Liniar Analysis

Ciletti, M.D., Irwin, J.D., Kraus, A.D., Balabanian, N., Bickart, T.A., Chan, S.P.
, Nise,
N.S. Linear Circuit Analysis
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
3
LInear CIrcuIf AnaIysIs
3.1 Voltage and Cuiient Laws
Kiichhoff `s Cuiient Law Kiichhoff `s Cuiient Law in the Complex
Domain Kiichhoff `s Voltage Law Kiichhoff `s Voltage Law in the
Complex Domain Impoitance of KVL and KCL
3.2 Node and Mesh Analysis
Node Analysis Mesh Analysis Summaiy
3.3 Netwoik Theoiems
Lineaiity and Supeiposition The Netwoik Theoiems of Thvenin
and Noiton Tellegen`s Theoiem Maximum Powei Tiansfei The
Recipiocity Theoiem The Substitution and Compensation Theoiem
3.4 Powei and Eneigy
Tellegen`s Theoiem AC Steady-State Powei Maximum Powei
Tiansfei Measuiing AC Powei and Eneigy
3.5 Thiee-Phase Ciicuits
3.6 Giaph Theoiy
The |-Tiee Appioach The Flowgiaph Appioach The |-Tiee
Appioach Veisus the Flowgiaph Appioach Some Topological
Applications in Netwoik Analysis and Design
3.7 Two-Poit Paiameteis and Tiansfoimations
Intioduction Defning Two-Poit Netwoiks Mathematical
Modeling of Two-Poit Netwoisk via : Paiameteis Evaluating Two-
Poit Netwoik Chaiacteiistics in Teims of : Paiameteis An Example
Finding : Paiameteis and Netwoik Chaiacteiistics Additional Two-
Poit Paiameteis and Conveisions Two Poit Paiametei Selection
3.1 Yu!tage and Current Lavs
Mc|oe| D. C|err
Analysis of lineai ciicuits iests on two fundamental physical laws that desciibe how the voltages and cuiients
in a ciicuit must behave. This behavioi iesults fiom whatevei voltage souices, cuiient souices, and eneigy
stoiage elements aie connected to the ciicuit. A voltage souice imposes a constiaint on the evolution of the
voltage between a paii of nodes; a cuiient souice imposes a constiaint on the evolution of the cuiient in a
bianch of the ciicuit. The eneigy stoiage elements (capacitois and inductois) impose initial conditions on
cuiients and voltages in the ciicuit; they also establish a dynamic ielationship between the voltage and the
cuiient at theii teiminals.
Regaidless of how a lineai ciicuit is stimulated, eveiy node voltage and eveiy bianch cuiient, at eveiy instant
of time, must be consistent with Kiichhoff `s voltage and cuiient laws. These two laws govein even the most
complex lineai ciicuits. (They also apply to a bioad categoiy of nonlineai ciicuits that aie modeled by point
models of voltage and cuiient.)
A ciicuit can be consideied to have a topological (oi giaph) view, consisting of a labeled set of nodes and a
labeled set of edges. Each edge is associated with a paii of nodes. A node is diawn as a Jo and iepiesents a
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connection between two oi moie physical components; an edge is diawn as a |ne and iepiesents a path, oi
bianch, foi cuiient ow thiough a component (see Fig. 3.1).
The edges, oi bianches, of the giaph aie assigned cuiient labels,
1
,
2
, . . .,
m
. Each cuiient has a designated
diiection, usually denoted by an arrow symbol. If the aiiow is diawn towaid a node, the associated cuiient is
said to be enerng the node; if the aiiow is diawn away fiom the node, the cuiient is said to be |eang the
node. The cuiient
1
is enteiing node | in Fig. 3.1; the cuiient
5
is leaving node e.
Given a bianch, the paii of nodes to which the bianch is attached defnes the convention foi measuiing
voltages in the ciicuit. Given the oideied paii of nodes (a, |), a voltage measuiement is foimed as follows:
a|

a
-
|
wheie
a
and
|
aie the absolute electiical potentials (voltages) at the iespective nodes, taken ielative to some
iefeience node. Typically, one node of the ciicuit is labeled as grounJ, oi iefeience node; the iemaining nodes
aie assigned voltage labels. The measuied quantity,
a|
, is called the o|age Jro fiom node a to node |. We
note that
a|
-
|a
and that
|a

|
-
a
is called the o|age rse fiom a to |. Each node voltage implicitly defnes the voltage diop between the iespective
node and the giound node.
The paii of nodes to which an edge is attached may be wiitten as (a,|) oi (|,a). Given an oideied paii of
nodes (a, |), a a| [rom a o | is a diiected sequence of edges in which the fist edge in the sequence contains
node label a, the last edge in the sequence contains node label |, and the node indices of any two adjacent
membeis of the sequence have at least one node label in common. In Fig. 3.1, the edge sequence {e
1
, e
2
, e
4
is
not a path, because e
2
and e
4
do not shaie a common node label. The sequence {e
1
, e
2
is a path fiom node a
to node t.
A path is said to be t|oseJ if the fist node index of its fist edge is identical to the second node index of its
last edge. The following edge sequence foims a closed path in the giaph given in Fig. 3.1: {e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, e
4
, e
6
, e
7
.
Note that the edge sequences {e
8
and {e
1
, e
1
aie closed paths.
Kirchhull's Current Lav
Kiichhoff`s cuiient law (KCL) imposes constiaints on the cuiients in the bianches that aie attached to each
node of a ciicuit. In simplest teims, KCL states that the sum of the cuiients that aie enteiing a given node
FIGURE 3.1 Giaph iepiesentation of a lineai ciicuit.
must equal the sum of the cuiients that aie leaving the node. Thus, the set of cuiients in bianches attached to
a given node can be paititioned into two gioups whose oiientation is away fiom (into) the node. The two
gioups must contain the same net cuiient. Applying KCL at node | in Fig. 3.1 gives
1
() -
3
()
2
()
A connection of watei pipes that has no leaks is a physical analogy of this situation. The net iate at which
watei is owing into a joint of two oi moie pipes must equal the net iate at which watei is owing away fiom
the joint. The joint itself has the piopeity that it only connects the pipes and theieby imposes a stiuctuie on
the ow of watei, but it cannot stoie watei. This is tiue iegaidless of when the ow is measuied. Likewise, the
nodes of a ciicuit aie modeled as though they cannot stoie chaige. (Physical ciicuits aie sometimes modeled
foi the puipose of simulation as though they stoie chaige, but these nodes implicitly have a capacitoi that
piovides the physical mechanism foi sorng the chaige. Thus, KCL is ultimately satisfed.)
KCL can be stated alteinatively as: the algebiaic sum of the bianch cuiients enteiing (oi leaving) any node
of a ciicuit at any instant of time must be zeio." In this foim, the label of any cuiient whose oiientation is away
fiom the node is pieceded by a minus sign. The cuiients enerng node | in Fig. 3.1 must satisfy
1
() -
2
() -
3
() 0
In geneial, the cuiients enteiing oi leaving each node m of a ciicuit must satisfy
wheie
|m
() is undeistood to be the cuiient in bianch | attached to node m. The cuiients used in this expiession
aie undeistood to be the cuiients that would be measuied in the bianches attached to the node, and theii
values include a magnitude and an algebiaic sign. If the measuiement convention is oiiented foi the case wheie
cuiients aie enteiing the node, then the actual cuiient in a bianch has a positive oi negative sign, depending
on whethei the cuiient is tiuly owing towaid the node in question.
Once KCL has been wiitten foi the nodes of a ciicuit, the equations can be iewiitten by substituting into
the equations the voltage-cuiient ielationships of the individual components. If a ciicuit is iesistive, the iesulting
equations will be algebiaic. If capacitois oi inductois aie included in the ciicuit, the substitution will pioduce
a diffeiential equation. Foi example, wiiting KCL at the node foi
3
in Fig. 3.2 pioduces
2
-
1
-
3
0
and
FIGURE 3.2 Example of a ciicuit containing eneigy stoiage elements.
i
km
t ( )
0
C
J
J

R
C
J
J
1
1 4 3
2
2
2
0 +

R
1
C
2
R
2
i
1
v
2

v
1
i
2
C
1
v
3
v
in
v
4
i
3
KCL foi the node between C
2
and R
1
can be wiitten to eliminate vaiiables and lead to a solution desciibing
the capacitoi voltages. The capacitoi voltages, togethei with the applied voltage souice, deteimine the iemaining
voltages and cuiients in the ciicuit. Nodal analysis (see Section 3.2) tieats the systematic modeling and analysis
of a ciicuit undei the inuence of its souices and eneigy stoiage elements.
Kirchhull's Current Lav in the Cump!ex Dumain
Kiichhoff`s cuiient law is oidinaiily stated in teims of the ieal (time-domain) cuiients owing in a ciicuit,
because it actually desciibes physical quantities, at least in a macioscopic, statistical sense. It also applied,
howevei, to a vaiiety of puiely mathematical models that aie commonly used to analyze ciicuits in the so-called
complex domain.
Foi example, if a lineai ciicuit is in the sinusoidal steady state, all of the cuiients and voltages in the ciicuit
aie sinusoidal. Thus, each voltage has the foim
() sin(u - o)
and each cuiient has the foim
() B sin(u - )
wheie the positive coeffcients and B aie called the magnitudes of the signals, and o and aie the phase
angles of the signals. These mathematical models desciibe the physical behavioi of electiical quantities, and
instiumentation, such as an oscilloscope, can display the actual wavefoims iepiesented by the mathematical
model. Although methods exist foi manipulating the models of ciicuits to obtain the magnitude and phase
coeffcients that uniquely deteimine the wavefoim of each voltage and cuiient, the manipulations aie cumbei-
some and not easily extended to addiess othei issues in ciicuit analysis.
Steinmetz Smith and Doif, 1992] found a way to exploit complex algebia to cieate an elegant fiamewoik
foi iepiesenting signals and analyzing ciicuits when they aie in the steady state. In this appioach, a model is
developed in which each physical sign is ieplaced by a complex" mathematical signal. This complex signal in
polai, oi exponential, foim is iepiesented as
t
() e
( ,u - o)
The algebia of complex exponential signals allows us to wiite this as
t
() e
,o
e
,u
and Eulei`s identity gives the equivalent iectangulai foim:
t
() cos(u - o) - , sin(u - o)]
So we see that a physical signal is eithei the ieal (cosine) oi the imaginaiy (sine) component of an abstiact,
complex mathematical signal. The additional mathematics iequiied foi tieatment of complex numbeis allows
us to associate a phasoi, oi complex amplitude, with a sinusoidal signal. The time-invaiiant phasoi associated
with () is the quantity
V
t
e
, o
Notice that the phasoi v
c
is an algebiaic constant and that in incoipoiates the paiameteis and o of the
coiiesponding time-domain sinusoidal signal.
Phasois can be thought of as being vectois in a two-dimensional plane. If the vectoi is allowed to iotate
about the oiigin in the counteiclockwise diiection with fiequency u, the piojection of its tip onto the hoiizontal
(ieal) axis defnes the time-domain signal coiiesponding to the ieal pait of
t
(), i.e., cosu - o], and its
piojection onto the veitical (imaginaiy) axis defnes the time-domain signal coiiesponding to the imaginaiy
pait of
t
(), i.e., sinu - o].
The composite signal
t
() is a mathematical entity; it cannot be seen with an oscilloscope. Its value lies in
the fact that when a ciicuit is in the steady state, its voltages and cuiients aie uniquely deteimined by theii
coiiesponding phasois, and these in tuin satisfy Kiichhoff `s voltage and cuiient laws! Thus, we aie able to wiite
wheie 1
|m
is the phasoi of
|m
(), the sinusoidal cuiient in bianch | attached to node m. An equation of this
foim can be wiitten at each node of the ciicuit. Foi example, at node | in Fig. 3.1 KCL would have the foim
I
1
- I
2
- I
3
0
Consequently, a set of lineai, algebiaic equations desciibe the phasois of the cuiients and voltages in a ciicuit
in the sinusoidal steady state, i.e., the notion of time is suppiessed (see Section 3.2). The solution of the set of
equations yields the phasoi of each voltage and cuiient in the ciicuit, fiom which the actual time-domain
expiessions can be extiacted.
It can also be shown that KCL can be extended to apply to the Fouiiei tiansfoims and the Laplace tiansfoims
of the cuiients in a ciicuit. Thus, a single ielationship between the cuiients at the nodes of a ciicuit applies to
all of the known mathematical iepiesentations of the cuiients Ciletti, 1988].
Kirchhull's Yu!tage Lav
Kiichhoff`s voltage law (KVL) desciibes a ielationship among the voltages measuied acioss the bianches in any
closed, connected path in a ciicuit. Each bianch in a ciicuit is connected to two nodes. Foi the puipose of
applying KVL, a path has an oiientation in the sense that in walking" along the path one would entei one of
the nodes and exit the othei. This establishes a diiection foi deteimining the voltage acioss a bianch in the
path: the voltage is the diffeience between the potential of the node enteied and the potential of the node at
which the path exits. Alteinatively, the voltage diop along a bianch is the diffeience of the node voltage at the
enteied node and the node voltage at the exit node. Foi example, if a path includes a bianch between node a"
and node b", the voltage diop measuied along the path in the diiection fiom node a" to node b" is denoted
by
a|
and is given by
a|

a
-
|
. Given
a|
, bianch voltage along the path in the diiection fiom node b" to
node a" is
|a

|
-
a
-
a|
.
Kiichhoff `s voltage law, like Kiichhoff `s cuiient law, is tiue at any time. KVL can also be stated in teims of
voltage iises instead of voltage diops.
KVL can be expiessed mathematically as the algebiaic sum of the voltages diops aiound any closed path of
a ciicuit at any instant of time is zeio." This statement can also be cast as an equation:
wheie
|m
() is the instantaneous voltage diop measuied acioss bianch | of path m. By convention, the voltage
diop is taken in the diiection of the edge sequence that foims the path.
The edge sequence {e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, e
4
, e
6
, e
7
foims a closed path in Fig. 3.1. The sum of the voltage diops taken
aiound the path must satisfy KVL:
a|
() -
|t
() -
tJ
() -
Je
() -
e[
() -
[a
() 0
Since
a[
() -
[a
(), we can also wiite
I
km
0
v
km
t ( )
0
a[
()
a|
() -
|t
() -
tJ
() -
Je
() -
e[
()
Had we chosen the path coiiesponding to the edge sequence {e
1
, e
5
, e
6
, e
7
foi the path, we would have obtained
a[
()
a|
() -
|e
() -
e[
()
This demonstiates how KCL can be used to deteimine the voltage between a paii of nodes. It also ieveals the
fact that the voltage between a paii of nodes is independent of the path between the nodes on which the voltages
aie measuied.
Kirchhull's Yu!tage Lav in the Cump!ex Dumain
Kiichhoff `s voltage law also applies to the phasois of the voltages in a ciicuit in steady state and to the Fouiiei
tiansfoims and Laplace tiansfoims of the voltages in a ciicuit.
Impurtance ul KYL and KCL
Kiichhoff`s cuiient law is used extensively in nodal analysis because it is amenable to computei-based imple-
mentation and suppoits a systematic appioach to ciicuit analysis. Nodal analysis leads to a set of algebiaic
equations in which the vaiiables aie the voltages at the nodes of the ciicuit. This foimulation is populai in
CAD piogiams because the vaiiables coiiespond diiectly to physical quantities that can be measuied easily.
Kiichhoff`s voltage law can be used to completely analyze a ciicuit, but it is seldom used in laige-scale ciicuit
simulation piogiams. The basic ieason is that the cuiients that coiiespond to a loop of a ciicuit do not
necessaiily coiiespond to the cuiients in the individual bianches of the ciicuit. Nonetheless, KVL is fiequently
used to tioubleshoot a ciicuit by measuiing voltage diops acioss selected components.
Dehning Terms
Branch: A symbol iepiesenting a path foi cuiient thiough a component in an electiical ciicuit.
Branch current: The cuiient in a bianch of a ciicuit.
Branch voltage: The voltage acioss a bianch of a ciicuit.
Independent source: A voltage (cuiient) souice whose voltage (cuiient) does not depend on any othei voltage
oi cuiient in the ciicuit.
Node: A symbol iepiesenting a physical connection between two electiical components in a ciicuit.
Node voltage: The voltage between a node and a iefeience node (usually giound).
Re!ated Tupic
3.6 Giaph Theoiy
Relerences
M.D. Ciletti, InroJuton o Crtu na|yss anJ Desgn, New Yoik: Holt, Rinehait and Winston, 1988.
R.H. Smith and R.C. Doif, Crtus, Detes anJ Sysems, New Yoik: Wiley, 1992.
Further Inlurmatiun
Kiichhoff`s laws foim the foundation of modein computei softwaie foi analyzing electiical ciicuits. The
inteiested ieadei might considei the use of deteimining the minimum numbei of algebiaic equations that fully
chaiacteiizes the ciicuit. It is deteimined by KCL, KVL, oi some mixtuie of the two:
3.2 Nude and Mesh Ana!ysis
j. Dovd Irvn
In this section Kiichhoff `s cuiient law (KCL) and Kiichhoff `s voltage law (KVL) will be used to deteimine
cuiients and voltages thioughout a netwoik. Foi simplicity, we will fist illustiate the basic piinciples of both
node analysis and mesh analysis using only dc ciicuits. Once the fundamental concepts have been explained
and illustiated, we will demonstiate the geneiality of both analysis techniques thiough an ac ciicuit example.
Nude Ana!ysis
In a node analysis, the node voltages aie the vaiiables in a ciicuit,
and KCL is the vehicle used to deteimine them. One node in the
netwoik is selected as a iefeience node, and then all othei node
voltages aie defned with iespect to that paiticulai node. This iefei-
ence node is typically iefeiied to as grounJ using the symbol ( ),
indicating that it is at giound-zeio potential.
Considei the netwoik shown in Fig. 3.3. The netwoik has thiee
nodes, and the nodes at the bottom of the ciicuit has been selected
as the iefeience node. Theiefoie the two iemaining nodes, labeled
V
1
and V
2
, aie measuied with iespect to this iefeience node.
Suppose that the node voltages V
1
and V
2
have somehow been
deteimined, i.e., V
1
4 V and
2
-4 V. Once these node voltages
aie known, Ohm`s law can be used to fnd all bianch cuiients. Foi example,
Note that KCL is satisfed at eveiy node, i.e.,
I
1
- 6 - I
2
0
-I
2
- 8 - I
3
0
-I
1
- 6 - 8 - I
3
0
Theiefoie, as a geneial iule, if the node voltages aie known, all
bianch cuiients in the netwoik can be immediately deteimined.
In oidei to deteimine the node voltages in a netwoik, we apply
KCL to eveiy node in the netwoik except the iefeience node. Theie-
foie, given an N-node ciicuit, we employ N - 1 lineaily independent
simultaneous equations to deteimine the N - 1 unknown node volt-
ages. Giaph theoiy, which is coveied in Section 3.6, can be used to
piove that exactly N - 1 lineaily independent KCL equations aie
iequiied to fnd the N - 1 unknown node voltages in a netwoik.
Let us now demonstiate the use of KCL in deteimining the node
voltages in a netwoik. Foi the netwoik shown in Fig. 3.4, the bottom
FIGURE 3.3 A thiee-node netwoik.
I
V
I
V V
I
V
1
1
2
1 2
3
2
0
2
2
2
4 4
2
4
0
1
4
1
4

A
A
A
( )
FIGURE 3.4 A foui-node netwoik.
node is selected as the iefeience and the thiee iemaining nodes, labeled V
1
, V
2
, and V
3
, aie measuied with
iespect to that node. All unknown bianch cuiients aie also labeled. The KCL equations foi the thiee nonief-
eience nodes aie
I
1
- 4 - I
2
0
- 4 - I
3
- I
4
0
-I
1
- I
4
- 2 0
Using Ohm`s law these equations can be expiessed as
Solving these equations, using any convenient method, yields
V
1
-8/3 V, V
2
10/3 V, and V
3
8/3 V. Applying Ohm`s law
we fnd that the bianch cuiients aie I
1
-16/6 A, I
2
-8/6 A,
I
3
20/6 A, and I
4
4/6 A. A quick check indicates that KCL
is satisfed at eveiy node.
The ciicuits examined thus fai have contained only cuiient
souices and iesistois. In oidei to expand oui capabilities, we
next examine a ciicuit containing voltage souices. The ciicuit
shown in Fig. 3.5 has thiee noniefeience nodes labeled V
1
, V
2
,
and V
3
. Howevei, we do not have thiee unknown node volt-
ages. Since known voltage souices exist between the iefeience
node and nodes V
1
and V
3
, these two node voltages aie known, i.e., V
1
12 V and V
3
-4 V. Theiefoie, we
have only one unknown node voltage, V
2
. The equations foi this netwoik aie then
V
1
12
V
3
-4
and
-I
1
- I
2
- I
3
0
The KCL equation foi node V
2
wiitten using Ohm`s law is
Solving this equation yields V
2
5 V, I
1
7 A, I
2
5/2 A, and I
3
9/2 A. Theiefoie, KCL is satisfed at eveiy node.
V V V
V V V
1 3 1
2 2 3
2
4
2
0
4
1 1
0
+ +
+ +

( ) ( ) V V V V
1 3 2 3
2 1
2 0
FIGURE 3.5 A foui-node netwoik containing
voltage souices.

+ +

( ) ( ) 12
1 2
4
2
0
2 2 2
V V V
Thus, the piesence of a voltage souice in the netwoik actually
simplifes a node analysis. In an attempt to geneialize this idea,
considei the netwoik in Fig. 3.6. Note that in this case V
1
12 V and
the diffeience between node voltages V
3
and V
2
is constiained to be
6 V. Hence, two of the thiee equations needed to solve foi the node
voltages in the netwoik aie
V
1
12
V
3
- V
2
6
To obtain the thiid iequiied equation, we foim what is called a
supeinode, indicated by the dotted enclosuie in the netwoik. Just as KCL must be satisfed at any node in the
netwoik, it must be satisfed at the supeinode as well. Theiefoie, summing all the cuiients leaving the supeinode
yields the equation
The thiee equations yield the node voltages V
1
12 V, V
2
5 V, and V
3
11 V, and theiefoie I
1
1 A, I
2
7
A, I
3
5/2 A, and I
4
11/2 A.
Mesh Ana!ysis
In a mesh analysis the mesh cuiients in the netwoik aie the vaiiables
and KVL is the mechanism used to deteimine them. Once all the mesh
cuiients have been deteimined, Ohm`s law will yield the voltages
anywheie in e ciicuit. If the netwoik contains N independent meshes,
then giaph theoiy can be used to piove that N independent lineai
simultaneous equations will be iequiied to deteimine the N mesh
cuiients.
The netwoik shown in Fig. 3.7 has two independent meshes. They
aie labeled I
1
and I
2
, as shown. If the mesh cuiients aie known to be
I
1
7 A and I
2
5/2 A, then all voltages in the netwoik can be
calculated. Foi example, the voltage V
1
, i.e., the voltage acioss the 1-O
iesistoi, is V
1
-I
1
R -(7)(1) -7 V. Likewise V (I
1
- I
2
)R (7 -5/2)(2) 9 V. Fuitheimoie, we can check
oui analysis by showing that KVL is satisfed aiound eveiy mesh. Staiting at the lowei left-hand coinei and
applying KVL to the left-hand mesh we obtain
-(7)(1) - 16 - (7 - 5/2)(2) 0
wheie we have assumed that incieases in eneigy level aie positive and
decieases in eneigy level aie negative.
Considei now the netwoik in Fig. 3.8. Once again, if we assume that
an inciease in eneigy level is positive and a deciease in eneigy level is
negative, the thiee KVL equations foi the thiee meshes defned aie
-I
1
(1) - 6 - (I
1
- I
2
)(1) 0
-12 - (I
2
- I
1
)(1) - (I
2
- I
3
)(2) 0
-(I
3
- I
2
)(2) - 6 - I
3
(2) 0
FIGURE 3.6 A foui-node netwoik used to
illustiate a supeinode.
V V V V V V
2 1 2 3 1 3
1 2 1 2
0
+ +

+
FIGURE 3.7 A netwoik containing two
independent meshes.
FIGURE 3.8 A thiee-mesh netwoik.
These equations can be wiitten as
2I
1
- I
2
-6
-I
12
- 3I
2
- 2I
3
12
- 2I
2
- 4I
3
6
Solving these equations using any convenient method yields I1 1 A,
I
2
8 A, and I
3
11/2 A. Any voltage in the netwoik can now be easily
calculated, e.g., V
2
(I
2
- I
3
)(2) 5 V and V
3
I
3
(2) 11 V.
Just as in the node analysis discussion, we now expand oui capa-
bilities by consideiing ciicuits which contain cuiient souices. In this
case, we will show that foi mesh analysis, the piesence of cuiient
souices makes the solution easiei.
The netwoik in Fig. 3.9 has foui meshes which aie labeled I
1
, I
2
, I
3
,
and I
4
. Howevei, since two of these cuiients, i.e., I
3
and I
4
, pass diiectly
thiough a cuiient souice, two of the foui lineaily independent equa-
tions iequiied to solve the netwoik aie
I
3
4
I
4
-2
The two iemaining KVL equations foi the meshes defned by I
1
and I
2
aie
-6 - (I
1
- I
2
)(1) - (I
1
- I
3
)(2) 0
-(I
2
- I
1
)(1) - I
2
(2) - (I
2
- I
4
)(1) 0
Solving these equations foi I
1
and I
2
yields I
1
54/11 A and I
2
8/11 A. A quick check will show that KCL is
satisfed at eveiy node. Fuitheimoie, we can calculate any node voltage in the netwoik. Foi example, V
3
(I
3
-
I
4
)(1) 6 V and V
1
V
3
- (I
1
- I
2
)(1) 112/11 V.
Summary
Both node analysis and mesh analysis have been piesented and dis-
cussed. Although the methods have been piesented within the fiame-
woik of dc ciicuits with only independent souices, the techniques
aie applicable to ac analysis and ciicuits containing dependent
souices.
To illustiate the applicability of the two techniques to ac ciicuit
analysis, considei the netwoik in Fig. 3.10. All voltages and cuiients
aie phasois and the impedance of each passive element is known.
In the node analysis case, the voltage V
4
is known and the voltage
between V
2
and V
3
is constiained. Theiefoie, two of the foui iequiied
equations aie
V
4
12
/
0
V
2
- 6
/
0 V
3
KCL foi the node labeled V
1
and the supeinode containing the nodes labeled V
2
and V
3
is
FIGURE 3.9 A foui-mesh netwoik con-
taining cuiient souices.
FIGURE 3.10 A netwoik containing fve
nodes and foui meshes.
Solving these equations yields the iemaining unknown node voltages.
V
1
11.9 - ,0.88 11.93
/
- 4.22 V
V
2
3.66 - ,1.07 3.91
/
-16.34 V
V
3
9.66 - ,1.07 9.72
/
-6.34 V
In the mesh analysis case, the cuiients I
1
and I
3
aie constiained to be
I
1
2
/
0
I
4
- I
3
- 4
/
0
The two iemaining KVL equations aie obtained fiom the mesh defned by mesh cuiient I
2
and the loop which
encompasses the meshes defned by mesh cuiients I
3
and I
4
.
-2(I
2
- I
1
) - (-,1)I
2
- ,2(I
2
- I4) 0
-(1I
3
- 6
/
0 - ,2(I
4
- I
2
) - 12
/
0 0
Solving these equations yields the iemaining unknown mesh cuiients
I
2
0.88
/
-6.34 A
I
3
3.91
/
163.66 A
I
4
1.13
/
72.35 A
As a quick check we can use these cuiients to compute the node voltages. Foi example, if we calculate
V
2
-1(I
3
)
and
V
1
-,1(I
2
) - 12
/
0
we obtain the answeis computed eailiei.
As a fnal point, because both node and mesh analysis will yield all cuiients and voltages in a netwoik, which
technique should be used: The answei to this question depends upon the netwoik to be analyzed. If the netwoik
contains moie voltage souices than cuiient souices, node analysis might be the easiei technique. If, howevei,
the netwoik contains moie cuiient souices than voltage souices, mesh analysis may be the easiest appioach.

1 3 1 4
2 3 1 3 4
2 1
2 0
1
2 0
2 2
4 0 0

+ +

+

,
,
/
/ /
CI-STARTIC IVIC
C|ar|es F. Keerng
PaeneJ ugus 17, 1915
#1,150,52J
aily automobiles weie all staited with a ciank, oi aim-stiong staiteis, as they weie known. This
backbieaking piocess was diffcult foi eveiyone, especially women. And it was dangeious. Backfies
often iesulted in bioken wiists. Woise yet, if accidentally left in geai, the cai could advance upon
the peison cianking. Numeious deaths and injuiies weie iepoited.
In 1910, Heniy Leland, Cadillac Motois piesident, commissioned Chailes Ketteiing and his Dayton
Engineeiing Laboiatoiies Company to develop an electiic self-staitei to ieplace the ciank. Ketteiing had
to oveicome two laige pioblems: (1) making a motoi small enough to ft in a cai yet poweiful enough
to ciank the engine, and (2) fnding a batteiy moie poweiful than any yet in existence. Electiic Stoiage
Batteiy of Philadelphia supplied an expeiimental 65-lb batteiy and Delco unveiled a woiking piototype
electiic self-staitei" system installed in a 1912 Cadillac on Febiuaiy 17, 1911. Leland immediately oideied
12,000 units foi Cadillac. Within a few yeais, almost all new cais weie equipped with electiic staiteis.
(Copyiight C 1995, DewRay Pioducts, Inc. Used with peimission.)
E
Dehning Terms
ac: An abbieviation foi alteinating cuiient.
dc: An abbieviation foi diiect cuiient.
Kirchhoff 's current law (KCL): This law states that the algebiaic sum of the cuiients eithei enteiing oi leaving
a node must be zeio. Alteinatively, the law states that the sum of the cuiients enteiing a node must be
equal to the sum of the cuiients leaving that node.
Kirchhoff 's voltage law (KVL): This law states that the algebiaic sum of the voltages aiound any loop is zeio.
A loop is any closed path thiough the ciicuit in which no node is encounteied moie than once.
Mesh analysis: A ciicuit analysis technique in which KVL is used to deteimine the mesh cuiients in a netwoik.
A mesh is a loop that does not contain any loops within it.
Node analysis: A ciicuit analysis technique in which KCL is used to deteimine the node voltages in a netwoik.
Ohm's law: A fundamental law which states that the voltage acioss a iesistance is diiectly piopoitional to the
cuiient owing thiough it.
Reference node: One node in a netwoik that is selected to be a common point, and all othei node voltages
aie measuied with iespect to that point.
Supernode: A clustei of node, inteiconnected with voltage souices, such that the voltage between any two
nodes in the gioup is known.
Re!ated Tupics
3.1 Voltage and Cuiient Laws 3.6 Giaph Theoiy
Relerence
J.D. Iiwin, Bast Engneerng Crtu na|yss, 5th ed., Uppei Saddle Rivei, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1996.
3.3 Netvurk Theurems
A||on D. Krou
Linearity and Superpusitiun
Linearity
Considei a system (which may consist of a single netwoik element) iepiesented by a block, as shown in Fig. 3.11,
and obseive that the system has an input designated by e (foi excitation) and an output designated by r (foi
iesponse). The system is consideied to be |near if it satisfes the |omogeney and sueroson conditions.
T|e |omogeney tonJon. If an aibitiaiy input to the system, e,
causes a iesponse, r, then if te is the input, the output is tr wheie t is
some aibitiaiy constant.
T|e sueroson tonJon. If the input to the system, e
1
, causes a
iesponse, r
1
, and if an input to the system, e
2
, causes a iesponse, r
2
,
then a iesponse, r
1
- r
2
, will occui when the input is e
1
- e
2
.
If neithei the homogeneity condition noi the supeiposition condi-
tion is satisfed, the system is said to be non|near.
The Superpusitiun Theurem
While both the homogeneity and supeiposition conditions aie necessaiy foi lineaiity, the supeiposition con-
dition, in itself, piovides the basis foi the supeiposition theoiem:
If cause and effect aie lineaily ielated, the total effect due to seveial causes acting simultaneously is equal to
the sum of the individual effects due to each of the causes acting one at a time.
FIGURE 3.11 A simple system.
Erump|e J.1. Considei the netwoik diiven by a cuiient souice at the left and a voltage souice at the top, as
shown in Fig. 3.12(a). The cuiient phasoi indicated by
^
I is to be deteimined. Accoiding to the supeiposition
theoiem, the cuiient
^
I will be the sum of the two cuiient components
^
I
V
due to the voltage souice acting alone
as shown in Fig. 3.12(b) and
^
I
C
due to the cuiient souice acting alone shown in Fig. 3.12(c).
Figuies 3.12(b) and (c) follow fiom the methods of iemoving the effects of independent voltage and cuiient
souices. Voltage souices aie nulled in a netwoik by ieplacing them with shoit ciicuits and cuiient souices aie
nulled in a netwoik by ieplacing them with open ciicuits.
The netwoiks displayed in Figs. 3.12(b) and (c) aie simple laddei netwoiks in the phasoi domain, and the
stiategy is to fist deteimine the equivalent impedances piesented to the voltage and cuiient souices. In
Fig. 3.12(b), the gioup of thiee impedances to the iight of the voltage souice aie in seiies-paiallel and possess
an impedance of
FIGURE 3.12 (a) A netwoik to be solved by using supeiposition; (b) the netwoik with the cuiient souice nulled; and
(c) the netwoik with the voltage souice nulled.

` ` `
I I I
V C
+
and the total impedance piesented to the voltage souice is
Z Z
P
- 40 - ,40 40 - ,40 - 40 - ,40 80 O
Then
^
I
1
, the cuiient leaving the voltage souice, is
and by a cuiient division
In Fig. 3.12(b), the cuiient souice deliveis cuiient to the 40-O iesistoi and to an impedance consisting of
the capacitoi and Z
. Call this impedance Z

a
so that
Z
a
-,40 - Z
P
-,40 - 40 - ,40 40 O
Then, two cuiient divisions give
^
I
C
The cuiient
^
I in the ciicuit of Fig. 3.12(a) is
^
I
^
I
V
-
^
I
C
0 - ,3 - (3 - ,0) 3 - ,3 A
The Netvurk Theurems ul Thevenin and Nurtun
If inteiest is to be focused on the voltages and acioss the cuiients thiough a small poition of a netwoik such
as netwoik B in Fig. 3.13(a), it is convenient to ieplace netwoik , which is complicated and of little inteiest,
by a simple equivalent. The simple equivalent may contain a single, equivalent, voltage souice in seiies with
an equivalent impedance in seiies as displayed in Fig. 3.13(b). In this case, the equivalent is called a T|enn
equa|en. Alteinatively, the simple equivalent may consist of an equivalent cuiient souice in paiallel with an
equivalent impedance. This equivalent, shown in Fig. 3.13(c), is called a Noron equa|en. Obseive that as
long as Z
T
(subsciipt T foi Thvenin) is equal to Z
N
(subsciipt N foi Noiton), the two equivalents may be
obtained fiom one anothei by a simple souice tiansfoimation.
Cunditiuns ul App!icatiun
The Thvenin and Noiton netwoik equivalents aie only valid at the teiminals of netwoik in Fig. 3.13(a) and
they do not extend to its inteiioi. In addition, theie aie ceitain iestiictions on netwoiks and B. Netwoik
may contain only lineai elements but may contain both independent and dependent souices. Netwoik B, on
the othei hand, is not iestiicted to lineai elements; it may contain nonlineai oi time-vaiying elements and may
Z
, ,
, ,
,
P

+
+
( )( ) 40 40 40
40 40 40
40 40 O
`
I
,
,
1
240 0
80
3 0
+
+ A
`
( ) ( ) I
,
, ,
, , , ,
V

+
1
]
1
1
+ + +
40
40 40 40
3 0 3 0 0 3A
`
( ) ( ) I
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
C

+
1
]
1
1 +
1
]
1
1
+
40
40 40
40
40 40 40
0 6
2
0 6 3 0 A
also contain both independent and dependent souices. Togethei, theie can be no contiolled souice coupling
oi magnetic coupling between netwoiks and B.
The Thevenin Theurem
The statement of the Thvenin theoiem is based on Fig. 3.13(b):
Insofai as a load which has no magnetic oi contiolled souice coupling to a one-poit is conceined, a netwoik
containing lineai elements and both independent and contiolled souices may be ieplaced by an ideal voltage
souice of stiength,
^
V
T
, and an equivalent impedance Z
T
, in seiies with the souice. The value of
^
V
T
is the
open-ciicuit voltage,
^
V
OC
, appeaiing acioss the teiminals of the netwoik and Z
T
is the diiving point imped-
ance at the teiminals of the netwoik, obtained with all independent souices set equal to zeio.
The Nurtun Theurem
The Noiton theoiem involves a cuiient souice equivalent. The statement of the Noiton theoiem is based on
Fig. 3.13(c):
Insofai as a load which has no magnetic oi contiolled souice coupling to a one-poit is conceined, the netwoik
containing lineai elements and both independent and contiolled souices may be ieplaced by an ideal cuiient
souice of stiength,
^
I
N
, and an equivalent impedance, Z
N
, in paiallel with the souice. The value of
^
I
N
is the
shoit-ciicuit cuiient,
^
I
SC
, which iesults when the teiminals of the netwoik aie shoited and Z
N
is the diiving
point impedance at the teiminals when all independent souices aie set equal to zeio.
The Equiva!ent Impedance,
Thiee methods aie available foi the deteimination of Z

T
. All of them aie applicable at the analyst`s discietion.
When contiolled souices aie piesent, howevei, the fist method cannot be used.
The fist method involves the diiect calculation of Z
eq
Z
T
Z
N
by looking into the teiminals of the netwoik
aftei all independent souices have been nulled. Independent souices aie nulled in a netwoik by ieplacing all
independent voltage souices with a shoit ciicuit and all independent cuiient souices with an open ciicuit.
FIGURE 3.13 (a) Two one-poit netwoiks; (b) the Thvenin equivalent foi netwoik a; and (c) the Noiton equivalent foi
netwoik a.
The second method, which may be used when contiolled souices aie piesent in the netwoik, iequiies the
computation of both the Thvenin equivalent voltage (the open-ciicuit voltage at the teiminals of the netwoik)
and the Noiton equivalent cuiient (the cuiient thiough the shoit-ciicuited teiminals of the netwoik). The
equivalent impedance is the iatio of these two quantities
The thiid method may also be used when contiolled souices aie piesent within the netwoik. A test voltage
may be placed acioss the teiminals with a iesulting cuiient calculated oi measuied. Alteinatively, a test cuiient
may be injected into the teiminals with a iesulting voltage deteimined. In eithei case, the equivalent iesistance
can be obtained fiom the value of the iatio of the test voltage
^
V
o
to the iesulting cuiient
^
I
o
Erump|e J.2. The cuiient thiough the capacitoi with impedance -,35 O in Fig. 3.14(a) may be found using
Thvenin`s theoiem. The fist step is to iemove the -,35-O capacitoi and considei it as the load. When this is
done, the netwoik in Fig. 3.14(b) iesults.
The Thvenin equivalent voltage is the voltage acioss the 40-O iesistoi. The cuiient thiough the 40-O iesistoi
was found in Example 3.1 to be I 3 - ,3 O. Thus,
^
V
T
40(3 - ,3) 120 - ,120 V
The Thvenin equivalent impedance may be found by looking into the teiminals of the netwoik in
Fig. 3.14(c). Obseive that both souices in Fig. 3.14(a) have been nulled and that, foi ease of computation,
impedances Z
a
and Z
|
have been placed on Fig. 3.14(c). Heie,
and
Z
T
Z
|
- ,15 20 - ,15 O
Both the Thvenin equivalent voltage and impedance aie shown in Fig. 3.14(d), and when the load is attached,
as in Fig. 3.14(d), the cuiient can be computed as
The Noiton equivalent ciicuit is obtained via a simple voltage-to-cuiient souice tiansfoimation and is shown
in Fig. 3.15. Heie it is obseived that a single cuiient division gives
Z Z Z
V
I
V
I
T N eq
T
N
OC
SC

`
`
`
`
Z
V
I
T
o
o
`
`
Z
, ,
, ,
,
Z
a
|

+
+
+

( )( )
( )( )
40 40 40
40 40 40
40 40
40 40
40 40
20
O
O
`
`
I
V
, ,
,
,
,
T
+

+
+
20 15 35
120 120
20 20
0 6 A
`
( . . ) I
,
, ,
, ,
+
+
1
]
1
1
+ +
20 15
20 15 35
6 72 0 96 0 6 A
FIGURE 3.14 (a) A netwoik in the phasoi domain; (b) the netwoik with the load iemoved; (c) the netwoik foi the
computation of the Thvenin equivalent impedance; and (d) the Thvenin equivalent.
FIGURE 3.15 The Noiton equivalent of Fig. 3.14(d).
Te!!egen's Theurem
Tellegen`s theoiem states:
In an aibitiaiily lumped netwoik subject to KVL and KCL constiaints, with iefeience diiections of the bianch
cuiients and bianch voltages associated with the KVL and KCL constiaints, the pioduct of all bianch cuiients
and bianch voltages must equal zeio.
Tellegen`s theoiem may be summaiized by the equation
wheie the lowei case letteis and , iepiesent instantaneous values of the bianch voltages and bianch cuiients,
iespectively, and wheie | is the total numbei of bianches. A matiix iepiesentation employing the bianch cuiient
and bianch voltage vectois also exists. Because V and J aie column vectois
V J V
T
J J
T
V
The pieiequisite conceining the KVL and KCL constiaints in the statement of Tellegen`s theoiem is of ciucial
impoitance.
Erump|e J.J. Figuie 3.16 displays an oiiented giaph of a paiticulai netwoik in which theie aie six bianches
labeled with numbeis within paientheses and foui nodes labeled by numbeis within ciicles. Seveial known
bianch cuiients and bianch voltages aie indicated. Because the type of elements oi theii values is not geimane
to the constiuction of the giaph, the othei bianch cuiients and bianch voltages may be evaluated fiom iepeated
applications of KCL and KVL. KCL may be used fist at the vaiious nodes.
node 3: ,
2
,
6
- ,
4
4 - 2 2 A
node 1: ,
3
-,
1
- ,
2
-8 - 2 -10 A
node 2: ,
5
,
3
- ,
4
-10 - 2 -12 A
Then KVL gives
3

2
-
4
8 - 6 2 V
6

5
-
4
-10 - 6 -16 V
1

2
-
6
8 - 16 -8 V
FIGURE 3.16 An oiiented giaph of a paiticulai netwoik with some known bianch cuiients and bianch voltages.
,
| |
|
|
0
1
The tianspose of the bianch voltage and cuiient vectois aie
V
T
-8 8 2 6 -10 -16] V
and
J
T
8 2 -10 2 -12 4] V
The scalai pioduct of V and J gives
-8(8) - 8(2) - 2(-10) - 6(2) - (-10)(-12) - (-16)(4) -148 - 148 0
and Tellegen`s theoiem is confimed.
Maximum Puver Transler
The maximum powei tiansfei theoiem peitains to the connections of a load to the Thvenin equivalent of a
souice netwoik in such a mannei as to tiansfei maximum powei to the load. Foi a given netwoik opeiating
at a piesciibed voltage with a Thvenin equivalent impedance
Z
T
Z
T

T
the ieal powei diawn by any load of impedance
Z
o
Z
o

o
is a function of just two vaiiables, Z
o
and
o
. If the powei is to be a maximum, theie aie thiee alteinatives
to the selection of Z
o
and
o
:
(1) Both Z
o
and
o
aie at the designei`s discietion and both aie allowed to vaiy in any mannei in oidei
to achieve the desiied iesult. In this case, the load should be selected to be the complex conjugate of
the Thvenin equivalent impedance
Z
o
Z
T
(2) The angle,
o
, is fxed but the magnitude, Z
o
, is allowed to vaiy. Foi example, the analyst may select
and fx
o
0. This iequiies that the load be iesistive (Z is entiiely ieal). In this case, the value of the
load iesistance should be selected to be equal to the magnitude of the Thvenin equivalent impedance
R
o
Z
T

(3) The magnitude of the load impedance, Z
o
, can be fxed, but the impedance angle,
o
, is allowed to
vaiy. In this case, the value of the load impedance angle should be
Erump|e J.4. Figuie 3.17(a) is identical to Fig. 3.14(b) with the exception of a load, Z
o
, substituted foi the
capacitive load. The Thvenin equivalent is shown in Fig. 3.17(b). The value of Z
o
to tiansfei maximum powei

o
o T T
o T
Z Z
Z Z

+
1
]
1
1
1
aicsin
sin 2
2 2
is to be found if its elements aie uniestiicted, if it is to be a single iesistoi, oi if the magnitude of Z
o
must be
20 O but its angle is adjustable.
Foi maximum powei tiansfei to Z
o
when the elements of Z
o
aie completely at the discietion of the netwoik
designei, Z
o
must be the complex conjugate of Z
T
Z
o
Z
T
20 - ,15 O
If Z
o
is to be a single iesistoi, R
o
, then the magnitude of Z
o
R
o
must be equal to the magnitude of Z
T
. Heie
Z
T
20 - ,15 25 36.87
so that
R
o
Z
o
25 O
If the magnitude of Z
o
must be 20 O but the angle is adjustable, the iequiied angle is calculated fiom
This makes Z
o
Z
o
20 -35.83 16.22 - ,11.71 O
The Reciprucity Theurem
The iecipiocity theoiem is a useful geneial theoiem that applies to all lineai, passive, and bilateial netwoiks.
Howevei, it applies only to cases wheie cuiient and voltage aie involved.
The iatio of a single excitation applied at one point to an obseived iesponse at anothei is invaiiant with
iespect to an inteichange of the points of excitation and obseivation.
FIGURE 3.17 (a) A netwoik foi which the load, Z
o
, is to be selected foi maximum powei tiansfei, and (b) the Thvenin
equivalent of the netwoik.

o
o T
o T
T
Z Z
Z Z

+
1
]
1
1

+

1
]
1
1

aicsin sin
aicsin
( )( )
( ) ( )
sin .
aicsin( . ) .
/
2
2 20 25
20 25
36 87
0 585 35 83
2 2
2 2

The iecipiocity piinciple also applies if the excitation is a cuiient and the obseived iesponse is a voltage. It
will not apply, in geneial, foi voltage-voltage and cuiient-cuiient situations, and, of couise, it is not applicable
to netwoik models of nonlineai devices.
Erump|e J.3. It is easily shown that the positions of
s
and in Fig. 3.18(a) may be inteichanged as in
Fig. 3.18(b) without changing the value of the cuiient .
In Fig. 3.18(a), the iesistance piesented to the voltage souice is
Then
and by cuiient division
In Fig. 3.18(b), the iesistance piesented to the voltage souice is
Then
and again, by cuiient division
The netwoik is iecipiocal.
FIGURE 3.18 Two netwoiks which can be used to illustiate the iecipiocity piinciple.
R +
+
+ 4
3 6
3 6
4 2 6
( )
O

R
a
s

36
6
6 A

a a
_
,

6
6 3
2
3
6 4 A
R +
+
+ 3
6 4
6 4
3
12
5
27
5
( )
O

R
|
s

36
27 5
180
27
20
3 /
A

|
_
,

6
4 6
3
5
20
3
4 A
The Substitutiun and Cumpensatiun Theurems
The Substitutiun Theurem
Any bianch in a netwoik with bianch voltage,
|
, and bianch cuiient,
|
, can be ieplaced by anothei bianch
piovided it also has bianch voltage,
|
, and bianch cuiient,
|
.
The Cumpensatiun Theurem
In a lineai netwoik, if the impedance of a bianch caiiying a cuiient
^
I is changed fiom Z to Z - AZ, then the
coiiesponding change of any voltage oi cuiient elsewheie in the netwoik will be due to a compensating voltage
souice, AZ
^
I, placed in seiies with Z - AZ with polaiity such that the souice, AZ
^
I, is opposing the cuiient
^
I.
Dehning Terms
Linear network: A netwoik in which the paiameteis of iesistance, inductance, and capacitance aie constant
with iespect to voltage oi cuiient oi the iate of change of voltage oi cuiient and in which the voltage
oi cuiient of souices is eithei independent of oi piopoitional to othei voltages oi cuiients, oi theii
deiivatives.
Maximum power transfer theorem: In any electiical netwoik which caiiies diiect oi alteinating cuiient, the
maximum possible powei tiansfeiied fiom one section to anothei occuis when the impedance of the
section acting as the load is the complex conjugate of the impedance of the section that acts as the souice.
Heie, both impedances aie measuied acioss the paii of teiminals in which the powei is tiansfeiied with
the othei pait of the netwoik disconnected.
Norton theorem: The voltage acioss an element that is connected to two teiminals of a lineai, bilateial netwoik
is equal to the shoit-ciicuit cuiient between these teiminals in the absence of the element, divided by
the admittance of the netwoik looking back fiom the teiminals into the netwoik, with all geneiatois
ieplaced by theii inteinal admittances.
Principle of superposition: In a lineai electiical netwoik, the voltage oi cuiient in any element iesulting
fiom seveial souices acting togethei is the sum of the voltages oi cuiients fiom each souice acting alone.
Reciprocity theorem: In a netwoik consisting of lineai, passive impedances, the iatio of the voltage intioduced
into any bianch to the cuiient in any othei bianch is equal in magnitude and phase to the iatio that
iesults if the positions of the voltage and cuiient aie inteichanged.
Thvenin theorem: The cuiient owing in any impedance connected to two teiminals of a lineai, bilateial
netwoik containing geneiatois is equal to the cuiient owing in the same impedance when it is connected
to a voltage geneiatoi whose voltage is the voltage at the open-ciicuited teiminals in question and whose
seiies impedance is the impedance of the netwoik looking back fiom the teiminals into the netwoik,
with all geneiatois ieplaced by theii inteinal impedances.
Re!ated Tupics
2.2 Ideal and Piactical Souices 3.4 Powei and Eneigy
Relerences
J. D. Iiwin, Bast Engneerng Crtu na|yss, 4th ed., New Yoik: Macmillan, 1993.
A. D. Kiaus, Crtu na|yss, St. Paul: West Publishing, 1991.
J. W. Nilsson, E|etrt Crtus, 5th ed., Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1995.
Further Inlurmatiun
Thiee texts listed in the Refeiences have achieved widespiead usage and contain moie details on the mateiial
contained in this section.
3.4 Puver and Energy
Normon o|obonon ond T|eodore A. c|orr
The concept of the voltage between two points was intioduced in Section 3.1
as the eneigy w expended pei unit chaige in moving the chaige between the two
points. Coupled with the defnition of cuiient as the time iate of chaige motion
and that of powei as the time iate of change of eneigy, this leads to the following
fundamental ielationship between the powei deliveied to a two-teiminal elec-
tiical component and the voltage and cuiient of that component, with standaid
iefeiences (meaning that the voltage iefeience plus is at the tail of the cuiient
iefeience aiiow) as shown in Fig. 3.19:
(3.1)
Assuming that the voltage and cuiient aie in volts and ampeies, iespectively, the powei is in was. This
ielationship applies to any two-teiminal component oi netwoik, whethei lineai oi nonlineai.
The powei deliveied to the basic lineai iesistive, inductive, and capacitive elements is obtained by inseiting
the - ielationships into this expiession. Then, using the ielationship between powei and eneigy (powei as
the time deiivative of eneigy and eneigy, theiefoie, as the integial of powei), the eneigy stoied in the capacitoi
and inductoi is also obtained:
(3.2)
wheie the oiigin of time ( 0) is chosen as the time when the capacitoi voltage (iespectively, the inductoi
cuiient) is zeio.
Te!!egen's Theurem
A iesult that has fai-ieaching consequences in electiical engineeiing is Tellegen`s theoiem. It will be stated in
teims of the netwoiks shown in Fig. 3.20. These two aie said to be topologically equivalent; that is, they aie
iepiesented by the same giaph but the components that constitute the bianches of the giaph aie not necessaiily
the same in the two netwoiks. they can even be nonlineai, as illustiated by the diode in one of the netwoiks.
Assuming all bianches have standaid iefeiences, including the souice bianches, Tellegen`s theoiem states that
(3.3)
In the second line, the vaiiables aie vectois and the piime stands foi the tianspose. The a and | subsciipts iefei
to the two netwoiks.
FIGURE 3.19 Powei deliv-
eied to a ciicuit.
R
C
J
J
w C
J
J
J C
L
J
J
w L
J
J
J L
R R R
C C C C
C
C C
C
C
L L L L
L
L L
L
L

[
[
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
1
2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

|, a,
,
| a
all
-

0
0
This is an amazing iesult. It can be easily pioved with the use of Kiichhoff `s two laws.
1
The pioducts of
and aie ieminiscent of powei as in Eq. (3.1). Howevei, the pioduct of the voltage of a bianch in one netwoik
and the cuiient of its topologically coiiesponding bianch (which may not even be the same type of component)
in anothei netwoik does not constitute powei in eithei bianch. fuitheimoie, the vaiiables in one netwoik might
be functions of time, while those of the othei netwoik might be steady-state phasois oi Laplace tiansfoims.
Neveitheless, some conclusions about powei can be deiived fiom Tellegen`s theoiem. Since a netwoik is
topologically equivalent to itself, the | netwoik can be the same as the a netwoik. In that case each pioduct
in Eq. (3.3) iepiesents the powei deliveied to the coiiesponding bianch, including the souices. The equation
then says that if we add the powei deliveied to all the bianches of a netwoik, the iesult will be zeio.
This iesult can be iecast if the souices aie sepaiated fiom the othei bianches and one of the iefeiences of
each souice (cuiient iefeience foi each -souice and voltage iefeience foi each -souice) is ieveised. Then the
pioduct foi each souice, with new iefeiences, will entei Eq. (3.3) with a negative sign and will iepiesent the
powei supplied by this souice. When these teims aie tiansposed to the iight side of the equation, theii signs
aie changed. The new equation will state in mathematical foim that
In any electiical netwoik, the sum of the powei supplied by the souices is equal to the sum of the powei
deliveied to all the nonsouice bianches.
This is not veiy suipiising since it is equivalent to the law of conseivation of eneigy, a fundamental piinciple
of science.
AC Steady-State Puver
Let us now considei the ac steady-state case, wheie all voltages and cuiients aie sinusoidal. Thus, in the two-
teiminal ciicuit of Fig. 3.19:
(3.4)
The capital V and I aie phasois iepiesenting the voltage and cuiient, and theii magnitudes aie the coiiesponding
ims values. The powei deliveied to the netwoik at any instant of time is given by:
(3.5)
The last foim is obtained by using tiigonometiic identities foi the sum and diffeience of two angles. Wheieas
both the voltage and the cuiient aie sinusoidal, the instantaneous powei contains a constant teim (independent
1
See, foi example, N. Balabanian and T. A. Bickait, Lnear Newor| T|eory, Matiix Publisheis, Chesteiland, Ohio, 1981,
chap. 9.
FIGURE 3.20 Topologically equivalent netwoiks.
V V V e
I I I e
,
,
( ) cos( )
( ) cos( )
+
+
2
2

u o
u
o
V I
V I V I
( ) ( ) ( ) cos( ) cos( )
cos( ) cos( )
+ +

,
+ + +
,
2
2

u o u
o u o
of time) in addition to a sinusoidal teim. Fuitheimoie, the fiequency of the sinusoidal teim is twice that of
the voltage oi cuiient. Plots of , , and aie shown in Fig. 3.21 foi specifc values of o and . The powei is
sometimes positive, sometimes negative. This means that powei is sometimes deliveied to the teiminals and
sometimes extiacted fiom them.
The eneigy which is tiansmitted into the netwoik ovei some inteival of time is found by integiating the
powei ovei this inteival. If the aiea undei the positive pait of the powei cuive weie the same as the aiea undei
the negative pait, the net eneigy tiansmitted ovei one cycle would be zeio. Foi the values of o and used in
the fguie, howevei, the positive aiea is gieatei, so theie is a net tiansmission of eneigy towaid the netwoik.
The eneigy ows back fiom the netwoik to the souice ovei pait of the cycle, but on the aveiage, moie eneigy
ows towaid the netwoik than away fiom it.
In Terms ul RMS Ya!ues and Phase Dillerence
Considei the question fiom anothei point of view. The pieceding equation shows the powei to consist of a
constant teim and a sinusoid. The aveiage value of a sinusoid is zeio, so this teim will contiibute nothing to
the net eneigy tiansmitted. Only the constant teim will contiibute. This constant teim is the aveiage value of
the powei, as can be seen eithei fiom the pieceding fguie oi by integiating the pieceding equation ovei one
cycle. Denoting the aveiage powei by P and letting o - , which is the angle of the netwoik impedance,
the aveiage powei becomes:
(3.6)
The thiid line is obtained by bieaking up the exponential in the pievious line by the law of exponents. The
fist factoi between squaie biackets in this line is identifed as the phasoi voltage and the second factoi as the
conjugate of the phasoi cuiient. The last line then follows. It expiesses the aveiage powei in teims of the voltage
and cuiient phasois and is sometimes moie convenient to use.
Cump!ex and Reactive Puver
The aveiage ac powei is found to be the ieal pait of a complex quantity VI, labeled S, that in iectangulai foim is
(3.7)
FIGURE 3.21 Instantaneous voltage, cuiient, and powei.
P V I
V I e V I e
V e I e
VI
, ,
, ,
( )

,
( ) ( )
,
( )
( )
cos
Re Re
Re
Re
o
o
S VI V I e V I , V I
P ,Q
,
+
+
cos sin

wheie
(3.8)
We alieady know P to be the aveiage powei. Since it is the ieal pait of some complex quantity, it would be
ieasonable to call it the real power. The complex quantity S of which P is the ieal pait is, theiefoie, called the
tom|ex ower. Its magnitude is the pioduct of the ims values of voltage and cuiient: S V I. It is called
the aaren ower and its unit is the volt-ampeie (VA). To be consistent, then we should call Q the magnary
ower. This is not usually done, howevei; instead, Q is called the reactive power and its unit is a VAR (volt-
ampeie ieactive).
Phasur and Puver Diagrams
An inteipietation useful foi claiifying and undeistanding the pieceding ielationships and foi the calculation
of powei is a giaphical appioach. Figuie 3.22(a) is a phasoi diagiam of V and I in a paiticulai case. The phasoi
voltage can be iesolved into two components, one paiallel to the phasoi cuiient (oi in phase with I) and anothei
peipendiculai to the cuiient (oi in quadiatuie with it). This is illustiated in Fig. 3.22(b). Hence, the aveiage
powei P is the magnitude of phasoi I multiplied by the in-phase component of V; the ieactive powei Q is the
magnitude of I multiplied by the quadiatuie component of V.
Alteinatively, one can imagine iesolving phasoi I into two components, one in phase with V and one in
quadiatuie with it, as illustiated in Fig. 3.22(c). Then P is the pioduct of the magnitude of V with the in-phase
component of I, and Q is the pioduct of the magnitude of V with the quadiatuie component of I. Real powei
is pioduced only by the in-phase components of V and I. The quadiatuie components contiibute only to the
ieactive powei.
The in-phase oi quadiatuie components of V and I do not depend on the specifc values of the angles of
each, but on theii phase diffeience. One can imagine the two phasois in the pieceding diagiam to be iigidly
held togethei and iotated aiound the oiigin by any angle. As long as the angle is held fxed, all of the discussion
of this section will still apply. It is common to take the cuiient phasoi as the iefeience foi angle; that is, to
choose 0 so that phasoi I lies along the ieal axis. Then o.
Puver Factur
Foi any given ciicuit it is useful to know what pait of the total complex powei is ieal (aveiage) powei and what
pait is ieactive powei. This is usually expiessed in teims of the power factor F
, defned as the iatio of ieal

powei to appaient powei:
(3.9)
FIGURE 3.22 In-phase and quadiatuie components of V and I.
P V I
Q V I
S V I
( )
( )
( )
cos
sin

a
b
c
Powei factoi
F
P
S
P
V I

Not counting the iight side, this is a geneial ielationship, although we developed it heie foi sinusoidal excita-
tions. With P V I cos , we fnd that the powei factoi is simply cos . Because of this, itself is called the
powei factoi angle.
Since the cosine is an even function cos(-) cos ], specifying the powei factoi does not ieveal the sign
of . Remembei that is the angle of the impedance. If is positive, this means that the cuiient lags the voltage;
we say that the powei factoi is a |aggng powei factoi. On the othei hand, if is negative, the cuiient leads the
voltage and we say this iepiesent a |eaJng powei factoi.
The powei factoi will ieach its maximum value, unity, when the voltage and cuiient aie in phase. This will
happen in a puiely iesistive ciicuit, of couise. It will also happen in moie geneial ciicuits foi specifc element
values and a specifc fiequency.
We can now obtain a physical inteipietation foi the ieactive powei. When the powei factoi is unity, the
voltage and cuiient aie in phase and sin 0. Hence, the ieactive powei is zeio. In this case, the instantaneous
powei is nevei negative. This case is illustiated by the cuiient, voltage, and powei wavefoims in Fig. 3.23; the
powei cuive nevei dips below the axis, and theie is no exchange of eneigy between the souice and the ciicuit.
At the othei extieme, when the powei factoi is zeio, the voltage and cuiient aie 90 out of phase and sin
1. Now the ieactive powei is a maximum and the aveiage powei is zeio. In this case, the instantaneous powei
is positive ovei half a cycle (of the voltage) and negative ovei the othei half. All the eneigy deliveied by the
souice ovei half a cycle is ietuined to the souice by the ciicuit ovei the othei half.
It is cleai, then, that the ieactive powei is a measuie of the exchange of eneigy between the souice and the
ciicuit without being used by the ciicuit. Although none of this exchanged eneigy is dissipated by oi stoied in
the ciicuit, and it is ietuined unused to the souice, neveitheless it is tempoiaiily made available to the ciicuit
by the souice.
1
Average Stured Energy
The aveiage ac eneigy stoied in an inductoi oi a capacitoi can be established by using the expiessions foi the
instantaneous stoied eneigy foi aibitiaiy time functions in Eq. (3.2), specifying the time function to be
sinusoidal, and taking the aveiage value of the iesult.
(3.10)
1
Powei companies chaige theii industiial customeis not only foi the aveiage powei they use but foi the ieactive powei
they ietuin. Theie is a ieason foi this. Suppose a given powei system is to delivei a fxed amount of aveiage powei at a
constant voltage amplitude. Since P V I cos , the cuiient will be inveisely piopoitional to the powei factoi. If the
ieactive powei is high, the powei factoi will be low and a high cuiient will be iequiied to delivei the given powei. To caiiy
a laige cuiient, the conductois caiiying it to the customei must be coiiespondingly laigei and bettei insulated, which means
a laigei capital investment in physical plant and facilities. It may be cost effective foi customeis to tiy to ieduce the ieactive
powei they iequiie, even if they have to buy additional equipment to do so.
FIGURE 3.23 Powei wavefoim foi unity and zeio powei factois.
V L I V C V
L C

1
2
1
2
2 2

App!icatiun ul Te!!egen's Theurem tu Cump!ex Puver
An example of two topologically equivalent netwoiks was shown in Fig. 3.20. Let us now specify that two such
netwoiks aie lineai, all souices aie same-fiequency sinusoids, they aie opeiating in the steady state, and all
vaiiables aie phasois. Fuitheimoie, suppose the two netwoiks aie the same, except that the souices of netwoik |
have phasois that aie the complex conjugates of those of netwoik a. Then, if V and I denote the vectois of
bianch voltages and cuiients of netwoik a, Tellegen`s theoiem in Eq. (3.3) becomes:
(3.11)
wheie V is the conjugate tianspose of vectoi V.
This iesult states that the sum of the complex powei deliveied to all bianches of a lineai ciicuit opeiating
in the ac steady state is zeio. Alteinatively stated, the total complex powei deliveied to a netwoik by its souices
equals the sum of the complex powei deliveied to its nonsouice bianches. Again, this iesult is not suipiising.
Since, if a complex quantity is zeio, both the ieal and imaginaiy paits must be zeio, the same iesult can be
stated foi the aveiage powei and foi the ieactive powei.
Maximum Puver Transler
The diagiam in Fig. 3.24 illustiates a two-teiminal lineai ciicuit at whose teiminals an impedance Z
L
is
connected. The ciicuit is assumed to be opeiating in the ac steady state. The pioblem to be addiessed is this:
given the two-teiminal ciicuit, how can the impedance connected to it be adjusted so that the maximum
possible aveiage powei is tiansfeiied fiom the ciicuit to the impedance:
The fist step is to ieplace the ciicuit by its Thvenin equivalent, as shown in Fig. 3.24(b). The cuiient phasoi
in this ciicuit is I V
T
/(Z
T
- Z
L
). The aveiage powei tiansfeiied by the ciicuit to the impedance is:
(3.12)
In this expiession, only the load (that is, R
L
and X
L
) can be vaiied. The pieceding equation, then, expiesses a
dependent vaiiable (P) in teims of two independent ones (R
L
and X
L
).
What is iequiied is to maximize P. Foi a function of moie than one vaiiable, this is done by setting the
paitial deiivatives with iespect to each of the independent vaiiables equal to zeio; that is, oP/oR
L
0 and
oP/oX
L
0. Caiiying out these diffeientiations leads to the iesult that maximum powei will be tiansfeiied
when the load impedance is the conjugate of the Thvenin impedance of the ciicuit: Z
L
Z
T
. If the Thvenin
impedance is puiely iesistive, then the load iesistance must equal the Thvenin iesistance.
FIGURE 3.24 A lineai ciicuit deliveiing powei to a load in the steady state.
V I V I
, ,
,

all
-
0
P I Z
V Z
Z Z
V R
R R X X
L
T L
T L
T L
T L T L

+
+ + +

2
2
2
2
2 2
Re( )
Re( )
) ( ) (
In some cases, both the load impedance and the Thvenin
impedance of the souice may be fxed. In such a case, the
matching foi maximum powei tiansfei can be achieved by
using a tiansfoimei, as illustiated in Fig. 3.25, wheie the
impedances aie both iesistive. The tiansfoimei is assumed
to be ideal, with tuins iatio n. Maximum powei is tians-
feiied if n
2
R
T
/R
L
.
Measuring AC Puver and Energy
With ac steady-state aveiage powei given in the fist line of Eq. (3.6), measuiing the aveiage powei iequiies
measuiing the ims values of voltage and cuiient, as well as the powei factoi. This is accomplished by the
aiiangement shown in Fig. 3.26, which includes a bieakout of an electiodynamometei-type wattmetei. The
cuiient in the high-iesistance pivoted coil is piopoitional to the voltage acioss the load. The cuiient to the
load and the pivoted coil togethei thiough the eneigizing coil of the electiomagnet establishes a piopoitional
magnetic feld acioss the cylindei of iotation of the pivoted coil. the toique on the pivoted coil is piopoitional
to the pioduct of the magnetic feld stiength and the cuiient in the pivoted coil. If the cuiient in the pivoted
coil is negligible compaied to that in the load, then the toique becomes essentially piopoitional to the pioduct
of the voltage acioss the load (equal to that acioss the pivoted coil) and the cuiient in the load (essentially
equal to that thiough the eneigizing coil of the electiomagnet). The dynamics of the pivoted coil togethei with
the iestiaining spiing, at ac powei fiequencies, ensuies that the angulai displacement of the pivoted coil becomes
piopoitional to the aveiage of the toique oi, equivalently, the aveiage powei.
One of the most ubiquitous of electiical instiuments is the induction-type watthoui metei, which measuies
the eneigy deliveied to a load. Eveiy customei of an electiical utility has one, foi example. In this instance the
pivoted coil is ieplaced by a iotating conducting (usually aluminum) disk as shown in Fig. 3.27. An induced
eddy cuiient in the disk ieplaces the pivoted coil cuiient inteiaction with the load-cuiient-established magnetic
feld. Aftei compensating foi the less-than-ideal natuie of the electiical elements making up the metei as just
desciibed, the iesult is that the disk iotates at a iate piopoitional to the aveiage powei to the load and the
iotational count is piopoitional to the eneigy deliveied to the load.
At fiequencies above the ac powei fiequencies and, in some instances, at the ac powei fiequencies, electionic
instiuments aie available to measuie powei and eneigy. They aie not a cost-effective substitute foi these meteis
in the monitoiing of powei and eneigy deliveied to most of the millions upon millions of homes and businesses.
Dehning Terms
AC steady-state power: Considei an ac souice connected at a paii of teiminals to an otheiwise isolated
netwoik. Let and denote the peak values, iespectively, of the ac steady-state voltage and
cuiient at the teiminals. Fuitheimoie, let denote the phase angle by which the voltage leads the cuiient.
Then the aveiage powei deliveied by the souice to the netwoik would be expiessed as P V I cos().
FIGURE 3.26 A wattmetei connected to a load.
FIGURE 3.25 Matching with an ideal tiansfoimei.
2 J 2 I
Power and energy: Considei an electiical souice connected at a paii of teiminals to an otheiwise isolated
netwoik. Powei, denoted by , is the time iate of change in the eneigy deliveied to the netwoik by the
souice. This can be expiessed as , wheie , the voltage acioss the teiminals, is the eneigy expended
pei unit chaige in moving the chaige between the paii of teiminals and , the cuiient thiough the
teiminals, is the time iate of chaige motion.
Power factor: Considei an ac souice connected at a paii of teiminals to an otheiwise isolated netwoik. The
powei factoi, the iatio of the ieal powei to the appaient powei V I, is easily established to be cos(),
wheie is the powei factoi angle.
Reactive power: Considei an ac souice connected at a paii of teiminals to an otheiwise isolated netwoik.
The ieactive powei is a measuie of the eneigy exchanged between the souice and the netwoik without
being dissipated in the netwoik. The ieactive powei deliveied would be expiessed as Q V I sin().
Real power: Considei an ac souice connected at a paii of teiminals to an otheiwise isolated netwoik. The
ieal powei, equal to the aveiage powei, is the powei dissipated by the souice in the netwoik.
Tellegen's theorem: Two netwoiks, heie including all souices, aie topologically equivalent if they aie similai
stiuctuially, component by component. Tellegen`s theoiem states that the sum ovei all pioducts of the
pioduct of the cuiient of a component of ne netwoik, netwoik a, and of the voltage of the coiiesponding
component of the othei netwoik, netwoik |, is zeio. This would be expiessed as Z
all ,

|,

a,
0. Fiom this
geneial ielationship it follows that in any electiical netwoik, the sum of the powei supplied by the souices
is equal to the sum of the powei deliveied to all the nonsouice components.
Re!ated Tupic
Relerences
N. Balabanian, E|etrt Crtus, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1994.
A. E. Fitzgeiald, D. E. Higginbotham, and A. Giabel, Bast E|etrta| Engneerng, 5th ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-
Hill, 1981.
W. H. Hayt, Ji. and J. E. Kemmeily, Engneerng Crtu na|yss, 4th ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1986.
J. D. Iiwin, Bast Engneerng Crtu na|yss, New Yoik: Macmillan, 1995.
D. E. Johnson, J. L. Hilbuin, and J. R. Johnson, Bast E|etrt Crtu na|yss, 3id ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Pientice-Hall, 1990.
T. N. Tiick, InroJuton o Crtu na|yss, New Yoik: John Wiley, 1977.
FIGURE 3.27 A watthoui metei connected to a load.
3.5 Three-Phase Circuits
Normon o|obonon
Figuie 3.28(a) iepiesents the basic ciicuit foi consideiing the ow of powei fiom a single sinusoidal souice to
a load. The powei can be thought to cioss an imaginaiy boundaiy suiface (iepiesented by the dotted line in
the fguie) sepaiating the souice fiom the load. Suppose that:
(3.13)
Then the powei to the load at any instant of time is
() V I cos(o - ) - cos (2u - o - )] (3.14)
The instantaneous powei has a constant teim and a sinusoidal teim at twice the fiequency. The quantity in
biackets uctuates between a minimum value of cos(o - ) - 1 and a maximum value of cos(o - ) - 1. This
uctuation of powei deliveied to the load has ceitain disadvantages in some situations wheie the tiansmission
of powei is the puipose of a system. An electiic motoi, foi example, opeiates by ieceiving electiic powei and
tiansmitting mechanical (iotational) powei at its shaft. If the electiic powei is deliveied to the motoi in spuits,
the motoi is likely to vibiate. In oidei to iun satisfactoiily, a physically laigei motoi will be needed, with a
laigei shaft and ywheel, to piovide ineitia than would be the case if the deliveied powei weie constant.
This pioblem is oveicome in piactice by the use of what is called a |ree-|ase system. This section will
piovide a biief discussion of thiee-phase systems.
Considei the ciicuit in Fig. 3.28(b). This aiiangement is similai to a combination of thiee of the simple
ciicuits in Fig. 3.28(a) connected in such a way that each one shaies the ietuin connection fiom O to N. The
thiee souices can be viewed collectively as a single souice and the thiee loads-which aie assumed to be
FIGURE 3.28 Flow of powei fiom souice to load.
V
I
( ) cos( )
( ) cos( )
+
+
2
2

u o
u
identical-can be viewed collectively as a single load. Then, as befoie, the dotted line iepiesents a suiface
sepaiating the souice fiom the load. Each of the individual souices and loads is iefeiied to as one |ase of the
thiee-phase system.
The thiee souices aie assumed to have the same fiequency; they aie said to be synt|ron:eJ. It is also assumed
that the thiee voltages have the same ims values and the phase diffeience between each paii of voltages is 120
(2r/3 iad). Thus, they can be wiitten:
(3.15)
The phasors iepiesenting the sinusoids have also been shown. Foi convenience, the angle of v
a
has been
chosen as the iefeience foi angles;
|
|ags
a
by 120 and
t
|eaJs
a
by 120.
Because the loads aie identical, the ims values of the thiee cuiients shown in the fguie will also be the same
and the phase diffeience between each paii of them will be 120. Thus, the cuiients can be wiitten:
(3.16)
Peihaps a bettei foim foi visualizing the voltages and cuiients is a giaphical one. Phasoi diagiams foi the
voltages sepaiately and the cuiients sepaiately aie shown in Fig. 3.29. The value of angle
1
will depend on the
load. An inteiesting iesult is cleai fiom these diagiams. Fiist, V
2
and V
3
aie each othei`s conjugates. So if we
add them, the imaginaiy paits cancel and the sum will be ieal, as illustiated by the constiuction in the voltage
diagiam. Fuitheimoie, the constiuction shows that this ieal pait is negative and equal in size to V
1
. Hence, the
sum of the thiee voltages is zeio. The same is tiue of the sum of the thiee cuiients, as can be established
giaphically by a similai constiuction.
FIGURE 3.29 Voltage and cuiient phasoi diagiams.
V V V e
V V V e
V V V e
a a
,
| |
,
t t
,
+
+
+
2
2
2
1
0
2
120
3
120

cos( )
cos( )
cos( )
-
u o
u o
u o
I I I e
I I I e
I I I e
,
,
,
1 1 1
2 2 2
120
3 3 3
120
2
2
2
1
1
1
+
+
+
+

cos( )
cos( )
cos( )
( - )
( )
u
u
u

By Kiichhoff `s cuiient law applied at node N in Fig. 3.28(b), we fnd that the cuiient in the ietuin line is
the sum of the thiee cuiients in Eq. (3.16). Howevei, since this sum was found to be zeio, the ietuin line caiiies
no cuiient. Hence it can be iemoved entiiely without affecting the opeiation of the system. The iesulting ciicuit
is iediawn in Fig. 3.30. Because of its geometiical foim, this connection of both the souices and the loads is
said to be a wye (Y) connection.
The instantaneous powei deliveied by each of the souices has the foim given in Eq. (3.14), consisting of a
constant teim iepiesenting the aveiage powei and a double-fiequency sinusoidal teim. The lattei, being
sinusoidal, can be iepiesented by a phasoi also. The only caution is that a diffeient fiequency is involved heie,
so this powei phasoi should not be mixed with the voltage and cuiient phasois in the same diagiam oi
calculations. Let S V I be the appaient powei deliveied by each of the thiee souices and let the thiee powei
phasois be S
a
, S
|
, and S
t
, iespectively. Then:
(3.17)
It is evident that the phase ielationships among these thiee phasois aie the same as the ones among the
voltages and the cuiients. That is, the second leads the fist by 120 and the thiid lags the fist by 120. Hence,
just like the voltages and the cuiients, the sum of these thiee phasois will also be zeio. This is a veiy signifcant
iesult. Although the instantaneous powei deliveied by each souice has a constant component and a sinusoidal
component, when the thiee poweis aie added, the sinusoidal components add to zeio, leaving only the constants.
Thus, the total powei deliveied to the thiee loads is constant.
To deteimine the value of this constant powei, use Eq. (3.14) as a model. The contiibution of the |th souice
to the total (constant) powei is S cos(o
|
-
|
). One can easily veiify that o
|
-
|
o
1
-
1
-
1
. The fist
equality follows fiom the ielationships among the o`s fiom Eq. (3.15) and among the `s fiom Eq. (3.16). The
choice of o
1
0 leads to the last equality. Hence, the constant teims contiibuted to the powei by each souice
aie the same. If P is the total aveiage powei, then:
P P
a
- P
|
- P
t
3P
a
3 V I cos(o
1
-
1
) (3.18)
Although the angle o
1
has been set equal to zeio, foi the sake of geneiality we have shown it explicitly in this
equation.
What has just been desciibed is a |a|anteJ thiee-phase thiee-wiie powei system. The thiee souices in piactice
aie not thiee independent souices but consist of thiee diffeient paits of the same geneiatoi. The same is tiue
FIGURE 3.30 Wye-connected thiee-phase system.
S S e S e
S S e S e S e
S S e S e S e
a
, ,
|
, , ,
t
, , ,

+
+ + +
+ + + +

( )
( ) (- - ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( - )
o
o
o
1 1 1
2 2 1 1
3 3 1 1
120 120 120
120 120 120
of the loads.
1
What has been desciibed is ideal in a numbei of ways. Fiist, the ciicuit can be un|a|anteJ-foi
example, by the loads being somewhat unequal. Second, since the ieal devices whose ideal model is a voltage
souice aie coils of wiie, each souice should be accompanied by a bianch consisting of the coil inductance and
iesistance. Thiid, since the powei station (oi the distiibution tiansfoimei at some inteimediate point) may be
at some distance fiom the load, the paiameteis of the physical line caiiying the powei (the line inductance and
iesistance) must also be inseited in seiies between the souice and the load.
Foi an unbalanced system, the analysis of this section does not apply. An entiiely new analytical technique
is iequiied to do full justice to such a system.
2
Howevei, an undeistanding of balanced ciicuits is a pieiequisite
foi tackling the unbalanced case.
The last two of the conditions that make the ciicuit less than ideal (line and souice impedances) intioduce
algebiaic complications, but nothing fundamental is changed in the pieceding theoiy. If these two conditions
aie taken into account, the appiopiiate ciicuit takes the foim shown in Fig. 3.31. Heie the inteinal impedance
of a souice and the line impedance connecting that souice to its load aie both connected in seiies with the
coiiesponding load. Thus, instead of the impedance in each phase being Z, it is Z - Z
w
- Z
|
, wheie w and | aie
subsciipts standing foi winding" and line," iespectively. Hence, the ims value of each cuiient is
(3.19)
instead of V /Z. All othei iesults we had aiiived at iemain unchanged. namely, that the sum of the phase
cuiients is zeio and that the sum of the phase poweis is a constant. The detailed calculations simply become
a little moie complicated.
One othei point, illustiated foi the loads in Fig. 3.32, should be mentioned. Given wye-connected souices
oi loads, the wye and the delta can be made equivalent by piopei selection of the aims of the delta. Thus,
1
An ac powei geneiatoi consists of (a) a iotoi, which pioduces a magnetic feld and which is iotated by a piime movei
(say a tuibine), and (b) a statoi on which aie wound one oi moie coils of wiie. In thiee-phase systems, the numbei of coils
is thiee. The iotating magnetic feld induces a voltage in each of the coils. The 120 leading and lagging phase ielationships
among these voltages aie obtained by distiibuting the conductois of the coils aiound the ciicumfeience of the statoi so that
they aie sepaiated geometiically by 120. Thus, the thiee souices desciibed in the text aie in ieality a single physical device,
a single geneiatoi. Similaily, the thiee loads might be the thiee windings on a thiee-phase motoi, again a single physical device.
2
The technique foi analyzing unbalanced ciicuits utilizes what aie called symmerta| tomonens.
FIGURE 3.31 Thiee-phase ciicuit with nonzeio winding and line impedances.

I
V
Z Z Z
w |
+ +
eithei the souices in Fig. 3.30 oi the loads, oi both, can be ieplaced by a delta equivalent; thus we can conceive
of foui diffeient thiee-phase ciicuits; wye-wye, delta-wye, wye-delta, and delta-delta. Not only can we conceive
of them, they aie extensively used in piactice.
It is not woithwhile to caiiy out detailed calculations foi these foui cases. Once the basic piopeities desciibed
heie aie undeistood, one should be able to make the calculations. Obseive, howevei, that in the delta stiuctuie,
theie is no neutial connection, so the phase voltages cannot be measuied. The only voltages that can be measuied
aie the |ne-o-|ne oi simply the |ne voltages. These aie the diffeiences of the phase voltages taken in paiis, as
is evident fiom Fig. 3.31.
Dehning Terms
Delta connection: The souices oi loads in a thiee-phase system connected end-to-end, foiming a closed path,
like the Gieek lettei A.
Phasor: A complex numbei iepiesenting a sinusoid; its magnitude and angle aie the ims value and phase of
the sinusoid, iespectively.
Wye connection: The thiee souices oi loads in a thiee-phase system connected to have one common point,
like the lettei Y.
Re!ated Tupic
9.2 Thiee-Phase Connections
Relerences
V. del Toio, E|etrt Power Sysems, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1992.
B.R. Gungoi, Power Sysems, San Diego: Haicouit Biace Jovanovich, 1988.
P.Z. Peebles and T.A. Giuma, Prnt|es o[ E|etrta| Engneerng, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1991.
J.J. Giaingei and W.D. Stevenson, Ji., Power Sysems na|yss, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1994.
G.T. Heydt, E|etrt Power Qua|y, Stais in a Ciicle Publications, 1996.
B.S. Guiu and H.R. Hiiizoglu, E|etrt Mat|nery anJ Trans[ormers, Saundeis, 1996.
3.6 Graph Theury
1
S|uPor| C|on
Topology is a bianch of mathematics; it may be desciibed as the study of those piopeities of geometiic foims
that iemain invaiiant undei ceitain tiansfoimations, as bending, stietching, etc."
2
Netwoik topology (oi
1
Based on S.-P. Chan, Giaph theoiy and some of its applications in electiical netwoik theoiy," in Ma|emata| sets
o[ E|etrta| Newor| na|yss, vol. 3, SIM/MS ProteeJngs, Ameiican Mathematical Society, Piovidence, R.I., 1971. With
peimission.
2
This biief desciiption of topology is quoted diiectly fiom the RanJom House Dtonary o[ |e Eng|s| Language, Random
House, New Yoik, 1967.
FIGURE 3.32 Wye connection and delta connection.
netwoik giaph theoiy) is a study of (electiical) netwoiks in connection with theii nonmetiic geometiical
(namely topological) piopeities by investigating the inteiconnections between the bianches and the nodes of
the netwoiks. Such a study will lead to impoitant iesults in netwoik theoiy such as algoiithms foi foimulating
netwoik equations and the pioofs of vaiious basic netwoik theoiems Chan, 1969; Seshu and Reed, 1961].
The following aie some basic defnitions in netwoik giaph theoiy, which will be needed in the development
of topological foimulas in the analysis of lineai netwoiks and systems.
A linear graph (oi simply a gra|) is a set of line segments called eJges and points called ertes, which aie
the endpoints of the edges, inteiconnected in such a way that the edges aie connected to (oi ntJen with) the
veitices. The Jegree of a veitex of a giaph is the numbei of edges incident with that veitex.
A subset C
of the edges of a given giaph C is called a subgraph of C. If C
does not contain all of the edges

of C, it is a proper subgraph of C. A path is a subgiaph having all veitices of degiee 2 except foi the two
endpoints, which aie of degiee 1 and aie called the ermna|s of the path. The set of all edges in a path constitutes
a path-set. If the two teiminals of a path coincide, the path is a closed path and is called a circuit (oi loop).
The set of all edges contained in a ciicuit is called a circuit-set (oi loop-set).
A giaph oi subgiaph is said to be connected if theie is at least one path between eery paii of its veitices.
A tree of a connected giaph C is a connected subgiaph which contains all the veitices of C but no ciicuits.
The edges contained in a tiee aie called the branches of the tree. A 2-tiee of a connected giaph C is a (piopei)
subgiaph of C consisting of two unconnected ciicuitless subgiaphs, each subgiaph itself being connected, which
togethei contain all the veitices of C. Similaily, a |-tiee is a subgiaph of | unconnected ciicuitless subgiaphs,
each subgiaph being connected, which togethei include all the veitices of C. The k-tree admittance product
of a k-tree is the pioduct of the admittances of all the bianches of the |-tiee.
Erump|e J.3. The giaph C shown in Fig. 3.34 is the giaph of the
netwoik N of Fig. 3.33. The edges of C aie e
1
, e
2
, e
4
, e
5
, and e
6
; the veitices
of C aie V
1
, V
2
, and V
3
, and V
4
. A path of C is the subgiaph C
1
consisting
of edges e
2
, e
3
, and e
6
with veitices V
2
and V
4
as teiminals. Thus, the set
{e
2
, e
3
, e
6
is a path-set. With edge e
4
added to C
1
, we foim anothei
subgiaph C
2
, which is a ciicuit since as fai as C
2
is conceined all its
veitices aie of degiee 2. Hence the set {e
2
, e
3
, e
4
, e
6
is a ciicuit-set.
Obviously, C is a connected giaph since theie exists a path between eveiy
paii of veitices of C. A tiee of C may be the subgiaph consisting of edges
e
1
, e
4
, and e
6
. Two othei tiees of C aie {e
2
, e
5
, e
6
and {e
3
, e
4
, e
5
. A 2-tiee
of C is {e
2
, e
4
; anothei one is {e
3
, e
6
; and still anothei one is {e
3
, e
5
.
Note that both {e
2
, e
4
and {e
3
, e
6
aie subgiaphs which obviously satisfy
the defnition of a 2-tiee in the sense that each contains two disjoint
ciicuitless connected subgiaphs, both of which include all the foui vei-
tices of C. Thus, {e
3
, e
5
does not seem to be a 2-tiee. Howevei, if we
agiee to considei {e
3
, e
5
as a subgiaph which contains edges e
3
and e
5
plus the isolated veitex V
4
, we see that
{e
3
, e
5
will satisfy the defnition of a 2-tiee since it now has two ciicuitless connected subgiaphs with e
3
and
e
5
foiming one of them and the veitex V
4
alone foiming the othei. Moieovei, both subgiaphs togethei indeed
FIGURE 3.33 A passive netwoik N with a voltage diivei E.
FIGURE 3.34 The giaph C of the net-
woik N of Fig. 3.33.
include all the foui veitices of C. It is woith noting that a 2-tiee is obtained fiom a tiee by iemoving any one
of the bianches fiom the tiee; in geneial, a |-tiee is obtained fiom a (| - 1) tiee by iemoving fiom it any one
of its bianches. Finally, the tiee admittance pioduct of the tiee {e
2
, e
5
, e
6
is
1
/2
1
/5
1
/6 ; the 2-tiee admittance
pioduct of the 2-tiee {e
3
, e
5
is
1
/3
1
/5 (with the admittance of a veitex defned to be 1).
The -Tree Appruach
The development of the analysis of passive electiical netwoiks
using topological concepts may be dated back to 1847 when
Kiichhoff foimulated his set of topological foimulas in teims
of iesistances and the bianch-cuiient system of equations. In
1892, Maxwell developed anothei set of topological foimulas
based on the |-tiee concept, which aie the duals of Kiich-
hoff `s. These two sets of foimulas weie suppoited mainly by
heuiistic ieasoning and no foimal pioofs weie then available.
In the following we shall discuss only Maxwell`s topological
foimulas foi lineai netwoiks without mutual inductances.
Considei a netwoik N with n independent nodes as shown
in Fig. 3.35. The node 1 is taken as iefeience (datum) node.
the voltages V
1
, V
2
, . . ., V
n
(which aie functions of s) aie the
tiansfoims of the node-paii voltages (oi simply node voltages)
1
,
2
, . . .,
n
(which aie function s of ) between
the n nodes and the iefeience node 1 with the plus polaiity maiks at the n nodes. It can be shown Aitken,
1956] that the matiix equation foi the n independent nodes of N is given by
(3.20)
oi, in abbieviated matiix notation,
Y
n
V
n
I
n
(3.21)
wheie Y
n
is the node admittance matiix, V
n
the n 1 matiix of the node voltage tiansfoims, and I
n
the n 1
matiix of the tiansfoims of the known cuiient souices.
Foi a ielaxed passive one-poit (with zeio initial conditions) shown in Fig. 3.36, the diiving-point impedance
function Z
J
(s) and its iecipiocal, namely diiving-point admittance function Y
J
(s), aie given by
Z
J
(s) V
1
/I
1
A
11
/A
and
Y
J
(s) 1/Z
J
(s) A/A
11
iespectively, wheie A is the deteiminant of the node admittance matiix Y
n
, and A
11
is the (1,1)-cofactoi of A.
Similaily, foi a passive iecipiocal RLC two-poit (Fig. 3.37), the open-ciicuit impedances and the shoit-ciicuit
admittances aie seen to be
:
11
A
11
/A (3.22a)
FIGURE 3.35 A netwoik N with n independent
nodes.
y y y
y y y
y y y
V
V
V
I
I
I
n
n
n n nn n n
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
1
2
1
2

1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
1

:
12
:
21
(A
12
- A
12
)/A (3.22b)
:
22
(A
22
- A
22
- 2A
22
)/A (3.22c)
and
y
11
(A
22
- A
22
- 2A
22
)/(A
1122
- A
1122
- 2A
1122
) (3.23a)
y
12
y
21
A
12
- A
12
/(A
1122
- A
1122
- 2A
1122
) (3.23b)
y
22
A
11
/(A
1122
- A
1122
- 2A
1122
) (3.23c)
iespectively, wheie A
,
is the (,,)-cofactoi of A, and A
,|m
is the cofactoi of A by deleting iows and | and columns
, and m fiom A Aitken, 1956].
Expiessions in teims of netwoik deteiminants and cofactois foi othei netwoik tiansfei functions aie given
by (Fig. 3.38):
(3.24a)
(3.24b)
(3.24c)
(3.24d)
FIGURE 3.36 The netwoik N diiven by a single cuiient souice.
FIGURE 3.37 A passive two-poit.
:
V
I
12
2
1
12 12

A A
A
-
(tiansfei impedance function)
C
V
V
12
2
1
12 12
11

A A
A
-
(voltage-iatio tiansfei function)
Y Y C Y
L L 12
(tiansfei admittance function)

_
,
12
12 12
11
A A
A
-
o
12
(cuiient-iatio tiansfei function)

_
,
Y Z Y
L 1 12
12 12
A A
A
-
The topological foimulas foi the vaiious netwoik functions of a passive one-poit oi two-poit aie deiived
fiom the following theoiems which aie stated without pioof Chan, 1969].
Thevrem J.1. Let N be a passive netwoik without mutual inductances. The deteiminant A of the node
admittance matiix Y
n
is equal to the sum of all tiee-admittances of N, wheie a tiee-admittance pioduct
()
(y)
is defned to be the pioduct of the admittance of all the bianches of the tiee T
()
. That is,
(3.25)
Thevrem J.2. Let A be the deteiminant of the node admittance matiix Y
n
of a passive netwoik N with n - 1
nodes and without mutual inductances. Also let the iefeience node be denoted by 1. Then the ( ,,,)-cofactoi
A
,,
of A is equal to the sum of all the 2-tiee-admittance pioducts T
2,,1
(y) of N, each of which contains node ,
in one pait and node 1 as the iefeience node) and without mutual inductances is given by
(3.26)
wheie the summation is taken ovei all the 2-tiee-admittance pioducts of the foim T
2,,1
(y).
Thevrem J.J. The (,,)-cofactoi A
,
of A of a ielaxed passive netwoik N with n independent nodes (with node
1 as the iefeience node) and without mutual inductances is given by
(3.27)
wheie the summation is taken ovei all the 2-tiee-admittance pioducts of the foim T
2,,1
(y) with each containing
nodes and , in one connected poit and the iefeience node 1 in the othei.
Foi example, the topological foimulas foi the diiving-point function of a passive one-poit can be ieadily
obtained fiom Eqs. (3.25) and (3.26) in Theoiems 3.1 and 3.2 as stated in the next theoiem.
Thevrem J.4. With the same notation as in Theoiems 3.1 and 3.2, the diiving-point admittance Y
J
(s) and
the diiving-point impedance Z
J
(s) of a passive one-poit containing no mutual inductances at teiminals 1 and
1 aie given by
(3.28)
iespectively.
FIGURE 3.38 A loaded passive two-poit.
A

det ( )
( )
Y T y
n
A
,,
|
|
T y
,
2
1 ,
( )
( )
A
,
|
|
T y
,
2
1 ,
( )
( )
Y s
T y
T y
Z s
T y
T y
J
|
|
J
|
|
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
,
,

A
A
A
A
11
2
11
2
1 1
1 1
and
Foi convenience we defne the following shoithand notation:
(3.29)
Thus Eq. (3.28) may be wiitten as
Y
J
(s) V(Y)/V
1,1
(Y) and Z
J
(s) V
1,1
(Y)/V(Y) (3.30)
In a two-poit netwoik N, theie aie foui nodes to be specifed, namely, 1 and 1 at the input poit (1,1) and
nodes 2 and 2 at the output poit (2,2), as illustiated in Fig. 3.38. Howevei, foi a 2-tiee of the type T
2,,1
, only
thiee nodes have been used, thus leaving the fouith one unidentifed.
With veiy little effoit, it can be shown that, in geneial, the following ielationship holds:
V
,,1
(Y) V
,|,1
(Y) - V
,,|1
(Y)
oi simply
V
,,1
W
ifk,1
W
if,k1
(3.31)
wheie , ,, |, and 1 aie the foui teiminals of N with 1 denoting the datum (iefeience) node. The symbol V
,|,1
denotes the sum of all the 2-tiee-admittance pioducts, each containing nodes , ,, and | in one connected pait
and the iefeience node, 1, in the othei.
We now state the next theoiem.
Thevrem J.3. With the same hypothesis and notation as stated eailiei in this section,
A
12
- A
12
V
12,12
(Y) - V
12,12
(Y) (3.32)
It is inteiesting to note that Eq. (3.32) is stated by Peicival 1953] in the following desciiptive fashion:
which illustiates the two types of 2-tiees involved in the foimula. Hence, we state the topological foimulas foi
:
11
, :
12
, and :
22
in the following theoiem.
Thevrem J.6. With the same hypothesis and notation as stated eailiei in this section
:
11
V
1,1
(Y)/V(Y) (3.33a)
:
12
:
21
{V
12,12
(Y) - V
12,12
(Y)/V(Y) (3.33b)
:
22
V
2,2
(Y)/V(Y) (3.33c)
We shall now develop the topological expiessions foi the shoit-ciicuit admittance functions. Let us denote
by U
a,|,t
(Y) the sum of all 3-tiee admittance pioducts of the foim T
3
a,|,t
(Y) with identical subsciipts in both
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
, ,
a V Y T y
| V y T y ,
r
, r , r
|

sum of all tiee- admittance pioducts, and

( ) sum of all 2- tiee- admittance pioducts with node
and the iefeience node contained in diffeient paits.
2
A A
12 12 12 12 12 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
- - -
, ,

_
,
_
,
V V
symbols to iepiesent the same specifed distiibution of veitices. Then, following aiguments similai to those of
Theoiem 3.5, we ieadily see that
(3.34a)
(3.34b)
(3.34c)
wheie 1,1,2,2 aie the foui teiminals of the two-poit with 1 denoting the iefeience node (Fig. 3.39). Howevei,
we note that in Eqs. (3.34a) and (3.34b) only thiee of the foui teiminals have been specifed. We can theiefoie
fuithei expand U
1, 2, 1
and U
1, 2, 1
to obtain the following:
A
1122
- A
1122
- 2A
1122
U
12, 2, 1
- U
1, 2, 12
- U
12, 2, 1
- U
1, 2, 12
(3.35)
Foi convenience, we shall use the shoithand notation ZU to denote the sum of the iight of Eq. (3.35). Thus,
we defne
(3.36)
Hence, we obtain the topological foimulas foi the shoit-ciicuit admittances as stated in the following theoiem.
Thevrem J.7. The shoit-ciicuit admittance functions y
11
, y
12
, and y
22
of a passive two-poit netwoik with no
mutual inductances aie given by
(3.37a)
(3.37b)
(3.37c)
wheie ZU is defned in Eq. (3.36) above.
Finally, following similai developments, othei netwoik functions aie stated in Theoiem 3.8.
FIGURE 3.39 The netwoik N of Example 3.7.
A
1122 3 1 2 1
1 2 1

T y U Y
, ,
( )
, ,
( ) ( )
A
112 2 3 1 2 1
1 2 1

T y U Y
,
,
, ,
( )
, ,
( ) ( )
A
1122
3
1 2 2 1
1 2 2 1

T y U U
|
|
, ,
( )
, ,
( ) ( )
U U U U U + + +
12 2 1 1 2 1 2 12 2 1 1 2 1 2 , , , , , , , ,
y V U
11 2 2
,
y y V V U
12 21 12 1 2 12 1 2

( )

, ,
y V U
22 1 1
,
Thevrem J.8. With the same notation as befoie,
(3.38a)
(3.38b)
(3.38c)
(3.38d)
The F!uvgraph Appruach
Mathematically speaking, a lineai electiical netwoik oi, moie geneially, a lineai system can be desciibed by a
set of simultaneous lineai equations. Solutions to these equations can be obtained eithei by the method of
successive substitutions (elimination theoiy), by the method of deteiminants (Ciamei`s iule), oi by any of the
topological techniques such as Maxwell`s |-tiee appioach discussed in the pieceding subsection and the ow-
giaph techniques iepiesented by the woiks of Mason 1953, 1956], and Coates 1959].
Although the methods using algebiaic manipulations can be amended and executed by a computei, they do
not ieveal the physical situations existing in the system. The owgiaph techniques, on the othei hand, show
intuitively the causal ielationships between the vaiiables of the system of inteiest and hence enable the netwoik
analyst to have an excellent physical insight into the pioblem.
In the following, two of the moie well-known owgiaph techniques aie discussed, namely, the signal-
owgraph technique devised by Mason and the method based on the owgiaph of Coates and iecently modifed
by Chan and Bapna 1967].
A sgna|-[owgra| C
m
of a system S of n independent lineai (algebiaic) equations in n unknowns
(3.39)
is a giaph with junction points called noJes which aie connected by diiected line segments called |rant|es with
signals tiaveling along the bianches only in the diiection desciibed by the aiiows of the bianches. A signal x
|
tiaveling along a bianch between x
|
and x
,
is multiplied by the gain of the bianches g
|,
, so that a signal of g
|,
x
|
is deliveied at node x
,
. An nu noJe (sourte) is a node which contains only outgoing bianches; an ouu noJe
(sn|) is a node which has only incoming bianches. A a| is a continuous unidiiectional succession of bianches,
all of which aie tiaveling in the same diiection; a [orwarJ a| is a path fiom the input node to the output node
along which all nodes aie encounteied exactly once; and a [eeJ|at| a| (|oo) is a closed path which oiiginates
fiom and teiminates at the same node, and along which all othei nodes aie encounteied exactly once (the tiivial
case is a se|[-|oo which contains exactly one node and one bianch). A a| gan is the pioduct of all the bianch
gains of the path; similaily, a loop gain is the pioduct of all the bianch gains of the bianches in a loop.
The pioceduie foi obtaining the Mason giaph fiom a system of lineai algebiaic equations may be desciibed
in the following steps:
Z s
V V
V
12
12 1 2 12 1 2
( )
-
, ,

C s
V V
V
12
12 1 2 12 1 2
11
( )
-
, ,
,
Y s Y
V V
V
L 12
12 1 2 12 1 2
11
( )
-
, ,
,
o
12
12 1 2 12 1 2
( )
-
, ,
s Y
V V
V
L

a x | n
, ,
,
n
.
1
1 2 , , ,
a. Aiiange all the equations of the system in such a way that the ,th dependent (output) vaiiable x
,
in the
,th equation is expiessed explicitly in teims of the othei vaiiables. Thus, if the system undei study is
given by Eq. (3.39), namely
(3.40)
wheie |
1
,|
2
, . . ., |
n
aie inputs (souices) and x
1
, x
2
, . . ., x
n
aie outputs, the equations may be iewiitten as
(3.41)
b. The numbei of input nodes in the owgiaph is equal to the numbei of nonzeio |`s. That is, each of the
souice nodes coiiesponds to a nonzeio |
,
.
c. To each of the output nodes is associated one of the dependent vaiiables x
1
,x
2
, . . ., x
n
.
d. The value of the vaiiable iepiesented by a node is equal to the sum of all the incoming signals.
e. The value of the vaiiable iepiesented by any node is tiansmitted onto all bianches leaving the node.
It is a simple mattei to wiite the equations fiom the owgiaph since eveiy node, except the souice nodes of
the giaph, iepiesents an equation, and the equation associated with node |, foi example, is obtained by equating
to x
|
the sum of all incoming bianch gains multiplied by the values of the vaiiables fiom which these bianches
oiiginate.
Mason`s geneial gain foimula is now stated in the following theoiem.
Thevrem J.9. Let C be the oveiall giaph gain and C
|
be the gain of the |th foiwaid path fiom the souice to
the sink. Then
(3.42)
wheie
m1
loop gain (the pioduct of all the bianch gains aiound a loop)
m2
pioduct of the loop gains of the mth set of two nontouching loops
m3
pioduct of the loop gains of the mth set of thiee nontouching loops, and in geneial
a x a x a x |
a x a x a x |
a x a x a x |
n n
n n
n n nn n n
11 1 12 2 1 1
21 1 22 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
x
a
|
a
a
x
a
a
x
a
a
x
x
a
|
a
a
x
a
a
x
a
a
x
x
a
|
a
a
x
a
a
x
a
a
x
n
n
n
n
n
nn
n
n
nn
n
nn
n n
nn
n
1
11
1
12
11
2
13
11
3
1
11
2
22
2
21
22
1
23
22
3
2
22
1
1
2
2
1 1
1
1
1

- - - -
- - - -
- - - -
- , -
-

1 1
C C
| |
|

1
A
A
A + + +

1 1
1 2 3

m
m
m
m
m
,
m
m,
m
- (- )
m,
pioduct of the loop gains of the mth set of , nontouching loops
A
|
the value of A foi that subgiaph of the giaph obtained by iemoving the |th foiwaid path along with
those bianches touching the path
Mason`s signal-owgiaphs constitute a veiy useful giaphical technique foi the analysis of lineai systems. This
technique not only ietains the intuitive chaiactei of the block diagiams but at the same time allows one to
obtain the gain between an input node and an output node of a signal-owgiaph by inspection. Howevei, the
deiivation of the gain foimula Eq. (3.42)] is by no means simple, and, moie impoitantly, if moie than one
input is piesent in the system, the gain cannot be obtained diiectly; that is, the piinciple of supeiposition must
be applied to deteimine the gain due to the piesence of moie than one input. Thus, by slight modifcation of
the conventions involved in Mason`s signal-owgiaph, Coates 1959] was able to intioduce the so-called
owgiaphs" which aie suitable foi diiect calculation of gain.
Recently, Chan and Bapna 1967] fuithei modifed Coates`s owgiaphs and developed a simplei gain foimula
based on the modifed giaphs. The defnitions and the gain foimula based on the modifed Coates giaphs aie
piesented in the following discussion.
The owgraph G
|
(called the moJfeJ Coaes gra|) of a system S of n independent lineai equations in n
unknowns
is an oiiented giaph such that the vaiiable x
,
in S is iepiesented by a noJe (also denoted by x
,
) in C
|
, and the
coeffcient a
,
of the vaiiable x
,
in S by a |rant| with a bianch gain a
,
connected between nodes x
and x
,
in C
|
and diiected fiom x
,
to x
. Fuitheimoie, a sourte noJe is included in C

|
such that foi each constant |
|
in S theie
is a node with gain |
|
in C
|
fiom node 1 to node s
|
. Cra| C
| 0
is the subgiaph of C
|
obtained by deleting the
souice node l and all the bianches connected to it. Giaph C
,
is the subgiaph of C
|
obtained by fist iemoving
all the outgoing bianches fiom node x
,
and then shoit-ciicuiting node l to node x
,
. A |oo se | is a subgiaph
of C
| 0
that contains all the nodes of C
| 0
with each node having exactly one incoming and one outgoing bianch.
The pioduct of the gains of all the bianches in | is called a |oo-se roJut. A 2-|oo-se I
2
is a subgiaph of
C
| ,
containing all the nodes of C
| ,
with each node having exactly one incoming and one outgoing bianch. The
pioduct
2
of the gains of all the bianches in |
2
is called a 2-|oo-se roJut.
The modifed Coates gain foimula is now stated in the following theoiem.
Thevrem J.10. In a system of n independent lineai equations in n unknowns
the value of the vaiiable x
,
is given by
(3.43)
wheie N
| 2
is the numbei of loops in a 2-loop-set |
2
and N
|
is the numbei of loops in a loop set |.
Since both the Mason giaph C
m
and the modifed Coates giaph C
|
aie topological iepiesentations of a system
of equations it is logical that ceitain inteiielationships exist between the two giaphs so that one can be
tiansfoimed into the othei. Such inteiielationships have been noted Chan, 1969], and the tiansfoimations aie
biiey stated as follows:
A. Trans[ormaon o[ C
m
no C
|
. Giaph C
m
can be tiansfoimed into an equivalent Coates giaph C
|
(iepiesenting an equivalent system of equations) by the following steps:
a x | n
,
,
n
,

1
1 2 , , , . . .
a x | n
, ,
1 2 , , , ...
x
,
N

(-1) (-1)
1
2
2
1
2
(all (all ) )
2
a. Subtiact 1 fiom the gain of each existing self-loop.
b. Add a self-loop with a gain of -1 to each bianch devoid of self-loop.
c. Multiply by -|
|
the gain of the bianch at the |th souice node |
|
(| 1, 2, . . ., r, r being the numbei
of souice nodes) and then combine all the (r) nodes into one souice node (now denoted by 1).
B. Trans[ormaon o[ C
|
no C
m
. Giaph C
|
can be tiansfoimed into C
m
by the following steps:
a. Add 1 to the gain of each existing self-loop.
b. Add a self-loop with a gain of 1 to each node devoid of self-loop except the souice node l.
c. Bieak the souice node l into r souice nodes (r being the numbei of bianches connected to the souice
node l befoie bieaking), and identify the r new souices nodes by |
1
,|
2
, . . ., |, with the gain of the
coiiesponding r bianches multiplied by -1/|
1
, -1/|
2
, . . ., -1/|
r
, iespectively, so that the new gains
of these bianches aie all equal to l, keeping the edge oiientations unchanged.
The gain foimulas of Mason and Coates aie the classical ones in the theoiy of owgiaphs. Fiom the systems
viewpoint, the Mason technique piovides an excellent physical insight as one can visualize the signal ow
thiough the subgiaphs (foiwaid paths and feedback loops) of C
m
. The giaph ieduction technique based on
the Mason giaph enables one to obtain the gain expiession using a step-by-step appioach and at the same time
obseive the cause-and-effect ielationships in each step. Howevei, since the Mason foimula computes the iatio
of a specifed output ovei one paiticulai input, the piinciple of supeiposition must be used in oidei to obtain
the oveiall gain of the system if moie than one input is piesent. The Coates foimula, on the othei hand,
computes the output diiectly iegaidless of the numbei of inputs piesent in the system, but because of such a
diiect computation of a given output, the giaph ieduction iules of Mason cannot be applied to a Coates giaph
since the Coates giaph is no based on the same cause-effect foimulation of equations as Mason`s.
The -Tree Appruach Yersus the F!uvgraph Appruach
When a lineai netwoik is given, loop oi node equations can be wiitten fiom the netwoik, and the analysis of
the netwoik can be accomplished by means of eithei Coates`s oi Mason`s technique.
Howevei, it has been shown Chan, 1969] that if the Maxwell |-tiee appioach is employed in solving a lineai
netwoik, the iedundancy inheient eithei in the diiect expansion of deteiminants oi in the owgiaph techniques
desciibed above can be eithei completely eliminated foi passive netwoiks oi gieatly ieduced foi active netwoiks.
This point and otheis will be illustiated in the following example.
Erump|e J.7. Considei the netwoik N as shown in Fig. 3.39. Let us deteimine the voltage gain, C
12
V
0
/V
1
,
using (1) Mason`s method, (2) Coates`s method, and (3) the |-tiee method.
The two node equations foi the netwoik aie given by
foi node 2: (Y
a
- Y
|
- Y
e
)V
2
- (-Y
3
)V
0
Y
a
V
foi node 3: (-Y

e
)V
2
- (Y
t
- Y
J
- Y
e
)V
0
Y
t
V
(3.44)
wheie
Y
a
1/Z
a
, Y
|
1/Z
|
, Y
t
1/Z
t
, Y
J
1/Z
J
and Y
e
1/Z
e
(1) Mason's aroat|. Rewiite the system of two equations (3.44) as follows:
(3.45)
V
Y
Y Y Y
V
Y
Y Y Y
V
V
Y
Y Y Y
V
Y
Y Y Y
V
a
a | e
e
a | e
t
t J e
e
t J e
2 0
0 2
+ +
_
,
+
+ +
_
,
+ +
_
,
+
+ +
_
,

oi
V
2
V
- BV
0
V
0
CV
- DV
2
(3.46)
wheie
The Mason giaph of system (3.46) is shown in Fig. 3.40, and accoiding to the Mason giaph foimula (3.42),
we have
A 1 - BD
C
C
C A
C
1
C
D
D A
D
1
and hence
Upon cancellation and ieaiiangement of teims
(3.47)
(2) Coaes's aroat|. Fiom (3.44) we obtain the Coates giaphs C
|
, C
| 0
, and C
|3
as shown in Fig. 3.41(a), (b),
and (c), iespectively. The set of all loop-sets of C
| 0
is shown in Fig. 3.42, and the set of all 2-loop-sets of C
| 3
is
shown in Fig. 3.43. Thus, by Eq. (3.43),
FIGURE 3.40 The Mason giaph of N.
Y
Y Y Y
B
Y
Y Y Y
C
Y
Y Y Y
D
Y
Y Y Y
a
a | e
e
a | e
t
t J e
e
t J e
+ +

+ +
+ +

+ +
C
V
V
C
BD
C D
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
|
|
|
t t J e a a | e t J e
e a | e t J e
12
0
1
2
1 1
1
1
+
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
A
A
-
( )
/( ) /( )( )
/( )( )
C
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
a t a e | t t e
a t a J a e | t | J | e t e J e
12

+ + +
+ + + + + + +
V
Y Y V Y Y Y Y V
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
N
e a a | e t
e e a | e t J e
|
|
0
2
1 2
1 2
1
1
1 1
1 1
2

+ + +
+ + + + +
(- )
(- )
(- ) (- )( ) (- ) ( )( )
(- ) (- )(- ) (- ) ( )( )
( )
( )
all
all
2
Oi, aftei simplifcation, we fnd
(3.48)
which gives the same iatio V
0
/V
as Eq. (3.47).
(3) T|e |-ree aroat|. Recall that the gain foimula foi V
0
/V
using the |-tiee appioach is given Chan,

1969] by
wheie A
13
and A
11
aie cofactois of the deteiminant A of the node admittance matiix of the netwoik. Fuitheimoie,
it is noted that the 2-tiees coiiesponding to A
may be obtained by fnding all the tiees of the modifed giaph

C
, which is obtained fiom the giaph C of the netwoik by shoit-ciicuiting node ( being any node othei than
FIGURE 3.41 The Coates giaphs: (a) C
|
, (b) C
| 0
, and (c) C
| 3
.
V
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y V
a t a e | t t e
0

+ + +
+ + + + + + +
( )
V
V
V
V
R
R
R
R
0 13
11
13
1

_
,
_
,
A
A
,
,
all 2-tiee admittance pioducts with nodes 1 and 3 in one pait
and the iefeience node in the othei pait of each of such 2-tiee
all 2-tiee admittance pioducts with node 1 in one pait and
the iefeience node in the othei pait of each of such 2-tiee
(3.49)
R) to the iefeience node R, and that the 2-tiees coiiesponding to A
,
can be found by taking all those 2-tiees
each of which is a tiee of both C
and C
,
Chan, 1969]. Thus, foi A
11
, we fist fnd C and C
1
(Fig. 3.44), and
then fnd the set S
1
of all tiees of C
1
(Fig. 3.45); then foi A
13
, we fnd C
3
(Fig. 3.46) and the set S
3
of all tiees
of C
3
(Fig. 3.47) and then fiom S
1
and S
3
we fnd all the teims common to both sets (which coiiespond to the
FIGURE 3.42 The set of all loop-sets of C
| 0
.
FIGURE 3.43 The set of all 2-loop-sets of C
| 3
.
FIGURE 3.44 (a) Giaph C, and (b) the modifed giaph C
|
of C.
set of all tiees common to C
1
and C
3
) as shown in Fig. 3.48. Finally we foim the iatio of 2-tiee admittance
pioducts accoiding to Eq. (3.49). Thus fiom Figs. 3.45 and 3.48, we fnd
which is identical to the iesults obtained by the owgiaph techniques.
Fiom the above discussions and Example 3.7 we see that the Mason appioach is the best fiom the systems
viewpoint, especially when a single souice is involved. It gives an excellent physical insight to the system and
ieveals the cause-effect ielationships at vaiious stages when giaph ieduction technique is employed. While the
Coates appioach enables one to compute the output diiectly iegaidless of the numbei of inputs involved in
the system, thus oveicoming one of the diffculties associated with Mason`s appioach, it does not allow one to
ieduce the giaph step-by-step towaid the fnal solution as Mason`s does. Howevei, it is inteiesting to note that
in the modifed Coates technique the intioduction of the loop-sets (analogous to tiees) and the 2-loop-sets
(analogous to 2-tiees) biings togethei the two diffeient concepts-the owgiaph appioach and the |-tiee
appioach.
Fiom the netwoiks point of view, the Maxwell |-tiee appioach not only enables one to expiess the solution
in teims of the topology (namely the tiees and 2-tiees in Example 3.7) of the netwoik but also avoids the
cancellation pioblem inheient in all the owgiaph techniques since, as evident fiom Example 3.7, the tiees and
FIGURE 3.45 (a) The set of all tiees of the modifed giaph C
l
which coiiesponds to (b) the set of all 2-tiees of C (with
nodes l and R in sepaiate paits in each of such 2-tiee).
FIGURE 3.46 The modifed giaph C
3
of C.
V
V
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
a t a e | t t e
0
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
the 2-tiees in the gain expiession by the |-tiee appioach coiiespond (one-to-one) to the untante|eJ erms in
the fnal expiessions of the gain by the owgiaph techniques. Finally, it should be obvious that the |-tiee
appioach depends upon the knowledge of the giaph of a given netwoik. Thus, if in a netwoik pioblem only
the system of (loop oi node) equations is given and the netwoik is not known, oi moie geneially, if a system
is chaiacteiized by a block diagiam oi a system of equations, the |-tiee appioach cannot be applied and one
must iesoit to the owgiaph techniques between the two appioaches.
Sume Tupu!ugica! App!icatiuns in Netvurk Ana!ysis and Design
In piactice a ciicuit designei often has to make appioximations and analyze the same netwoik stiuctuie many
times with diffeient sets of component values befoie the fnal netwoik iealization is obtained. Conventional
analysis techniques which iequiie the evaluation of high-oidei deteiminants aie undesiiable even on a digital
computei because of the laige amount of iedundancy inheient in the deteiminant expansion piocess. The extia
calculation in the evaluation (expansion of deteiminants) and simplifcation (cancellation of teims) is time
consuming and costly and theieby contiibutes much to the undesiiability of such methods.
The |-tiee topological foimulas piesented in this section, on the othei hand, eliminate completely the
cancellation of teims. Also, they aie paiticulaily suited foi digital computation when the size of the netwoik
is not exceedingly laige. All of the teims involved in the foimulas can be computed by means of a digital
compute using a single tiee-fnding" piogiam Chan, 1969]. Thus, the application of topological foimulas in
analyzing a netwoik with the aid of a digital computei can mean a saving of a consideiable amount of time
and cost to the ciicuit designei, especially tiue when it is necessaiy to iepeat the same analysis pioceduie a
laige numbei of times.
FIGURE 3.47 (a) The set of all tiees of the modifed giaph C
3
, which coiiesponds to (b) the set of all 2-tiees of C (with
nodes 3 and R in sepaiate paits in each of such 2-tiee).
FIGURE 3.48 The set of all 2-tiees of C (with nodes l and 3 in one pait of the iefeience node R in the othei pait of each
of such 2-tiee).
In a pieliminaiy system design, the designei usually seeks one oi moie concepts which will meet the specif-
cations, and in engineeiing piactice each concept is geneially subjected to some foim of analysis. Foi lineai
systems, the signal owgiaph of Mason is widely used in this activity. The owgiaph analysis is populai because
it depicts the ielationships existing between system vaiiables, and the giaphical stiuctuie may be manipulated
using Mason`s foimulas to obtain system tiansfei functions in symbolic oi symbolic/numeiical foim.
Although the pieliminaiy design pioblems aie usually of limited size (seveial vaiiables), hand deiivation of
tiansfei functions is nonetheless diffcult and often pione to eiioi aiising fiom the omission of teims. The
iecent intioduction of iemote, time-shaied computeis into modein design aieas offeis a means to handle such
pioblems swiftly and effectively.
An effcient algoiithm suitable foi digital compution of tiansfei functions fiom the signal owgiaph desciip-
tion of a lineai system has been developed (Dunn and Chan, 1969] which piovides a poweiful analytical tool
in the conceptual phases of lineai system design.
In the past seveial decades, giaph theoiy has been widely used in electiical engineeiing, computei science,
social science, and in the solution of economic pioblems Swamy and Thulasiiaman, 1981; Chen, 1990]. fnally,
the application of giaph theoiy in conjunction with symbolic netwoik analysis and computei-aided simulation
of electionic ciicuits has been well iecognized in iecent yeais Lin, 1991].
Dehning Terms
Branches of a tree: The edges contained in a tiee.
Circuit (or loop): A closed path wheie all veitices aie of degiee 2, thus having no endpoints in the path.
Circuit-set (or loop-set): The set of all edges contained in a ciicuit (loop).
Connectedness: A giaph oi subgiaph is said to be connected if theie is at least one path between eery paii
of its veitices.
Flowgraph G
|
(or modined Coates graph G
|
): The owgiaph C
|
(called |e moJfeJ Coaes gra|) of a system
S of n independent lineai equations in n unknowns
is an oiiented giaph such that the vaiiable x
,
in S is iepiesented by a noJe (also denoted by x
,
) in C
|
, and
the coeffcient a
,
of the vaiiable x
,
in S by a |rant| with a bianch gain a
,
connected between nodes x
and x
,
in C
|
and diiected fiom x
,
to x
. Fuitheimoie, a sourte noJe l is included in C

|
such that foi each
constant |
|
in S theie is a node with gain |
|
in C
|
fiom node l to node s
|
. Giaph C
,
is the subgiaph of
C
|
obtained by fist iemoving all the outgoing bianches fiom node x
,
and then shoit-ciicuiting node l
to node x
,
. A |oo se | is a subgiaph of C
| 0
that contains all the nodes of C
| 0
with each node having
exactly one incoming and one outgoing bianch. The pioduct of the gains of all the bianches in | is
called a |oo-se roJut. A 2-|oo-se |
2
is a subgiaph of C
| ,
containing all the nodes of C
| ,
with each node
having exactly one incoming and one outgoing bianch. The pioduct
2
of the gains of all the bianches
in |
2
is called a 2-|oo-se roJut.
|-tree admittance product of a |-tree: The pioduct of the admittances of all the bianches of the |-tiee.
|-tree of a connected graph G: A piopei subgiaph of C consisting of | unconnected ciicuitless subgiaphs,
each subgiaph itself being connected, which togethei contain all the veitices of C.
Linear graph: A set of line segments called edges and points called veitices, which aie the endpoints of the
edges, inteiconnected in such a way that the edges aie connected to (oi incident with) the veitices. The
degiee of a veitex of a giaph is the numbei of edges incident with that veitex.
Path: A subgiaph having all veitices of degiee 2 except foi the two endpoints which aie of degiee 1 and aie
called the teiminals of the path, wheie the degiee of a veitex is the numbei of edges connected to the
veitex in the subgiaph.
Path-set: The set of all edges in a path.
Proper subgraph: A subgiaph which does not contain all of the edges of the given giaph.
a x | n
,
,
n
,

1
1 2 , , , . . .
Signal-owgraph G
m
(or Mason's graph G
m
): A signal-owgiaph C
m
of a system S of n independent lineai
(algebiaic) equations in n unknowns
is a giaph with junction points called noJes which aie connected by diiected line segments called |rant|es
with signals tiaveling along the bianches only in the diiection desciibed by the aiiows of the bianches.
A signal x
|
tiaveling along a bianch between x
|
and x
,
is multiplied by the gain of the bianches g
|,
, so
that a signal g
|,
x
|
is deliveied at node x
,
. An nu noJe (sourte) is a node which contains only outgoing
bianches; an ouu noJe (sn|) is a node which has only incoming bianches. A a| is a continuous
unidiiectional succession of bianches, all of which aie tiaveling in the same diiection; a [orwarJ a| is
a path fiom the input node to the output node along which all nodes aie encounteied exactly once; and
a [eeJ|at| a| (|oo) is a closed path which oiiginates fiom and teiminates at the same node, and along
with all othei nodes aie encounteied exactly once (the tiivial case is a se|[-|oo which contains exactly
one node and one bianch). A a| gain is the pioduct of all the bianch gains of the bianches in a loop.
Subgraph: A subset of the edges of a given giaph.
Tree: A connected subgiaph of a given connected giaph C which contains all the veitices of C but no ciicuits.
Re!ated Tupic
3.2 Node and Mesh Analysis
Relerences
A.C. Aitken, Deermnans anJ Martes, 9th ed., New Yoik: Inteiscience, 1956.
S.P. Chan, InroJutory Too|ogta| na|yss o[ E|etrta| Newor|s, New Yoik: Holt, Rinehait and Winston, 1969.
S.P. Chan and B.H. Bapna, A modifcation of the Coates gain foimula foi the analysis of lineai systems," Ins.
J. Conro|, vol. 5, pp. 483-495, 1967.
S.P. Chan and S.G. Chan, Modifcations of topological foimulas," IEEE Trans. Crtu T|eory, vol. CT-15,
pp. 84-86, 1968.
W.K. Chen, T|eory o[ Nes. F|ows n Newor|s, New Yoik: Wiley Inteiscience, 1990.
C.L. Coates, Flow-giaph solutions of lineai algebiaic equations," IRE Trans. Crtu T|eory, vol. CT-6,
pp. 170-187, 1959.
W.R. Dunn, Ji., and S.P. Chan, Flowgiaph analysis of lineai systems using iemote timeshaied computation,"
J. Fran||n Ins., vol. 288, pp. 337-349, 1969.
G. Kiichhoff, bei die Ausung dei Gleichungen, auf welche man bei dei Unteisuchung dei lineaien
Veitheilung galvanischei Stime, gefuhit wiid," nn. P|ys| C|eme, vol. 72, pp. 497-508, 1847; English
tiansl., IRE Trans. Crtu T|eory, vol. CT-5, pp. 4-7, 1958.
P.M. Lin, Sym|o|t Newor| na|yss, New Yoik: Elseviei, 1991.
S.J. Mason, Feedback theoiy-Some piopeities of signal ow giaphs," Prot. IRE, vol. 41, pp. 1144-1156, 1953.
S.J. Mason, Feedback theoiy-Fuithei piopeities of signal ow giaphs," Prot. IRE, vol. 44, pp. 920-926, 1956.
J.C. Maxwell, E|etrty anJ Magnesm, Oxfoid: Claiendon Piess, 1892.
W.S. Peicival, Solution of passive electiical netwoiks by means of mathematical tiees," Prot. IEE, vol. 100,
pp. 143-150, 1953.
S. Seshu and M.B. Reed, Lnear Cra|s anJ E|etrta| Newor|s, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1961.
M.N.S. Swamy ad K. Thulasiiaman, Cra|s, Newor|s, anJ |gor|ms, New Yoik: Wiley, 1981.
Further Inlurmatiun
All defning teims used in this section can be found in S.P. Chan, InroJutory Too|ogta| na|yss o[ E|etrta|
Newor|s, Holt, Rinehait and Winston, New Yoik, 1969. Also an excellent iefeience foi the applications of giaph
a x | n
,
,
n
,

1
1 2 , , , . . .
theoiy in electiical engineeiing (i.e., netwoik analysis and design) is S. Seshu and M.B. Reed, Lnear Cra|s
anJ E|etrta| Newor|s, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1961.
Foi applications of giaph theoiy in computei science, see M.N.S. Swamy and K. Thulasiiaman, Cra|s,
Newor|s, anJ |gor|ms, Wiley, New Yoik, 1981.
Foi owgiaph applications, see W.K. Chen, T|eory o[ Nes. F|ows n Newor|s, Wiley Inteiscience, New Yoik,
1990.
Foi applications of giaph theoiy in symbolic netwoik analysis, see P.M. Lin, Sym|o|t Newor| na|yss,
Elseviei, New Yoik, 1991.
3.7 Tvu-Purt Parameters and Translurmatiuns
Normon S. Ne
Intruductiun
Many times we want to model the behavioi of an electiic netwoik at only
two teiminals as shown in Fig. 3.49. Heie, only V
1
and I
1
, not voltages and
cuiients inteinal to the ciicuit, need to be desciibed. To pioduce the model
foi a lineai ciicuit, we use Thvenin's oi Norton's theorem to simplify the
netwoik as viewed fiom the selected teiminals. We defne the paii of teimi-
nals shown in Fig. 3.49 as a port, wheie the cuiient, I
1
, enteiing one teiminal
equals the cuiient leaving the othei teiminal.
If we fuithei iestiict the netwoik by stating that (1) all exteinal connec-
tions to the ciicuit, such as souices and impedances, aie made at the poit
and (2) the netwoik can have inteinal dependent sources, but not indepen-
dent sources, we can mathematically model the netwoik at the poit as
V
1
ZI
1
(3.50)
oi
I
1
YV
1
(3.51)
wheie Z is the Thvenin impedance and Y is the Noiton admittance at the teiminals. Z and Y can be constant
iesistive teims, Laplace tiansfoims Z(s) oi Y(s), oi sinusoidal steady-state functions Z(,u) oi Y(,u).
Dehning Tvu-Purt Netvurks
Electiical netwoiks can also be used to tiansfei signals fiom
one poit to anothei. Undei this iequiiement, connections to
the netwoik aie made in two places, the input and the output.
Foi example, a tiansistoi has an input between the base and
emittei and an output between the collectoi and emittei. We
can model such ciicuits as two-port networks as shown in
Fig. 3.50. Heie we see the input poit, iepiesented by V
1
and
I
1
, and the output poit, iepiesented by V
2
and I
2
. Cuiients
aie assumed positive if they ow as shown in Fig. 3.50. The
same iestiictions about exteinal connections and inteinal souices mentioned above foi the single poit also apply.
Now that we have defned two-poit netwoiks, let us discuss how to cieate a mathematical model of the
netwoik by establishing ielationships among all of the input and output voltages and cuiients. Many possibilities
exist foi modeling. In the next section we aibitiaiily begin by intioducing the :-paiametei model to establish
the technique. In subsequent sections we piesent alteinative models and diaw ielationships among them.
FIGURE 3.49 An electiical net-
woik poit.
FIGURE 3.50 A two-poit netwoik.
Mathematica! Mude!ing ul Tvu-Purt Netvurks via Parameters
In oidei to pioduce a mathematical model of ciicuits iepiesented by Fig. 3.50, we must fnd ielationships
among V
1
, I
1
, V
2
, and I
2.
Let us visualize placing a cuiient souice at the input and a cuiient souice at the output.
Thus, we have selected two of the vaiiables, I
1
and I
2
. We call these vaiiables the independent vaiiables. The
iemaining vaiiables, V
1
and V
2
, aie dependent upon the selected applied cuiients. We call V
1
and V
2
the
dependent vaiiables. Using superposition we can wiite each dependent vaiiable as a function of the independent
vaiiables as follows:
V
1
:
11
I
1
- :
12
I
2
(3.52a)
V
2
:
21
I
1
- :
22
I
2
(3.52b)
We call the coeffcients, :
,
, in Eqs. (3.52) paiameteis of the two-poit netwoik oi, simply, two-port parameters.
Fiom Eqs. (3.52), the two-poit paiameteis aie evaluated as
(3.53)
Notice that each paiametei can be measuied by setting a poit cuiient, I
1
oi I
2
, equal to zeio. Since the paiameteis
aie found by setting these cuiients equal to zeio, this set of paiameteis is called open-circuit parameters. Also,
since the defnitions of the paiameteis as shown in Eqs. (3.53) aie the iatio of voltages to cuiients, we
alteinatively iefei to them as impedance parameters, oi z parameters. The paiameteis themselves can be
impedances iepiesented as Laplace tiansfoims, Z(s), sinusoidal steady-state impedance functions, Z(,u), oi
simply puie iesistance values, R.
Eva!uating Tvu-Purt Netvurk Characteristics in Terms ul Parameters
The two-poit paiametei model can be used to fnd the following chaiacteiistics of a two-poit netwoik when
used in some cases with a souice and load as shown in Fig. 3.51:
Input impedance Z
in
V
1
/I
1
(3.54a)
Output impedance Z
out
V
2
/I
2
V
S
0 (3.54b)
Netwoik voltage gain V
g
V
2
/V
1
(3.54c)
Total voltage gain V
g
V
2
/V
S
(3.54d)
Netwoik cuiient gain I
g
I
2
/I
1
(3.54e)
To fnd Z
in
of Fig. 3.51, deteimine V
1
/I
1
. Fiom Fig. 3.51, V
2
-I
2
Z
L
. Substituting this value in Eq. 3.52(b)
and simplifying, Eqs. (3.52) become
(3.55a)
(3.55b)
:
V
I
:
V
I
:
V
I
:
V
I
I I
I I
11
1
1
0
12
1
2
0
21
2
1
0
22
2
2
0
2 1
2 1

;
;
V : I : I
1 11 1 12 2
+
0
21 1 22 2
+ +
( )
: I : Z I
L
Solving simultaneously foi I
1
and then foiming V
1
/I
1
Z
in
, we obtain
(3.56)
To fnd Z
out
, set V
S
0 in Fig. 3.51. This step teiminates the input with Z
S
. Next, deteimine V
2
/I
2
. Fiom
Fig. 3.51 with V
S
shoited, V
1
-I
1
Z
S
. By substituting this value into Eq. 3.52(a) and simplifying, Eqs. (3.52)
become
(3.57a)
(3.57b)
By solving simultaneously foi I
2
and then foiming V
2
/I
2
Z
out
,
(3.58)
To fnd V
g
, we see fiom Fig. 3.51 that I
2
-V
2
/Z
L
. Substituting this value in Eqs. (3.52) and simplifying, we
obtain
(3.59a)
(3.59b)
By solving simultaneously foi V
2
and then foiming V
2
/V
1
V
g
,
(3.60)
Similaily, othei chaiacteiistics, such as cuiient gain and the total voltage gain fiom the souice voltage to the
load voltage can be found. Table 3.1 summaiizes many of the netwoik chaiacteiistics that can be found using
: paiameteis as well as the piocess to aiiive at the iesult.
FIGURE 3.51 Teiminated two-poit netwoik foi fnding two-poit netwoik chaiacteiistics.
Z
V
I
:
: :
: Z
L
in

+
( )
1
1
11
12 21
22
0
11 1 12 2
+
( )
+ : Z I : I
S
V : I : I
2 21 1 22 2
+
Z
V
I
:
: :
: Z
V
s
S
out

+
( )
2
2
22
12 21
11 0
V : I
:
Z
V
L
1 11 1
12
2

0
21 1
22
2

+
_
,
: I
: Z
Z
V
L
L
V
V
V
: Z
: : Z : :
g
L
L

+
( )

2
1
21
11 22 12 21
To summaiize the piocess of fnding netwoik chaiacteiistics:
1. Defne the netwoik chaiacteiistic.
2. Use appiopioate ielationships fiom Fig. 3.51.
3. Substitute the ielationships fiom Step 2 into Eqs. (3.52).
4. Solve the modifed equations foi the netwoik chaiacteiistic.
An Examp!e Finding Parameters and Netvurk Characteristics
To solve foi two-poit netwoik chaiacteiistics we can fist iepiesent the netwoik with its two-poit paiameteis
and then use these paiameteis to fnd the chaiacteiistics summaiized in Table 3.1. To fnd the paiameteis, we
teiminate the netwoik adheiing to the defnition of the paiametei we aie evaluating. Then, we can use mesh
oi nodal analysis, cuiient oi voltage division, oi equivalent impedance to solve foi the paiameteis. The following
example demonstates the technique.
Considei the netwoik of Fig. 3.52(a). The fist step is to evaluate the : paiameteis. Fiom theii defnition, :
11
and :
21
aie found by open-ciicuiting the output and applying a voltage at the input as shown in Fig. 3.52(b).
Thus, with I
2
0
(3.61a)
(3.61b)
TABLE 3.1 Netwoik Chaiacteiistics Developed fiom :-Paiametei Defning Eqs. (3.52)
Netwoik
Chaiacteiistic Defnition Fiom Fig. 3.51
Substitute in Defning
Eqs. (3.52) and Obtain Solve foi Netwoik Chaiacteiistic
Input impedance
Output impedance
Netwoik voltage gain
Total voltage gain
Netwoik cuiient gain
:
V
I
in

1
1
V I Z
L 2 2
V : I : I
: I : Z I
L
1 11 1 12 2
21 1 22 2
0
+
+ + ( )
Z :
: :
: Z
L
in

+
11
12 21
22
Z
V
I
Vs
out

2
2 0
V V I Z
V
S S
S
1 1
0

0
11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
+ ( ) +
+
: Z I : I
V : I : I
S
Z :
: :
: Z
S
out

+
22
12 21
11
V
V
V
g

2
1
I
V
Z
L
2
2
V : I
: V
Z
: I
: Z V
Z
L
L
L
1 11 1
12 2
21 1
22 2
0

+ ( )
V
: Z
: : Z : :
g
L
L
+ ( )
21
11 22 12 21
V
V
V
S
gt

2
V V I Z
I
V
Z
S S
L
1 1
2
2

V : Z I
: V
Z
: I
: Z V
Z
S S
L
L
L
+ ( )

+
( )
11 1
12 2
21 1
22 2
0
V
: Z
: Z : Z : :
L
S L
gt

+
( )
+
( )

21
11 22 12 21
I
I
I
g

2
1
V I Z
L 2 2
V : I : I
: I : Z I
L
1 11 1 12 2
21 1 22 2
0
+
+ + ( )
I
:
: Z
g
L

+
21
22
6 4
1 1
I I V
a

+ 4 18 0
1
I I
a
Solving foi I
1
yields
(3.62)
fiom which
(3.63)
We now fnd :
21
. Fiom Eq. (3.61b)
(3.64)
But, fiom Fig. 3.52(b), I
a
V
2
/8. Thus,
(3.65)
Based on theii defnitions, :
22
and :
12
aie found by placing a souice at the output and open-ciicuiting the
input as shown in Fig. 3.52(c). The equivalent iesistance, R
2eq
, as seen at the output with I
1
0 is
(3.66)
Theiefoie,
(3.67)
Fiom Fig. 3.52(c), using voltage division
FIGURE 3.52 (a) Two-poit netwoik example; (b) two-poit netwoik modifed to fnd :
11
and :
21
; (c) two-poit netwoik
modifed to fnd :
22
and :
12
.
I
V
V
1
1
1
4
0 18
6 4
4 18
18
92
:
V
I
I
11
1
1 0
2
46
9

I
I
a
1
2
9
:
V
I
I
21
2
1 0
2
16
9

R
2
8 10
8 10
40
9
eq

+

:
V
I
I
22
2
2 0
1
40
9


V
1
(4/10)V
2
(3.68)
But
V
2
I
2
R
2 eq
I
2
(40/9) (3.69)
Substituting Eq. (3.69) into Eq. (3.68) and simplifying yields
(3.70)
Using the z-paiametei values found in Eqs. (3.63), (3.65), (3.67), and (3.70) and substituting into the netwoik
chaiacteiistic ielationships shown in the last column of Table 3.1, assuming Z
S
20 O and Z
L
10 O, we
obtain Z
in
4.89 O, Z
out
4.32 O, V
g
0.252, V
g
0.0494, and I
g
-0.123.
Additiuna! Tvu-Purt Parameters and Cunversiuns
We defned the : paiameteis by establishing I
1
and I
2
as the independent vaiiables and V
1
and V
2
as the dependent
vaiiables. Othei choices of independent and dependent vaiiables lead to defnitions of alteinative two-poit
paiameteis. The total numbei of combinations one can make with the foui vaiiables, taking two at a time as
independent vaiiables, is six. Table 3.2 defnes the six possibilities as well as the names and symbols given to
the paiameteis.
The table also piesents the expiessions used to calculate diiectly the paiameteis of each set based upon theii
defnition as we did with : paiameteis. Foi example, considei the y, oi admittance, parameters. These paiam-
eteis aie seen to be short-circuit parameters, since theii evaluation iequiies V
1
oi V
2
to be zeio. Thus, to fnd
y
22
we shoit-ciicuit the input and fnd the admittance looking back fiom the output. Foi Fig. 3.52(a), y
22

23/88. Any paiametei in Table 3.2 is found eithei by open-ciicuiting oi shoit-ciicuiting a teiminal and then
peifoiming ciicuit analysis to fnd the defning iatio.
Anothei method of fnding the paiameteis is to conveit fiom one set to anothei. Using the Defnition" iow
in Table 3.2, we can conveit the defning equations of one set to the defning equations of anothei set. Foi
example, we have alieady found the : paiameteis. We can fnd the h parameters as follows:
Solve foi I
2
using the second :-paiametei equation, Eq. (3.52b), and obtain the second |-paiametei equation
as
(3.71)
which is of the foim, I
2
|
21
I
1
- |
22
V
2
, the second |-paiametei equation. Now, substitute Eq. (3.71) into the
fist :-paiametei equation, Eq. (3.52a), ieaiiange, and obtain
(3.72)
which is of the foim, V
1
|
11
I
1
- |
12
V
2
, the fist |-paiametei equation. Thus, foi example, |
21
-:
21
/:
22
fiom
Eq. (3.71). Othei tiansfoimations aie found thiough similai manipulations and aie summaiized in Table 3.2.
Finally, theie aie othei paiametei sets that aie defned diffeiently fiom the standaid sets coveied heie.
Specifcally, they aie scatteiing paiameteis used foi miciowave netwoiks and image paiameteis used foi fltei
design. A detailed discussion of these paiameteis is beyond the scope of this section. The inteiested ieadei
should consult the bibliogiaphy in the Fuithei Infoimation" section below, oi Section 39.1 of this handbook.
:
V
I
I
12
1
2 0
1
16
9

I
:
:
I
:
V
2
21
22
1
22
2
1
+
V
: : : :
:
I
:
:
V
1
11 22 12 21
22
1
12
22
2

+
TABLE 3.2 Two-Poit Paiametei Defnitions and Conveisions
Impedance Paiameteis
(Open-Ciicuit Paiameteis)
:
Admittance Paiameteis
(Shoit-Ciicuit Paiameteis)
y
Hybiid Paiameteis
|
Defnition
Paiameteis
Conveision to :
paiameteis
Conveision to y
paiameteis
Conveision to |
paiameteis
Conveision to g
paiameteis
Conveision to T
paiameteis
Conveision to T
paiameteis
A
V : I : I
V : I : I
1 11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
+
+
I y V y V
I y V y V
1 11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
+
+
V | I | V
I | I | V
1 11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
+
+
:
V
I
:
V
I
:
V
I
:
V
I
I I
I I
11
1
1
0
12
1
2
0
21
2
1
0
22
2
2
0
2 1
2 1

;
;
y
I
V
y
I
V
y
I
V
y
I
V
V V
V V
11
1
1
0
12
1
1
0
21
2
1
0
22
2
1
0
2 1
2 1

;
;
|
V
I
|
V
V
|
I
I
|
I
V
V I
V I
11
1
1
0
12
1
2
0
21
2
1
0
22
2
2
0
2 1
2 1

;
;
:
y
:
y
:
y
:
y
y y
y y
11
22
12
12
21
21
22
11

A A
A A
;
;
:
|
:
|
|
:
|
|
:
|
|
11
22
12
12
22
21
21
22
22
22
1

A
;
;
y
:
y
:
y
:
y
:
: :
: :
11
22
12
12
21
21
22
11

A A
A A
;
;
y
|
y
|
|
y
|
|
y
|
|
11
11
12
12
11
21
21
11
22
11
1

;
;
A
|
:
|
:
:
|
:
:
|
:
:
11
22
12
12
22
21
21
22
22
22
1

A
;
;
|
y
|
y
y
|
y
y
|
y
y
11
11
12
12
11
21
21
11
22
11
1

;
;
A
g
:
g
:
:
g
:
:
g
:
:
11
11
12
12
11
21
21
11
22
11
1

;
;
A
g
y
g
y
y
g
y
y
g
y
y
11
22
12
12
22
21
21
22
22
22
1

A
;
;
g
|
g
|
g
|
g
|
| |
| |
11
22
12
12
21
21
22
11

A A
A A
;
;
:
:
B
:
C
:
D
:
:
:

11
21 21
21
22
21
1
;
;
A

y
y
B
y
C
y
D
y
y
y

22
21 21
21
11
21
1
;
;
A
|
B
|
|
C
|
|
D
|
|

A
21
11
21
22
21 21
1
;
;

:
:
B
:
C
:
D
:
:
: 22
12 12
12
11
12
1
;
;
A

y
y
B
y
C
y
D
y
y
y
11
12 12
12
22
12
1
;
;
A

|
B
|
|
C
|
|
D
|
|
1
12
11
12
22
12 12
;
;
A
A
:
: : : :
11 22 12 21
A
y
y y y y
11 22 12 21
A
|
| | | |
11 22 12 21
Inv. hybiid paiameteis Tiansmission paiameteis Inv. tiansmission pai.
g T T'
Defnition
Paiameteis
Conveision to :
paiameteis
Conveision to y
paiameteis
Conveision to |
paiameteis
Conveision to g
paiameteis
Conveision to T
paiameteis
Conveision to T
paiameteis
A
Adapted fiom Van Valkenbuig, M.E. 1974. Newor| na|yss, 3id ed. Table 11-2, p. 337. Pientice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
With peimission.
TABLE 3.2 (continued) Two-Poit Paiametei Defnitions and Conveisions
I g V g I
V g V g I
1 11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
+
+
V V BI
I CV DI
1 2 2
1 2 2

V V B I
I C V D I
2 1 1
2 1 1

g
I
V
g
I
I
g
V
V
g
V
I
I V
I V
11
1
1
0
12
1
2
0
21
2
1
0
22
2
2
0
2 1
2 1

;
;
V
V
B
V
I
C
I
V
D
I
I
I V
I V

1
2
0
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
2
0
2 2
2 2
;
;

V
V
B
V
I
C
I
V
D
I
I
I V
I V
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
1 1
1 1
;
;
:
g
:
g
g
:
g
g
:
g
g
11
11
12
12
11
21
21
11
22
11
1

;
;
A
:

C
:
C
:
C
:
D
C
T
11 12
21 22
1

;
;
A
:
D
C
:
C
:
C
:

C
T
11 12
21 22
1
;
;
A
y
g
y
g
g
y
g
g
y
g
g
11
22
12
12
22
21
21
22
22
22
1

A
;
;
y
D
B
y
B
y
B
y

B
T
11 12
21 22
1

;
;
A
y

B
y
B
y
B
y
D
B
T
11 12
21 22
1
;
;
A
|
g
|
g
|
g
|
g
g g
g g
11
22
12
12
21
21
22
11

A A
A A
;
;
|
B
D
|
D
|
D
|
C
D
T
11 12
21 22
1

;
;
A
|
B
|
C
T
11 12
21 22
1
;
;
A
g
C
g
B
T
11 12
21 22
1

;
;
A
g
C
D
g
D
g
D
g
B
D
T
11 12
21 22
1
;
;
A
g
B
g
g
C
g
g
D
g
g

1
21
22
21
11
21 21
;
;
A
D
B
B
C
C
D

T T
T T

A A
A A
;
;

g
B
g
g
C
g
g
D
g
g
A
12
22
12
11
12 12
1
;
;

D
B
B
C
C
D

T T
T T
A A
A A
;
;
A
g
g g g g
11 22 12 21
A
T
D BC A

T
D B C
Tvu-Purt Parameter Se!ectiun
The choice of paiameteis to use foi a paiticulai analysis oi design pioblem is based on analytical convenience
oi the physics of the device oi netwoik at hand. Foi example, an ideal tiansfoimei cannot be iepiesented with
: paiameteis. I
1
and I
2
aie not lineaily independent vaiiables, since they aie ielated thiough the tuins iatio. A
similai aigument applies to the y-parameter iepiesentation of a tiansfoimei. Heie V
1
and V
2
aie not indepen-
dent, since they too aie ielated via the tuins iatio. A possible choice foi the tiansfoimei is the transmission
parameters. Foi an ideal tiansfoimei, B and C would be zeio. Foi a BJT tiansistoi, theie is effectively lineai
independence between the input cuiient and the output voltage. Thus, the hybiid paiameteis aie the paiameteis
of choice foi the tiansistoi.
The choice of paiameteis can be based also upon the ease of analysis. Foi example, Table 3.3 shows that T"
netwoiks lend themselves to easy evaluation of the : paiameteis, while y paiameteis can be easily evaluated foi
H" netwoiks. Table 3.3 summaiizes othei suggested uses and selections of netwoik paiameteis foi a few specifc
cases. When electiic ciicuits aie inteiconnected, a judicious choice of paiameteis can simplify the calculations
to fnd the oveiall paiametei desciiption foi the inteiconnected netwoiks. Foi example, Table 3.3 shows that
the : paiameteis foi seiies-connected netwoiks aie simply the sum of the : paiameteis of the individual ciicuits
(see Ruston et al., 1966] foi deiivations of the paiameteis foi some of the inteiconnected netwoiks). The bold
entiies imply 2 2 matiices containing the foui paiameteis. Foi example,
(3.73)
Summary
In this section, we developed two-poit paiametei models foi two-poit electiical netwoiks. The models defne
inteiielationships among the input and output voltages and cuiients. A total of six models exists, depending
upon which two vaiiables aie selected as independent vaiiables. Any model can be used to fnd such netwoik
chaiacteiistics as input and output impedance, and voltage and cuiient gains. Once one model is found, othei
models can be obtained fiom tiansfoimation equations. The choice of paiametei set is based upon physical
ieality and analytical convenience.
Dehning Terms
Admittance parameters: That set of two-poit paiameteis, such as y paiameteis, wheie all the paiameteis aie
defned to be the iatio of cuiient to voltage. See Table 3.2 foi the specifc defnition.
Dependent source: A voltage oi cuiient souice whose value is ielated to anothei voltage oi cuiient in the
netwoik.
g Parameters: See hybiid paiameteis.
h Parameters: See hybiid paiameteis.
Hybrid (inverse hybrid) parameters: That set of two-poit paiameteis, such as |(g) paiameteis, wheie input
cuiient (voltage) and output voltage (cuiient) aie the independent vaiiables. The paienthetical expies-
sions iefei to the inveise hybiid paiameteis. See Table 3.2 foi specifc defnitions.
Impedance parameters: That set of two-poit paiameteis, such as : paiameteis, wheie all the paiameteis aie
defned to be the iatio of voltage to cuiient. See Table 3.2 foi the specifc defnition.
Independent source: A voltage oi cuiient souice whose value is not ielated to any othei voltage oi cuiient
in the netwoik.
Norton's theorem: At a paii of teiminals a lineai electiical netwoik can be ieplaced with a cuiient souice in
paiallel with an admittance. The cuiient souice is equal to the cuiient that ows thiough the teiminals
when the teiminals aie shoit-ciicuited. The admittance is equal to the admittance at the teiminals with
all independent souices set equal to zeio.
Open-circuit parameters: Two-poit paiameteis, such as : paiameteis, evaluated by open-ciicuiting a poit.

1
]
1
| |
| |
11 12
21 22
TABLE 3.3 Two-Poit Paiametei Set Selection
Common Ciicuit Applications Inteiconnected Netwoik Applications
Impedance paiameteis : T netwoiks
:
11
Z
a
- Z
e
; :
12
:
21
Z
t
:
22
Z
|
- Z
t
Seiies connected
z = z
A
+ z
B
Admittance paiameteis y H netwoiks
y
11
Y
a
- Y
t
; y
12
y
21
-Y
t
y
22
Y
|
- Y
t
Paiallel connected
y = y
A
+ y
B
Field effect tiansistoi equivalent ciicuit
wheie typically:
1/y
11
~, y
12
0, y
21
g
m
, 1/y
22
r
J
Hybiid paiameteis | Tiansistoi equivalent ciicuit
wheie typically foi common emittei:
|
11
|
e
, |
12
|
re
, |
21
|
[e
, |
22
|
oe
Seiies-paiallel connected
h = h
A
+ h
B
Inveise hybiid paiameteis g Paiallel-seiies connected
g = g
A
+ g
B
Tiansmission paiameteis T Ideal tiansfoimei ciicuits Cascade connected
T = T
A
T
B
Inveise tiansmission paiameteis T Cascade connected
T = T
B
T
A
Port: Two teiminals of a netwoik wheie the cuiient enteiing one teiminal equals the cuiient leaving the
othei teiminal.
Short-circuit parameters: Two-poit paiameteis, such as y paiameteis, evaluated by shoit-ciicuiting a poit.
Superposition: In lineai netwoiks, a method of calculating the value of a dependent vaiiable. Fiist, the value
of the dependent vaiiable pioduced by each independent vaiiable acting alone is calculated. Then, these
values aie summed to obtain the total value of the dependent vaiiable.
Thvenin's theorem: At a paii of teiminals a lineai electiical netwoik can be ieplaced with a voltage souice
in seiies with an impedance. The voltage souice is equal to the voltage at the teiminals when the teiminals
aie open-ciicuited. The impedance is equal to the impedance at the teiminals with all independent
souices set equal to zeio.
T parameters: See tiansmission paiameteis.
T parameters: See tiansmission paiameteis.
Transmission (inverse transmission) parameters: That set of two-poit paiameteis, such as the T(T) paiam-
eteis, wheie the dependent vaiiables aie the input (output) vaiiables of the netwoik and the independent
vaiiables aie the output (input) vaiiables. The paienthetical expiessions iefei to the inveise tiansmission
paiameteis. See Table 3.2 foi specifc defnitions.
Two-port networks: Netwoiks that aie modeled by specifying two poits, typically input and output poits.
Two-port parameters: A set of foui constants, Laplace tiansfoims, oi sinusoidal steady-state functions used
in the equations that desciibe a lineai two-poit netwoik. Some examples aie :, y, |, g, T, and T paiameteis.
y Parameters: See admittance paiameteis.
z Parameters: See impedance paiameteis.
Re!ated Tupic
Relerences
H. Ruston and J. Boidogna, Two-poit netwoiks," in E|etrt Newor|s. Funtons, F|ers, na|yss, New Yoik:
McGiaw-Hill, 1966, chap. 4, pp. 244-266.
M. E. Van Valkenbuig, Two-poit paiameteis," in Newor| na|yss, 3id ed. Chap. 11, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Pientice-Hall, 1974, pp. 325-350.
Further Inlurmatiun
T|e [o||owng exs toer sanJarJ wo-or arameers.
J. W. Nilsson, Two-poit ciicuits," in E|etrt Crtus, 4th ed., Reading Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1995, chap. 21,
pp. 755-786.
H. Ruston and J. Boidogna, Two-poit netwoiks," in E|etrt Newor|s. Funtons, F|ers, na|yss, New Yoik:
T|e [o||owng exs |ae aJJeJ toerage o[ staerng anJ mage arameers.
H. Ruston and J. Boidogna, Two-poit netwoiks," in E|etrt newor|s. Funtons, F|ers, na|yss, New Yoik:
S. Seshu and N. Balabanian, Two-poit netwoiks," and Image paiameteis and fltei theoiy," in Lnear Newor|
na|yss, New Yoik: Wiley, 1959, chaps. 8 and 11, pp. 291-342, 453-504.
T|e [o||owng exs s|ow a|taons o e|etront trtus.
F. H. Mitchell, Ji. and F. H. Mitchell, Si., Midiange AC amplifei design," in InroJuton o E|etronts Desgn,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1992, chap. 7, pp. 335-384.
C. J. Savant, Ji., M. S. Roden, and G. L. Caipentei, Bipolai tiansistois," Design of bipolai junction tiansistoi
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Ciletti, M.D., Irwin, J.D., Kraus, A.D., Balabanian, N., Bickart, T.A., Chan, S.P.

. Call this impedance Z

Thiee methods aie available foi the deteimination of Z

, defned as the iatio of ieal

2000 by CRC Press LLC

of the edges of a given giaph C is called a subgraph of C. If C

does not contain all of the edges

sum of all tiee- admittance pioducts, and

. Fuitheimoie, a sourte noJe is included in C

foi node 3: (-Y

2000 by CRC Press LLC

using the |-tiee appioach is given Chan,

may be obtained by fnding all the tiees of the modifed giaph

. Fuitheimoie, a sourte noJe l is included in C

2000 by CRC Press LLC

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