural response studies as well as ground motion studies including development of attenuation relationships and quantification of site response transfer functions and characteristics.
Tests on Existing Structures to Determine Dynamic Characteristics

Although it is possible to obtain a satisfactory understanding of a structure's expected dynamic behavior by preliminary analytical studies, an ambient-vibration and/or a forced vibration test on an existing structure can be performed to identify mode shapes and frequencies. Ambient vibration tests can be performed efficiently using portable recorders at three to five locations that are expected (from analytical studies or other information) to have maximum amplitudes during the first three to four vibrational modes. Thus, elastic properties of the structure can be determined. If the j structure experiences p nonlinear behavior during g a strong g subject shaking, it will be much easier to evaluate the nonlinear behavior once linear behavior is determined before the nonlinear behavior occurs during the strong shaking.
Tests on Existing Structures to Determine Dynamic Characteristics

Compared to ambient-vibration ambient vibration test, a forced-vibration forced vibration test is more difficult to perform. The required equipment (vibration generator with control consoles, weights, recorders, accelerometers, ) is heavier, , and the test takes longer g than the ambientand cables) vibration test. State-of-the-art vibration g generators do not necessarily y have the capability to excite to resonance all significant modes of all structures (elebi and others, 1987). Dynamic Analysis A simplified finite-element model can be developed to obtain the elastic dynamic characteristics. This is performed with any one of the several tested computer programs available (e.g. SAP2000, ANSYS, and STRUDL).
Selection and installation of instruments

In selection and defining an instrumentation scheme, an optimum list of hardware is p after careful developed consideration of cost and data requirements. While developing the instrumentation scheme within the budgetary constraints, it is best to consider the maximum available channels for each recording system. Most recording systems have maximum of 12 or 18 channels of recording capability.
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The following general approach is followed to install seismic instruments: 1. After an instrumentation scheme is developed and approximate sensor locations are chosen, monitoring team and the owner's representative review the site to determine exact sensor locations and routing of cables satisfactory to both parties. This is important from viewpoint of longterm accessibility accessibility, potential interference with the occupant's space, placement of data cable runs, and aesthetic requirements of the owner. Figure exhibits a sample schematic showing locations of sensors, routing of cables, location of junction boxes and recording g units.

2 Next 2. N t a technician t h i i should h ld i inspect t th the entire ti structural t t l scheme h with an electrical contractor who will install the data cable, junction boxes at key locations and terminal boxes (if required) at t each h sensor site. it The Th modern d recording di systems t may not t require terminal boxes as they have internal terminals. Actual cabling by the contractor is monitored by the monitoring team and the owner's owner s representative to be sure the cable is installed as desired and that all building code regulations are followed. 3. The cable-termination box includes data circuits, batteries and battery charges. This box is normally mounted on the wall above the recorder. The recorder location is selected on the basis of security, it typically t i ll i in a t telephone l h or electrical l t i l switch it h room, and di in some circumstances is enclosed with separate fencing in an open area.

4 Th 4. The i instrumentation t t ti undergoes d a preliminary li i calibration in the strong-motion laboratory and is then installed in the structure with appropriate test procedures d i including l di a static t ti tilt sensitivity iti it t test tf for each component and determination of direction of motion for upward trace deflection on the record. For modern digital systems, this information is entered into the recorder data section and is stored in a general database. Other documentation includes precise sensor location, period and damping of each unit, location of , access information, , and circuit diagrams. g cable runs,
Sensor locations
The number of required sensors and sensor locations depend on the condition that whether 2 dimensional or 3 dimensional motions of the structure are going to be monitored. In 2 dimensions, the degrees of freedom are 2 translations and one rotation. A typical example to such a structure is a multistorey building with shear walls ll and d a rigid i id di diaphragm. h In order to determine these two translations and one rotation, three measurements are needed needed. These three measurements have to satisfy the following conditions:
The measurements have to be taken from two separate locations The three measurement directions should not be parallel. The three measurement directions should not intersect each other.
Sensor locations
In 3 D space space, the vibrations of the structure can be fully described by 3 translations and 3 rotations. In such a structure structure, we need at least 6 measurements which have to satisfy the following conditions in order to solve for the 3 rotations and 3 translations from the dynamic equilibrium equations:
The measurements have to be taken at least from 3 separate locations. The measurement locations should not be on a straight line. The 6 measurement directions should not be parallel. The 6 measurement directions should not intersect each other.
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Sensor locations
Sensor locations should not be determined based on the locations of maximum displacements, because that displacement can be dominated by a single mode. That means, if you put a sensor there you would only identify that mode. The location you should search for is the one whose displacement has contrib contributions tions from a maximum ma im m n number mber of modes modes. That way you can identify more modes (afak,2009). For typical multi-story multi story buildings, buildings there is no reason to put a vertical sensor in the middle of floor slab, unless it has a huge span with no beams and columns to support it. Even then, it would record only the local behavior of the floor slab, not the global behavior of structural system, which is more important when matching analytical models (afak,2009). afak 2009) For torsion, the larger the distance between the two parallel horizontals, the more accurate the calculated torsion (i (i.e., e the better the signal to noise ratio in the torsional signal) (afak,2009).
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Sensor locations
In general I l the h order d f for placing l i sensors: Roof Ground floor Basement Any location where stiffness and/or mass changes significantly Any location where the curvature of the deformed shape is expected to change.
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Sensor locations in buildings

1. 1 2. 3. 4. The first group of sensors should be located on the roof of structures structures. The second group of sensors should be placed on the top of the foundations (in the ground floor or basement). The third group of sensors should be placed at the locations where the rigidity and the mass of the structure change. The rest of the sensors should be placed on locations where the amplitudes of the vibration modes of the structure are expected to be large. large
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Optimal sensor placement

1. 2. 3. 4 4. Effective Independence Technique Optimum Driving Point Based Method Non-optimum driving point based method EFI Driving point residue method EFI-
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Effective Independence Technique
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where Q is the Fisher information matrix


The best state estimate can be obtained by maximizing Q which results in the minimization of the covariance matrix matrix. For simplicity simplicity, it is assumed that the measurement noise is uncorrelated and possesses identical statistical properties of each sensor. The Fisher Information Matrix can then be simplified as:
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Non-Optimum driving point based method
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Optimum driving point based method
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Effective Indepence Driving Point Residue Technique
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Maintenance
It is essential to have periodic and consistent maintenance of instruments in order to have a successful program. Unless maintenance arrangements are made, successful recording of data cannot be accomplished. Therefore, routine maintenance is conducted every 3-12 months if circumstances and e perience so allow. experience allo This maintenance includes the following:
1. Remote calibration of period and damping. 2. Inspection p of battery y terminals, load voltage, g and charge g rate ( (batteries are replaced every 3 years). 3. Measurement of threshold of triggering system and length of recording cycle.
As a final maintenance procedure, a calibration record is obtained and then examined for the desired characteristics. All inspection procedures are recorded in the permanent station file at the laboratory.
GPS units
Until recently recently, in general, general only accelerometers (single (single, biaxial or triaxial) were used to instrument structures. However, observations of damages during the 1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe earthquakes, have forced engineers and scientists to focus on performance based seismic design methods and to find new techniques to control drift and displacements. To verify these developments, sensors directly measuring g displacements p or relative displacements p (transducers, laser devices and GPS units) are now being considered.

Introduction To Vibration Monitoring (Compatibility Mode)

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ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

How many points are enough for a vibration measurement?

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

How many yp points are enough g for a vibration measurement?

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

How many points are enough for a vibration measurement?

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

How many points are enough for a vibration measurement?

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

How many points are enough for a vibration measurement?

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

How many points are enough for a vibration measurement?

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin

Vibration based structural health monitoring

ERASMUS Teaching (2008), Technische Universitt Berlin