EE201 ACNotes

Chapter 10
Engr228 Circuit Analysis Dr Curtis Nelson
Chapter 10 Objectives
Review signal properties Review complex numbers and operations Perform sinusoidal steady-state (SSS) analysis of circuits Define the notion of a complex phasor for representing currents and voltages
Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E
Signal Definitions
Time invariant signal
Signal is an arbitrary constant when time progresses such as DC current or DC voltage
Time-varying signal
Signal varies with time such as AC current or AC voltage
Periodic Signal
A function f(t) is is said to be periodic if and only if there is any T such that f(t+T) = f(t) , for all t where T is period and f is frequency
T=
1 f
In other words, f(t) is repeatable with a period of T
Properties of a Sine Wave
The general form of sine wave is
v ( t ) = Vm sin(t + )
where
Vm is the amplitude is the angular frequency (radian/sec) is the phase shift (degrees or radians)
Frequency
volts 1
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
period
T=
1 f
10
sec
Period 6.28 seconds, Frequency = 0.1592 Hz
Amplitude
volts
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
10
sec
Peak: Blue 1 volt, Red 0.8 volts Peak-to-Peak: Blue 2 volts, Red 1.6 volts Average: 0
Phase Shift
Period=6.28
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
yblue = sin(t ) y red = 0.8 sin(t + 1)
10
Red leads Blue by 57.3 degrees (1 radian)
1 360o = 57.3o 6.28
Sine Wave Phase

The wave in red is said to lead the wave in green by The wave in green sin(t) is said to lag the wave in red by The units of and t must be consistent when computing the sin function
Basic AC Circuit Components
AC Voltage and Current Sources (active elements) Resistors (R) Inductors(L) Capacitors (C) Inductors and capacitors have limited energy storage capability passive elements
AC Voltage and Current Sources
Voltage Sources
Current Sources
Amplitude = 10Vpeak = 2F so F = 1Hz Phase shift = 45
Sinusoidal Steady State (SSS) Analysis

SSS is important for circuits containing capacitors and inductors because these elements provide little value in circuits with only DC sources Sinusoidal means that source excitations have the form VS cos(t + ) or VS sin(t + ) Since VS sin(t + ) can be written as VS cos(t + - /2), we will use VS cos(t + ) as the form of our general input excitation Steady state means that all transient behavior in the circuit has died out, i.e. decayed to zero
Sinusoidal Steady State Response

The SSS response of a circuit to a sinusoidal input is also a sinusoidal signal with the same frequency but with possibly different amplitude and phase shift v1(t) cos wave v2(t) cos wave cos wave vL(t) cos wave
Forced Response to Sine Sources

When the source is sinusoidal, we often ignore the transient/natural response and consider only the forced or steady-state response.
The source is assumed to exist forever: < t <
Finding the Steady-State Response

1. Apply KVL:
di + Ri = Vm cos(t ) dt
2. Make a good guess:
3. Solve for the constants:
The Complex Forcing Function

Apply superposition and use:
e j = cos( ) + j sin( )
The SS Response via Complex Forcing Function

1. Apply KVL, assume vs=Vme jt
di + Ri = v s dt
2. Find the complex response i(t) = Imejt+ 3. Find Im and , (discard the imaginary part)
Example: Sine Wave Analysis

Find the voltage on the capacitor.
Answer: vc(t)=298.5 cos(5t 84.3 ) mV
Review of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers can be viewed as vectors where the X-axis represents the real part and the Y-axis represents the imaginary part There are two common ways to represent complex numbers
Rectangular form Polar form 3 + j4 5 53o
Complex Number Forms

Rectangular form: a + jb Polar form:
= a2 + b2 = arctan
a = cos b = sin b a
10
Complex Number Example

j
Rectangular form: = 4 + j3 Polar form: = 5 37
Complex Math Rectangular Form

p = a + jb q = c + jd
Addition and subtraction

x = p + q = (a + c) + j(b + d) y = p q = (a - c) + j(b - d)
Example p = 3 + j4 q = 1 - j2
x = p + q = (3 + 1) + j(4 - 2) = 4 + j2 y = p q = (3 1) + j(4 (-2)) = 2 + j6
11

p = a + jb q = c + jd
Multiplication (easier in polar form) x = p q = ac + jad + jbc + j2bd = (ac bd) + j(ad + bc) Example p = 3 + j4 q = 1 - j2
x = p q = [(3)(1) - (4)(-2)] + j[(3)(-2) + (4)(1)] = 11 j2

p = a + jb q = c + jd
Division (easier in polar form)

x= p a + jb (a + jb )(c jd ) (ac + bd ) + j (bc ad ) = = = q c + jd c2 + d 2 (c + jd )(c jd )
Example p = 3 + j4
x=
q = 1 - j2
p ((3)(1) + ( 4)(2) ) + j ((4)(1) (3)(2) ) 5 + j10 = = = 1 + j 2 q 12 + (2) 2 5
12
Eulers Identity
Eulers identity states that e j = cos() + jsin() A complex number can then be written as r = a + jb = cos() + jsin() = [cos() + jsin()] = e j Using shorthand notation we write this as e j
Complex Math Polar Form

x = a + jb = e j =
= a2 + b2
= tan 1
b a
p = m1e j (1 )
q = m2 e j ( 2 )
Addition and subtraction

Too hard in polar convert to rectangular coordinates
Multiplication
z = p q = m1m2 e j (1 + 2 )
Example
p = 6e
j 6
j 2
q = 2e
z = p q = (6)(2 )e
j + 6 2
= 12e
2 j 3
p = 630
q = 290
z = p q = 12120
13
Complex Math Polar Form

x = a + jb = e j =
= a2 + b2
= tan 1
b a
p = m1e j (1 )
q = m2 e j ( 2 )
Division
z = pq =
Example
p = 6e
j 6
m1 j (1 2 ) e m2
q = 2e
j 2
z = p q =
j 6 j e 6 2 = 3e 3 = 3 60o 2
More on Sinusoids
Suppose you connect a function generator to any circuit containing resistors, inductors, and capacitors. If the function generator is set to produce a sinusoidal waveform, then every voltage drop and every current in the circuit will also be a sinusoid of the same frequency. Only the amplitudes and phase angles will (may) change. The same thing is not necessarily true for waveforms of other shapes like triangle or square waveforms. Fortunately, it turns out that sinusoids are not only the easiest waveforms to work with, they're also the most useful and occur quite frequently in real-world applications.
14
Phasors
A phasor is a vector that represents an AC electrical quantity such as a voltage waveform or a current waveform The phasor's length represents the peak value of the voltage or current The phasor's angle represents the phase angle of the voltage or current Phasors are used to represent the relationship between two or more waveforms with the same frequency
Phasors
The diagram at the right shows two phasors labeled v1 and v2 Phasor v1 is drawn at an angle of 0 and has a length of 10 units Phasor v2 is drawn at an angle of 45 and is half as long as v1 In terms of the equations for sinusoidal waveforms, this diagram is a pictorial representation of the equations v1 = 10 cos() v2 = 5 cos( + 45 ) The equations above and the diagram convey the same information
15
Phasors
Phasors are complex numbers used to represent sinusoids of a fixed frequency Their primary purpose is to simplify the analysis of circuits involving sinusoidal excitation by providing an algebraic alternative to differential equations A typical phasor current is represented as I = IM For example, i(t) = 25cos(t + 45) has the phasor representation I = 2545 A phasor voltage is written as V = VM For example, v(t) = -15sin(t + 30) = 15cos(t + 120) has the phasor representation V = 15120
The Phasor
The term ejt is common to all voltages and currents and can be ignored in all intermediate steps, leading to the phasor:
I = I me j = I m
The phasor representation of a current (or voltage) is in the frequency domain
16
Example Problem 10.31 Hayt 7E

Useful trigonometric relationships: sin(wt) = cos(wt - 90) -sin(wt) = cos(wt + 90) cos(wt) = sin(wt + 90) -cos(wt) = sin(wt - 90) Express each of the following currents as a phasor: 1. 12sin(400t + 110)A 2. (-7sin800t 3cos800t)A 3. 4cos(200t 30) 5cos(200t + 20)A 1. 12sin(400t + 110)A = 12cos(400t + 20)A = 1220A 2. (-7sin800t 3cos800t)A = 790 - 30 = (0 +7j) + (-3 + 0j) = -3 + 7j = 7.616113.2A 3. 4cos(200t 30) 5cos(200t + 20) = 4-30 -520 = (3.464 -2j) (4.70 + 1.71j) = -1.235 3.71j = 3.91 -108A
Phasor Relationships for R, L, and C

Now that we have defined phasor relationships for sinusoidal forcing functions, we need to define phasor relationships for the three basic circuit elements The phasor relationship between voltage and current in a circuit is still defined by Ohms law with resistance replaced by impedance, a frequency sensitive form of resistance denoted as Z(j) In terms of phasors, V = Z(j)I where V is a phasor voltage, I is a phasor current, and Z(j) is the impedance of the circuit element.
Note that Z is a real number for resistance and a complex number for capacitance and inductance
Since phasors are functions of frequency (), we often refer to them as being in the frequency domain Circuits expressed as sinusoids are considered to be in the time domain
17
Phasors: The Resistor

In the frequency domain, Ohms Law takes the same form:
Phasor Relationship for Resistors

From Ohms law, and looking at the figure below,
vR (t ) = RiR (t ) = RI R e j (t + ) = VR e j (t + )
In terms of phasors, IR = IRej and VR = VRej so the above equation becomes VR = RIR = ZR(j)IR This result simply means that the impedance of an ideal resistor is independent of frequency. In other words, resistors act the same in AC circuits as they do in DC circuits
18
Example
Find i(t) in the circuit on the right.
v(t ) = i (t ) R 10 sin(2t + / 4) = i (t ) 2 10 sin(2t + / 4) 2 i (t ) = 5 sin(2t + / 4) i (t ) =

Note: In an ideal resistor, only the amplitude changes. Frequency and phase remain the same.
Phasor Relationship for Inductors

Finding the impedance (Z) of an inductor:
v(t ) = L i (t ) =
di (t ) dt
1 1 v(t ) dt = A sin tdt L L A A cos t = sin tdt = L L A A = ( cos t ) = (sin t ) L L 2
19
Phasors: The Inductor

Differentiation in time becomes multiplication in phasor form: (calculus becomes algebra)

Looking at the figure below, if iL(t) = ILej(t + ) and vL(t) = VLej(t + )
then substituting these expressions into

vL = L diL dt
yields
VL e j (t + ) = L
d I L e j (t + ) = jLI L e j (t + ) dt
In terms of phasors, IL = ILej and VL = VLej so the above equation becomes VL = jLIL = ZL(j)IL In other words, the inductor impedance is jL which is dependent on frequency
20

The relationship between voltage and current in the inductor show that the current through an inductor lags the voltage by 90 so it reaches its peak 1/4 cycle after the voltage peaks.
Comparison
i (t ) =
A (sin t ) L 2
i (t ) =
A (sin t ) R
Impedance of L Phase shift of -90
Impedance of R Phase shift of 0
21
Phasors: The Capacitor

Differentiation in time becomes multiplication in phasor form: (calculus becomes algebra)
Phasor Relationship for Capacitors

Looking at the figure below, if iC(t) = ICej(t + ) and vC(t) = VCej(t + )
then substituting these expressions into

iC = C dvC dt
yields I C e j (t + ) = C
d VC e j (t + ) = jCVC e j (t + ) dt
In terms of phasors, IC = ICej and VC = VCej so the above equation becomes IC = jCVC = ZC(j)VC In other words, the capacitor impedance is 1/jC which is dependent on the frequency
22

Another way to find the impedance of a capacitor
i (t ) = C
dv(t ) d ( A sin t ) =C dt dt = AC (cos t ) =
A sin(t + ) 2 1 C
Impedance of 1/jC Phase shift of +90

The results from the previous page show that the current through a capacitor leads the voltage by 90
23
Summary: Phasor Voltage/Current Relationships

Time Domain Frequency Domain
Calculus (hard but real)
Algebra (easy but complex)
Phasor Diagrams
The arrow for the phasor V on the phasor diagram is a photograph, taken at t = 0, of a rotating arrow whose projection on the real axis is the instantaneous voltage v(t).
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Example Phasor Diagram

If we assume I=1 0 A
Phasor Diagram: Parallel RLC

Assume V = 1 /0 V
25
Impedance
We define impedance as Z = V/I or V = IZ ZR=R ZL=jL ZC=1/jC
Impedance is a complex number (with units of ohms)

The real part of Z(j) is called the resistance The imaginary part of Z(j) is called the reactance
Impedances in series or parallel can be combined using the same resistor rules that you learned in Chapter 3
Impedance Relationships
Some circuit applications deal with the inverse of impedance which is called admittance. The admittance is denoted as Y = 1/Z YR=1/R YL=1/jL YC=jC
If Z = R+jX; R is the resistance, X is the reactance: (units of ohms ) If Y = G+jB; G is the conductance, B is the susceptance: (units of siemens S)
26
Impedance Example
Find the equivalent impedance, in polar form, for the circuit below if = 0.333 rad/sec
1 Z EQ = R + jL = 1 + j 3 = 1 + j = 245o 3
Example: Equivalent Impedance

Find the impedance of the network at = 5 rad/s
Answer: 4.255 + j4.929
27
Circuit Analysis Using Phasors
Techniques that can be used in circuit analysis with phasors

Ohms law Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) Nodal analysis Mesh analysis Superposition Thevenins theorem Nortons theorem
Circuit Analysis Procedure Using Phasors

Change the voltage/current sources into phasor form Change R, L, and C values into phasor impedances
Use DC circuit analysis techniques normally, but the values of voltage, current, and resistance can be complex numbers Change back to the time-domain form if required
28

A 20 mH inductor and a 30 resistor are in parallel. Find the frequency at which: (a) |Zin| = 25; (b) angle (Zin) = 25; (c) Re(Zin) = 25; (d) Im(Zin) = 10
(a) (b) (c) (d)
= 2261 rad/s = 3217 rad/s = 3354 rad/s = 572.9, 3927 rad/s
Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Find the phasor voltages V1 and V2
Answer: V1=1 - j2 V and V2= -2 + j4 V
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Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Find the currents i1(t) and i2(t)
i1(t) = 1.24 cos(103t + 29.7 ) A i2(t) = 2.77 cos(103t + 56.3 ) A


Find v2(t)
v2(t) = 34.36cos(t + 23.63)V
30

Find vx(t) in the circuit below if vs1 = 20cos1000t V and vs2 = 20sin1000t V
vx(t) = 70.71cos(1000t 45) V

Find vX(t)
vX(t) = 1.213cos(100t 75.96)V
31

Compute the power dissipated by the 1 resistor
P1 = 16.15mW
Superposition Example
The superposition principle applies to phasors; use it to find V1
Answer: V1=V1L +V1R =(2 - j2)+(-1) = 1 - j2 V
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Thvenin Example
Thvenins theorem also applies to phasors; use it to find VOC and ZTH in the circuit below.
Answer: Voc = 6 j3 V
ZTH = 6 + j2

Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminals ab
vTH = -50 + j150 = 158.11108.43 V ZTH = j150
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Find i(t)
i(t) = 51.07cos(1000t +42.23) mA

(a) Find the Thevenin equivalent as seen by the capacitor (b) Derive an equation for the magnitude of the voltage ratio Vout/Vs as a function of frequency
(a) VTH = VS(405/505), RTH = 80.2
1 (b) Vout = 405 VS 505 1 + j 2.5321012
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Chapter 10 Summary
In this chapter you: Reviewed signal properties Reviewed complex numbers and operations Performed sinusoidal steady-state (SSS) analysis of circuits Defined the notion of a complex phasor for representing currents and voltages
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Chapter 10

Engr228 Circuit Analysis Dr Curtis Nelson

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

In other words, f(t) is repeatable with a period of T

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Properties of a Sine Wave

The general form of sine wave is

Period 6.28 seconds, Frequency = 0.1592 Hz

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

yblue = sin(t ) y red = 0.8 sin(t + 1)

Red leads Blue by 57.3 degrees (1 radian)

1 360o = 57.3o 6.28

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Sine Wave Phase

Basic AC Circuit Components

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

AC Voltage and Current Sources

Amplitude = 10Vpeak = 2F so F = 1Hz Phase shift = 45

Sinusoidal Steady State (SSS) Analysis

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Sinusoidal Steady State Response

Forced Response to Sine Sources

The source is assumed to exist forever: < t <

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Finding the Steady-State Response

2. Make a good guess:

3. Solve for the constants:

The Complex Forcing Function

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

The SS Response via Complex Forcing Function

Example: Sine Wave Analysis

Answer: vc(t)=298.5 cos(5t 84.3 ) mV

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Review of Complex Numbers

Complex Number Forms

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Complex Number Example

Rectangular form: = 4 + j3 Polar form: = 5 37

Complex Math Rectangular Form

Addition and subtraction

x = p + q = (3 + 1) + j(4 - 2) = 4 + j2 y = p q = (3 1) + j(4 (-2)) = 2 + j6

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Complex Math Rectangular Form

x = p q = [(3)(1) - (4)(-2)] + j[(3)(-2) + (4)(1)] = 11 j2

Complex Math Rectangular Form

Division (easier in polar form)

p ((3)(1) + ( 4)(2) ) + j ((4)(1) (3)(2) ) 5 + j10 = = = 1 + j 2 q 12 + (2) 2 5

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Complex Math Polar Form

Addition and subtraction

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Complex Math Polar Form

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Example Problem 10.31 Hayt 7E

Phasor Relationships for R, L, and C

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

Phasors: The Resistor

Phasor Relationship for Resistors

Engr228 - Chapter 10, Hayt 8E

v(t ) = i (t ) R 10 sin(2t + / 4) = i (t ) 2 10 sin(2t + / 4) 2 i (t ) = 5 sin(2t + / 4) i (t ) =

Phasor Relationship for Inductors