Student as a researcher:

How to approach a research project

A.

Generate a Research Hypothesis Dr George Varvatsoulias

What research combines with, or is different from (1)?

After choosing a research question, the next step is to formulate a research hypothesis (plural: hypotheses). A research hypothesis is a tentative answer to the research question. That is, after reading previous research studies, researchers predict in advance what they think the outcome of a research study will be. This may seem silly at first-why try to answer the question beforehand? Why not simply conduct the study to learn the answer to the research question?

What research combines with, or is different from (2)?

Researchers form hypotheses "tentative answers for a research question" because the hypothesis will influence how the research study is conducted. As you'll see in later sections, there are many methods researchers use to answer research questions. Which method a researcher chooses will also depend on the hypothesis, i.e. the answer a researcher aims to find. Scientists use theories as they develop their research hypotheses. Therefore, in this section, we first address theories, and then focus on how to develop a hypothesis.

What are theories? (1)

< Explanations for why people behave the way they do; coherent and logical frameworks that guide research Theories are explanations about how nature works. Business researchers propose theories about the nature of how organizations and people function and reasons why people (and organizations) behave the way they do

What are theories? (2)

A good theory has to accomplish several things. First, a theory needs to define and describe the events or phenomena it seeks to explain, and predict when we can expect certain behaviours or events to occur. Finally, theories must explain the causes of events described in the theory. These predictions and explanations are tested in research studies

What are theories? (3)

The process of developing and testing theories follows these steps: 1. Theorists develop their ideas by reviewing all the research evidence for a particular phenomenon or behaviour. 2. They attempt to organize this evidence into a coherent and logical framework that explains the phenomenon. 3. Using this theory, new ideas and hypotheses are developed to guide the next research projects in an area. 4. These new research studies help to refine the theory. 5. The end result is a greater understanding of human behaviour and mental processes

What is a research hypothesis? (1)

A research hypothesis is simpler and more tentative than a theory. That is, any particular hypothesis may represent only a small part of the theory. Several criteria determine whether a hypothesis is testable (i.e., can be investigated in a research study). First, the concepts addressed by the hypothesis must be clearly defined and measurable. Hypotheses cannot be tested if they are circular. A circular hypothesis occurs when an event itself becomes an explanation for the event. We can find circular hypotheses on many talk shows and in our everyday conversations. For example, to say "The company Biosyns files for many patents because it is innovative" is circular. Because being innovative can be defined by the number of patents filed, this hypothesis doesn't explain anything. It offers no more than saying, "Biosyns is innovative because it is innovative." A good hypothesis avoids this type of circularity.

What is a research hypothesis? (2)

Research hypotheses must refer to concepts that can be studied scientifically. To say that a companys aggressive strategies are caused by chance, isn't a testable hypothesis because this hypothesis refers to a concept (chance) that isn't in the province of science. Science deals with what can be observed; this is the basis for empirical observation

How can I come up with a research hypothesis? (1)

< Read research studies, consider personal experiences, think of exceptions and inconsistencies>

There are many ways to generate a research hypothesis. After reading research studies related to your research question, you may consider whether your personal experiences match what is described by the theories and past research. You may also "brainstorm" to think of "exceptions to the rule." That is, a theory or past research may describe only specific situations; you may think of conditions in which the theory may not apply. As you continue to read research articles, you will find inconsistencies or disagreements among researchers.

How can I come up with a research hypothesis? (2)

In all of the previous situations, you may think of explanations for the discrepancies among previous research articles, and why the theories and research may differ from your own experience. These explanations become fruitful research hypotheses. Our next step in the research process is to look at the theories that influenced the thinking of the role of social networks in the decision to start a business and the hypothesis they generated. Also, we will ask you to think of a hypothesis for this research.

Which theories guided research: An example (1)

A central theoretical consideration comes from the well-known paper Economic action, social structure and embeddedness by Mark Granovetter published 1985 in the American Journal of Sociology. The main thought of the paper is that how people are related with others will influence their behaviour and that this idea also extends to business companies, i.e. the relationship companies have with each other will influence the decisions and choices made. It should be noted that this thought challenges the neoclassical economic assumption that economic actors are anonymous. Following this paper, other scholars have further investigated the phenomena of social embeddedness and networks. Most notably, James Coleman analysed the relationship between actions and relations and structures of actions in his book Foundations of Social Theory published in 1990, while Ronald Burt introduced structural holes as a new concept in network research in his book Structural Holes published in 1992.

Which theories guided research: Continuing the example (2)

We built our research on this stream. The work of Coleman and Burt suggests that dense networks as well as loose networks have beneficial effects. Departing from this, we theorize that one should look not only at the overall network structure or social embeddedness, but rather should start to look at the specific relationships and what characterizes them. Thus, we argue that a network is not sufficiently captured by its structure but also needs to account for characteristics of the individual relationships.

What hypothesis would you develop?

A first step in developing a hypothesis is to see how ideas match your experience. Ask yourself these questions: Do you often use network contacts to get things done? What can you ask from different people in your network? On what does it depend what you can ask for and whether they will provide it willingly? An important step in developing hypotheses is to know the findings from previous research

What hypothesis did we test in our research project? An example

Example: Conformity to norms is characterized by: (a) social needs (b) diversity and acceptance of others (c) Interest for the society as a whole and for the wellbeing of individuals in particular Social needs in conformity relates to: (a) homogeneity of personal needs (b) identification of expectations (c) Interpersonal balance in relationships

Generate a Research Hypothesis: Towards a conclusion (1)

A central component of the research process is the hypothesis. Ask yourself these questions when you read or hear about research to evaluate the researcher's hypothesis: Does the researcher present a theory about the phenomena that are investigated? Does the theory define and describe events, predict when specific phenomena or events should occur, and explain the causes of events described in the theory?

Generate a Research Hypothesis: Towards a conclusion (2)

Is a research hypothesis presented? Is the hypothesis testable? That is, are the concepts clearly defined and measurable; does the hypothesis avoid circularity; does the hypothesis refer to concepts that are scientific? Is the hypothesis very general or very specific? (Specific hypotheses provide better tests of theories)

B. Describe as many aspects of the hypothesis possible before you come with your own!

Characteristics of a good hypothesis (1)

To complete the Project Successfully, it is necessary to write or plan a Good Hypothesis. Hypothesis is nothing but the basic Assumption to do research Project. The different characteristics of Good Hypothesis are given below: Testable The means for manipulating the variables and/or measuring the outcome variable must potentially exist Falsifiable must be able to reject the hypothesis with data

Characteristics of a good hypothesis (2)

Parsimonious should be stated in simplest adequate form Precise Should be specific (operationalized) Useful Relate to existing theories and/or point toward new theories it should lead to studies beyond the present one (often hard to determine in advance)

Characteristics of a good hypothesis (3)

Sound reasoning A.Your hypothesis should be based on previous research. B.The hypothesis should follow the most likely outcome, not the exceptional outcome. Provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome. A.Do not look for unrealistic explanations. Clearly states the relationship between the defined variables. A.Clear, simply written hypothesis is easier to test. B.Do not be vague.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis (4)

Defines the variables in easy to measure terms. A.Who are the participants? B.What is different or will be different in your test? C.What is the effect? Testable in a reasonable amount of time. A.Do not plan a test that will take longer than your class project.

Hypothesis: Desirable characteristics

1. Should be empirical statements -- i.e., susceptible to observation. The hypotheses should not be normative. 2. A second desirable attribute of a good hypothesis is generality. It explains a general phenomenon, rather than a single occurrence. 3. A good hypothesis should be plausible - it shouldn't defy logic. 4. A good hypothesis is specific, meaning that the concepts are carefully defined. 5. And finally, a good hypothesis must be testable, and it cannot be a tautology.

How Can I Create a Good Research Hypothesis?

Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e. changes) assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable. Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after making changes to the IV that are assumed to affect the DV.

Examples of variables (1)

For example, we might change the type of information (e.g. organized or random) given to participants to see what affect this might have on the amount of information remembered. In this particular example the type of information is the independent variable (because it changes) and the amount of information remembered is the dependent variable (because this is being measured). When we conduct experiments there are other variables that can affect our results, if we do not control them. The researcher wants to make sure that it is the manipulation of the independent variable that has changed the changes in the dependent variable. Hence, all the other variables that could affect the DV to change must be controlled. These other variables are called extraneous or confounding variables.

Examples of variables (2)

Extraneous Variables Extraneous variables These are all variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect the results (e.g. DV) of the experiment. Extraneous variables should be controlled were possible. They might be important enough to provide alternative explanations for the effects.

Examples of variables (3)

There are two types of extraneous variables: 1. Situational variables These are aspects of the environment that might affect the participants behavior e.g. noise, temperature, lighting conditions etc. Situational variables should be controlled so they are the same for all participants.

2. Participant / Person variables This refers to the ways in which each participant varies from the other, and how this could effect the results e.g. mood, intelligence, anxiety, nerves, concentration etc. For example, if a participant that has performed a memory test was tired, dyslexic or had poor eyesight, this could affect their performance and the results of the experiment. The experimental design chosen can have an affect on participant variables.

Examples of variables (4)

Suppose I wanted to measure the effects of Alcohol (IV) on driving ability (DV) I would have to try to ensure that extraneous variables did not affect the results. These variables could include: Familiarity with the car: Some people may drive better because they have drove this make of car before. Familiarity with the test: Some people may do better than others because they know what to expect in the test.

Examples of variables (5)

Used to drinking. The effects of alcohol on some people may be less than on others because they are used to drinking. Full stomach. The effect of alcohol on some subjects may be less than on others because they have just had a big meal.

If these extraneous variables are not controlled they may become confounding variables, because they could go on to affect the results of the experiment.