MEMORY ORGANISATION: MEMORY ORGANIZATION Memory organization is two-fold !

irst we dis"#ss t$e $ardware %&$ysi"al' organization( t$en t$e internal ar"$ite"t#re T$e ty&e of "om&#ter and its size do not refle"t t$e ty&e of memories t$at t$e "om&#ter #ses Some "om&#ters $a)e a mi*t#re of memory ty&es !or e*am&le( t$ey may #se some ty&e of magneti" memory %"ore or film' and also a semi"ond#"tor memory %stati" or dynami"' T$ey also $a)e a read-only memory w$i"$ is #s#ally a &art of t$e +,- Memory in a "om&#ter "an )ary from one or more mod#les to one or more &"./s( de&ending on t$e "om&#ter ty&e T$e larger mainframe "om&#ters #se t$e mod#lar arrangement( m#lti&le mod#les %fo#r or more'( to ma0e #& t$eir memories 1$ereas( mini"om&#ters and mi"ro"om&#ters #se "$assis or assem.lies( "ages or ra"0s( and mot$er.oard or .a"0&lane arrangements Minis and mi"ros #se m#lti&le "om&onents on one &". or gro#&s of &"./s to form t$e memory T$ere are se)eral ways to organise memories wit$ res&e"t to t$e way t$ey are "onne"ted to t$e "a"$e: one-word-wide memory organisation wide memory organisation interlea)ed memory organisation inde&endent memory organization One-1ord-1ide T$e memory is one word wide and "onne"ted )ia a one word wide .#s to t$e "a"$e 1ide T$e memory is more t$an one word wide %#s#ally fo#r words wide' and "onne"ted .y an e2#ally wide .#s to t$e low le)el "a"$e %w$i"$ is also wide' !rom t$e "a"$e m#lti&le .#sses of one word wide go to a M-3 w$i"$ sele"ts t$e "orre"t .#s to "onne"t to t$e $ig$ le)el "a"$e Interlea)ed T$ere are se)eral memory .an0s w$i"$ are one word wide( and one one word wide .#s T$ere is some logi" in t$e memory t$at sele"ts t$e "orre"t .an0 to #se w$en t$e memory gets a""essed .y t$e "a"$e Memory interlea)ing is a way to distri.#te indi)id#al addresses o)er memory mod#les Its aim is to 0ee& t$e most of mod#les .#sy as "om&#tations &ro"eed 1it$ memory interlea)ing( t$e low-order 0 .its of t$e memory address sele"t a mod#le( and t$e $ig$order m .its name a lo"ation wit$in t$at mod#le 4en"e( "onse"#ti)e addresses are lo"ated in s#""essi)e mod#les A re2#est to a""ess "onse"#ti)e memory lo"ations "an 0ee& se)eral mod#les .#sy at t$e same time Inde&endent T$ere are se)eral .an0s( w$i"$ "an all .e a""essed sim#ltaneo#sly .y se)eral .#ses Memory geometry In t$e design of modern &ersonal "om&#ters( memory geometry des"ri.es t$e internal str#"t#re of random-a""ess memory Memory geometry is of "on"ern to "ons#mers #&grading t$eir "om&#ters( sin"e older memory "ontrollers may not .e "om&ati.le wit$ later &rod#"ts Memory geometry terminology "an .e "onf#sing .e"a#se of t$e n#m.er of o)erla&&ing terms

,$ysi"al feat#res Memory geometry des"ri.es t$e logi"al "onfig#ration of a RAM mod#le( .#t "ons#mers will always find it easiest to gras& t$e &$ysi"al "onfig#ration M#"$ of t$e "onf#sion s#rro#nding memory geometry o""#rs w$en t$e &$ysi"al "onfig#ration o.f#s"ates t$e logi"al "onfig#ration T$e first defining feat#re of RAM is form fa"tor RAM mod#les "an .e in "om&a"t SO-5IMM form for s&a"e "onstrained a&&li"ations li0e la&to&s( &rinters( em.edded "om&#ters( and small form fa"tor "om&#ters( and in 5IMM format( w$i"$ is #sed in most des0to&s T$e ot$er &$ysi"al "$ara"teristi" determine wit$ .y &$ysi"al e*amination are t$e n#m.er of memory "$i&s( and w$et$er .ot$ sides of t$e memory 6sti"06 are &o&#lated If 7 is a fa"tor of t$e n#m.er of memory de)i"es or "$i&s %or more generally( a &ower of two'( t$en t$e mod#le does not feat#re E++( if 8 is a fa"tor of t$e n#m.er of memory "$i&s %or one more t$an a &ower of two'( t$en t$e mod#le does RAM mod#les are 90eyed9 .y indentations on t$e sides( and along t$e .ottom of t$e mod#le T$is determines t$e te"$nology( and "lassifi"ation of t$e mod#les( for instan"e w$et$er it is 55R:( or 55R;( and w$et$er it is s#ita.le for des0to&s( or for ser)ers It is im&ortant to ma0e s#re t$at t$e 0eying of t$e mod#le mat"$es t$e 0ey of t$e slot it is intended to o""#&y Additional( non-memory "$i&s on t$e mod#le are an indi"ation t$at it "o#ld .e designed for $ig$ "a&a"ity memory systems for ser)ers( and t$at t$e mod#le may .e in"om&ati.le wit$ des0to& systems As t$e ne*t se"tion of t$is arti"le will "o)er t$e logi"al ar"$ite"t#re( w$i"$ "o)ers t$e logi"al str#"t#re s&anning e)ery &o&#lated slot in a system( t$e &$ysi"al feat#res of t$e slots t$emsel)es .e"omes im&ortant <y "ons#lting t$e do"#mentation of yo#r mot$er.oard( or reading t$e la.els on t$e .oard itself( yo# "an determine t$e #nderlying logi"al str#"t#re of t$e slots 1$en t$ere is more t$an one slot( t$ey are n#m.ered( and w$en t$ere is more t$an one "$annel( t$e different slots are se&arated in t$at way as well #s#ally "olor-"oded =edit> ?ogi"al feat#res In t$e 8@s s&e"ialized "om&#ters were released w$ere two "om&#ters t$at ea"$ $ad t$eir own memory "ontroller "o#ld .e networ0ed at s#"$ a low le)el t$at t$e software r#n "o#ld #se t$e memory( or +,- of eit$er "om&#ter as if t$ey were one #nit 1it$ AM59s release of t$e O&teron( and Intel9s "orres&onding systems systems t$at s$are more t$an one memory "ontroller in a single system $a)e .e"ome "ommon in a&&li"ations t$at re2#ire t$e &ower of more t$an one "ommon des0to& !or t$ese systems s"$emes li0e Non--nified Memory Ar"$ite"t#re are #sed +$annels are t$e $ig$est le)el str#"t#re at t$e lo"al memory "ontroller le)el Modern "om&#ters "an $a)e two( t$ree or e)en more "$annels It is #s#ally im&ortant t$at( for ea"$ mod#le in any one "$annel( t$ere is a logi"ally identi"al mod#le in t$e same lo"ation on ea"$ of t$e ot$er &o&#lated "$annels Mod#le "a&a"ity is t$e aggregate s&a"e in a mod#le meas#red in .yte( or - more generally - in words Mod#le "a&a"ity is e2#al to t$e &rod#"t of t$e ran0 density and t$e n#m.er of ran0s( and w$ere t$e ran0 density is t$e &rod#"t of ran0 de&t$( and ran0 widt$=A> T$e standard format for e*&ressing t$is s&e"ifi"ation is %ran0 density' M.it * %ran0 widt$'*%n#m.er of ran0s' <an0s are one of t$e "$ief so#r"es of &$ysi"alBlogi"al "onf#sion <an0s are a logi"al distin"tion t$at "orres&onds to +SRows in low le)el addressing( for more details on t$e

addressing of RAM in t$is ,OC( see dynami" random a""ess memory As memory density $as in"reased( t$e n#m.ers of ran0s in ea"$ "$i& $as also in"reased As an e*am&le of a sim&le "onfig#ration( say t$ere is one mod#le wit$ D "$i&s( or de)i"es( on ea"$ side( and one ran0 in ea"$ of t$e AE "$i&s( and ea"$ .an0 was D .its wide( t$at mod#le wo#ld $a)e one .an0 for ea"$ side One .an0 on one side( and one .an0 on t$e .a"0 Today yo# "o#ld $a)e a mod#le "om&osed of Mi"ron MT7F4A:DMAE "$i&s wit$ t$e organization AEM. * AE * D wit$ a .an0 widt$ of AE 1it$ a mod#le w$i"$ $as of D of t$ose on ea"$ side( t$ere wo#ld .e : 6*AE6 6.an0s6 on ea"$ side Memory "ontrollers s#"$ as t$e Intel 87G +$i&set list t$e "onfig#rations t$ey s#&&ort: 6S#&&orts :GE-M.( GA:-M.( and A-G. 55R: te"$nologies for *D and *AE de)i"es 6 6S#&&orts fo#r .an0s for all 55R: de)i"es #& to GA:-M.it density S#&&orts eig$t .an0s for A-G.it 55R: de)i"es 6 As an e*am&le( ta0e an i87G memory "ontroller wit$ 7 Hingston H43E7@@5:BAGs Hingston des"ri.es ea"$ mod#le as $a)ing a geometry of A:DM*E7( meaning t$at ea"$ one $as E7 .its A:D million dee&( e2#aling D A8: .illion .its( or A @:7 Giga.ytes Hingston des"ri.es ea"$ 6de)i"e6( or "$i& as $a)ing a geometry of E7M*D( so ea"$ mod#le $as fo#r .an0s So from t$e M+4 ,OC w$en t$ere are 7 AG< mod#les( it sees : "$annels( ea"$ wit$ D .an0s 4ierar"$y of organization Memory "$i& T$e lowest form of organization "o)ered .y memory geometry( sometimes "alled 6memory de)i"e6 T$ese are t$e "om&onent I+s t$at ma0e #& ea"$ mod#le( or mod#le of RAM T$e most im&ortant meas#rement of a "$i& is its density( meas#red in .its <e"a#se memory .#s widt$ is #s#ally larger t$an t$e n#m.er of "$i&s( most "$i&s are designed to $a)e widt$( meaning t$at t$ey are di)ided into e2#al &arts internally( and w$en one address 6de&t$6 is "alled #&( instead of ret#rning I#st one )al#e( more t$an one )al#e is ret#rned In addition to t$e de&t$( a se"ond addressing dimension $as .een added at t$e "$i& le)el( .an0s <an0s allow one .an0 to .e a)aila.le( w$ile anot$er .an0 is #na)aila.le .e"a#se it is refres$ing An e*am&le of "$i& notation is E7M. %de&t$' 3 D %widt$' 3 D <an0s =edit> Memory mod#le Some meas#rements of mod#les are size( widt$( s&eed( and laten"y A memory mod#le "onsists of a m#lti&le of t$e memory "$i&s to e2#al t$e desired mod#le widt$ So a ;: .it SIMM mod#le "o#ld .e "om&osed of fo#r D-.it wide %*D' "$i&s As noted in t$e memory "$annel &art( one &$ysi"al mod#le "an .e made #& of one or more logi"al ran0s If t$at ;: .it simm were "om&osed of eig$t D-.it "$i&s t$e simm wo#ld $a)e two ran0s An e*am&le of Mod#le notation is A:DM. * E7-.it =edit> Memory "$annel A memory "$annel is made #& of ran0s ,$ysi"ally a memory "$annel wit$ I#st one memory mod#le mig$t &resent itself as $a)ing one or more logi"al ran0s =edit> +ontroller organization T$is is t$e $ig$est le)el In a ty&i"al "om&#ter t$ere will only .e a single memory "ontroller wit$ only one or two "$annels T$e logi"al feat#res se"tion des"ri.ed N-MA "onfig#rations( w$i"$ "an ta0e t$e form of a networ0 of memory "ontrollers !or e*am&le( ea"$ so"0et of a two so"0et AM5 HD "an $a)e a two "$annel memory "ontroller( gi)ing t$e system a total of fo#r memory "$annels

Random-a""ess memory Random-a""ess memory %RAM' is a form of "om&#ter data storage Today( it ta0es t$e form of integrated "ir"#its t$at allow stored data to .e a""essed in any order %t$at is( at random' 6Random6 refers to t$e idea t$at any &ie"e of data "an .e ret#rned in a "onstant time( regardless of its &$ysi"al lo"ation and w$et$er it is related to t$e &re)io#s &ie"e of data =A> T$e word 6RAM6 is often asso"iated wit$ )olatile ty&es of memory %s#"$ as 5RAM memory mod#les'( w$ere t$e information is lost after t$e &ower is swit"$ed off Many ot$er ty&es of memory are RAM as well( in"l#ding most ty&es of ROM and a ty&e of flas$ memory "alled NOR-!las$ Ty&es of RAM Modern ty&es of writa.le RAM generally store a .it of data in eit$er t$e state of a fli&flo&( as in SRAM %stati" RAM'( or as a "$arge in a "a&a"itor %or transistor gate'( as in 5RAM %dynami" RAM'( E,ROM( EE,ROM and !las$ Some ty&es $a)e "ir"#itry to dete"t andBor "orre"t random fa#lts "alled memory errors in t$e stored data( #sing &arity .its or error "orre"tion "odes RAM of t$e read-only ty&e( ROM( instead #ses a metal mas0 to &ermanently ena.leBdisa.le sele"ted transistors( instead of storing a "$arge in t$em Of s&e"ial "onsideration is SIMM and 5IMM memory mod#les SRAM and 5RAM are )olatile Ot$er forms of "om&#ter storage( s#"$ as dis0s and magneti" ta&es( $a)e .een #sed as &ersistent storage Many newer &rod#"ts instead rely on flas$ memory to maintain data w$en not in #se( s#"$ as ,5As or small m#si" &layers +ertain &ersonal "om&#ters( s#"$ as many r#gged "om&#ters and net.oo0s( $a)e also re&la"ed magneti" dis0s wit$ flas$ dri)es 1it$ flas$ memory( only t$e NOR ty&e is "a&a.le of tr#e random a""ess( allowing dire"t "ode e*e"#tion( and is t$erefore often #sed instead of ROMJ t$e lower "ost NAN5 ty&e is "ommonly #sed for .#l0 storage in memory "ards and solid-state dri)es A memory "$i& is an integrated "ir"#it %I+' made of millions of transistors and "a&a"itors In t$e most "ommon form of "om&#ter memory( dynami" random a""ess memory %5RAM'( a transistor and a "a&a"itor are &aired to "reate a memory "ell( w$i"$ re&resents a single .it of data T$e "a&a"itor $olds t$e .it of information K a @ or a A T$e transistor a"ts as a swit"$ t$at lets t$e "ontrol "ir"#itry on t$e memory "$i& read t$e "a&a"itor or "$ange its state Memory $ierar"$y Many "om&#ter systems $a)e a memory $ierar"$y "onsisting of +,- registers( on-die SRAM "a"$es( e*ternal "a"$es( 5RAM( &aging systems( and )irt#al memory or swa& s&a"e on a $ard dri)e T$is entire &ool of memory may .e referred to as 6RAM6 .y many de)elo&ers( e)en t$o#g$ t$e )ario#s s#.systems "an $a)e )ery different a""ess times( )iolating t$e original "on"e&t .e$ind t$e random a""ess term in RAM E)en wit$in a $ierar"$y le)el s#"$ as 5RAM( t$e s&e"ifi" row( "ol#mn( .an0( ran0( "$annel( or interlea)e organization of t$e "om&onents ma0e t$e a""ess time )aria.le( alt$o#g$ not to t$e e*tent t$at rotating storage media or a ta&e is )aria.le T$e o)erall goal of #sing a memory $ierar"$y is to o.tain t$e $ig$er &ossi.le a)erage a""ess &erforman"e w$ile minimizing t$e total "ost of t$e entire memory system %generally( t$e memory $ierar"$y follows t$e a""ess time wit$ t$e fast +,- registers at t$e to& and t$e slow $ard dri)e at t$e .ottom' In many modern &ersonal "om&#ters( t$e RAM "omes in an easily #&graded form of mod#les "alled memory mod#les or 5RAM mod#les a.o#t t$e size of a few sti"0s of

"$ewing g#m T$ese "an 2#i"0ly .e re&la"ed s$o#ld t$ey .e"ome damaged or w$en "$anging needs demand more storage "a&a"ity As s#ggested a.o)e( smaller amo#nts of RAM %mostly SRAM' are also integrated in t$e +,- and ot$er I+s on t$e mot$er.oard( as well as in $ard-dri)es( +5-ROMs( and se)eral ot$er &arts of t$e "om&#ter system <y "on)ention( .#s and networ0 data rates are denoted eit$er in .itBs %.its &er se"ond' or .yteBs %.ytes &er se"ond' In general( &arallel interfa"es are 2#oted in .yteBs and serial in .itBs T$e more "ommonly #sed is s$own .elow in .old ty&e On de)i"es li0e modems( .ytes may .e more t$an D .its long .e"a#se t$ey may .e indi)id#ally &added o#t wit$ additional start and sto& .itsJ t$e fig#res .elow will refle"t t$is 1$ere "$annels #se line "odes %s#"$ as Et$ernet( Serial ATA and ,+I E*&ress'( 2#oted rates are for t$e de"oded signal T$e fig#res .elow are sim&le* data rates( w$i"$ may "onfli"t wit$ t$e d#&le* rates )endors sometimes #se in &romotional materials 1$ere two )al#es are listed( t$e first )al#e is t$e downstream rate and t$e se"ond )al#e is t$e #&stream rate All 2#oted fig#res are in metri" de"imal #nits( w$ere: A <yte L D .it A 0.itBs L A(@:7 .itBs A M.itBs L A(@7D(GFE .itBs A G.itBs L A(@F;(F7A(D:7 .itBs A 0<Bs L A(@:7 <yteBs A M<Bs L A(@7D(GFE <yteBs A G<Bs L A(@F;(F7A(D:7 <yteBs A T<Bs L A(@88(GAA(E:F(FFE <yteBs T$ese de"imal &refi*es $a)e .een esta.lis$ed in data "omm#ni"ations for long time( also .efore A88D w$en IE+ and ot$er organizations tried to ma0e it standard for all "om&#ting a&&li"ations( and introd#"ed new .inary &refi*es MEMORY SYSTEM Memory in a "om&#ter system is re2#ired for storage and s#.se2#ent retrie)al of t$e instr#"tions and data A "om&#ter system #ses )ariety of de)i"es for storing t$ese instr#"tions and data w$i"$ are re2#ired for its o&erations Normally we "lassify t$e information to .e stored on "om&#ter in two .asi" "ategories: 5ata and t$e Instr#"tions 6T$e storage de)i"es along wit$ t$e algorit$m or information on $ow to "ontrol and manage t$ese storage de)i"es "onstit#te t$e memory system of a "om&#ter 6 A memory system is a )ery sim&le system yet it e*$i.its a wide range of te"$nology and ty&es T$e .asi" o.Ie"ti)e of a "om&#ter system is to in"rease t$e s&eed of "om&#tation ?i0ewise t$e .asi" o.Ie"ti)e of a memory system is to &ro)ide fast( #ninterr#&ted a""ess .y t$e &ro"essor to t$e memory s#"$ t$at t$e &ro"essor "an o&erate at t$e s&eed it is e*&e"ted to wor0 <#t does t$is 0ind of te"$nology w$ere t$ere is no s&eed ga& .etween &ro"essor and memory s&eed e*istM T$e answer is yes t$ey do( .#t #nfort#nately as t$e a""ess time %time ta0en .y +,- to a""ess a lo"ation in memory' .e"omes less and less t$e "ost &er .it of memory .e"omes in"reasingly $ig$er In addition( normally t$ese memories re2#ire &ower s#&&ly till t$e information need to .e stored <ot$ t$ese t$ings are not )ery

"on)enient( .#t on t$e ot$er $and t$e memories wit$ smaller "ost $a)e )ery $ig$ a""ess time w$i"$ will res#lt in slower o&eration of t$e +,- T$#s( t$e "ost )s a""ess time anomaly $as lead to a $ierar"$y of memory w$ere we s#&&lement fast memories wit$ larger( "$ea&er( slower memories T$ese memory #nits may $a)e )ery different &$ysi"al and o&erationalN "$ara"teristi"s( t$erefore( ma0ing t$e memory system )ery di)erse in ty&e( "ost(N organisation( te"$nology and &erforman"e T$is memory $ierar"$y will wor0 only if t$e fre2#en"y of a""ess to t$e slower memories are signifi"antly less t$an t$e faster memories Internal ,ro"essor Memories: T$ese "onsist of t$e small set of $ig$ s&eed registers w$i"$ are internal to a &ro"essor and are #sed as tem&orary lo"ations w$ere a"t#al &ro"essing is done T$is will .e "o)ered in greater details in <lo"0 : . ,rimary Memory or Main Memory: It is a large memory w$i"$ is fast .#t not as fast as internal &ro"essor memory T$is memory is a""essed dire"tly .y t$e &ro"essor It is mainly .ased on integrated "ir"#its Se"ondary MemoryBA#*iliary MemoryB<a"0ing Store: A#*iliary memory in fa"t is m#"$ larger in size t$an main memory .#t is slower t$an main memory It normally stores system &rograms %&rograms w$i"$ are #sed .y system to &erform )ario#s o&erational f#n"tions'( ot$er instr#"tions( &rograms and data files Se"ondary memory "an also $e #sed as an o)erflow memory in "ase t$e main memory "a&a"ity $as .een e*"eeded %4owM T$e answer is not s#&&lied in t$e .lo"0 Yo# need to refer to f#rt$er readings to get t$is answer' Se"ondary memories "annot .e a""essed dire"tly .y a &ro"essor !irst t$e information of t$ese memories is transferred to t$e main memory and t$en t$e information "an .e a""essed as t$e information of main memory T$ere is anot$er 0ind of memory w$i"$ is in"reasingly .eing #sed in modern "om&#ters( t$is is "alled +a"$e memory It is logi"ally &ositioned .etween t$e internal memory %registers' and main memory It stores or "at"$es some of t$e "ontent of t$e main memory w$i"$ is "#rrently in #se of t$e &ro"essor 1e will dis"#ss a.o#t t$is memory in greater details in a s#.se2#ent se"tion of t$is #nit <efore dis"#ssing more a.o#t t$ese memories let #s first dis"#ss t$e te"$nologi"al terms "ommonly #sed in defining and a""essing t$e memory : +4ARA+TERISTI+S TERMS !OR CARIO-S MEMORY 5ECI+ES T$e following terms are most "ommonly #sed for identifying "om&arati)e .e$a)io#r of )ario#s memory de)i"es and te"$nologies Storage +a&a"ity: It is a re&resentati)e of t$e size of t$e memory T$e "a&a"ity of internal memory and main memory "an .e e*&ressed in terms of n#m.er of words or .ytes T$e storage "a&a"ity of e*ternal memory is normally meas#red in terms of .ytes -nit of transfer: -nit of transfer is defined as t$e n#m.er of .its read in or o#t of t$e memory in a single read or write o&eration( !or main memory and internal memory( t$e normal #nit of transfer of information is e2#al to t$e word lengt$ of a &ro"essor In fa"t it de&ends on n#m.er of data lines in and o#t of t$e memory mod#le %1$yM' In general( t$ese lines are 0e&t e2#al to t$e word size of t$e &ro"essor 1$at is a wordM Yo# $a)e already learnt a.o#t t$is term in -nit A of t$is .lo"0 T$e #nit of transfer of e*ternal

memory is normally 2#ite large %1$yM Yo# will find t$e answer to t$is 2#estion later in t$is #nit' and is referred to as .lo"0 of data A""ess Modes: On"e we $a)e defined t$e #nit of transfer ne*t im&ortant "$ara"teristi"s is t$e a""ess mode in w$i"$ t$e information is a""essed from t$e memory A memory is "onsidered to "onsist of )ario#s memory lo"ations T$e information from memory de)i"es "an .e a""essed in t$e following ways Random A""ess Memory %RAM': It is t$e mode in w$i"$ any memory lo"ation "an .e a""essed in any order in t$e same amo#nt of time !errite and Semi"ond#"tor memories w$i"$ generally "onstit#te main memory are of t$is nat#re T$e storage lo"ations "an $e a""essed inde&endently and t$ere e*ist se&arate a""ess me"$anism for ea"$ lo"ation Se2#ential a""ess: On t$e ot$er $and we $a)e memories w$i"$ "an .e a""essed in a &re-defined se2#en"es for e*am&le( t$e songs stored on a "assette "an .e a""essed only one .y one T$e e*am&le of se2#ential a""ess memory is Magneti" Ta&e 4ere t$e a""ess me"$anism need to .e s$ared among different lo"ations T$#s( eit$er t$e lo"ation or t$e readBwrite $ead or .ot$ s$o#ld .e mo)ed to a""ess t$e desired lo"ation 5ire"t A""ess: In "ertain "ases t$e information is neit$er a""essed randomly nor in se2#en"e .#t somet$ing in .etween In t$ese 0ind of a""ess( a se&arate readBwrite $ead e*ist for a tra"0 and on a tra"0 t$e information "an .e a""essed serially T$is semirandom mode of o&eration e*ist in magneti" dis0s A""ess Time: T$e a""ess time is t$e time re2#ired .etween t$e re2#est made for a read or write o&eration till t$e time t$e data is made a)aila.le or written at t$e re2#ested lo"ation Normally it is meas#red for read o&eration T$e a""ess time de&ends on t$e &$ysi"al "$ara"teristi"s and a""ess mode #sed for t$at de)i"e ,ermanen"e or Storage: Is it ,ossi.le to lose information .y t$e memories o)er a &eriod of timeM If yes t$en w$at "an .e t$e reasons of t$e loss of information and w$at s$o#ld .edone to a)oid itM T$ere ar" se)eral reasons for information destr#"tion( t$ese are destr#"ti)e reado#t( dynami" storage( )olatility and $ardware fail#re If for a &arti"#lar memory t$e reading &ro"ess destroys t$e stored information we "all it 5estr#"ti)e reado#t In s#"$ memories t$e information $as to .e written .a"0 on t$e same lo"ation from w$i"$ it $ad .een read after ea"$ read o&eration T$e reading &ro"ess w$ere t$e data is not destroyed on reading are referred to as Non-destr#"ti)e reado#t T$ere "an .e some memories w$ere t$e stored A looses its strengt$ to .e"ome @ o)er a &eriod of time T$ese 0ind of memories re2#ire refres$ing T$e memories w$i"$ re2#ire refres$ing are termed as dynami" memories In "ontrast( t$e memories w$i"$ do not re2#ire refres$ing are "alled stati" memories Anot$er fa"tor w$i"$ "an destroy t$e "ontents is die &resen"e and a.sen"e of ele"tri"ity T$e memories w$i"$ loses t$eir "ontent on fail#re of &ower am armed as )olatile memories( t$ose w$i"$ do not are "alled non-)olatile Magneti" memories are non)olatile and semi"ond#"tor main memories am )olatile in nat#re +y"le Time: It is defined as t$e minim#m time ela&sed .etween two "onse"#ti)e read

re2#ests Is it e2#al to a""ess timeM Yes( for most of t$e memories e*"e&t t$e ones in w$i"$ destr#"ti)e reado#t is en"o#ntered +y"le time for s#"$ memories is t$e a""ess time %time ela&sed w$en a read re2#est is made a)aila.le' &l#s writing time as after t$e data $as .een made a)aila.le t$e information $as to .e written .a"0 in t$e same memory lo"ation as t$e &re)io#s )al#e $as .een destroyed .y reading <#t for most of t$e "ommonly #sed semi"ond#"tor memories "y"le time is e2#al to t$e a""ess time

5E?AY <-!!ER: T$is se"tion des"ri.es ,OME5IA9s im&lementation of delay .#ffer 5elay .#ffer wor0s 2#ite similarly li0e a fi*ed Iitter .#ffer( t$at is it will delay t$e frame retrie)al .y some inter)al so t$at "aller will get "ontin#o#s frame from t$e .#ffer T$is "an .e #sef#l w$en t$e o&erations are not e)enly interlea)ed( for e*am&le w$en "aller &erforms .#rst of &#t%' o&erations and t$en followed .y .#rst of o&erations 1it$ #sing t$is delay .#ffer( t$e .#ffer will &#t t$e .#rst frames into a .#ffer so t$at get%' o&erations will always get a frame from t$e .#ffer %ass#ming t$at t$e n#m.er of get%' and &#t%' are mat"$ed' T$e .#ffer is ada&ti)e( t$at is it "ontin#o#sly learns t$e o&timal delay to .e a&&lied to t$e a#dio flow at r#n-time On"e t$e o&timal delay $as .een learned( t$e delay .#ffer will a&&ly t$is delay to t$e a#dio flow( e*&anding or s$rin0ing t$e a#dio sam&les as ne"essary w$en t$e a"t#al a#dio sam&les in t$e .#ffer are too low or too $ig$

E3ISTING TE+4NIP-E:

IN,-T <-!!ER: T$e In&#t .#ffer is also "ommonly 0nown as t$e in&#t area or in&#t .lo"0 1$en referring to "om&#ter memory( t$e in&#t .#ffer is a lo"ation t$at $olds all in"oming information .efore it "ontin#es to t$e +,- for &ro"essing In&#t .#ffer "an .e also #sed to des"ri.e )ario#s ot$er $ardware or software .#ffers #sed to store information .efore it is &ro"essed Some s"anners %s#"$ as t$ose w$i"$ s#&&ort Qin"l#deR files' re2#ire reading from se)eral in&#t streams As fle* s"anners do a large amo#nt of .#ffering( one "annot "ontrol w$ere t$e ne*t in&#t will .e read from .y sim&ly writing a YYSIN,-T%' w$i"$ is sensiti)e to t$e s"anning "onte*t YYSIN,-T%' is only "alled w$en t$e s"anner rea"$es t$e end of its .#ffer( w$i"$ may .e a long time after s"anning a statement s#"$ as an in"l#de statement w$i"$ re2#ires swit"$ing t$e in&#t so#r"e

::A

!IGA: IN,-T <-!!ER

MEMORY <?O+H: %RAM' Random-a""ess memory %RAM' is a form of "om&#ter data storage Today( it ta0es t$e form of integrated "ir"#its t$at allow stored data to .e a""essed in any order %t$at is( at random' 6Random6 refers to t$e idea t$at any &ie"e of data "an .e ret#rned in a "onstant time( regardless of its &$ysi"al lo"ation and w$et$er it is related to t$e &re)io#s &ie"e of data T$e word 6RAM6 is often asso"iated wit$ )olatile ty&es of memory %s#"$ as 5RAM memory mod#les'( w$ere t$e information is lost after t$e &ower is swit"$ed off Many ot$er ty&es of memory are RAM as well( in"l#ding most ty&es of ROM and a ty&e of flas$ memory "alled NOR-!las$ S"an design $as .een t$e .a"0.one of design for testa.ility %5!T' in ind#stry for a.o#t t$ree de"ades .e"a#se s"an-.ased design "an s#""essf#lly o.tain "ontrolla.ility and o.ser)a.ility for fli&-flo&s Serial S"an design $as dominated t$e test ar"$ite"t#re .e"a#se it is "on)enient to .#ild 4owe)er( t$e serial s"an design "a#ses #nne"essary swit"$ing a"ti)ity d#ring testing w$i"$ ind#"e #nne"essarily enormo#s &ower dissi&ation T$e test time also in"reases dramati"ally wit$ t$e "ontin#o#sly in"reasing n#m.er of fli&flo&s in large se2#ential "ir"#its e)en #sing m#lti&le s"an "$ain ar"$ite"t#re An alternate to serial s"an ar"$ite"t#re is Random A""ess S"an %RAS' In RAS( fli&-flo&s wor0 as addressa.le memory elements in t$e test mode w$i"$ is a similar fas$ion as random a""ess memory %RAM' T$is a&&roa"$ red#"es t$e time of setting and o.ser)ing t$e fli&flo& states .#t re2#ires a large o)er$ead .ot$ in gates and test &ins 5es&ite of t$ese draw.a"0s( t$e RAS was &aid attention .y many resear"$ers in t$ese years T$is &a&er ta0es a )iew of re"ently &#.lis$ed &a&ers on RAS and reI#)enates t$e random a""ess s"an as a 5!T met$od t$at sim#ltaneo#sly address t$ree limitations of t$e traditional serial s"an namely( test data )ol#me( test a&&li"ation time( and test &ower : Random A""ess S"an !ig A s$ows t$e .asi" ar"$ite"t#re of t$e RAS A 5e"oder is #sed to address e)ery !! T$e RAS allows reading or writing of any fli&-flo& #sing address .its w$ere QnR is t$e n#m.er of s"anned fli&-flo&s w$en t$e address is a&&lied( t$e address de"oder &rod#"es a s"an ena.le signal to t$e "orres&onding fli&-flo& needed to .e &la"ed wit$ a data from t$e s"an-in In t$is te"$ni2#e( t$e s"an f#n"tion is im&lemented as a random-a""ess memory 4en"e at e)ery gi)en time only one !! is a""essed w$ile ot$er !!s retain t$eir state T$e ar"$ite"t#res des"ri.ed in most literat#res mainly "onsists of a s"an-in signal t$at is .road"asted to e)ery !!( a test "ontrol signal t$at is .road"asted to all !!s( and a #ni2#e de"oder signal from t$e de"oder to e)ery !! A more feasi.le de"oder $as .een designed T$e grid ar"$ite"t#re s$own in !ig : is one effi"ient way to layo#t t$e de"oders 1it$ a minim#m of two layers of metal ro#ting( t$e row wires "an .e a""ommodated wit$in t$e "$annel in .etween t$e "ell rows and t$e "ol#mn wires "an .e ro#ted o)er t$e "ell in t$e ne*t metal layer 4en"e t$ere will

.e an in"rease of one tra"0 &er "$annel %ass#ming m "$annels' and n tra"0s t$at are ro#ted on t$e ne*t metal layer

!ig#re A 5esign of RAS as des"ri.ed in

!ig#re : 5e"oder design In t$ose two de"oder str#"t#res( s#&&ose t$ere are Nff fli&-flo&s in t$e "ir"#it In !ig#re A( t$ere will .e Nff - address wires to t$ose N fli&-flo&s +om&ared to !ig#re A( t$ere are only Nff address wires to N-ffs in !ig#re : Alt$o#g$ t$is str#"t#re need .ot$ row de"oder and "ol#mn de"oder w$en only one de"oder is #sed in !ig#re A( t$e $ardware o)er$ead red#"ed greatly #sing str#"t#re : 4ow Random A""ess Memory %RAM' 1or0s +ommon RAM Memory Ty&es: SRAM - Stati" random a""ess memory #ses m#lti&le transistors( ty&i"ally fo#r to si*( for ea"$ memory "ell .#t doesn9t $a)e a "a&a"itor in ea"$ "ell It is #sed &rimarily for "a"$e 5RAM - 5ynami" random a""ess memory $as memory "ells wit$ a &aired transistor and "a&a"itor re2#iring "onstant refres$ing !,M 5RAM - !ast &age mode dynami" random a""ess memory was t$e original form of 5RAM It waits t$ro#g$ t$e entire &ro"ess of lo"ating a .it of data .y "ol#mn and row and t$en reading t$e .it .efore it starts on t$e ne*t .it Ma*im#m transfer rate to ?: "a"$e is a&&ro*imately AFE mega.ytes &er se"ond

E5O 5RAM - E*tended data-o#t dynami" random a""ess memory does not wait for all of t$e &ro"essing of t$e first .it .efore "ontin#ing to t$e ne*t one As soon as t$e address of t$e first .it is lo"ated( E5O 5RAM .egins loo0ing for t$e ne*t .it It is a.o#t fi)e &er"ent faster t$an !,M Ma*im#m transfer rate to ?: "a"$e is a&&ro*imately :E7 mega.ytes &er se"ond S5RAM - Syn"$rono#s dynami" random a""ess memory ta0es ad)antage of t$e .#rst mode "on"e&t to greatly im&ro)e &erforman"e It does t$is .y staying on t$e row "ontaining t$e re2#ested .it and mo)ing ra&idly t$ro#g$ t$e "ol#mns( reading ea"$ .it as it goes T$e idea is t$at most of t$e time t$e data needed .y t$e +,- will .e in se2#en"e S5RAM is a.o#t fi)e &er"ent faster t$an E5O RAM and is t$e most "ommon form in des0to&s today Ma*im#m transfer rate to ?: "a"$e is a&&ro*imately G:D mega.ytes &er se"ond R5RAM - Ram.#s dynami" random a""ess memory is a radi"al de&art#re from t$e &re)io#s 5RAM ar"$ite"t#re 5esigned .y Ram.#s( R5RAM #ses a Ram.#s in-line memory mod#le %RIMM'( w$i"$ is similar in size and &in "onfig#ration to a standard 5IMM 1$at ma0es R5RAM so different is its #se of a s&e"ial $ig$-s&eed data .#s "alled t$e Ram.#s "$annel R5RAM memory "$i&s wor0 in &arallel to a"$ie)e a data rate of D@@ M4z +redit +ard Memory - ,ro&rietary self-"ontained 5RAM memory mod#le t$at &l#gs into a s&e"ial slot for #se in note.oo0 "om&#ters ,+M+IA Memory +ard - Anot$er self-"ontained 5RAM mod#le for note.oo0s +ards of t$is ty&e are not &ro&rietary and s$o#ld wor0 wit$ any note.oo0 "om&#ter w$ose system .#s mat"$es t$e memory "ard9s "onfig#ration !las$RAM - A generi" term for t$e small amo#nt of memory #sed .y de)i"es li0e TCs( C+Rs and "ar radios to maintain "#stom information E)en w$en t$ese items are t#rned off( t$ey draw a tiny amo#nt of &ower to refres$ t$e "ontents of t$eir memory T$is is w$y e)ery time t$e &ower fli"0ers( t$e C+R .lin0s A::@@ It9s also w$y yo# lose all &resets on yo#r radio w$en yo#r "ar .attery diesT Yo#r "om&#ter $as !las$RAM to remem.er t$ings li0e $ard dis0 settings -- see P#estion ;A8 for details CRAM - CideoRAM( also 0nown as m#lti&ort dynami" random a""ess memory %M,5RAM'( is a ty&e of RAM #sed s&e"ifi"ally for )ideo ada&ters or ;-5 a""elerators T$e 6m#lti&ort6 &art "omes from t$e fa"t t$at CRAM normally $as .ot$ random a""ess memory and serial a""ess memory CRAM is lo"ated on t$e gra&$i"s "ard and "omes in a )ariety of formats( many of w$i"$ are &ro&rietary T$e amo#nt of CRAM is a determining fa"tor in t$e resol#tion and "olor de&t$ of t$e dis&lay CRAM is also #sed to $old gra&$i"s-s&e"ifi" information s#"$ as ;-5 geometry data and te*t#re ma&s Random a""ess memory %RAM' is t$e .est 0nown form of "om&#ter memory <#t t$e way it wor0s and w$at t$e different terms mean "an .e )ery "onf#sing RAM is "onsidered 6random a""ess6 .e"a#se yo# "an a""ess any memory "ell dire"tly if yo# 0now t$e row and "ol#mn t$at interse"t at t$at "ell T$e o&&osite of RAM is serial a""ess memory %SAM' SAM stores data as a series of memory "ells t$at "an only .e a""essed se2#entially %li0e a "assette ta&e' If t$e data is not in t$e "#rrent lo"ation( ea"$ memory "ell is "$e"0ed #ntil t$e needed data is fo#nd SAM wor0s )ery well for memory

.#ffers( w$ere t$e data is normally stored in t$e order it will .e #sed A good e*am&le is t$e te*t#re .#ffer memory on a )ideo "ard 4ow RAM 1or0s Similar to a mi"ro&ro"essor( a memory "$i& is an integrated "ir"#it %I+' made of millions of transistors and "a&a"itors In t$e most "ommon form of "om&#ter memory( dynami" random a""ess memory %5RAM'( a transistor and a "a&a"itor are &aired to "reate a memory "ell( w$i"$ re&resents a single .it of data T$e "a&a"itor $olds t$e .it of information -- a @ or a A %see 4ow <its and <ytes 1or0 for information on .its' T$e transistor a"ts as a swit"$ t$at lets t$e "ontrol "ir"#itry on t$e memory "$i& read t$e "a&a"itor or "$ange its state A "a&a"itor is li0e a small .#"0et t$at is a.le to store ele"trons To store a A in t$e memory "ell( t$e .#"0et is filled wit$ ele"trons To store a @( it is em&tied T$e &ro.lem wit$ t$e "a&a"itor9s .#"0et is t$at it $as a lea0 In a matter of a few millise"onds a f#ll .#"0et .e"omes em&ty T$erefore( for dynami" memory to wor0( eit$er t$e +,- or t$e memory "ontroller $as to "ome along and re"$arge all of t$e "a&a"itors $olding a A .efore t$ey dis"$arge To do t$is( t$e memory "ontroller reads t$e memory and t$en writes it rig$t .a"0 T$is refres$ o&eration $a&&ens a#tomati"ally t$o#sands of times &er se"ond T$is refres$ o&eration is w$ere dynami" RAM gets its name 5ynami" RAM $as to .e dynami"ally refres$ed all of t$e time or it forgets w$at it is $olding T$e downside of all of t$is refres$ing is t$at it ta0es time and slows down t$e memory Memory "ells are et"$ed onto a sili"on wafer in an array of "ol#mns %.itlines' and rows %wordlines' T$e interse"tion of a .itline and wordline "onstit#tes t$e address of t$e memory "ell 5RAM wor0s .y sending a "$arge t$ro#g$ t$e a&&ro&riate "ol#mn %+AS' to a"ti)ate t$e transistor at ea"$ .it in t$e "ol#mn 1$en writing( t$e row lines "ontain t$e state t$e "a&a"itor s$o#ld ta0e on 1$en reading: t$e sense-am&lifier determines t$e le)el of "$arge in t$e "a&a"itor If it is more t$an G@U it reads it as a A( ot$erwise as a zero T$e "o#nter tra"0s t$e refres$ se2#en"e .ased on w$i"$ rows $a)e .een a""essed in w$at order T$e lengt$ of time ne"essary to do all t$is is so s$ort t$at it is e*&ressed in nanose"onds %.illiont$s of a se"ond' A memory "$i& rating of F@ns means t$at it ta0es F@ nanose"onds to "om&letely read and re"$arge ea"$ "ell Memory "ells alone wo#ld .e wort$less wit$o#t some way to get information in and o#t of t$em So t$e memory "ells $a)e a w$ole s#&&ort infrastr#"t#re of ot$er s&e"ialized "ir"#its T$ese "ir"#its &erform f#n"tions s#"$ as: identifying ea"$ row %row address sele"t or RAS' and "ol#mn %"ol#mn address sele"t or +AS' 0ee&ing tra"0 of t$e refres$ se2#en"e %"o#nter' reading and restoring t$e signal from a "ell %sense am&lifier' telling a "ell w$et$er it s$o#ld ta0e a "$arge or not %write ena.le' Ot$er f#n"tions of t$e memory "ontroller in"l#de a series of tas0s t$at in"l#de identifying t$e ty&e( s&eed and amo#nt of memory and "$e"0ing for errors Stati" RAM #ses a "om&letely different te"$nology In stati" RAM( a form of fli&-flo& $olds ea"$ .it of memory %see 4ow <oolean Gates 1or0 for detail on fli&-flo&s' A fli&flo& for a memory "ell ta0es 7 or E transistors along wit$ some wiring( .#t ne)er $as to

.e refres$ed T$is ma0es stati" RAM signifi"antly faster t$an dynami" RAM 4owe)er( .e"a#se it $as more &arts( a stati" memory "ell ta0es a lot more s&a"e on a "$i& t$an a dynami" memory "ell T$erefore yo# get less memory &er "$i&( and t$at ma0es stati" RAM a lot more e*&ensi)e So stati" RAM is fast and e*&ensi)e( and dynami" RAM is less e*&ensi)e and slower T$erefore stati" RAM is #sed to "reate t$e +,-9s s&eed-sensiti)e "a"$e( w$ile dynami" RAM forms t$e larger system RAM s&a"e P#estion: In my "om&#ter I 0now it #ses 5RAM %dynami" RAM' for t$e main memory I $a)e also $eard of stati" RAM 1$at is t$e differen"e( and w$y are t$ere two 0indsM Answer: Yo#r "om&#ter &ro.a.ly #ses .ot$ stati" RAM and dynami" RAM at t$e same time( .#t it #ses t$em for different reasons .e"a#se of t$e "ost differen"e .etween t$e two ty&es If yo# #nderstand $ow dynami" RAM and stati" RAM "$i&s wor0 inside( it is easy to see w$y t$e "ost differen"e is t$ere( and yo# "an also #nderstand t$e names 5ynami" RAM is t$e most "ommon ty&e of memory in #se today Inside a dynami" RAM "$i&( ea"$ memory "ell $olds one .it of information and is made #& of two &arts: a transistor and a "a&a"itor T$ese are( of "o#rse( e*tremely small transistors and "a&a"itors so t$at millions of t$em "an fit on a single memory "$i& T$e "a&a"itor $olds t$e .it of information -- a @ or a A %see 4ow <its and <ytes 1or0 for information on .its' T$e transistor a"ts as a swit"$ t$at lets t$e "ontrol "ir"#itry on t$e memory "$i& read t$e "a&a"itor or "$ange its state A "a&a"itor is li0e a small .#"0et t$at is a.le to store ele"trons To store a A in t$e memory "ell( t$e .#"0et is filled wit$ ele"trons To store a @( it is em&tied T$e &ro.lem wit$ t$e "a&a"itor9s .#"0et is t$at it $as a lea0 In a matter of a few millise"onds a f#ll .#"0et .e"omes em&ty T$erefore( for dynami" memory to wor0( eit$er t$e +,- or t$e memory "ontroller $as to "ome along and re"$arge all of t$e "a&a"itors $olding a A .efore t$ey dis"$arge To do t$is( t$e memory "ontroller reads t$e memory and t$en writes it rig$t .a"0 T$is refres$ o&eration $a&&ens a#tomati"ally t$o#sands of times &er se"ond T$is refres$ o&eration is w$ere dynami" RAM gets its name 5ynami" RAM $as to .e dynami"ally refres$ed all of t$e time or it forgets w$at it is $olding T$e downside of all of t$is refres$ing is t$at it ta0es time and slows down t$e memory Stati" RAM #ses a "om&letely different te"$nology In stati" RAM( a form of fli&-flo& $olds ea"$ .it of memory %see 4ow <oolean Gates 1or0 for detail on fli&-flo&s' A fli&flo& for a memory "ell ta0es 7 or E transistors along wit$ some wiring( .#t ne)er $as to .e refres$ed T$is ma0es stati" RAM signifi"antly faster t$an dynami" RAM 4owe)er( .e"a#se it $as more &arts( a stati" memory "ell ta0es a lot more s&a"e on a "$i& t$an a dynami" memory "ell T$erefore yo# get less memory &er "$i&( and t$at ma0es stati" RAM a lot more e*&ensi)e So stati" RAM is fast and e*&ensi)e( and dynami" RAM is less e*&ensi)e and slower T$erefore stati" RAM is #sed to "reate t$e +,-9s s&eed-sensiti)e "a"$e( w$ile dynami" RAM forms t$e larger system RAM s&a"e 4ow !las$ Memory 1or0s Ele"troni" memory "omes in a )ariety of forms( to ser)e a )ariety of &#r&oses !las$ memory is #sed for easy and fast information storage in s#"$ de)i"es as digital "ameras

and $ome )ideo game "onsoles It is #sed more as a $ard dri)e t$an as RAM In fa"t( !las$ memory is "onsidered a solid state storage de)i"e Solid state means t$at t$ere are no mo)ing &arts -- e)eryt$ing is ele"troni" instead of me"$ani"al 4ere are a few e*am&les of !las$ memory: Yo#r "om&#ter9s <IOS "$i& +om&a"t!las$ %most often fo#nd in digital "ameras' SmartMedia %most often fo#nd in digital "ameras' Memory Sti"0 %most often fo#nd in digital "ameras' ,+M+IA Ty&e I and Ty&e II memory "ards %#sed as solid-state dis0s in la&to&s' Memory "ards for )ideo game "onsoles !las$ memory is a ty&e of EE,ROM "$i& It $as a grid of "ol#mns and rows wit$ a "ell t$at $as two transistors at ea"$ interse"tion %!ig#re A' T$e two transistors are se&arated from ea"$ ot$er .y a t$in o*ide layer One of transistors is 0nown as a floating gate and t$e ot$er one is t$e "ontrol gate T$e floating gate9s only lin0 to t$e row( or wordline( is t$ro#g$ t$e "ontrol gate As long as t$is lin0 is in &la"e( t$e "ell $as a )al#e of 6A6 To "$ange t$e )al#e to a 6@6 re2#ires a "#rio#s &ro"ess "alled !owler-Nord$eim t#nneling T#nneling is #sed to alter t$e &la"ement of ele"trons in t$e floating gate An ele"tri"al "$arge( #s#ally A@-A; )olts( is a&&lied to t$e floating gate T$e "$arge "omes from t$e "ol#mn( or .itline( enters t$e floating gate and drains to a gro#nd T$is "$arge "a#ses t$e floating gate transistor to a"t li0e an ele"tron g#n T$e e*"ited ele"trons are &#s$ed t$ro#g$ and tra&&ed on ot$er side of t$e t$in o*ide layer( gi)ing it a negati)e "$arge T$ese negati)ely "$arged ele"trons a"t as a .arrier .etween t$e "ontrol gate and t$e floating gate A s&e"ial de)i"e "alled a "ell sensor monitors t$e le)el of t$e "$arge &assing t$ro#g$ t$e floating gate If t$e flow t$ro#g$ t$e gate is greater t$an fifty &er"ent of t$e "$arge( it $as a )al#e of 6A6 1$en t$e "$arge &assing t$ro#g$ dro&s .elow t$e fifty &er"ent t$res$old: t$e )al#e "$anges to 6@6 A .lan0 E,ROM $as all of t$e gates f#lly o&en( gi)ing ea"$ "ell a )al#e of 6A6 P#estion: 5oes adding more RAM to yo#r "om&#ter ma0e it fasterM Answer -& to a &oint( adding RAM %Random A""ess Memory' will normally "a#se yo#r "om&#ter to feel faster on "ertain ty&es of o&erations T$e reason w$y RAM is im&ortant .e"a#se of an o&erating system "om&onent "alled t$e )irt#al memory manager 1$en yo# r#n a &rogram li0e a word &ro"essor or an internet .rowser( t$e mi"ro&ro"essor in yo#r "om&#ter &#lls t$e e*e"#ta.le file off t$e $ard dis0 and loads it into RAM In t$e "ase of a .ig &rogram li0e Mi"rosoft 1ord or E*"el( t$e E3E "ons#mes a.o#t G mega.ytes T$e mi"ro&ro"essor also &#lls in a n#m.er of s$ared 5??s %5ynami" ?in0 ?i.raries' - s$ared &ie"es of "ode #sed .y m#lti&le a&&li"ations T$e 5??s mig$t total :@ or ;@ mega.ytes T$en t$e mi"ro&ro"essor loads in t$e data files t$at yo# want to loo0 at( w$i"$ mig$t total se)eral mega.ytes if yo# are loo0ing at se)eral do"#ments or .rowsing a &age wit$ a lot of gra&$i"s So a normal a&&li"ation needs .etween A@ and ;@

mega.ytes of RAM s&a"e to r#n On my ma"$ine at any gi)en time I mig$t $a)e t$e following a&&li"ations r#nning: A word &ro"essor A s&reads$eet A 5OS &rom&t An email &rogram A drawing &rogram ; or 7 .rowser windows A !a* &rogram A Telnet session <esides all of t$ose a&&li"ations( t$e o&erating system itself is ta0ing #& a good .it of s&a"e T$ose &rograms toget$er mig$t need A@@ to AG@ mega.ytes or RAM( .#t my "om&#ter only $as E7 mega.ytes of RAM installed T$e e*tra s&a"e is "reated .y t$e )irt#al memory manager T$e CMM loo0s at RAM and finds se"tions of RAM t$at are not "#rrently needed It &#ts t$ese se"tions of RAM in a &la"e "alled t$e swa& file on t$e $ard dis0 !or e*am&le( e)en t$o#g$ I $a)e my email &rogram o&en( I $a)en9t loo0ed at email in t$e last 7G min#tes So t$e CMM mo)es all of t$e .ytes ma0ing #& t$e email &rogram9s E3E( 5??s and data o#t to t$e $ard dis0 T$at is "alled swa&&ing o#t t$e &rogram T$e ne*t time I "li"0 on t$e email &rogram( t$e CMM will swa& in all of its .ytes from t$e $ard dis0( and &ro.a.ly in t$e &ro"ess swa& somet$ing else o#t <e"a#se t$e $ard dis0 is slow relati)e to RAM( t$e a"t of swa&&ing t$ings in and o#t "a#ses a noti"a.le delay If yo# $a)e a )ery small amo#nt of RAM %say AE mega.ytes'( t$en t$e CMM is always swa&&ing t$ings in and o#t to get anyt$ing done In t$at "ase yo#r "om&#ter feels li0e it is "rawling As yo# add more RAM yo# get to a &oint w$ere yo# only noti"e t$e swa&&ing w$en yo# load a new &rogram or "$ange windows If yo# were to &#t :GE mega.ytes of RAM in yo#r "om&#ter t$e CMM wo#ld $a)e &lenty of room and yo# wo#ld ne)er see it swa&&ing anyt$ing T$at is as fast as t$ings get If yo# added more RAM it wo#ld $a)e no effe"t Some a&&li"ations %t$ings li0e ,$otos$o&( many "om&ilers( most film editing and animation &a"0ages( et" ' needs tons of RAM to do t$eir Io. If yo# r#n t$em on a ma"$ine wit$ too little RAM( t$ey swa& "onstantly and r#n )ery slowly Yo# "an get a $#ge s&eed .oost .y adding eno#g$ RAM to eliminate t$e swa&&ing ,rograms li0e t$ese may r#n A@ to G@ times faster on"e t$ey $a)e eno#g$ RAM RING +O-NTER: A ring counter is a ty&e of "o#nter "om&osed of a "ir"#lar s$ift register T$e o#t&#t of t$e last s$ift register is fed to t$e in&#t of t$e first register T$ere are two ty&es of ring "o#nters:

A straight ring counter or Overbeck counter "onne"ts t$e o#t&#t of t$e last s$ift register to t$e first s$ift register in&#t and "ir"#lates a single one %or zero' .it aro#nd t$e ring !or e*am&le( in a 7-register one-$ot "o#nter( wit$ initial register )al#es of A@@@( t$e re&eating &attern is: A@@@( @A@@( @@A@( @@@A( A@@@ Note t$at one of t$e registers m#st .e &re-loaded wit$ a A %or @' in order to o&erate &ro&erly A twisted ring counter %also "alled Johnson counter or Moebius counter' "onne"ts t$e "om&lement of t$e o#t&#t of t$e last s$ift register to its in&#t and "ir"#lates a stream of ones followed .y zeros aro#nd t$e ring !or e*am&le( in a 7-register "o#nter( wit$ initial register )al#es of @@@@( t$e re&eating &attern is: @@@@( A@@@( AA@@( AAA@( AAAA( @AAA( @@AA( @@@A( @@@@

If t$e o#t&#t of a s$ift register is fed .a"0 to t$e in&#t a ring "o#nter res#lts T$e data &attern "ontained wit$in t$e s$ift register will re"ir"#late as long as "lo"0 &#lses are a&&lied !or e*am&le( t$e data &attern will re&eat e)ery fo#r "lo"0 &#lses in t$e fig#re .elow 4owe)er( we m#st load a data &attern All 09s or all 19s doesn9t "o#nt Is a "ontin#o#s logi" le)el from s#"$ a "ondition #sef#lM

1e ma0e &ro)isions for loading data into t$e &arallel-inB serial-o#t s$ift register "onfig#red as a ring "o#nter .elow Any random &attern may .e loaded T$e most generally #sef#l &attern is a single 1

?oading .inary 1000 into t$e ring "o#nter( a.o)e( &rior to s$ifting yields a )iewa.le &attern T$e data &attern for a single stage re&eats e)ery fo#r "lo"0 &#lses in o#r 7-stage e*am&le T$e wa)eforms for all fo#r stages loo0 t$e same( e*"e&t for t$e one "lo"0 time delay from one stage to t$e ne*t See fig#re .elow

!ig: Ring "o#nter wit$ SR fli&-flo&s T$e a.o)e .lo"0 diagram s$ows t$e &ower "ontrolled Ring "o#nter !irst( total .lo"0 is de)ided into two .lo"0s Ea"$ .lo"0 is $a)ing one SR !?I,!?O, "ontroller

,RESENT TE+4NIP-E:

GATE5 5RICER TREE:

deri)ed from t$e same "lo"0 gating signals of t$e .lo"0s t$at t$ey dri)e T$#s( in a 2#adtree "lo"0 distri.#tion networ0( t$e QgateR signal of t$e t$ gate dri)er at t$e t$ le)el %+HE ' s$o#ld .e asserted w$en t$e a"ti)e 5ET Vi&-Vo&

MO5I!IE5 RING +O-NTER:

5ET :%5o#.le edge triggered fli&-flo&s: do#.le-edge-triggered %5ET' Vi&-Vo&s are #tilized to red#"e t$e o&erating fre2#en"y .y $alf T$e logi" "onstr#"tion of a do#.le-edge-triggered %5ET' fli&-flo&( w$i"$ "an re"ei)e in&#t signal at two le)els t$e "lo"0( is analyzed and a new "ir"#it design of +MOS 5ET In t$is &a&er( we &ro&ose to #se do#.le-edge-triggered %5ET' Vi&-Vo&s instead of traditional 5!!s in t$e ring "o#nter to $al)e t$e o&erating "lo"0 fre2#en"y 5o#.le edge-triggered fli&flo&s are .e"oming a &o&#lar te"$ni2#e for low-&ower designs sin"e t$ey effe"ti)ely ena.le a $al)ing of t$e "lo"0 fre2#en"y T$e &a&er .y 4ossain et al=A> s$owed t$at w$ile a singleedge triggered fli&flo& "an .e im&lemented .y two trans&arent lat"$es in series( a do#.le edge-triggered fli&flo& "an .e im&lemented .y two trans&arent lat"$es in &arallelJ t$e "ir"#it in !ig A was gi)en for t$e stati" fli&flo& im&lementation T$e "lo"0 signal is ass#med to .e in)erted lo"ally In $ig$ noise or low-)oltage en)ironments( 4ossain et al noted t$at t$e &-ty&e &ass-transistors may .e re&la"ed .y n-ty&es or t$at all &asstransistors may .e re&la"ed .y transmission gates

+ E?EMENT: T$e M#ller C-element( or M#ller +-gate( is a "ommonly #sed asyn"$rono#s logi" "om&onent originally designed .y 5a)id E M#ller It a&&lies logi"al o&erations on t$e in&#ts and $as $ysteresis T$e o#t&#t of t$e +-element refle"ts t$e in&#ts w$en t$e states of all in&#ts mat"$ T$e o#t&#t t$en remains in t$is state #ntil t$e in&#ts all transition to t$e ot$er state T$is model "an .e e*tended to t$e Asymmetri" +element w$ere some in&#ts only effe"t t$e o&eration in one of t$e transitions %&ositi)e or

negati)e' T$e fig#re s$ows t$e gate-le)el and transistor-le)el im&lementations and sym.ol of t$e +-element

$e +-element stores its &re)io#s state wit$ two "ross-"o#&led in)erters( similar to an SRAM "ell One of t$e in)erters is wea0er t$an t$e rest of t$e "ir"#it( so it "an .e o)er&owered .y t$e &#ll-#& and &#ll-down networ0s If .ot$ in&#ts are @( t$en t$e &#ll-#& networ0 "$anges t$e lat"$9s state( and t$e +-element o#t&#ts a @ If .ot$ in&#ts are A( t$en t$e &#ll-down networ0 "$anges t$e lat"$9s state( ma0ing t$e +-element o#t&#t a A Ot$erwise( t$e in&#t of t$e lat"$ is not "onne"ted to eit$er Cdd or gro#nd( and so t$e wea0 in)erter %drawn smaller in t$e diagram' dominates and t$e lat"$ o#t&#ts its &re)io#s state T$e M#ller C-element was first #sed in t$e arit$meti" logi" #nit %A?-' of t$e I??IA+ II s#&er"om&#ter( &ro&osed in A8GD( and o&erational in A8E: 4ere is t$e tr#t$ ta.le for a :-in&#t "-gate Yn W A denotes a 6no "$ange6 "ondition

7.VHDL INTRODUCTION
Why VHDL
A design engineer in ele"troni" ind#stry #ses $ardware des"ri&tion lang#age to 0ee& &a"e wit$ t$e &rod#"ti)ity of t$e "om&etitors 1it$ C45? we "an 2#i"0ly des"ri.e and synt$esize "ir"#its of se)eral t$o#sand gates In addition C45? &ro)ides t$e "a&a.ilities des"ri.ed as follows:

!o"er #n$ %le&i'ility

C45? $as &owerf#l lang#age "onstr#"ts wit$ w$i"$ to write s#""in"t "ode des"ri&tion of "om&le* "ontrol logi" It also $as m#lti&le le)els of design des"ri&tion for "ontrolling design im&lementation It s#&&orts design lang#age fort design and sim#lation. li.raries and "reation of re#sa.le "om&onents It &ro)ides 5esign $ierar"$ies to "reate mod#lar designs It is one

De(ice )In$e*en$ent $e+ign

C45? &ermits to "reate a design wit$o#t $a)ing to first "$oose a de)i"e foe im&lementation 1it$ one design des"ri&tion( we "an target many de)i"e ar"$ite"t#res 1it$o#t .eing familiar wit$ it( we "an o&timize o#r design for reso#r"e or &erforman"e It &ermits m#lti&le style of design des"ri&tion

!ort#'ility
C45? &orta.ility &ermits to sim#late t$e same design des"ri&tion t$at we $a)e synt$esized Sim#lating a large design des"ri&tion .efore synt$esizing "an sa)e "onsidera.le time As C45? is a standard( design des"ri&tion "an .e ta0en from one sim#lator to anot$er( one synt$esis tool to anot$erJ one &latform to anot$er-means des"ri&tion "an .e #sed in m#lti&le &roIe"ts

,enchm#r-ing c#*#'ilitie+
5e)i"eXinde&endent design and &orta.ility allows .en"$mar0ing a design #sing different de)i"e ar"$ite"t#res and different synt$esis tool 1e "an ta0e a "om&lete design des"ri&tion and synt$esize it( "reate logi" for it( e)al#ate t$e res#lts and finally "$oose t$e de)i"e-a +,?5 or an !,GA t$at fits o#r re2#irements