Describe Basic

Vibration
Concepts
0 360 90 270 180
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
Tr ai ni ng Modul e
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000
HDC Human Development Consultants Ltd.

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This publication is designed to provide general information regarding the subject matter covered. Care
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ISBN 1-55338-005-3

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

1. MachineryVibration. I. HDC Human Development Consultants.
TJ177.D48 2000 621.811 C00-900600-1

This training kit consists of the following parts:
Training Module and Self-Check
Knowledge Check and Answer Key
Blank Answer Sheet
Performance Check

Published by HDC Human Development Consultants Ltd.
Published in Canada
HDC Human Development Consultants Ltd.
Website: www.hdc.ca
E-mail: marketing@hdc.ca
Phone: (780) 463-3909
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page i of ii
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
Cont ent s
Training Objectives 1

1
Introduction 1

2
Purpose and Importance of Vibration Analysis 4

3

Rotating Equipment Vibration & Vibration
Characteristics 5
3.1 Vibration Displacement and Frequency 5
3.2 Vibration Velocity 10
3.3 Vibration Acceleration 14
3.4 Vibration Phase 17
3.5 Random Vibrations and Shock Pulses 21
3.6 Identifying Vibration Characteristics 22

4

Causes of Rotating Equipment Vibration 22
4.1 Rotating Equipment Imbalance Vibration 23
4.2 Rotating Equipment Misalignment Vibration 25
4.3 Resonance 28

5

Vibration DetectionTransducers 31
5.1 Displacement Transducers (Proximity Probes) 32
5.2 Velocity Transducers 33
5.3 Piezoelectric Accelerometer Transducer 35
5.4 Mounting Transducers 36
5.5 Using Handheld Mounted Transducers 38
5.6 Transducer Location 39


Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page ii of ii
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
Cont ent s (c ont i nued)

6

Instruments for Displaying Vibration Data 40
6.1 Fixed Vibration Instruments 41
6.2 Portable Vibration Instruments 42

7
Self-Check 47

8
Self-Check Answers 53

9
Glossary 53






Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 1 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
Tr ai ni ng
Obj ec t i ves
Upon completion of this training kit, you will be able to:
Describe the purpose and importance of vibration
detection and analysis
Describe the roles of operators and maintenance
personnel in vibration detection and analysis
Describe vibration characteristics
Identify the three most common sources of vibration
Describe the vibration characteristics for each source of
vibration
Identify the common types of vibration transducers
Describe the effectiveness of different types of
transducer mounting methods
Describe vibration measurement instruments
Complete the site vibration familiarization checklist


NOTE

This training kit may contain technical terms which are new to
you. Refer to the glossary, located at the end of this module,
for an explanation of terms.

1 I nt r oduc t i on
Each major piece of equipment must function reliably to ensure
optimal productivity. Of all the different types of equipment,
rotating equipment tends to be among the most critical
because:
rotating equipment has moving parts that are more likely to
fail than stationary parts
failure of rotating equipment that is part of a process system
often results in a loss of system throughputs and can
potentially cause a complete shutdown of the system

All rotating equipment vibrates. The amount of vibration
indicates the condition of the equipment. Because vibration can
be seen, felt, and heard, you can determine if rotating
equipment is operating normally or if there is a change in the
equipments vibration.

Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 2 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
Using your senses to determine vibration levels requires
experience. You must first be able to identify the vibration
created by equipment operating normally (that is, establish a
base line for normal vibration) in order to identify abnormal
vibration. When the vibration of a piece of equipment slowly
changes over a period of time (for example, six months), you
may not be able to recognize the change in vibration because:
the day-to-day change in vibration is too small to be
detected
you may forget the baseline vibration of the equipment

As rotating equipment technology improves and becomes more
reliable and energy efficient, vibration levels drop. Using your
senses to detect and measure these lower levels of vibration is
not sufficiently reliable to determine the operating condition of
the equipment. Using vibration detection and diagnostic
instruments improve the reliability of vibration measurements.
Vibration instruments also provide data on specific vibration
characteristics such as frequency and amplitude.

Vibration detection and diagnostic
instruments may either be permanently
installed or portable:
permanently installed vibration
detection instruments continuously
monitor the vibration levels of
rotating equipment.

If the rotating equipment exceeds a
preset vibration limit, the vibration
detection instruments sound an
alarm to notify you of the operating
condition. If the rotating equipments
vibration level continues to rise and
exceeds a second preset vibration
limit, the vibration detection
instruments will shut down the
rotating equipment.
Figure 1 Fixed Vibration Detection
Instrument
DANGER ALERT
GAP
A B
BUFFERED TRANSDUCERS
OK
DANGER
ALERT
BYPASS
DUAL VIBRATION
MONITOR
4
3
2
1
0
5
4
3
2
1
0
5
- 24 -
- 20 -
-16 -
- 12 -
- 8 -
- 4 -
- 0 -
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 3 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
portable vibration
detection instruments allow
company personnel to
measure equipment
vibration on both a routine
and a needs basis. On a
needs basis, vibration
readings can help to
determine the specific
location and cause of
vibration.

Figure 2Handheld Vibration
Detection Instrument


Vibration detection instruments detect vibration by converting
vibration to electrical signals. The signals are amplified and
then displayed as data on a meter, a digital display, or a chart.
Personnel then interpret the data to determine the location and
specific cause of the vibration. The vibration may be due to a
number of factors including:
imbalance
misalignment
resonance
mechanical defects of bearing, couplings, etc.

Often, routine equipment vibration measurements are taken as
part of a facilitys preventative and predictive maintenance
program. When new or rebuilt rotating equipment is first
operated, a base line for vibration is established. As the
equipment wears, company personnel can compare the current
vibration data with base line vibration data to determine the
degree of change in equipment operating conditions. The
information is then used to identify the cause of the abnormal
vibration and predict when a failure might occur. A more
informed decision can then be made as to the type of corrective
action required to optimize production and minimize losses.

ON OFF
PHONES
MILE
0
2
4 6 8 12
14
AMPLITUDE
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 4 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
This module, Describe Basic Vibration Concepts, describes
vibration characteristics, causes of vibration, and methods used
to detect vibration. This module also describes common types
of instruments used to measure vibration and identifies the
vibration instruments specific applications. A more advanced
module titled Perform Vibration Analysis provides directions for
using vibration data to identify sources of vibration, to
determine the severity of the vibration, and to help decide on
the best course of action.

2 Pur pose and I mpor t anc e of
Vi br at i on Anal ysi s
All rotating equipment vibrates to some degree. Maintaining the
equipments vibration level within the manufacturers
specifications contributes to the safe and cost-effective
operation of that equipment. Excessive equipment vibration
could lead to premature equipment failure, increased
maintenance cost, and decreased productivity. To effectively
monitor equipment vibration, maintenance personnel
periodically conduct a vibration analysis. Vibration analysis is
the process by which maintenance personnel:
take vibration readings from rotating equipment
determine the severity of the vibration
identify the cause of excessive vibration in the equipment
suggest corrective action to eliminate the vibration problem

At some facilities, vibration analysis is used as part of a
comprehensive preventative and predictive maintenance
program. Maintenance personnel use vibration data to predict
the amount of time the rotating equipment can run before
breakdown. Preventative action can then be taken to avoid
costly repairs and lost productivity. If an effective preventative
and predictive maintenance program is used, the following
benefits can be realized:
safer work environment
higher productivity
increased operating time
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 5 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
higher levels of rotating equipment performance
decreased maintenance cost
lower energy cost
reduced product waste

3 Rot at i ng Equi pment Vi br at i on and
Vi br at i on Char ac t er i st i c s
Vibration is defined as a back and forth motion across a neutral
position (equilibrium). The back and forth motion of a vibrating
object is complex because the vibrating motion has several
different characteristics including:
displacement
frequency
velocity
acceleration
phase

Industry uses several different methods, including numerical
values and graphs, to describe these characteristics of
vibration. Maintenance must be able to use the various forms of
vibration data to analyze equipment vibration and determine the
vibrations source.

3.1 Vi br at i on Di spl ac ement and Fr equenc y
Graphs of the vibrating motion are often used to describe the
characteristics of the vibration. For example, the back and forth
motion of the vibrating rod in Figure 3 can be measured and
results plotted on graph paper. The motion of the vibration is
depicted as a wave form (known mathematically as a sine
wave form).

Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 6 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
Figure 3Graphic Representation of a Vibrating Object

Peak
Displacement
Displacement
0
Peak to
Peak
Position
of Rod
Time
Period
(time for one cycle)


The graph in Figure 3 describes two vibration characteristics:

Displacementis the distance the vibrating metal rod moves
from its neutral position. The graph shows the maximum
displacement as peak amplitude. Peak-to-peak amplitude on
the graph indicates the maximum distance the rod moves from
one extreme position to the other extreme position.
Displacement is measured in mils (one mil is equal to 0.001
inch) or in micrometers (one micrometer is equal to 0.001
millimeters). When there is an increase in the rods
displacement, the vibration becomes more severe.

Frequencyis the number of vibration cycles that the rod
experiences in one second. The graph in Figure 3 shows one
cycle of the rods vibration and the period of time required to
complete that cycle. Mathematically, the frequency of the
vibration is calculated by using the following formula:
Frequency =

1
= cycles per second, or hertz f =

1
t =
1
period t f
Frequency =
number of cycles
f =

cycles
time t
or

Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 7 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
Several important vibration analysis concepts are associated
with frequency:
All objects have a natural vibrating frequency. If an object is
struck (e.g., with a hammer), the object will vibrate at its
natural frequency. Most equipment has more than one
natural vibration frequency. The natural frequency of the
equipment changes when the equipment is weighted or
when bracing is added.

An increase in vibration frequency results in an increase in
vibration severity (the degree to which the vibration
contributes to component failure). Each time the metal
completes one cycle of vibration, the metal experiences
stress. As the frequency increases, the metal flexes more
often. If the vibration stress is above the metal fatigue limit,
the increased frequency of flexing reduces the time for the
metal to fail due to fatigue.

The severity of vibration in equipment tends to remain
constant (reaches a steady state) because the materials
making up the equipment absorb the energy created by the
vibrating forces. However, if the forced vibration is at the
same frequency as the equipments natural vibration
frequency, the vibration is amplified. Amplification of the
vibration occurs because the motion of the forced vibration
is in time with the natural vibration. An example of this
condition, known as resonance, would be pushing a child on
a swing. If timed correctly, each push adds to the amplitude
of the swings motion.

The motion of a point on a rotating shaft can be described in
terms of a sine wave, as shown in Figure 4. The graph
shows the vertical position of the point on the shaft as the
shaft rotates. In this graph, time is measured in terms of
degrees.
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 8 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
0
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
Time
90 270 180 360
90
270
360
0
180


The ability to describe rotation in terms of a sine wave is
fundamental to vibration analysis. For example, an
imbalanced shaft exerts a force that produces a vibration
which matches the rotational speed of the shaft.

If the rotational speed of the shaft matches the natural
frequency of the equipment, severe vibration occurs
because resonance is created. The term critical speed is
used to identify the rotational speed which matches the
equipments natural vibration. Manufacturers attempt to
design equipment so that the critical speed is outside the
operating range of the equipment. However, some turbines
have a critical speed which is below the operating speed of
the turbine. During startup, the turbine must pass through
the critical speed to reach the operating speed. When this
situation occurs, the manufacturer recommends that the
turbine be brought up to the operating speed as quickly as
possible. This startup strategy minimizes the length of time
at which the turbines rotation speed is near the critical
speed.

In vibration analysis, the fundamental frequency equals the
equipments rotational speed. The fundamental frequency
can be represented as revolutions per second:

1 Hz
(frequency)
= 1 rps
(revolution per second)

Figure 4
Graphic
Representation
of a Rotating
Point
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 9 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
Some vibration instrument manufacturers refer to the
rotational speed in terms of rpm (revolutions per minute). To
convert units:

rpm = 60 rps = 60 Hz

rpm = 60 x rps rpm = 60 x Hz

rps =

rpm

Hz =
rpm


60

60

Harmonics are vibration frequencies which are exact
multiples of the fundamental frequency. To calculate a
harmonic frequency, multiply the fundamental frequency by
any whole number (times 1, times 2, etc.). For example, if
the fundamental frequency is 1000 Hz, the next two
harmonic frequencies would be 2000 Hz and 3000 Hz.
Since the fundamental frequency equals rotational speed,
harmonics can then be calculated as multiples of the rps
(example, 1 x rps, 2 x rps, etc.). Some vibration instrument
manufacturers express the harmonic frequencies in terms of
rpm (example, 1 x rpm, 2 x rpm, etc.).

Often the presence of harmonic frequencies is an indication
of the source of the vibration. The training kit Perform
Vibration Analysis provides a detailed description of the
relationships between vibration characteristics and the
source of the vibration.

When two adjacent machines are operating close to the
same rpm, a sound which alternately builds up and then falls
in amplitude can sometimes be heard. This sound is called a
beat frequency. The beat frequency is equal to the difference
between the two rpms of the machines. For example, one
machine is operating at 600 rpm (10 Hz) and another
machine is operating at 660 rpm (11 Hz). The difference in
rotational speed between the two machines is 60 rpm (1 Hz).
In this example, the amplitude of the sound rises and falls
once per second. A beat frequency can sometimes cause
difficulties in balancing equipment because the beat
frequency can cause a continuous shift in vibration phase.
Vibration phase is explained in section 3.4 of this module.
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 10 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
1 Second
600 rpm
(10 Hz)
660 rpm
(11 Hz)
1 Second Beat
Time
L
o
u
d
n
e
s
s

3.2 Vi br at i on Vel oc i t y
Velocity is the measure of the speed of the vibrating object.
Velocity is defined as distance divided by time. For example,
the distance between two cities is 300 kilometers. If it takes 3
hours to drive the 300 kilometers, the velocity is 100 km/hr

velocity =
distance
=
300 km
=
100 km
time 3 h h

In Figure 6 below, the instantaneous velocity of the vibrating
rod at the extreme positions of its motion (identified by points
B and D on the graph) is zero because the rod has to stop
momentarily and then reverse direction.

Position
of Rod
Time
0 90 270 180 360
A
C
D
B
Zero Velocity at Extreme
Displacement Positions
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
E

Figure 5
Beat Frequency
Figure 6
Velocity at
Extreme
Displacement
Positions
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 11 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
At the extreme displacement positions, B and D:

Starting at position B on the graph in Figure 7, the rod speeds
up until it reaches the neutral displacement position (point C on
the graph) and then begins to slow down until it reaches the
other extreme position (position D). At the neutral position, the
rod is traveling at its maximum velocity.

Position
of Rod
Time
0 90 270 360
A
C
D
B
Maximum Velocity of
Neutral Displacement Position
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
180
E


Since velocity is defined as distance divided by time, the
velocity at any point on the displacement graph can be
represented by drawing a tangent (sloped line) to the curve at
that point (see Figure 8).

Figure 7
Velocity at
Neutral Position
instantaneous velocity =
0 displacement
= 0 velocity
time
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
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Human Development
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Position
of Rod
Time
0 90 270 180 360
A
C
D
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
B
Displacement
Time
X
E



The velocity at point X in Figure 8 is determined by the slope of
the tangent:

velocity = where means change
displacement
time


The velocity of the rod can be calculated for all points on the
displacement graph and the results graphed as shown in
Figure 9.

The velocity of the vibration is directly related to displacement
and frequency. An increase in displacement or an increase in
frequency results in an increase in the velocity of the vibration.
Since both displacement and frequency are also indicators of
the severity of vibration, vibration velocity is often used as a
direct measure of vibration severity. On large rotating
equipment, the fixed vibration protective devices often use
vibration velocity as the parameter for measuring vibration
severity.

Figure 8
Velocity as a
Tangent to the
Displacement
Curve
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 13 of 55
Human Development
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Position
of Rod
Time
0 90 270 180 360
A
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
C
D
Position
of Rod
Time
0 180 360
A
90 270
Maximum
Velocity
E
B C
C
Object Momentarily
at Rest
Velocity
Displacement
Time
DISPLACEMENT
VERSUS TIME
VELOCITY
VERSUS TIME
B
Maximum
Velocity
Maximum
Velocity
E


Vibration velocity is normally measured in millimeters per
second, or inches per second. As an example, a protective
device for an electrically driven centrifugal pump may be set to
shut down the pump when the pumps vibration exceeds
5 mm/s (five millimeters per second) which is equivalent to
0.2 in/s (inches per second).
Figure 9
Velocity Graph
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 14 of 55
Human Development
Consultants Ltd.
3.3 Vi br at i on Ac c el er at i on
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. As
examples:
1. To win a race, a race car accelerates rapidly to reach the
maximum velocity in the shortest time possible.
2. A passenger car accelerates slowly to reach the maximum
allowable velocity to ensure passenger comfort and fuel
economy. Vibrating objects also experience acceleration. At
the extreme positions of vibration, the object experiences
maximum acceleration because it has to change direction.

At the neutral position, the vibrating rod momentarily reaches
its maximum velocity, and no acceleration takes place.
Figure 10 uses the velocity graphic (from Figure 9) to identify
the rods acceleration at the rods extreme and neutral
positions.

Position
of Rod
0
180 360
A
E
B D
C
Maximum Acceleration
(extreme displacement
positions)
Velocity
Displacement
Time
90 270
Zero Acceleration
(neutral displacement
positions)
Time


Figure 10
Acceleration at
Extreme and
Neutral
Displacement
Positions
Describe Basic
Vibration concepts
February, 2000 Page 15 of 55
At neutral displacement positions A, C, and E the acceleration
is zero. At extreme displacement positions B and D the
acceleration is at maximum. Since acceleration is defined as a
change in velocity divided by time, the acceleration at any point
on the velocity graphic can be represented by drawing a
tangent to the curve at that point (refer to Figure 11).

End of Sample

A full licensed copy of this kit includes:
Training Module and Self-Check
Knowledge Check and Answer Key
Blank Answer Sheet
Performance Check