Tech Guide 1 Hardware

TG1.1 Components of a Computer System TG1.2 Evolution of Computer Hardware TG1.3 Types of Computers TG1.4 Microprocessor and Primary Storage TG1.5 Input/Output Devices

TG1.1 Components of a Computer System

Computer ardware is composed of t e following components! central processing unit "CP#$% primary storage% secondary storage% input devices% output devices% and communication devices& Communication devices are covered in detail in Tec 'uide (& T e input devices accept data and instructions and convert t em to a form t at t e computer can understand& T e output devices present data in a form people can understand& T e CP manipulates t e data and controls t e tas)s done *y t e ot er components& Primary stora!e "internal storage t at is part of t e CP#$ temporarily stores data and program instructions during processing& Secondary stora!e "e+ternal storage suc as flas drives$ stores data and programs t at ave *een saved for future use& Communication devices manage t e flow of data from pu*lic networ)s "e&g&% Internet% intranets$ to t e CP#% and from t e CP# to networ)s& , sc ematic view of a computer system is s own in -igure T'.&.& "#P"#S#$T%$G &'T'( P%CT "#S( T%)#( '$& S%*# %$ ' C+)P T#" 'SC%%. Computers are *ased on integrated circuits "c ips$% eac of w ic includes millions of su*/miniature transistors t at are interconnected on a small "less t an l/inc / s0uare$ c ip area& Eac transistor can *e in eit er an 1on2 or an 1off2 position& T e 1on/off2 states of t e transistors are used to esta*lis a *inary . or 3 for storing one *inary digit% or *it& , fi+ed num*er of *its representing specific c aracters4letters% num*ers% and special sym*ols4is )nown as a *yte% usually 5 *its& 6ecause a *it as only two states% 3 or .% t e *its comprising a *yte can represent any of 75% or 789% uni0ue c aracters& T e c aracter t at t e *yte represents depends upon on t e coding sc eme used& T e two most commonly used coding sc emes are! .& 'SC%% ,'merican $ationa- Standard Code for %nformation %nterchan!e.% pronounced ask-ee. 7& #/C&%C ,#0tended /inary Coded &ecima- %nterchan!e Code.( pronounced ebsa-dik. T'./.

E6CDIC was developed *y I6M and is used primarily on large mainframe computers& ,SCII is t e standard coding sc eme for microcomputers& T ese coding sc emes% and t e c aracters t ey present% are s own in -igure T'.&7& In addition to c aracters% it is possi*le to represent commonly agreed/upon sym*ols in a *inary code& -or e+ample% t e plus sign ":$ is 33.3.3.. in ,SCII&
Output Output Devices Devices Input Input Devices Devices 6us Mouse Mouse 6us 6us Central Processing #nit Control Control#nit,rit #nit,rit metic/<ogic metic/<ogic #nitPrimary #nitPrimaryStorage Storage 6us

Communication Communication Devices Devices

Secondary Secondary Storage Storage

E+ternal ;etwor)

1i!ure TG1.1 Components of computer hardware. ' 23us4 is a connectin! channe-. 55pic6up 1i!ure TG1.1( p. w7212>>

T'./7

C aracterE6CDIC Code,SCII Code, 6 C D E ' H I ? @ < M ; O P A B S T # C = D E F 3 . 1i!ure TG1.2 %nterna- computin! codin! schemes. 55pic6up 1i!ure TG1.2( p. 3 W7 213>> >

T e 789(c aracters and sym*ols t at are represented *y ,SCII and E6CDIC codes are sufficient 8 for Englis and =estern European languages *ut are not large enoug for ,sian and 9 ot er languages t at use different alp a*ets& nicode G is a .9/*it code t at as t e capacity to represent more t an 98%333 c aracters and sym*ols& T e system employs t e codes used *y ,SCII and also includes ot er 5
H ..33333. ..3333.3 ..3333..

T'./>

..333.3. ..333..3 ..333... ..33.333 ..33.33. ..3.33.3

alp a*ets "suc as Cyrillic and He*rew$% special c aracters "including religious sym*ols$% ..3.333. and some of t e 1word writing2 sym*ols used in various ,sian countries& "epresentin! ima!es. Images are represented *y a grid overlay of t e picture& T e ..3.33.. computer measures t e color "or lig t level$ of eac cell of t e grid& T e unit ..3.3.33 measurement of t is is called a pi0e-. -igure T'.&> s ows a pi+el representation ..3.3.3. of t e letter A and its conversion to an input code& Time and Si8e of /ytes. Time is represented in fractions of a second% as follows!
..3.3... ..3.3..3

9 )i--isecond I ./.333 second ..3..333 9 )icrosecond I ./.%333%333 second ..3..33. 9 $anosecond I ./.%333%333%333 second ...333.3 9 Picosecond I ./.%333%333%333%333 second
...333.. ...33.3. ...33.33 SiJe of a file or storage space is measured in *ytes& Measures of siJe are!

9 :i-o3yte I .%333 *ytes "actually .%37($ ...33..3 9 )e!a3yte I .%333 )ilo*ytes I .39 *ytes ...33... 9 Gi!a3yte I .3H *ytes ...3.333 9 Tera3yte I .3.7 *ytes ...3.33. 9 Peta3yte I .3.8 *ytes 9 #0a3yte I .3.5 *ytes ....3333 9 *etta3yte I .37. *ytes ....333.
....33.3 ....33.. ....3.33 ....3.3. ....3..3 ....3... .....333 .....33. .3.3333. 1i!ure TG1.3 Pi0e- representation of the -etter '. 55pic6up Ta3-e TG 1.3( p. w7 213>> .3.333.3 .3.333.. .3.33.33 TG1.2 #vo-ution of Computer Hardware .3.33.3.

Computer ardware as evolved t roug four stages% or generations% of tec nology& Eac .3.33..3 generation as provided increased processing power and storage capacity% w ile .3.33... simultaneously e+ i*iting decreases in costs% as you see in Ta*le T'.&.& T e generations .3.3.333 are distinguis ed *y different tec nologies t at perform t e processing functions&
.3.3.33. .3.3.3.3 .3.3.3.. .3.3..33 .3.3..3.

T'./(

.3.3.... .3..3333 .3..333. .3..33.3 .3..33.. .'! T e first generation computers% from .H(9 to a*out .H89% used vacuum .3..3.33 tubes to store and process information& Cacuum tu*es consumed large amounts of power% generated muc eat% and were s ort/lived& T erefore% .3..3.3. first/generation computers ad limited memory and processing capa*ility& .3..3..3 7'! T e second generation computers% .H8GK.H9>% used transistors for .3..3... storing and processing information& Transistors consumed less power t an .3...333 vacuum tu*es% produced less eat% and were c eaper% and more relia*le& ,nd .3...33. 7' computers% wit increased processing and storage capa*ilities% *egan to *e more widely used for scientific and *usiness purposes& .3...3.3 >'! Third-generation computers% .H9(K.HGH% used inte!rated circuits for 3.3.3333 storing and processing information& Integrated circuits are made *y printing 3.3.333. numerous small transistors on silicon c ips& T ese devices are called 3.3.33.3 semiconductors& >' computers employed software t at could *e used *y 3.3.33.. nontec nical people% t us enlarging t e computerLs role in *usiness& 3.3.3.33 ('! Early to middle fourth-generation computers% .H53K.HH8% used very -ar!e7sca-e inte!rated ,;<S%. circuits to store and process information& T e 3.3.3.3. C<SI tec ni0ue allows t e installation of undreds of t ousands of circuits 3.3.3..3 "transistors and ot er components$ on a small c ip& =it u-tra7-ar!e7sca-e 3.3.3... inte!ration , <S%.( .33 million transistors could *e placed on a c ip& T ese 3.3..333 computers are ine+pensive and widely used in *usiness and everyday life& <ate ('! Computers from 733. to t e present% use !rand7sca-e inte!rated 3.3..33. ,GS%. circuits to store and process information& =it 'SI% .%333 million transistors can *e placed on a c ip&

T e first ('s of computer ardware were *ased on t e Von Neumann architecture% w ic processed information se0uentially% one instruction at a time& T e fift generation "8'$ of computers uses massive-y para--e- processin! to process multiple instructions simultaneously& Massively parallel computers use fle+i*ly connected networ)s lin)ing t ousands of ine+pensive% commonly used c ips to address large computing pro*lems% attaining supercomputer speeds& =it enoug c ips networ)ed toget er% massively parallel mac ines can perform more t an a trillion floating point operations per second4 a teraflop& , floating point operation (flop) is a *asic computer arit metic operation% suc as addition or su*traction% on num*ers t at include a decimal point& T'/<# TG1.1 Hardware Generations 55pic6up Ta3-e TG 1.1( p. w7214>>
Generations 1eature Circuitry Primary storage Cycle times ,verage cost 1G Cacuum tu*es 7 @6 2G Transistors 9( @6 3G 4G,ear-y. 4G ,1=>>. 4G ,2??1. 'SI .75 M6

Integrated circuits <SI and C<SI #<SI ( M6 .9 M6 533 picosecs 9( M6

.33 millisecs .3 microsecs 833 nanosecs M7&8 million M783 t ousand M78 t ousand

7%333 picosecs >>> MHJ M.&8 t ousand

M7&8 t ousand M7&3 t ousand

T'./8

TG1.3 Types of Computers

Computers are distinguis ed on t e *asis of t eir processing capa*ilities& Supercomputers are t e computers wit t e most processing power& T e primary application of supercomputers as *een in scientific and military wor)% *ut t eir use is growing rapidly in *usiness as t eir prices decrease& Supercomputers are especially valua*le for large simulation models of real/world p enomena% w ere comple+ mat ematical representations and calculations are re0uired% or for image creation and processing& Supercomputers are used to model t e weat er for *etter weat er prediction% to test weapons nondestructively% to design aircraft "e&g&% t e 6oeing GGG$ for more efficient and less costly production% and to ma)e se0uences in motion pictures "e&g&% Jurassic Park$& Supercomputers use t e tec nology of para--e- processin!. However% in contrast to neural computing% w ic uses massively parallel processing% supercomputers use noninterconnected CP#s& T e difference is s own in -igure T'.&(& Parallel processing is also used in smaller computers w ere 7 to 9( processors are common& Silicon 'rap ics "S'I$ as added t e e0uivalent of doJens of supercomputer nodes into a single *lade *y leveraging t e in erent parallelism of t e -ield/Programma*le 'ate ,rray "-P',$ tec nology& ,ccording to S'I% t e B,SC BC.33 computation *lade% *uilt wit dual Dilin+ Cirte+ ( -P',s% can accelerate t e performance of many HPC applications *y orders of magnitude over conventional systems at a far lower cost and muc smaller footprint& 6ased onN S'lLs B,SC "Beconfigura*le ,pplication/Specific Computing$ tec nology% t e new BC.33 *lade is designed for customers w ose applications spend most of t eir time wor)ing on a set of specific routines or algorit ms& )'%$1"')#S )ainframes are not as powerful and generally not as e+pensive as supercomputers& <arge corporations% w ere data processing is centraliJed and large data*ases are maintained% often use mainframe computers& ,pplications t at run on a mainframe can *e large and comple+% allowing for data and information to *e s ared t roug out t e organiJation& )%&"'$G# C+)P T#"S )idran!e computers include minicomputers and servers& )inicomputers. )inicomputers are smaller and less e+pensive t an mainframe computers& Minicomputers are usually designed to accomplis specific tas)s suc as process control% scientific researc % and engineering applications& <arger companies gain greater corporate fle+i*ility *y distri*uting data processing wit minicomputers in organiJational units instead of centraliJing computing at one location& T ese minicomputers are connected to eac ot er and often to a mainframe t roug telecommunication lin)s&

T'./9

1i!ure TG1.4 Supercomputers vs. neura- computin!. ,@ is a CP .. 5pic6up TG 1.4( p. w7215>> Servers. Servers typically support computer networ)s% ena*ling users to s are files% software% perip eral devices% and ot er networ) resources& Servers ave large amounts of primary and secondary storage and powerful CP#s& OrganiJations wit eavy e/commerce re0uirements and very large =e* sites are running t eir =e* and e/commerce applications on multiple servers in server farms& Server farms are large groups of servers maintained *y an organiJation or *y a commercial vendor and made availa*le to customers& ,s companies pac) greater num*ers of servers in t eir server farms% t ey are using piJJa/*o+/siJe servers called rack servers t at can *e stac)ed in rac)s& T ese computers run cooler% and t erefore can *e pac)ed more closely% re0uiring less space& To furt er increase density% companies are using a server design called a *lade& , blade is a card a*out t e siJe of a paper*ac) *oo) on w ic memory% processor% and ard drives are mounted& /-ade Server. , *lade is one component in a system& 6lades can *e individual servers t at plug into a single ca*inet or individual port cards t at add connectivity to a switc & , *lade is typically a ot swappa*le ardware device& , *lade server is a server arc itecture t at ouses multiple server modules "*lades$ in a single c assis& It is widely used in datacenters to save space and improve system management& T e c assis provides t e power supply% and eac *lade as its own CP#% memory% and ard dis)& 6lade servers generally provide t eir own management systems and may include a networ) or storage switc & =it enterprise/class *lade servers% dis) storage is e+ternal% and t e *lades are dis)less& T is approac allows for more efficient failover *ecause applications are not tied to specific ardware and a particular instance of t e operating system& T e *lades are anonymous and interc angea*le& ;irtua- servers ma)e it possi*le to place multiple applications on a single p ysical server% yet run eac wit in its own operating system environment% )nown as a virtual mac ine& So% w en one virtual server cras es or is re*ooted% t e ot ers continue opera tin wit out interruption& Aor6stations. Computer vendors originally developed wor)stations to provide t e ig levels of performance demanded *y tec nical users suc as designers& =or)stations are typically *ased on BISC "reduced instruction set computing$ arc itecture and provide *ot very/ ig /speed calculations and ig /resolution grap ic displays& T ese computers T'./G

ave found widespread acceptance wit in t e scientific community and% more recently% wit in t e *usiness community& =or)station applications include electronic and mec anical design% medical imaging% scientific visualiJation% >/D animation% and video editing& 6y t e second alf of t e .HH3s% many wor)station features were commonplace in PCS% *lurring t e distinction *etween wor)stations and personal computers& )%C"+C+)P T#"S )icrocomputers( or personal computers (P s)% are t e smallest and least e+pensive category of general/purpose computers& $ote3oo6 computers are small% easily transporta*le% lig tweig t microcomputers t at fit easily into a *riefcase& $et3oo6s are smaller% more porta*le% less e+pensive% and less powerful t an note*oo)sO and are primarily for connecting to t e Internet& T'/<# TG1.2 Characteristics of $et3oo6s 55newBB Most ;et*oo)s +peratin! System CP Screen si8e )emory Hard drive Price =indows G starter Single Core Intel ,tom .3&. Inc es .'6 .93'6 or 783'6 S,T, 8(33 BPM M>33 to M(33 Ot er Options <inu+ or =indows DP ,MD ,t lon ;eo and dual Core Intel ,tom G to .7&. Inc es 7'6 Solid State Drive "SSD$ or larger S,T, ard drives M733 to M833

;et*oo)s were inspired *y O<PC DO& T e first net*oo) designed for consumers was t e ,sus EEE PC& It s ipped wit an Intel Celeron CP#% 8.7M6 of B,M% a 7'6 or ('6 Solid State Hard drive% and a <inu+ OS& ;ow most ;et*oo)s ave an Intel ,tom CP#s% .'6 of B,M% .93'6 or 783'6 S,T, 8(33 BPM ard drive% and =indows G Starter& )+/%<# &#;%C#S Platforms for computing and communications include suc mo3i-e devices as personadi!ita- assistants ,P&'s. or handheld personal computers& ,not er platform is mo*ile p one andsets wit wireless and Internet access capa*ilities often called Smartp ones& #sually% suc devices would use a micro version of a des)top operating system% suc as ,ndroid% iP one OS% =indows P one G% or =e* OS& 9 cost muc less t an PCs& 9 OSs are simpler t an t ose on a des)top PC& 9 provide good performance at specific tas)s *ut do not replace t e full functions of a PC& 9 provide *ot computer and/or communications features& 9 offer a =e* portal t at is viewa*le on a screen& T'./5

, persona- di!ita- assistant ,P&'. is a palmtop computer t at com*ines a processor wit a multitas)ing operating system using a pen "stylus$ for andwriting recognition rat er t an )ey*oard input& Some PD,s ena*le users to communicate via fa+% electronic mail% and paging% or to access online services& , smartphone as telcom and computing capa*ilities& Comparisons of smartp ones are s own in Ta*le T' .&>

Ta3-e TG1.3 Comparisons of Smartphone 55newBB

T'./H

Phones

iP one >'S

;e+us One ,ndroid 7&. T/Mo*ile% ,TQT% unloc)ed

@in 7 =indows P one OS for @I; CeriJon

;o)ia ;5 Sym*ianP > #n)nown may only *e availa*le unloc)ed

6lac)6erry Palm pre/ 6old HG33 plus 6lac)6erry =e*OS OS .&>&8&. 8&3&3&>>3 T/Mo*ile% ,TQT CeriJon% ,TQT "original Palm Pre on Sprint$

HTC ECO ,ndroid 7&. Sprint

+S shipped iP one OS with >&3 Aire-ess carrier in the nited States S re-ease date :ey3oard Camera features ,TQT

39/.G/733H 3./39/73.3 Cirtual > MP wit no flas & -irst iP one to record video =ill get full version of iP one OS (&3 unli)e iP one >' or older models& ,pps availa*le for real <CD Cirtual 8 MP wit flas

38/.>/73.3 #n)nown P ysical 5 MP wit -las G73P video Cirtual .7 MP s ots video in G73P

.3/733H P ysical >&7 MP wit flas

3./73/73.3 39/3(/.3 P ysical > MP <ED flas Cirtual 5 MP and .&>MP front facing we*cam

$ota3-e facts

Official 'oogle p one

IsnNt running =indows P one G

-irst p one to use t e open/ source Sym*ianP > OS -ree real time navigation O<ED

T e 6lac)6erry 6old continues BIM focus on *usiness users DoesnNt come wit real time navigation <CD "not touc screen$ 789M6 internal% comes wit 7'6 memory card wit support for up to >7'6 97(MHJ

Can *e used as a =i/-i otspot costs e+tra mont ly

-irst (' p one in t e #nited States and t e worldNs first (' ,ndroid p one -ree real time navigation <CD

GPS

-ree real time navigation O<ED

DoesnNt come wit real time navigation <CD

Beal time navigation cost MH&HH per mont <CD

&isp-ay

Stora!e( internaand e0pansion

.9'6 or >7'6 internal% no memory card support

8.7M6 internal% comes wit ('6 memory card wit support for up to >7'6

5'6 internal% no memory card support

.9'6 Internal% supports memory cards up to >7'6

.9'6 internal% no memory card support

.'6 internal% comes wit 5'6 memory cards wit support for up to >7'6

'pp-ication 933MHJ processor Samsung S8PC.33 "') 789M6

.'HJ 933MHJ Snapdragon Aualcomm ASD 5783 8.7M6 789M6

#n)nown

933MHJ .'HJ ,BM T'./.3 Aualcomm Corte+ ,5 Snapdragon ASD5983 8.7M6 8.7M6

#n)nown

789M6

Ta3-et PCsC#7"eaders
Ta*let PC tec nology runs touc /sensitive displays t at you can tap wit your fingers or sometimes wit a stylus% forgoing a mouse or touc pad& , ta*let PC can put t e full power of =indows G Professional in a laptop computer t atLs as simple as a pad and pen& T e iPad is a ta*let PC and e/reader from ,pple& It runs a modified version of t e iP one OS and is designed for all user input to *e done t roug t e touc screen& T ere are two different versions of t e iPad% t e > and t e =i/-i/only versions& T e >' iPad can use ,TQTNs >' networ) in t e #&S& for data% *ut not for voice& It is important to note t at t e iPad is not a p one& T e >' model includes all of t e features of t e =i/-i only model plus a *etter >' micro SIM card slot% >' antenna% and 'PS& )emory. T e iPad as t ree siJe options for internal storage% .9'6% >7'6% and 9('6& T e amount of memory you will need is important to consider *ecause t ere is no way to add more& It as no memory card slots or #S6 ports to use #S6 flas drives& However% t ere are apps t at wor) wit =e* *ased storage& 'pps. T e iPad can run t e iP oneNs 733%333: apps% w ic can *e stretc ed to fit t e larger screen& T e iPad also as some apps t at ave *een made specifically for t e iPad w ic cannot *e used on t e iP one& #7readers are devices used to read digital *oo)s% newspapers% and so fort & Most e/ readers come wit >'% wit no mont ly c arge w ic is used to connect to *oo)stores and to download some *oo)s& Most e/readers do not ave a *ac) lig t% w ic ma)es t em easier on t e eyes t an computer monitors& However% t is means an e+ternal lig t source will *e needed Rust li)e wit a normal *oo)& Comparisons of e/readers are s own in Ta*le T'.&( Ta3-e TG1.4 Comparison of e7readers. 55newBB #7/oo6 "eader Sony Beader Daily Edition PBS/ H336C G&. inc es -irst Sony Beader to come wit >' service& >' service is provided *y ,TQT T e w ole screen is a touc screen ,maJon @indle "glo*al wireless$ 9 inc es 'lo*al wires version uses ,TQT >' service Earlier versions came wit sprint >' P ysical )ey*oard *elow t e screen along wit ot er *uttons on t e sides 7'6 internal Small touc screen on t e *ottom 6arnes Q ;o*le ;oo) 9 inc es >' service t rew ,TQT it can use =i/ -i

Screen si8e Aire-ess

ser input

)emory

7' internal

7'6 internal T'./..

Supports *ot SD and Memory Sic) Duo memory cards +ther nota3-e features -ree 'oogle *oo)s and li*rary *oo)s Comes wit its own case

;o memory card support

Supports up to .9'6 memory cards Can *rowse full *oo)s for free inside a 6arnes Q ;o*le *ric) and mortar stores

Offers Te+t/to/speec w en allowed *y t e aut or and pu*lis er

Ai71i T e spread of wireless fidelity% or =i/-i% as ad a uge impact on t e a*ility to connect to t e Internet via laptops and mo*iles& =i/-i is t e common name for t e wireless networ)ing standard 537&l.* "now 537&..n$ t at is a standard feature for most laptops and PD,s& =i/-i provides t e convenience of finding a ot spot for Internet connectivity& HPLs iP,A 8(83 is t e first and eld t at as *ot wireless local area networ) "=<,;$ and 6luetoot connectivity& It also as a *uilt/in fingerprint security scanner4a small *ar Rust *eneat t e navigation *utton over w ic t e user swipes is finger to *e identified& IEEE 537&..n is t e wireless standard t at was finaliJed in 733H&

TG1.4 )icroprocessor and Primary Stora!e

)%C"+P"+C#SS+"S T e centra- processin! unit ,CP . performs all processing& T e CP# is w ere all processing is controlled% data are manipulated% arit metic computations are performed% and logical comparisons are made& T e CP# consists of t e control unit% t e arit metic/ logic unit ",<#$% and t e primary storage "or main memory$& 6ecause of its small siJe% t e CP# is also referred to as a microprocessor&

T'./.7

1i!ure TG1.5 How the CP wor6s. 55pic6up 1i!ure TG 1.5( p. W-218>> How a )icroprocessor Aor6s. T e CP# operates li)e a tiny factory& Inputs come in and are stored until needed% at w ic point t ey are retrieved and processed and t e output is stored and t en delivered somew ere& -igure T'.&8 illustrates t is process% w ic wor)s as follows! 9 T e inputs are data and *rief instructions a*out w at to do wit t e data& T ese instructions come from software in ot er parts of t e computer& Data mig t *e entered *y t e user t roug t e )ey*oard% for e+ample% or read from a data file in anot er part of t e computer& T e inputs are stored in registers until t ey are sent to t e ne+t step in t e processing& 9 Data and instructions travel in t e c ip via electrical pat ways called buses& T e siJe of t e *us4analogous to t e widt of a ig way4determines ow muc information can flow at any time& 9 T e control unit directs t e flow of data and instruction wit in t e c ip& 9 T e arit metic/logic unit ",<#$ receives t e data and instructions from t e registers and ma)es t e desired computation& T ese data and instructions ave *een translated into binar! form% t at is% only 3s and .s& T e CP# can process only *inary data& 9 T e data in t eir original form and t e instructions are sent to storage registers and are t en sent *ac) to a storage place outside t e c ip% suc as t e computerLs ard drive "discussed *elow$& Meanw ile% t e transformed data go to anot er register and t en on to ot er parts of t e computer "to t e monitor for display% or to *e stored% for e+ample$& 9 T is cycle processing% )nown as a machine instruction cyc-e( occurs millions of times or more per second& T e speed of a c ip% w ic is an important *enc mar)% depends on four t ings! t e cloc) speed% t e word lengt % t e data *us widt % and t e design of t e c ip&

T'./.>

1. T e c-oc6( located wit in t e control unit% is t e component t at provides t e timing for all processor operations& T e *eat fre0uency of t e cloc) "measured in mega ertJ SMHJT or millions of cycles per second$ determines ow many times per second t e processor performs operations& 2. T e word -en!th( w ic is t e num*er of *its "3s and .s$ t at can *e processed *y t e CP# at any one time& 3. T e 3us width. T e wider t e bus "t e p ysical pat s down w ic t e data and instructions travel as electrical impulses$% t e more data can *e moved and t e faster t e processing& , processLs bus band"idth is t e product of t e widt of its *us "measured in *its$ times t e fre0uency at w ic t e *us transfers data "measured in mega ertJ$& 4. T e p ysical design of t e c ip& T e distance *etween transistors is )nown as -ine width. Historically% line widt as *een e+pressed in microns "milliont s of a meter$% *ut as tec nology as advanced% it as *ecome more convenient to e+press line widt in nanometers "*illiont s of a meter$&

1i!ure TG1.D "unnin! a pro!ram on a computer. 55pic6up 1i!ure TG 1.D( p. w219>>

"unnin! a Pro!ram on a Computer. To see ow a program is run on a computer% loo) at -igure T'.&9& , computer program can *e stored on a dis) or on t e ard drive "drive 1C2$& To run t is program% t e operating system will retrieve t e program from its location "step . in t e figure$ and place it into t e B,M "step 7$& T en t e control unit 1fetc es2 t e first instruction in t e program from t e B,M "step >$ and acts upon it "e&g&% sends a message to t e user% via an output device% to enter a num*er% or say 1yes2 or 1no2O step ($& Once t e message is answered "step 8$ "e&g& via an input device$% it is stored in t e B,M& T is concludes t e first instruction& T'./.(

T en t e control unit 1fetc es2 t e second instruction "step 9$% and t e process continues on and on& If one of t e instructions calls for some computation% t e control unit sends it% toget er wit any relevant data stored in t e B,M% to t e arit metic logic unit ",<#$ "step G$& T e ,<# e+ecutes t e processing and returns t e results to t e B,M "step 5$& T e control unit t en 1fetc es2 one more instruction "step H$% w ic tells w at to do wit t e result4for e+ample% display it "step .3$ or store it on t e ard drive "step ..$& = en instructions are 1fetc ed%2 t ey are decoded& T e computer can process large num*ers of instructions per second% usually millions& T erefore% we measure t e speed of computers *y 1millions of instructions per minute%2 or MIPS& Para--e- Processin!. , computer system wit two or more processors is referred to as a para--e- processin! system. Today% some PCs ave 7 to 9 processors w ile wor)stations ave 73 or more& Processing data in parallel speeds up processing& <arger computers may ave a undred processors& Computer 'rchitecture. T e arrangement of t e components and t eir interactions is called computer architecture& Computer arc itecture includes t e instruction set and t e num*er of t e processors% t e structure of t e internal *uses% t e use of cac es% and t e types and arrangements of input/output "I/O$ device interfaces& Every processor comes wit a uni0ue set of operational codes or commands t at represent t e computerLs instruction set& ,n instruction set is t e set of mac ine instructions t at a processor recogniJes and can e+ecute& Today% two instruction set strategies% comp-e0 instruction set computer ,C%SC. and reduced instruction set computer ,"%SC.( dominate t e processor instruction sets of computer arc itectures& T ese two strategies differ *y t e num*er of operations availa*le and ow and w en instructions are moved into memory& , #$ processor contains more t an 733 uni0ue coded commands% one for virtually every type of operation& T e CISC design goal is for its instruction set to loo) li)e a sop isticated programming language& Ine+pensive ardware can t en *e used to replace e+pensive software% t ere*y reducing t e cost of developing software& T e penalty for t is ease of programming is t at CISC processorK*ased computers ave increased arc itectural comple+ity and decreased overall system performance& In spite of t ese draw*ac)s% most computers still use CISC processors& T e ot er approac is %#$ processors% w ic eliminate many of t e little/used codes found in t e comple+ instruction set& #nderlying BISC design is t e claim t at a very small su*set of instructions accounts for a very large percentage of all instructions e+ecuted& T e instruction set% t erefore% s ould *e designed around a few simple 1 ardwired2 instructions t at can *e e+ecuted very 0uic)ly& T e rest of t e needed instructions can *e created in software& 'rithmetic7<o!ic nit. T e arithmetic7-o!ic unit ,'< . performs re0uired arit metic and comparisons% or logic% operations& T e ,<# adds% su*tracts% multiplies% divides% compares% and determines w et er a num*er is positive% negative% or Jero& ,ll computer applications are ac ieved t roug t ese si+ operations& T e ,<# operations are performed se0uentially% *ased on instructions from t e T'./.8

control unit& -or t ese operations to *e performed% t e data must first *e moved from t e storage to t e arit metic registers in t e ,<#& "e!isters are specialiJed% ig /speed memory areas for storing temporary results of ,<# operations as well as for storing certain control information& P"%)'"E ST+"'G#. Primary stora!e( or main memory( stores data and program statements for t e CP#& It as four *asic purposes! 1. To store data t at ave *een input until t ey are transferred to t e ,<# for processing 2. To store data and results during intermediate stages of processing 3. To old data after processing until t ey are transferred to an output device 4. To old program statements or instructions received from input devices and from secondary storage Primary storage utiliJes inte!rated circuits. T ese circuits are interconnected layers of etc ed semiconductor materials forming electrical transistor memory units wit 1on/ offN positions t at direct t e electrical current passing t roug t em& T e on/off states of t e transistors are used to esta*lis a *inary . or 3 for storing one *inary digit% or *it& "o-e of /uses. Instructions and data move *etween computer su*systems and t e processor via communications c annels called *uses& , *us is a c annel t roug w ic data are passed in electronic form& T ree types of *uses lin) t e CP#% primary storage% and t e ot er devices in t e computer system& T e data *us moves data to and from primary storage& T e address *us transmits signals for locating a given address in primary storage& T e control *us transmits signals specifying w et er to 1read2 or 1write2 data to or from a given primary storage address% input device% or output device& T e capacity of a *us% called 3us width( is defined *y t e num*er of *its it carries at one time& Contro- nit. T e contro- unit reads instructions and directs t e ot er components of t e computer system to perform t e functions re0uired *y t e program& It interprets and carries out instructions contained in computer programs% selecting program statements from t e primary storage% moving t em to t e instruction registers in t e control unit% and t en carrying t em out& It controls input and output devices and data/transfer processes from and to memory& T e control unit does not actually c ange or create dataO it merely directs t e data flow wit in t e CP#& T e control unit can process only one instruction at a time% *ut it can e+ecute instructions so 0uic)ly "millions per second$ t at it can appear to do many different t ings simultaneously& T e series of operations re0uired to process a single mac ine instruction is called a machine cyc-e. Eac mac ine cycle consists of t e instruction c!cle% w ic sets up circuitry to perform a re0uired operation% and t e e&ecution c!cle% during w ic t e operation is actually carried out& Cate!ories of )emory. T ere are two categories of memory! t e register% w ic is part of t e CP# and is very fast% and t e interna- memory chips( w ic reside outside T'./.9

t e CP# and are slower& , register is circuitry in t e CP# t at allows for t e fast storage and retrieval of data and instructions during t e processing& T e control unit% t e CP#% and t e primary storage all ave registers& Small amounts of data reside in t e register for very s ort periods% prior to t eir use& T e interna- memory is used to store data Rust *efore t ey are processed *y t e CP#& Immediately after t e processing it comprises two types of storage space! B,M and BOM& "andom7access memory ,"'). is t e place in w ic t e CP# stores t e instructions and data it is processing& T e larger t e memory area% t e larger t e programs t at can *e stored and e+ecuted& More t an one program may *e operating at a time% eac occupying a portion of B,M& T e advantage of B,M is t at it is very fast in storing and retrieving any type of data% w et er te+tual% grap ical% sound% or animation/*ased& Its disadvantages are t at it is relatively e+pensive and volatile& T is volatility means t at all data and programs stored in B,M are lost w en t e power is turned off& To lessen t is potential loss of data% many of t e newer application programs perform periodic automatic 1saves2 of t e data& Many software programs are larger t an t e internal% primary storage "B,M$ availa*le to store t em& To get around t is limitation% some programs are divided into smaller *loc)s% wit eac *loc) loaded into B,M only w en necessary& However% depending on t e program% continuously loading and unloading 3-oc6s can slow down performance considera*ly% especially since secondary storage is so muc slower t an B,M& ,s a compromise% some arc itectures use ig /speed cache memory as a temporary storage for t e most fre0uently used *loc)s& T en t e B,M is used to store t e ne+t most fre0uently used *loc)s% and secondary storage "descri*ed later$ for t e least used *loc)s& T ere are two types of cac e memory in t e maRority of computer systems4<evel . "<l$ cac e is located in t e processor% and <evel 7 "<7$ cac e is located on t e mot er*oard *ut not actually in t e processor& <. cac e is smaller and faster t an <7 cac e& C ip manufacturers are now designing c ips wit <. cac e and <7 cac e in t e processor and <evel > "<>$ cac e on t e mot er*oard& Since cac e memory operates at a muc ig er speed t an conventional memory "i&e&% B,M$% t is tec ni0ue greatly increases t e speed of processing *ecause it reduces t e num*er of times t e program as to fetc instructions and data from B,M and secondary storage& &ynamic random access memories ,&"')s. are t e most widely used B,M c ips& T ese are )nown to *e volatile since t ey need to *e rec arged and refres ed undreds of times per second in order to retain t e information stored in t em& "ead7on-y memory ,"+). is t at portion of primary storage t at cannot *e c anged or erased& BOM is nonvolatileO t at is% t e program instructions are continually retained wit in t e BOM% w et er power is supplied to t e computer or not& BOM is necessary to users w o need to *e a*le to restore a program or data after t e computer as *een turned off or% as a safeguard% to prevent a program or data from *eing c anged& -or e+ample% t e instructions needed to start% or 1*oot%2 a computer must not *e lost w en it is turned off& T'./.G

Pro!ramma3-e read7on-y memory ,P"+). is a memory c ip on w ic a program can *e stored& 6ut once t e PBOM as *een used% you cannot wipe it clean and use it to store somet ing else& <i)e BOMs% PBOMs are nonvolatile&

TG1.5 %nputC+utput &evices

T e input/output "I/O$ devices of a computer are not part of t e CP#% *ut are c annels for communicating *etween t e e+ternal environment and t e CP#& Data and instructions are entered into t e computer t roug input devices ,%C+.( and processing results are provided t roug output devices. =idely used I/O devices are t e cat ode/ray tu*e "CBT$ or visual display unit "CD#$% magnetic storage media% printers% )ey*oards% 1mice%2 and image/scanning devices& I/O devices are controlled directly *y t e CP# or indirectly t roug special processors dedicated to input and output processing& 'enerally spea)ing% I/O devices are su*classified into secondar! storage devices "primarily dis) and tape drives$ and peripheral devices "any input/output device t at is attac ed to t e computer$& S#C+$&'"E ST+"'G# Secondary stora!e is separate from primary storage and t e CP#% *ut directly connected to it& It stores t e data in a format t at is compati*le wit data stored in primary storage% *ut secondary storage provides t e computer wit vastly increased space for storing and processing large 0uantities of software and data& Primary storage is volatile% contained in memory c ips% and very fast in storing and retrieving data& In contrast% secondary storage is nonvolatile% uses many different forms of media t at are less e+pensive t an primary storage% and is relatively slower t an primary storage& )a!netic tape is )ept on a large open reel or in a small cartridge or cassette& Today% cartridges and cassettes are replacing reels *ecause t ey are easier to use and access& T e principal advantages of magnetic tape are t at it is ine+pensive% relatively sta*le% and long lasting% and t at it can store very large volumes of data& , magnetic tape is e+cellent for *ac)up or arc ival storage of data and can *e reused& T e main disadvantage of magnetic tape is t at it must *e searc ed from t e *eginning to find t e desired data& T is process is called se'uential access& T e magnetic tape itself is fragile and must *e andled wit care& Magnetic tape is also la*or intensive to mount and dismount in a mainframe computer& Magnetic tape storage often is used for information t at an organiJation must maintain% *ut uses rarely or does not need immediate access to& Industries wit uge num*ers of files "e&g&% insurance companies$ use magnetic tape systems& Modern versions of magnetic tape systems use cartridges and often a ro*otic system t at selects and loads t e appropriate cartridge automatically& )a!netic dis6s( also called hard dis6s( alleviate some of t e pro*lems associated wit magnetic tape *y assigning specific address locations for data% so t at users can go directly to t e address wit out aving to go t roug intervening locations loo)ing for t e rig t data to retrieve& T is process is called direct access& , ard dis) is li)e a p onograp containing a stac) of metal/coated platters "usually permanently mounted$ t at rotate rapidly& Magnetic read/write eads% attac ed to arms% T'./.5

over over t e platters& To locate an address for storing or retrieving data% t e ead moves inward or outward to t e correct position% t en waits for t e correct location to spin underneat & T e speed of access to data on ard/dis) drives is a function of t e rotational speed of t e dis) and t e speed of t e read/write eads& T e read/write eads must position t emselves% and t e dis) pac) must rotate until t e proper information is located& ,dvanced dis) drives ave access speeds of 5 to .7 milliseconds& Magnetic dis)s provide storage for large amounts of data and instructions t at can *e rapidly accessed& ,not er advantage of dis)s over reel is t at a ro*ot can c ange t em& T is can drastically reduce t e e+penses of a data center& Storage Tec nology is t e maRor vendor of suc ro*ots& T e dis)sL disadvantages are t at t ey are more e+pensive t an magnetic tape and t ey are suscepti*le to 1dis) cras es&2 In contrast to large% fi+ed dis) drives% one approac is to com*ine a large num*er of small dis)s drives% eac wit .3/ to (3/giga*yte capacity% developed originally for microcomputers& T ese devices are called redundant arrays of ine0pensive dis6s ,"'%&.. 6ecause data are stored redundantly across many drives% t e overall impact on system performance is lessened w en one drive malfunctions& ,lso% multiple drives provide multiple data pat s% improving performance& -inally% *ecause of manufacturing efficiencies of small drives% t e cost of B,ID devices is significantly lower t an t e cost of large dis) drives of t e same capacity& To ta)e advantage of faster tec nologies% disk-drive interfaces must also *e faster& Most PCLs and wor)stations use one of two ig /performance dis)/interface standards! #nhanced %nte!rated &rive #-ectronics ,#%&#. or Sma-- Computer Systems %nterface ,SCS%.. EIDE offers good performance% is ine+pensive% and supports up to four dis)s% tapes% or CD/BOM drives& T e latest version is called Serial ,T, "S,T,$& -or details% refer to serialata&org& SCSI drives are more e+pensive t an EIDE drives% *ut t ey offer a faster interface and support more devices& SCSI interfaces are t erefore used for grap ics wor)stations% server/*ased storage% and large data*ases& +ptica- stora!e devices ave e+tremely ig storage density& Typically% muc more information can *e stored on a standard 8&78/inc optical dis) t an on a compara*ly siJed floppy "a*out (33 times more$& Since a ig ly focused laser *eam is used to read/write information encoded on an optical dis)% t e information can *e ig ly condensed& In addition% t e amount of p ysical dis) space needed to record an optical *it is muc smaller t an t at usually re0uired *y magnetic media& ,not er advantage of optical storage is t at t e medium itself is less suscepti*le to contamination or deterioration& -irst% t e recording surfaces "on *ot sides of t e dis)$ are protected *y two plastic plates% w ic )eep dust and dirt from contaminating t e surface& Second% only a laser *eam of lig t% not a flying ead% comes in contact wit t e recording surfaceO t e ead of an optical dis) drive comes no closer t an . mm from t e dis) surface& Optical drives are also less fragile% and t e dis)s t emselves may easily *e loaded and removed& In addition% optical dis)s can store muc more information% *ot on a routine *asis and also w en com*ined into storage systems& T'./.H

Compact dis6 read7on-y memory ,C&7"+). dis)s ave ig capacity% low cost% and ig dura*ility& CD/BOM tec nology is very effective and efficient for mass/ producing many copies of large amounts of information t at do not need to *e c anged! for e+ample% encyclopedias% directories% and online data*ases& However% *ecause it is a read/only medium% t e CD/BOM can *e only read and not written on& Compact dis6( rewrita3-e ,C&7"A. adds rewrita*ility to t e recorda*le compact dis) mar)et& &i!ita- ;ideo &is6 ,&;&. offers ig er 0uality and denser storage capa*ilities& /-u7ray. 6lu/ray discs offer ig er 0uality and denser storage t an DCDs& ,lso% 6lu/ray discs use ard coating tec nology to ma)e t em more scratc resistant t an CDs or DCDs& )emory PC Card. (emor! P cards "also )nown as memor! sticks$ e+pand t e amount of availa*le memory& T ey ave *een widely used% particularly in porta*le devices suc as PD,s and smart p ones& Summary. Ta*le T'.&8 summariJes t e maRor secondary storage devices% and t eir advantages% limitations% and applications& P#"%PH#"'< %$P T &#;%C#S #sers can command t e computer and communicate wit it *y using one or more input devices. Eac input device accepts a specific form of data& -or e+ample% )ey*oards transmit typed c aracters% and andwriting recogniJers 1read2 andwritten c aracters& #sers want communication wit computers to *e simple% fast% and error free& T erefore% a variety of input devices fits t e needs of different individuals and applications "see Ta*le T'.&($& Some of t ese devices are s own in -igure T'.&G toget er wit t eir usage& :ey3oards. T e most common input device is t e )ey*oard& T e )ey*oard is designed li)e a typewriter *ut wit many additional special )eys& Most computer users utiliJe )ey*oards regularly& #nfortunately% a num*er of computer users ave developed repetitive stress inRury% w ic t ey allege comes from e+cessive use of poorly designed )ey*oards& ,s a result% new )ey*oards ave *een developed t at are ergonomically designed& -or e+ample% some )ey*oards are now 1split2 in alf% loosely appro+imating t e natural angle of t e arms and wrists& T'/<# TG1.5 Comparison of Secondary Stora!e 55pic6up Ta3-e TG 1.3( p. w7224 Fwith #ditsB>
Type 'dvanta!es &isadvanta!es 'pp-ication

Magnetic Storage Devices Magnetic tape <owest cost per unit stored& Se0uential access means slow retrieval speeds& -ragileO ig cost per unit stored& E+pensive% semi permanent Corporate data arc iving& Personal computers t roug mainframes& Corporate data storage t at

Hard drive Belatively ig capacity and fast retrieval speed& B,ID Hig capacityO designed for fault

T'./73

tolerance and reduced ris) of data lossO low cost per unit stored& S,; Hig capacityO designed for large amounts of enterprise data& Hig capacityO designed for large amounts of enterprise data&

installation&

re0uires fre0uent% rapid access& Corporate data storage t at re0uires fre0uent% rapid access& Corporate data storage t at re0uires fre0uent% rapid access& Personal computers& Personal and laptop computers& Consumer electronic devicesO moving files from porta*le devices to des)top computers& Personal computers&

E+pensive&

;,S

E+pensive&

Magnetic dis)ettes Memory cards Memory stic)s

<ow cost per dis)ette% porta*ility& <ow capacityO very ig cost per unit storedO fragile& Porta*leO easy to useO less failure/ prone t an ard drives& E+pensive&

E+tremely porta*le and easy to use& E+pensive&

#S6 -las drives SSD ard drives

Porta*leO easy to useO fastO only re0uires a #S6 port not a special drive& -aster t an HDD& Hig cost per unit stored& More e+pensive t an ard drives&

Personal computers t roug corporate data storage& 6ac)up of internal ard drive&

E+panda*le Porta*leO ig capacity& storage Optical Storage Devices CD/BOM Hig capacityO moderate cost per unit storedO ig dura*ility& DCD Hig capacityO moderate cost per unit stored&

Slower retrieval speeds t an ard drivesO only certain types can *e rewritten& Slower retrieval speeds t an ard drives&

Personal computers t roug corporate data storage& Personal computers t roug corporate data storage& Personal computers t roug corporate data storage&

-MD/BOMCery ig capacityO moderate cost -aster retrieval speeds t an per unit stored& DCD or CD/BOMO slower retrieval speeds t an ard drives& 6lu/ray Hig er capacity t en DCDs up to 83'6 currently& E+pensive&

Personal computers t roug corporate data storage&

T'/<# TG1.D %nput &evices 55pic6up Ta3-e TG 1.4( p. w-225>>

Cate!ories Keying devices #0amp-es 9 Punc ed card reader 9 @ey*oard 9 Point/of/sale "POS$ terminal 9 Mouse "including roller*alls and trac)*alls$ 9 Touc screen

Pointing devices "devices that point to ob)ects on the computer screen$

T'./7.

9 Touc pad "or trac)pad$ 9 <ig t pen 9 ?oy stic) Optical character recognition "devices that 9 6ar code scanner "e&g&% at POS$ scan characters$ 9 Optical c aracter reader 9 =and reader 9 Cordless reader 9 Optical mar) reader Handwriting recognizers Voice recognizers 9 Pen "data entered b! voice$ 9 Microp one Other devices 9 Magnetic in) c aracter readers 9 Digital cameras 9 ,utomated teller mac ines ",TMs$ 9 Smart cards 9 DigitiJers "for maps% grap s% etc&$ 9 B-ID

)ice and Trac63a--s. T e Computer mouse is a and eld device used to point a cursor at a desired place on t e screen% suc as an icon% a cell in a ta*le% an item in a menu% or any ot er o*Rect& Once t e arrow is placed on an o*Rect% t e user clic)s a *utton on t e mouse% instructing t e computer to ta)e some action& T e use of t e mouse reduces t e need to type in information or use t e slower arrow )eys& , variant of t e mouse is t e trac63a--( w ic is often used in grap ic design& T e user olds an o*Rect muc li)e a mouse% *ut rat er t an moving t e entire device to move t e cursor "as wit a mouse$% e or s e rotates a *all t at is *uilt into t e top of t e device& Porta*le computers ave some ot er mouse li)e tec nologies% suc as t e glide/and/tap pad% used in lieu of a mouse& Many porta*les also allow a conventional mouse to *e plugged in w en desired& ,not er variant of t e mouse% t e optica- mouse( replaces t e *all% rollers% and w eels of t e mec anical mouse wit a lig t% lens% and a camera c ip& It replicates t e action of a *all and rollers *y ta)ing p otograp s of t e surface it passes over% and comparing eac successive image to determine w ere it is going& Touch Screens. ,n alternative to t e mouse or ot er screen/related device is a touch screen& Touch screens are a tec nology t at divides a computer screen into different areas& #sers simply touc t e desired area "often *uttons or s0uares$ to trigger an action& Sty-us. , sty-us is a pen/style device t at allows t e user eit er to touc parts of t e predetermined menu of options "as wit a weara*le computer% discussed a*ove$ or to andwrite information into t e computer "as wit some PD,s$& T e tec nology may respond to pressure of t e stylus% or t e stylus can *e a type of lig t pen t at emits lig t t at is sensed *y computer&

T'./77

Goystic6s. Jo!sticks are used primarily at wor)stations t at can display dynamic grap ics& T ey are also used in playing video games& T e Roystic) moves and positions t e cursor at t e desired o*Rect on t e screen&

#-ectronics 1orms. #-ectronic forms provide a standardiJed format w ose eadings serve as prompts for t e input& In form interaction( t e user enters data or commands into designated spaces "fields$ in forms& T e computer may produce some output after input is made% and t e user may *e re0uested to continue t e form interaction process& Electronic forms can alleviate many of t e resource/ intensive steps of processing forms% ma)ing traditional typesetting and printing T'./7>

unnecessary& -inally% processing centers do not need to re)ey data from paper/ *ased forms% since t e data remain in electronic format t roug out t e process& Ahite3oard. , white3oard is an area on a display screen t at multiple users can write or draw on& = ite*oards are a principal component of teleconferencing applications *ecause t ey ena*le visual as well as audio communication& Source &ata 'utomation. Source data automation captures data in computer reada*le form at t e moment t e data are created& Point/of/sale systems% optical *ar codes and code scanners% ot er optical c aracter recognition devices% andwriting recogniJers% voice recogniJers% digitiJers% and cameras are e+amples of source data automation& Source data automation devices eliminate errors arising from umans )ey*oarding data and allow for data to *e captured directly and immediately% wit *uilt/in error correction& T e maRor devices are descri*ed *elow& Point7of7Sa-e Termina-s. Many retail organiJations utiliJe point7of7sa-e ,P+S. termina-s. T e POS terminal as a specialiJed )ey*oard& -or e+ample% t e POS terminals at fast/food restaurants include all of t e items on t e menu% sometimes la*eled wit t e picture of t e item& POS terminals in a retail store are e0uipped wit a *ar code scanner t at reads t e *ar/coded sales tag& POS devices increase t e speed of data entry and reduce t e c ance of errors& POS terminals may include many features suc as scanner% printer% voice synt esis "w ic pronounces t e price *y voice$% and accounting software& /arcode Scanner. /arcode scanners scan t e one/dimensional ".D$ *lac)/and/w ite *ars written in t e *niversal Product ode "#PC$& T is code specifies t e name of t e product and its manufacturer "product ID$& T en a computer finds in t e data*ase t e price e0uivalent to t e productLs ID& 6arcodes are especially valua*le in ig /volume processing w ere )ey*oard energy is too slow and/or inaccurate& ,pplications include supermar)et c ec)out% airline *aggage stic)ers% and transport companiesL pac)ages "-ederal E+press% #nited Parcel Service% and t e #&S& Postal Service$& T e wand reader is a special and eld *ar code reader t at can read codes t at are also reada*le *y people& "adio 1reHuency %dentification ,"1%&. Ta!. %adio fre'uenc! identification "B-ID$ is a system of tec nologies t at use radio waves to automatically identify people or o*Rects& T e uni0ue information "usually a serial num*er$ is stored on a microc ip "tag$ t at is attac ed to an antenna% w ic can transmit to a near*y reader& T e reader t en converts t e radio waves from t e B-ID tag into digital information for t e computer to use& +ptica- )ar6 "eader. ,n optica- mar6 reader is a special scanner for detecting t e presence of pencil mar)s on a predetermined grid% suc as multiple/c oice test answer s eets&

T'./7(

Sensors. Sensors are e+tremely common tec nologies em*edded in ot er tec nologies& T ey collect data directly from t e environment and input t em into a computer system& E+amples mig t include your carLs air*ag activation sensor or fuel mi+ture/pollution control sensor% inventory control sensors in retail stores% and t e myriad types of sensors *uilt into a modern aircraft& niversa- Seria- /us , S/.. T is is a low/cost interfacing port for computer perip erals& #S6 .&. as a ma+imum transfer rate of .7 M*ps t at cannot fulfill some speedy perip erals suc as e+ternal ard drives& #S6 7&3 as a ma+imum transfer rate of (53 M*ps% w ic is (3 times faster t an #S6 .&.& It is faster t an its competitor IEEE .>H( t at as a ma+imum transfer rate of (53 m*ps& T e newest #S6 standard is #S6 >&3& It is a*out .3 times faster t an #S6 7&3 wit a ma+imum transfer speed of 8'*ps& )onitors. T e data entered into a computer can *e visi*le on t e computer monitor( w ic is *asically a video screen t at displays *ot input and output& Monitors come in different siJes% ranging from inc es to several feet& T e maRor *enefit is t e interactive nature of t e device&

T'./78