Fault Analysis

Percentage of total faults

<5%

Fault types:

balanced faults

three-phase

unbalanced faults

single-line to ground double-line to ground line-to-line faults

60-75% 15-25% 5-15%

Unbalance fault analysis requires new tools

symmetrical components augmented component models

Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components

Allow unbalanced three-phase phasor quantities to be replaced by the sum of three separate but balanced symmetrical components

applicable to current and voltages permits modeling of unbalanced systems and networks Ib2
120 120

Representative symmetrical components

Ia1 Ic0 Ib0 Ia0 Ia a2
120 0 zero sequence acb sequence negative sequence

Ic1
120

120

120

Ib1

Ic c2

abc sequence positive sequence

Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components
= I a1

Positive sequence phasors

I a1 = I a1 ( + 0)

I c1 = I a1 ( + 120) = a I a1

I b1 = I a1 ( + 240) = a 2 I a1

Operator a identities

a = 1120 = 0.5 + j 0.866

a 2 = 1240 = 0.5 j 0.866

a 3 = 10 = 1 + j 0

1+ a + a2 = 0

Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components

Negative sequence phasors

I b 2 = I a 2 ( + 120) = a I a 2

I a 2 = I a 2 ( + 0) = I a 2

I c 2 = I a 2 ( + 240) = a 2 I a 2

Zero sequence phasors

I b 0 = I a 0 ( + 0) = I a 0

I a 0 = I a 0 ( + 0) = I a 0

I c 0 = I a 0 ( + 0) = I a 0

Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components
= I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + a I a 2 = I a 0 + a I a1 + a 2 I a 2

Relating unbalanced phasors to symmetrical components

I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2

I b = I b 0 + I b1 + I b 2

I c = I c 0 + I c1 + I c 2

In matrix notation

I a 1 1 I = 1 a 2 b 1 a Ic

1 I a0 I a a1 a2 I a2

Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components

[A] is known as the symmetrical components transformation matrix

I abc = A I 012

1 1 A = 1 a 2 1 a 1 a a2

Solving for the symmetrical components leads to

I 012 = A 1 I abc 1 1 * 2 a = A 3 a

1 1 1 1 A = 1 a 3 2 1 a

Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components

In component form, the calculation for symmetrical components are

( ) I a0 = 1 3 I a + Ib + Ic

2 I a1 = 1 I aI a Ic + + a b 3 2 a Ib + a c

Ia2 = 1 3

( (I

) + aI )

Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components

Similar expressions exist for voltages

Vabc = A V012

V012 = A 1 Vabc

The apparent power may also be expressed in terms of symmetrical components

T *

T S 3 = Vabc I* abc

S 3 = (AV012 ) (AI 012 )

T S 3 = V012 A T A *I * 012

A T A* = 3

T * * * * S 3 = 3V012 I 012 = 3 Va 0 I a + 3 V I + 3 V I 0 a1 a1 a2 a2

Power Systems I

Example

Obtain the symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced currents

I a = 1.625

I b = 1.0180

I c = 0.9132

Solution

3 ( 1.625) + a(1.0180) + a 2 (0.9132) = 0.94 0.1 I a1 = 3 ( 1.625) + a 2 (1.0180) + a(0.9132) I a2 = = 0.6022.3 3 Power Systems I

I a0 =

(1.625) + (1.0180) + (0.9132) = 0.4596.5

Example
Ia0, Ib0, Ic0
abc set

Ic Ia

Ib Ib2

zero sequence set positive sequence set

Ic1

Ia2
negative sequence set

Ia1

Ib1

Ic2

Power Systems I

Example

The symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced voltages are

Va 0 = 0.690

Va1 = 1.030

Va 2 = 0.8 30

Obtain the original unbalanced voltages:

Va = (0.690) + (1.030) + (0.8 30) = 1.708824.2

Vc = (0.690) + a (1.030) + a 2 (0.8 30) = 1.7088155.8

Vb = (0.690) + a 2 (1.030) + a (0.8 30) = 0.490

Power Systems I

Example
Vc1 Va1

Va0, Vb0, Vc0

zero sequence set

Vb1

positive sequence set

Vb2
negative sequence set

Vc Va2

Vc2

Vb

Va

abc set

Power Systems I

Sequence Impedances

The impedance offered to the flow of a sequence current creating sequence voltages

positive, negative, and zero sequence impedances

Augmented network models

wye-connected balanced loads transmission line 3-phase transformers generators

Power Systems I

Balanced Loads
Zs Zs Zs In Zn ZM ZM ZM
Model and governing equations
Va = Z S I a + Z M I b + Z M I c + Z n I n Vb = Z M I a + Z S I b + Z M I c + Z n I n Vc = Z M I a + Z M I b + Z S I c + Z n I n I n = I a + Ib + Ic ZM + Zn ZS + Zn ZM + Zn Vabc = Z abc I abc Va Z S + Z n V = Z + Z n b M Vc Z M + Z n Z M + Zn I a I ZM + Zn b ZS + Zn Ic

Ia

Va

Vb

Ib

Ic

Vc

Power Systems I

Balanced Loads

Vabc = Z abc I abc (A V012 ) = Z abc (A I 012 ) Z abc

V012 = A 1Z abc A I 012 V012 = Z 012 I 012 1 a 2 a

Z 012

[ = [A

] A]

1 1 1 = 1 a 3 2 1 a

1 Z S + Z n Z M + Z n Z M + Z n 1 1 1 a 2 Z + Z a2 Z Z Z Z + + n S n M n M a 1 a Z M + Z n Z M + Z n Z S + Z n 0 0 Z S + 3Z n + 2 Z M 0 0 Z Z = S M 0 0 ZS ZM

Power Systems I

Transmission Line
Zs Zs Vb2 Zs Vc2 Vn
Zn ZS + Zn Zn Va1 Z S + Z n V = Z n b1 Vc1 Zn

Ia Va2

Va1

Vb1

Ib

Ic Zn

Va1 = Z S I a Z n I n + Va 2 Vb1 = Z S I b Z n I n + Vb 2 Vc1 = Z S I c Z n I n + Vc 2 Vn = 0 + Z n I n I n + I a + Ib + Ic = 0 I a Va 2 I + V Zn b b2 ZS + Zn Ic Vc 2 Zn

Vc1 In

Vabc1 = Z abc I abc + Vabc 2

Power Systems I

Transmission Line

Vabc1 = Z abc I abc + Vabc 2 A V0121 = Z abc A I 012 + A V012 2

V0121 = A 1Z abc A I 012 + V012 2 = Z 012 I 012 + V012 2 Zn ZS + Zn Zn 1 1 1 a 2 Zn ZS + Zn 1 a Zn 1 a 2 a

Z 012 = A 1Z abc A

1 1 1 = 1 a 3 2 1 a

1 Z S + Z n Z a2 n a Zn 0 Z S + 3Z n 0 0 0 Z = S 0 0 ZS

Power Systems I

Generators

Similar modeling of impedances to sequence impedances Typical values for common generators

remember that the transient fault impedance is a function of time positive sequence values are the same as Xd, Xd, and Xd negative sequence values are affected by the rotation of the rotor

X2 ~ Xd

zero sequence values are isolated from the airgap of the machine

the zero sequence reactance is approximated to the leakage reactance X0 ~ XL

Power Systems I

Generator Model
X0 VT0

Zero Sequence

Positive Sequence E1 VT1 X2

X1

Negative Sequence

VT2

Power Systems I

Impedance Grounded Generators

ZS Ea

Z 012
Eb ZS ZS

0 ZS 0

Zn

Ec

Z S + 3Z n 0 = 0

0 0 ZS

Power Systems I

Transformers

Series Leakage Impedance

the magnetization current and core losses represented by the shunt branch are neglected (they represent only 1% of the total load current) the transformer is modeled with the equivalent series leakage impedance

Three single-phase units & five-legged core three-phase units

the series leakage impedance is the same for all the sequences

Z 0 = Z1 = Z 2 = Z l
Z1 = Z 2 = Z l

Three-legged core three-phase units

the series leakage impedance is the same for the positive and negative sequence only

Power Systems I

Transformers

Wye-delta transformers create a phase shifting pattern for the various sequences

the positive sequence quantities rotate by +30 degrees the negative sequence quantities rotate by -30 degrees the zero sequence quantities can not pass through the transformer

USA standard

independent of the winding order (-Y or Y- ) the positive sequence line voltage on the HV side leads the corresponding line voltage on the LV side by 30 consequently, for the negative sequence voltages the corresponding phase shift is -30

Power Systems I

Transformers

Zero-sequence network connections of the transformer depends on the winding connection

primary winding - wye / wye-grounded / delta secondary winding - wye / wye-grounded / delta

Power Systems I

Transformers

wye-grounded wye-grounded

wye-grounded

wye

wye-grounded

delta

Power Systems I

Transformers

wye

delta

delta

delta

Power Systems I