VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY BELGAUM- 590 018

A SEMINAR REPORT ON UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the award of the degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING SUBMITTED BY

RAKESH BORKER B S

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

M !" SHANTHI VENGADESHWARI R DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING BANGALORE-5#0 0$8 NOVEMBER- %009

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY B&'()*+ , 590 018

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

D)-).)./) S)() C0''&(& 01 E.(2.&& 2.( B).()'0 & , 5#0 0$8 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that M " RAKESH BORKER B S has successfully com lete! the semi"ar re ort o" #UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION i" artial fulfillme"t of the re$uireme"t for the !e%ree of Masters of Tech"olo%y i" &tructural E"%i"eeri"% from VI&VE&VARA'A TEC(NOLOGICAL )NIVER&IT'* +el%aum !uri"% the aca!emic year ,--./,-1-* u"!er the %ui!a"ce of Mrs0 &(ANT(I VENGADE&(1ARI R 3 &e"ior Lecturer3 D&45 01 6272' E.(("3 Daya"a!a &a%ar Colle%e of E"%i"eeri"%* +a"%alore0

M !"S8).582 V&.()/&!89) 2 R S&.20 '&65* &

D K N V2!89).)58 PG C0-O /2.)50

D "B"S" T8)./)7&!9) ) P 01&!!0 )./ HOD

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING BANGALORE VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY BELGAUM

DECLARATION
I here2y !eclare that the 3or4 3hich is of Masters of Tech"olo%y i" &tructural rescri2e! i" the semi"ar re ort e"title! E"%i"eeri"% from VI&VE&VARA'A

#UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION i" artial fulfillme"t of the re$uireme"t for the a3ar! TEC(NOLOGICAL )NIVER&IT'* +el%aum carrie! out !uri"% year ,--./,-1- u"!er the %ui!a"ce of Mrs0 &(ANT(I VENGADE&(1ARI R3 S&.20 L&65* & 3 De artme"t of Ci5il E"%i"eeri"%* Daya"a"!a &a%ar Colle%e of E"%i"eeri"%* +a"%alore0

RA6E&( +OR6ER + &

CONTENTS
10 INTROD)CTION ,0 CAI&&ON CON&TR)CTION
,01 INTROD)CTION ,0, T'PE& OF CAI&&ON& ,0,01 +O8 CAI&&ON& ,0,0, OPEN CAI&&ON& ,0,07 PNE)MATIC CAI&&ON& ,0,09 &)CTION CAI&&ON&

70 COFFERDAM CON&TR)CTION
701 INTROD)CTION 70, T'PE& OF COFFERDAM& 1"%"1 1"%"% 1"%": 1"%"; 1"%"5 1"%"# 1"%"$ DI6E& &INGLE 1ALL COFFERDAM& DO)+LE 1ALL COFFERDAM& CELL)LAR COFFERDAM& ROC6/FILLED CRI+ COFFERDAM& CONCRETE COFFERDAM& &)&PENDED COFFERDAM&

90 )NDER1ATER CONCRETING
901 INTROD)CTION 90, CONCRETE PLACEMENT 907 )NDER1ATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT MET(OD& 90701 TREMIE MET(OD 9070, P)MP MET(OD 90707 TOGGLE +AG& 90709 +AG1OR6

:0 A CA&E &T)D' ON +RIDGE FO)NDATION ;0 CONCL)&ION REFERENCE

1" INTRODUCTION
)"!er3ater co"crete co"structio" is a critical com o"e"t of the e"tire ro<ect0 It is

tech"ically !ema"!i"%* usually o" the critical ath of the ro<ect0 It is tech"ically !ema"!i"%* usually o" the critical ath of the ro<ect sche!ule* a"! i"5ol5es com le= co"structio" lo%istics0 Therefore* its si%"ifica"ce i" the ro<ect far 2eyo"! the co"creti"% o eratio"s themsel5es* i" esse"ce* u"!er3ater co"crete ca" 2e co"structe! 3ith the same !e%ree of relia2ility as a2o5e/ 3ater co"structio"0 +ut if it is "ot carrie! out ro erly* 3ith the ro er co"crete mi=ture a"! laceme"t roce!ure* u"!er3ater co"crete co"structio" ca" result i" a ma<or cost a"! sche!ule o5erru"0 This is the area 3here sou"! !esi%" a"! com ete"t co"structio" la""i"% ca" achie5e a mea"i"%ful re!uctio" i" ris4 a"! cost0

For those use! to co"creti"% o" !ry la"!* co"creti"% u"!er 3ater rese"ts 5arious challe"%es0 Tra"s orti"%* com acti"%* $uality co"trol* fi"ishi"% a"! accuracy must all 2e carrie! out successfully i" this !iffere"t* a"! ofte" !ifficult* e"5iro"me"t0 There are* ho3e5er* ma"y commo" as ects* chief of 3hich is that air is "ot re$uire! for the setti"% a"! har!e"i"% of co"crete > it sets a"! har!e"s <ust as 3ell* a"! ofte" e5e" 2etter* u"!er 3ater > 2ut it must 2e flui! e"ou%h to flo3 i"to ositio" a"! 2e self com acti"% as co"5e"tio"al 5i2ratio" is "ot ractica2le u"!er 3ater0 The caisso"s a"! coffer!ams are the tech"i$ues use! for the co"structio" of u"!er3ater structures0 A caisso" is a retai"i"%* 3aterti%ht structure use!* for e=am le* to 3or4 o" the fou"!atio"s of a 2ri!%e ier* for the co"structio" of a co"crete !am* or for the re air of shi s0 ;

Caisso"s are su"4 throu%h %rou"! or 3ater to e=clu!e 3ater a"! semi/flui! material !uri"% the rocess of e=ca5atio" of fou"!atio"s a"! 3hich su2se$ue"tly 2ecomes a" i"te%ral art of the su2structure0 A coffer!am is a" e"closure 3ithi" a 3ater e"5iro"me"t co"structe! to allo3 3ater to 2e !is lace! 2y air for the ur ose of creati"% a !ry 3or4 e"5iro"me"t0 Commo"ly use! for oil ri% co"structio" a"! re air* 2ri!%e a"! !am 3or4* the coffer!am is usually a 3el!e! steel structure that is tem orary* ty ically !isma"tle! after 3or4 is com lete!0 Its com o"e"ts co"sist of sheet iles* 3ales* a"! cross 2races0

%" CAISSONS
%"1 INTRODUCTION
The caisso" metho! is o"e metho! of ro!uci"% !ee fou"!atio"s* i0e the loa! e=erte! 2y the 2uil!i"% structure is tra"sferre! to firm* !ee er strata0 Caisso" fou"!atio" is most commo"ly use! u"!er3ater for a 2ri!%e* 2ut sometimes use! i" 2uil!i"% co"structio" Caisso"s are "ormally ma!e of rei"force! co"crete* 5arious cross sectio"s 2ei"% ossi2le* !e e"!i"% o" the re$uireme"ts0 These are co"structe! such that the 3ater ca" 2e um e! out* 4ee i"% the 3or4i"% e"5iro"me"t !ry0 It is a lar%e hollo3 structure that is su"4 !o3" throu%h the earth 2y 3or4ers e=ca5ati"% from i"si!e it* ultimately it 2ecomes a erma"e"t art of the ier0 The outer 3alls of lar%e caisso"s shoul! 2e at least 1m thic4* a"! the caisso"s shoul! ha5e hori@o"tal a"! 5ertical stiffe"i"% 3alls0 A rou"! hole is !u% or 2ore! to a sta2le layer of earth a"! tem orarily su 2y a steel shell* the" fille! 3ith co"crete oure! arou"! a ca%e of rei"forci"% 2ars0 U!&! 01 6)2!!0.!< 1A To reach the har! 2eari"% stratum for tra"sferri"% the loa! comi"% o" su iers a"! 2uil!i"% colum"s0 ,A To ser5e as a" im erious core 3all of earth !ams* 3he" lace! a!<ace"t to each other0 7A To ro5i!e a" access to a !ee shaft or a tu""el0 9A To ro5i!e a" e"closure 2elo3 3ater le5el for i"stalli"% machi"ery* um * etc0 M)5& 2)'! *!&/ 10 58& 60.!5 *6520. 01 6)2!!0.!< The commo" materials 3hich are usually em loye! for the co"structio" of a caisso" are as follo3s* 1A Cast/iro" ,A Rei"force! ceme"t co"crete 7A &teel 9A Tim2er The cast/iro" is suita2le for caisso"s of o e"/3ell ty e0 Ne3 se%me"ts of cast/iro" are 2olte! as the caisso" si"4s0 This material is u"suita2le for "eumatic caisso"s as there is ris4 of orts for 2ri!%e orte!

failure !ue to te"sio" !e5elo e! 2y the com resse! air0 The cost also 3or4s out to 2e more i" relatio" to the steel or R0C0C0 The rei"force! ceme"t co"crete is suita2le for caisso" shoes0 This material has more 3ei%ht a"! therefore it creates !ifficulties i" ha"!li"% a"! floati"% the caisso" i" the early sta%e of co"structio"0 It therefore 2ecomes eco"omical to co"struct a steel caisso" 3ith co"crete filli"%0 The steel is fou"! to 2e the most suita2le material for the co"structio" of a caisso"0 It is usually i" the form of a !ou2le s4i" of steel lati"% a"! the hollo3 s ace is the" fille! 3ith ceme"t co"crete0 The tim2er 3as use! as a material for the co"structio" of a caisso" i" the early sta%es of !e5elo me"t of a caisso"0 +ut this material is "o3 ractically "ot a!o te! mai"ly 2ecause of its 2ul4 a"! ris4 of fire0

%"% TYPES OF CAISSONS

All caisso"s feature the sha e of a tu2e* ofte" 3ith a cyli"!rical co"tour 2ut it may also 2e recta"%ular* elli tical* or some other form0 &ome caisso"s are o e" at 2oth e"!s* some are o e" o"ly at the to * a"! some are o e" o"ly at the 2ottom0 It !e e"!s o" the 3ay each ty e of caisso" is to 2e use!0 The four mai" ty es of caisso" are* 10 +o= caisso" ,0 O e" caisso" 70 P"eumatic caisso" 90 &uctio" caisso"C %"%"1 BO= CAISSON This metho! is a lie! mai"ly i" u"!er3ater tu""eli"%* har2or* fou"!atio" for 2ri!%e ier co"structio"s0 +o= caisso"s are refa2ricate! co"crete 2o=es of 5arious sha e a"! com rise hollo3 2o!ies 3ith 3ater/ti%ht floors a"! 3alls0 After ma"ufacture * they are lau"che!* to3e! to the lace 3here they are to 2e 2uilt i"* su"4 to the sea 2e! or ri5er 2e!* 3hich has 2ee" re are! accor!i"%ly* a"! fi"ally 2allaste!0 I" this rocess* i"!i5i!ual co"structio" eleme"ts usually ha5e to 2e co""ecte! a"! seale! off from each other0 O"e ro2lem 3ith 2o= caisso"s is that hollo3 co"crete structures float a"! so they must 2e 2allaste! or a"chore! to re5e"t this u"til they ca" .

2e fille! 3ith co"crete0 A!<usta2le a"chori"% systems com2i"e! 3ith a GP& sur5ey allo3 e"%i"eers to ositio" a 2o= caisso" 3ith i" oi"t accuracy0 Ela2orate a"chori"% systems may 2e re$uire! i" ti!al @o"e0

Fi% ,01 &chematic Dia%ram Of +o= Caisso" %"%"% OPEN CAISSON The structure is o e" at the to a"! is ma"ufacture! 3holly or artially at %rou"! le5el0 I" that hase it rests o" the shoe* the ma4i"% of 3hich re$uires s ecial care a"! e= erie"ce0 The si"4i"% rocess 2e%i"s 3ith the ste /2y/ste remo5al of material i"si!e structure u"!er atmos heric ressure0 First* a2o5e %rou"!3ater le5el* the material is e=ca5ate! the"* 2elo3 %rou"! 3ater le5el* it is !re!%e!0 I"terior a"! e=terior %rou"!3ater le5els must al3ays 2e the same to re5e"t i i"% a"! to re5e"t material 2ei"% suc4e! i" from the outsi!e as a result0 Frictio" 2et3ee" the structure a"! the surrou"!i"% soil is mi"imi@e! 2y a %a arou"! the structure fille! 3ith 2e"to"ite0 As a rules it is : to 1-cm 3i!e a"! is ro!uce! automatically as the shoe ro<ects 2eyo"! the outer 3all of the caisso"0 &i"ce the frictio" forces i"crease 3ith i"creasi"% !e th* the 3ei%ht must 2e raise! 2y a!!itio"al loa!s0 1he" the fi"al !e th is reache!* a" u"!er 3ater co"crete floor is 2uilt i" to facilitate su2se$ue"t um i"% of the i"terior* atte"tio" al3ays 2ei"% ai! to safety a%ai"st u lift0 O e" caisso"s use! i" soft %rou"!s or hi%h 3ater ta2les* 3here o e" tre"ch e=ca5atio"s are 1-

im ractical* ca" also 2e use! to i"stall !ee ma"holes* um statio"s a"! rece tio"Dlau"ch its for micro tuu"elli"%0

Fi% ,0, &chematic Dia%ram Of O e" Caisso" %"%": PNEUMATIC CAISSON A caisso" close! at the to a"! o e" at the 2ottom is a "eumatic caisso"0 This ty e of caisso" %e"erally is use! i" u"!er3ater co"structio" ro<ects0 It ca" 2e use! o"ly if air is um e! i" to ro!uce a ressure %reater tha" 3ater ressure outsi!e0 1or4ers e"teri"% a "eumatic caisso" must first ass throu%h a" i"terme!iate cham2er that allo3s their 2o!ies to a!<ust from "ormal atmos heric ressure to the hi%her ressure 3ithi" the caisso" or 5ice 5ersa0 P"eumatic caisso"s ca" "ot 2e use! at a !e th of more tha" 1,- ft E7;0; mA0 +eyo"! that oi"t the air ressure "ee!e! i"si!e the caisso" to 4ee 3ithsta"!0 As 3ith the o e" caisso"* the structure is ma"ufacture! 3holly or artiallyE at least the 3or4i"% cham2er a"! art of the 5ertical 3allsA at %rou"! le5el0 Material is e=ca5ate! i" the 3or4i"% cham2er* the %rou"!3ater 2ei"% 4e t out 3ith com resse! air0 Due to the co"sta"t shear out 3ater is too %reat for the huma" 2o!y to

11

failure 2elo3 the shoe/ as a co"se$ue"ce of the %ra!ual material remo5al/ the structure si"4s i" to the %rou"! slo3ly u"!er its o3" 3ei%ht0 As 3ith the o e" caisso"* this rocess may 2e accelerate! 2y frictio" mi"imi@i"%

measures a"! a!!itio"al loa!s0 The 5ertical 3alls are co"crete! u to the !esire! hei%ht !uri"% the si"4i"% rocess0 As soo" as the fi"al !e th is reache!* the 3or4i"% cham2er is fille! 3ith co"crete0 A!5a"ta%es of "eumatic caisso"C ,0 The soil co"!itio" i" the 3or4i"% cham2er may 2e chec4e! co"sta"tly0 70 The co"structio" 3or4 is "ot ham ere! 2y %rou"!3ater rushi"% i"0 90 The floor of the structure may 2e 2uilt i" the !ry0 Disa!5a"ta%es of "eumatic caisso"C 10 3or4i"% i" com resse! air may lea!s to caisso" !isease0 ,0 loc4i"% i" a"! out of material a"! e$ui me"t is a te!ious rocess0

Fi% ,07 &chematic Dia%ram Of P"eumatic Caisso"

1,

Fi% ,09 1or4i"% Cham2er Of P"eumatic Caisso" %"%"; SUCTION CAISSON As offshore e= loratio" a"! !e5elo me"t of oil fiel!s reach 3ater !e ths of 1*--- to 7*--- m* "o5el metho!s of a"chori"% ro!uctio" latforms 2ecome attracti5e !ue to cost sa5i"%s associate! 3ith i"stallatio"0 &urface ro!uctio" systems that are 5ia2le i" these 3ater !e ths i"clu!e Te"sio" Le% Platforms ETLPA* s ar latforms* a"! laterally moore! shi /sha e! a"! semi/su2mersi2le 5essels0 Possi2le a"chor systems for TLP a"! s ar latforms i"clu!e the tra!itio"al !ri5e" iles* !ra% a"chors a"! suctio" caisso"s0

&uctio" caisso"s 2ecome 2etter alter"ati5es to !ri5e" iles i" !ee 3ater 2ecause of tech"ical challe"%es a"! costs associate! 3ith the i"stallatio" e$ui me"t0 I" a!!itio"* suctio" caisso"s also ro5i!e a %reater resista"ce to lateral loa!s tha" !ri5e" iles 2ecause of the lar%er !iameters ty ically use!0
I"itial e"etratio" of the suctio" caisso" i"to the sea2e! occurs !ue to the self 3ei%ht0 Fiel! o2ser5atio"s ha5e sho3" that the i"itial e"etratio" of the ile i" to ocea" se!ime"ts u"!er self/3ei%ht is su2sta"tial e"ou%h to !e5elo a" a!e$uate seal to facilitate suctio" i"stallatio" 0 su2se$ue"t e"etratio" is 2y the suctio" create! 2y um i"% 3ater out from the i"si!e of the caisso"E fi% ,0: A0 A su2mersi2le um attache! to the to of the seale! caisso" a lies suctio" ressure0 +y e5acuati"% 3ater from the i"si!e* a ressure !iffere"tial is create!0 The limiti"% 5alue of this ressure !iffere"tial* such that ca5itatio" !oes "ot occur* is the sum of the atmos heric ressure a"! hy!rostatic ressure outsi!e the caisso"0 I" 5ery !ee 3aters* lar%e 17

e"etratio" or suctio" ressures ca" 2e create!* 3hich is o"ly limite! 2y the ca acity of the um 0 O"ce the re$uire! !e th are reache!* the um s ca" 2e !isco""ecte! a"! retrie5e!0

Fi% ,0: I"stallatio" &e$ue"ce Of &uctio" Caisso"s EaA Touch!o3" Phase E2A Pe"etratio" Due To &elf 1ei%htD+allast EcA 1ater Pum e! Out To Create &uctio" Pe"etratio" A/7).5)(&! 01 6)2!!0. 10*./)520.< 10 Eco"omic0 ,0 Mi"imi@es ile ca "ee!s0 70 &li%htly less "oise a"! re!uce! 5i2ratio"s0 90 Easily a!a ta2le to 5aryi"% site co"!itio"s0 :0 (i%h a=ial a"! lateral loa!i"% ca acity0 ;0 Mi"imal ha"!li"% e$ui me"t is re$uire! for laceme"t of rei"forci"% ca%e0 ?0 Placeme"t is sometimes ossi2le i" ty es of soil that a !ri5e" ile coul! "ot e"etrate0

19

:" COFFERDAMS
:"1 INTRODUCTION
#A coffer!am is a tem orary structure !esi%"e! to 4ee 3ater a"!Dor soil out of the iles arou"! a e=ca5atio" i" 3hich a 2ri!%e ier or other structure is 2uiltF0 The coffer!am may or may "ot 2e um e! out com letely !ry0 Coffer!ams may 2e i"stalle! 2y !ri5i"% sheet !esi%"ate! area or 2y su2mer%i"% a re/fa2ricate! structure ma!e of co"crete* steel* or

com2i"atio" of co"crete a"! steel0 Coffer!ams may e5e" 2e forme! 2y usi"% i"flata2le ru22er 2a%s to surrou"! a site* fa2ricate! 2o=es to attach to e=isti"% structures* or* i" the case of lar%e !e3atere! areas* erimeter roc4 !i4es or sa"!/fille! structures0 No3 a !ays coffer!am 3ill 2e fa2ricate! steel structure hoiste! i" to lace 2y a !erric4 2ar%e o3ere! 2y electricity* or a recast co"crete structure floate! i" to lace a"! set o" 2ottom0 Follo3i"% are some of the oi"ts 3hich shoul! 2e remem2ere! i" co""ectio" 3ith the co"structio" of coffer!ams0 G Coffer!ams are tem orary e"closures to 4ee out 3ater a"! soil so as to ermit a"! co"structio" of the erma"e"t facility EstructureA i" the !ry0 G A coffer!am i"5ol5es the i"teractio" of the structure* soil* a"! 3ater0 The loa!s im ose! i"clu!e the hy!rostatic forces of the 3ater* as 3ell as the !y"amic forces !ue to curre"ts a"! 3a5es0 G I" co"structio" of coffer!ams mai"tai"i"% close tolera"ces is !ifficult si"ce coffer!ams are usually co"structe! offshore a"! sometimes u"!er se5ere 3eather co"!itio"s0 )"!er these circumsta"ces* si%"ifica"t !eformatio"s of coffer!am eleme"ts may ha e" !uri"% the course of co"structio"* a"! therefore it may 2e "ecessary to !e5iate from the !esi%" !ime"sio"s i" or!er to com lete the ro<ect accor!i"% to la"0 G The loa!s im ose! o" the coffer!am structure 2y co"structio" e$ui me"t a"! o eratio"s must 2e co"si!ere!* 2oth !uri"% i"stallatio" of the coffer!am a"! !uri"% co"structio" of the structure itself0 1: !e3ateri"%

G Remo5al of the coffer!am must 2e la""e! a"! e=ecute! 3ith the same !e%ree of care as its i"stallatio"* o" a sta%e/2y/sta%e 2asis0 The effect of the remo5al o" the erma"e"t structure must also 2e co"si!ere!0 For this reaso"* sheet iles e=te"!i"% 2elo3 the erma"e"t structure are ofte" cut off a"! left i" lace* si"ce their remo5al may !ama%e the fou"!atio" soils a!<ace"t to the structure0 G I" coffer!am co"structio"* safety is a aramou"t co"cer"* si"ce 3or4ers 3ill 2e e= ose! to the ha@ar! of floo!i"% a"! colla se0 G &afety re$uires that e5ery coffer!am a"! e5ery art thereof shall 2e of suita2le !esi%" a"! co"structio"* of suita2le a"! sou"! material a"! of sufficie"t stre"%th a"! ca acity for the ur ose for 3hich it is use!* co"structe! as ro er co"structio"* 5erificatio" that the structure is 2ei"% la""e!* mo"itori"% the 2eha5ior of the coffer!am a"! surrou"!i"% area*

ro5isio" of a!e$uate access* li%ht a"! 5e"tilatio"* a"! atte"tio" to safe ractices o" the art of all 3or4ers a"! su er5isors* a"! shall 2e ro erly mai"tai"e!0

:"% TYPES OF COFFERDAM

Follo3i"% are the most commo" ty es of coffer!amsC 10 Di4es ,0 &i"%le 3all coffer!ams 70 Dou2le 3all coffer!ams 90 Cellular coffer!ams :0 Roc4/fille! cri2 coffer!ams ;0 Co"crete coffer!ams ?0 &us e"!e! coffer!ams ;"%"1 DIKES A !i4e is a" em2a"4me"t of some material0 The materials commo"ly em loye! for the co"structio" of a !i4e are earth* roc4 a"! sa"!/2a%s0 The !i4es are %e"erally em loye! for a short !uratio"* articularly to e"a2le the co"structio" of a more !ura2le coffer!am 2ehi"! them0

1;

;"%"%

SINGLE WALL COFFERDAMS This ty e of coffer!am is suita2le 3he" a5aila2le 3or4i"% s ace is limite! a"! the area

to 2e e"close! is small0 A si"%le ro3 of iles is use! o" either si!e of the coffer!am0 ;"%": DOUBLE WALL COFFERDAMS 1he" the area to 2e e"close! is lar%e* it 2ecomes esse"tial to ro5i!e the !ou2le 3all co"structio" so as to %i5e sta2ility to the coffer!am0 ;"%"; CELLULAR COFFERDAMS The cellular coffer!am is ma!e of steel sheet iles a"! this ty e of coffer!am is ro5e! successful i" !e3ateri"% lar%e areas0 ;"%"5 ROCK/FILLED CRIB COFFERDAMS A roc4/fille! cri2 coffer!am co"sists of tim2er cri2s0 A cri2 is a 2o= or a cell o e" at the 2ottom a"! it esse"tially co"sists of a frame3or4 of hori@o"tal tim2ers lai! i" alter"ate courses0 The oc4ets thus forme! are the" fille! 3ith roc4 or %ra5el or earth to %i5e sta2ility to the cri2 a%ai"st o5ertur"i"% a"! sli!i"%0 ;"%"# CONCRETE COFFERDAMS These are actually small co"crete !ams a"! they ha5e 2ee" use! eco"omically o" ma"y <o2s0 The frame3or4 usually co"sists of re/cast R0C0C0 iles a"! sheets0 The re/cast R0C0C0 sheet iles are ro5i!e! 3ith suita2le e!%es a"! they are !ri5e" i" a similar ma""er to steel sheet iles0 The !esi%" of !iffere"t u"its shoul! 2e ro erly ma!e0 The mai" !isa!5a"ta%e of a co"crete coffer!am is that it is costly0 +ut 3he" it is to 2e i"cor orate! as art of a erma"e"t structure* it ro5es to 2e eco"omical0

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;"%"$

SUSPENDED COFFERDAMS &ometimes* a coffer!am is !esi%"e! i" such a 3ay that a si"%le u"it of it is use! se5eral

times0 The coffer!am as such is lifte!* floate! a"! lace! i" a"other ositio" as soo" as its ur ose is ser5e!0 &uch coffer!ams are also 4"o3" as the mo5a2le coffer!ams0

;": COMPONENTS OF COFFERDAM

Fi% 701C Com o"e"ts Of Coffer!am :":"1 SHEET PILING &heet ili"% is a ma"ufacture! co"structio" ro!uct 3ith a mecha"ical co""ectio"

#i"terloc4F at 2oth e"!s of the sectio"0 These mecha"ical co""ectio"s i"terloc4 3ith o"e a"other to form a co"ti"uous 3all of sheeti"%0 &heet ile a licatio"s are ty ically !esi%"e! to create a ri%i! 2arrier for earth a"! 3ater* 3hile resisti"% the lateral ressures of those 2e"!i"% forces0 The sha e or %eometry of a sectio" le"!s to the structural stre"%th0 I" a!!itio"* the soil i" 3hich the sectio" is !ri5e" has "umerous mecha"ical ro erties that ca" affect the erforma"ce0

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:":"% BRACING FRAME These are structural mem2ers use! for the lateral sta2ility of coffer!am0 These are ma!e u of steel or 3oo!0 :":": CONCRETE SEAL The ty ical coffer!am* such as a 2ri!%e ier* co"sists of sheet iles set arou"! a 2raci"% frame a"! !ri5e" i"to the soil sufficie"tly far to !e5elo 5ertical a"! lateral su ort a"! to cut off the flo3 of soil a"!* i" some cases the flo3 of 3ater0 The structure i"si!e may 2e fou"!e! !irectly o" roc4 or firm soil or may re$uire ile fou"!atio"s0 I" the latter case* these %e"erally e=te"! 3ell 2elo3 the coffer!am0 I"si!e e=ca5atio" is usually !o"e usi"% clam shell 2uc4ets0 I" or!er to !e3ater the coffer!am* the 2ottom must 2e sta2le a"! a2le to resist hy!rostatic u lift0 Placeme"t of a" u"!er3ater co"crete seal course is the fastest a"! most commo" metho!0 A" u"!er3ater co"crete seal course may the" 2e lace! rior to !e3ateri"% i" or!er to seal off the 3ater* resist its ressure* a"! also to act as a sla2 to 2race a%ai"st the i"3ar! mo5eme"t of the sheet iles i" or!er to mo2ili@e their resista"ce to u lift u"!er the hy!rostatic ressure0 A/7).5)(&! 01 C011& /)+< Performi"% 3or4 o5er 3ater has al3ays 2ee" more !ifficult a"! costly tha" erformi"% the same 3or4 o" la"!0 A"! 3he" the 3or4 is erforme! 2elo3 3ater* the !ifficulties a"! cost !iffere"ce ca" i"crease %eometrically 3ith the !e th at 3hich the 3or4 is erforme!0 The 4ey to erformi"% mari"e co"structio" 3or4 efficie"tly is to mi"imi@e 3or4 o5er 3ater* a"! erform as much of the 3or4 as ossi2le o" la"!0 +elo3 some of the a!5a"ta%es of coffer!ams are liste!0 10 Allo3 e=ca5atio" a"! co"structio" of structures i" other3ise oor e"5iro"me"t ,0 Pro5i!es safe e"5iro"me"t to 3or4 70 Co"tractors ty ically ha5e !esi%" res o"si2ility 90 &teel sheet iles are easily i"stalle! a"! remo5e! :0 Materials ca" ty ically 2e reuse! o" other ro<ects 1.

C0+4) 2!0. >&59&&. C011& /)+ )./ 6)2!!0.< The mai" !iffere"ce 2et3ee" a coffer!am a"! a caisso" is that the former is a tem orary structure 3hile the latter forms the art of the erma"e"t 3or40 Follo3i"% factors are to 2e co"si!ere! 3hile ma4i"% a choice 2et3ee" coffer!am a"! caisso" for a articular fou"!atio" 3or40 A coffer!am 2ecomes u"eco"omical i" cases 3here the la" area of the fou"!atio" 3or4 is small as com are! to the !e th of 3ater0 )"!er such circumsta"ces* a caisso" 3oul! ro5e to 2e the most suita2le0 At laces 3here the coffer!ams ca""ot 2e !e3atere! successfully* the caisso"s are use!0 This may 2e !ue to the follo3i"% reaso"sC aA De th of 3ater 2A Nature of soil to 2e e"etrate! a"! cA Permea2ility of soil 2elo3 fou"!atio" le5el The rocess of co"structi"% a coffer!am is %reatly sim lifie! i" cases of soils 3hich allo3 easily the !ri5i"% of sheet iles0 The caisso"s* o" the other ha"!* are useful 3here o2structio"s or 2oul!ers 3oul! re5e"t the successful !ri5i"% of the sheet iles For hea5y fou"!atio" 3or4s 3hich are to 2e ro5i!e! at a !e th of a2out 1, meters to 1: meters 2elo3 the le5el of sta"!i"% 3ater surface* the caisso"s 3oul! ro5e to 2e more eco"omical tha" the coffer!ams0

,-

;" UNDERWATER CONCRETING

;"1 INTRODUCTION For i"/the/3et co"structio" of the "a5i%atio" structure* u"!er3ater co"crete co"structio" is a critical com o"e"t of the e"tire ro<ect0 It is tech"ically !ema"!i"%* usually o" the critical ath of the ro<ect0 It is tech"ically !ema"!i"%* usually o" the critical ath of the ro<ect sche!ule* a"! i"5ol5es com le= co"structio" lo%istics0 Therefore* its si%"ifica"ce i" the ro<ect far 2eyo"! the co"creti"% o eratio"s themsel5es* i" esse"ce* u"!er3ater co"crete ca" 2e co"structe! 3ith the same !e%ree of relia2ility as a2o5e/3ater co"structio"0 +ut if it is "ot carrie! out ro erly* 3ith the ro er co"crete mi=ture a"! laceme"t roce!ure* u"!er3ater co"crete co"structio" ca" result i" a ma<or cost a"! sche!ule o5erru"0 This is the area 3here sou"! !esi%" a"! com ete"t co"structio" la""i"% ca" achie5e a mea"i"%ful re!uctio" i" ris4 a"! cost0 ;"% UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT The tech"ical re$uireme"ts for u"!er3ater co"creti"% co5er the areas of metho! a"! tech"i$ue* laceme"t se$ue"ce* laceme"t

laceme"t e$ui me"t layout* fi"ishi"%* a"!

rotectio" of co"crete0 Co"crete laceme"t la""i"% shoul! i"clu!e the rele5a"t su2<ects of !etail as 3ell as the co"structio" lo%isticsE the relatio"shi amo"% 5arious co"creti"% o eratio"s a"! their relatio"shi 3ith other co"structio" o eratio"sA The choice of a ro er laceme"t la" for a s ecific ro<ect has to 2e ultimately !etermi"e! 2y the site co"!itio" a"! e"%i"eeri"% re$uireme"ts* i"clu!i"% the re$uire! i"/ lace co"crete ro erties* 5olume a"! thic4"ess of the co"crete laceme"t* 3ater 5elocity !uri"% co"crete laceme"t* rese"ce of rei"forceme"t or o2stacles* a5aila2ility of e$ui me"t* tech"ical feasi2ility* a"! cost0 ;": UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT METHODS Follo3i"% are the metho!s use! for u"!er3ater co"crete laceme"t*

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10 Tremie metho! ,0 Pum metho! 70 To%%le 2a%s 90 +a%3or4 For the u"!er3ater co"structio" of "a5i%atio" structures* the tremie metho! is the o"ly sou"! metho! for laci"% hi%h/$uality u"!er3ater co"crete0 (o3e5er* some co"tractors 3ill re$uest to use the um metho! 2ecause it sli%htly re!uces the la2or cost0 The follo3i"% sectio"s ro5i!e a critical e=ami"atio" of these t3o metho!s0 The other laceme"t metho!s are "ot a ro riate for hi%h/$uality u"!er3ater co"crete for ma<or structures* althou%h they may fi"! a licatio" i" s ecial cases0 For laceme"t of u"!er3ater co"crete* the tremie metho! a"! um metho! fu"ctio" i" fu"!ame"tally !iffere"t 3ays0 Tremie laceme"t !e osits co"crete solely 2y its o3" %ra5ity i" a o e" system 3here as the um metho! em loys sur%es of um are su2sta"tially !iffere"t0 ;":"1 TREMIE METHOD The ri"ci le of this metho! is that co"crete is oure! !o3" a i e or tu2e from a2o5e the surface a"! is force! i"to the mass of co"crete alrea!y i" lace 2y the 3ei%ht of co"crete i" the tu2e0 The tu2e is surmou"te! 2y a ho er EHtremieI i" Fre"chA a"! the 3hole is sus e"!e! from a sta%i"% or frame* mou"te! so that it ca" 2e mo5e! 5ertically 3he" hel! 2y a cra"e0 As the our rises* sectio"s of the tu2e ca" 2e remo5e! to facilitate 3or4i"%0 A co"5e"ie"t !iameter for the tu2e is B to 1; times the ma=imum a%%re%ate si@e a"! ,:- mm is a commo" !iameter0 Fi%ure sho3s a !ia%rammatical re rese"tatio" of a tremie0 ressure to !eli5er co"crete i" a close! system0 The tech"ical !ifficulties a"! the i"here"t ris4 of failure 3ith these t3o metho!s

,,

Fi% 901C &chematic Of A Tremie +efore starti"% the our* a lu% is i"serte! i"to the tu2e to sto the co"crete a"! 3ater i"termi=i"%0 This lu% ca" 2e ur ose/ma!e Esimilar to a 2ath lu%A* a s o"%e ru22er 2all or e=foliate! 5ermiculite* 3hich is the most commo" metho! i" the )60 At start/u the 2ottom of the tu2e shoul! 2e o" or 5ery close to the sea or ri5er 2e!* sufficie"t to allo3 the 3ater i" the tu2e to esca e a"! to force the first loa! of co"crete to s rea! out hori@o"tally i"to a mou"! sha e0 The co"crete ouri"% shoul! 2e co"ti"uous 3ith the 2ottom of the tu2e al3ays i"si!e re5iously lace! co"crete0 If this immersio" !e th* "ormally at least -0: m* is "ot sufficie"t* a 2rea4throu%h 3ill occur a"! the our 3ill ha5e to 2e a2a"!o"e! for the !ay0 A"y air that is i" the co"crete 2ei"% lace! 3ill ass throu%h the re5iously lace! co"crete a"! 2u22le to the surface* !isru ti"% the settle! co"crete as it %oes0 The flo3 of co"crete i" the tu2e is %o5er"e! 2y %ra5ity a"! frictio" 3ith the tu2e 3all* so the tremie has to 2e mo5e! u a"! !o3" to re%ulate the flo30 A cra"e !ri5er 3ith a %oo! HfeelI for this is useful0 The tu2e shoul! 2e restrai"e! from lateral mo5eme"t 3hilst laci"% co"crete0

,7

The lace! co"crete s rea!s out hori@o"tally o" the 2e! i" a circle* 3ith the to of the our !ome! u 3ar!s0 Tremies are 2est use! for thic4 ours of a"y area0 For lar%e area ours* multi le tremies are use!* s ace! at a2out 9>; m a art* !e e"!i"% o" the flat"ess re$uire! for the to le5el0 The slo e of the co"crete surface from a tremie is li4ely to 2e i" the ra"%e 1 i" . for tremies close to%ether to 1 i" ; for those s ace! far a art as the slo e i"creases 3ith !ista"ce from the i e0 The co"crete flo3 atter" is !e e"!e"t u o" the co"siste"cy of the co"crete mi=ture a"! the laceme"t rate0 I" a!!itio"* the flo3 atter" is also affecte! 2y the thic4"ess of the co"crete laceme"t a"! the tremie em2e!me"t !e th i" co"crete0

;":"% PUMP METHOD Pum metho! is !efi"e! as um i"% co"crete !irectly i"to its fi"al ositio"* i"5ol5i"% 2oth hori@o"tal a"! 5ertical !eli5ery of co"crete i" a close! system of !ischar%e i es0 Pum i"% co"crete has the a!5a"ta%e of o eratio"al efficie"cy 3ith ote"tial sa5i"%s of time a"! la2or0 I" rece"t years um metho! has 2ecome i"creasi"%ly o ular for a2o5e/3ater structures !ue to the a!5a"ceme"t of um i"% e$ui me"t a"! tech"i$ues0 Pum i"% co"crete !irectly u"!er !ee 3aterEJ.m or 7-ft i" 3ater !e thA is a tech"ically fla3e! roce!ure0 Althou%h um i"% co"crete i" sha!o3 3ater is feasi2le* it still i"5ol5es si%"ifica"t ris4s a"! ote"tially shoul! 2e u"!er3ater0 Pum i"% the mass co"crete !irectly !o3" to the structures o" the ri5er2e! or seafloor has se5eral tech"ical ro2lems that 3ill i"crease the ris4 of co"structio" failure or oor co"crete* aA I" tremie laceme"t 2y %ra5ity fee!* the co"crete flo3 rate ca" 2e co"trolle! 2y the rate at 3hich co"crete is fe! i" to the tremie0 O" the other ha"!* the um system fully fills the um li"e 3ith co"crete0 For laceme"t i" !ee 3ater* the 3ei%ht of co"crete i" the um li"e is much %reater tha" the hy!rostatic hea! from the 3ater a"! co"crete outsi!e the i e0 Thus* the co"crete e=ists the i e at a" u"co"trolla2ly hi%h s ee!* causi"% rohi2ite!0 (o3e5er* the um oor co"crete $uality0 For massi5e u"!er3ater co"crete co"structio" of "a5i%atio" structures* the um metho! metho! is a" e=celle"t 3ay to !eli5er co"crete hori@o"tally to a tremie ho er0 It is also a" e=celle"t 3ay of laci"% %rout or flo3a2le sa"!

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si%"ifica"t !istur2a"ce of alrea!y lace! co"crete a"! se%re%atio" of the co"crete 2ei"% oure!0 2A A um system is close! to the atmos here0 1he" co"crete is um e! !o3" to !ee 3ater* co"crete may fall throu%h a"! e=it a um li"e at a rate faster tha" the um out ut0 Thus* a 5acuum 3ill 2e create! i" the li"e0 The 5acuum ressure so create! 3ill suc4 a3ay the ceme"t aste from a%%re%ates* causi"% se%re%atio" a"! lu%%i"% of the li"e0 cA Pressure sur%es from the um ca" cause !isru tio" of the co"crete flo3 a"! lu%%i"% of the li"e0 !A A co"crete mi=ture o timi@e! for um i"% may "ot 2e the o timum co"crete mi=ture for u"!er3ater a licatio"s0 eA Pum i"% i" to co"fi"e! s ace ca" ote"tially result i" e=cessi5e ressures0 fA If the e"! of the um li"e is "ot a!e$uately 2urie!* e=cessi5e um ressure sur%e ca"

4ic4 the um li"e out of the i"/ lace co"crete* causi"% mi=i"% of the co"crete 3ith 3ater0

;":": TOGGLE BAGS 1here small amou"ts of co"crete are re$uire!* such as i" re air 3or4* the to%%le 2a% is i!eal0 The 3ater roof 2a% is fille! i" the !ry 3ith 3et co"crete a"! the mouth is close! 3ith a tie ro e a"! to%%le0 At the laci"% locatio" the co"crete is s$uee@e! out 2y a !i5er a"! ramme! i"to lace0 The use of a !i5er a!!s to the cost of the o eratio"0 ;":"; BAGWORK The ty e of 2a%s use! here are "ormally ma!e from a" o e"/3ea5e material such as hessia"0 They shoul! 2e half/fille! 3ith lastic co"crete* seale! a"! the" ta4e" u"!er 3ater a"! ,:

lace! 2y a !i5er0 Partial filli"% allo3s them to 2e moul!e! i"to sha e a"! %i5es them %oo! co"tact areas 3ith a!<ace"t 2a%s0 Grout from the mi= see s throu%h the o e"te=ture! material allo3i"% 2o"! to 2e esta2lishe! 3ith a!<ace"t 2a%s0 For a!!itio"al sta2ility the 2a%s ca" 2e s i4e! to%ether 3ith small/!iameter rei"forci"% 2ars0 Di5ers refer to ha"!le 2a%s of !ry/mi=e! co"crete a"! to %rout u 2et3ee" 2a%s0 (o3e5er* this system laces too %reat a res o"si2ility o" the !i5er0 The !ry mi= co"crete is "e5er fully 3ette!/out 2y 3ater see i"% i"* the co"crete ca""ot 2e fully com acte! a"! co"tact surfaces are mi"imal0 Di5er/ha"!le! 2a%s are usually of 1- to ,- litres ca acity 2ut 1 m7 2a%s ca" 2e lace! usi"% a cra"e0

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5" A CASE STUDY ON BRIDGE FOUNDATION

This sectio" ro5i!es 2rief !escri tio"s of the u"!er co"crete co"structio" for A4ashi 6ai4yo 2ri!%e0 o The A4ashi 6ai4yo +ri!%e also 4"o3" as the Pearl +ri!%e* is the 3orl!Ks lo"%est sus e"sio" 2ri!%e Emeasure! 2y the le"%th of the ce"ter s a" of 1*..1 metresA0 It is locate! i" La a" a"! 3as com lete! i" 1..B0 o The t3o mai" to3er fou"!atio"s of the A4ashi 6ai4yo 2ri!%e* La a"* are lar%e !ou2le/3all steel caisso"s fille! 3ith tremie co"crete0 The ro<ect re$uire! that a lar%e 5olume of tremie co"crete 2e lace! u to :?m 2elo3 the 3ater surface0 o The steel caisso" is !i5i!e! i" to a" i""er core a"! 1; se%me"ts of the outer core0 1hile the tremie co"crete i" each se%me"t of the outer core 3as lace! at o"e time* the co"crete i" the i""er circle 3as lace! i" 11 lifts0 Each lift 3as a2out 7 to 9m i" thic4"ess a"! :9m i" !iameter0 o Prior to the co"structio"* e=te"si5e tests 3ere co"!ucte! to select the tremie co"crete mi=ture0 The co"crete selecte! 3as self/le5eli"% 3ith a slum flo3 of :,:mm0 the co"crete mi=ture selecte! 3as a ter"ary mi=ture 3ith ceme"tCsla%Cflyash ro ortio"s of ,-C;-C,-0 I" a!!itio"* a si%"ifica"t ortio" of limesto"e o3!er 3as a!!e! to co"trol the 2lee!i"% a"! im ro5e the cohesio" of the mi=ture0 o All the tremie co"crete 3as ro!uce! o" a floati"% 2atch la"t0 o The co"crete materials re$uire! for o"e lift of co"crete Ea2out .*---m 7A 3ere collecte! to%ether o" t3o material 2ar%es that 3ere moore! to each si!e of the caisso"0 o Each tremie laceme"t 3as carrie! out co"ti"uosly !ay a"! "i%ht for 7!ays0 Each tremie i e co5ere! a 1--/m, area0 o The rate of laceme"t i" the i""er circle 3as relati5ely slo3 at a2out : to BcmDhr0 !ue to the flui! characteristics of the co"crete* the slo3 laceme"t rate 3as "ecessary to re5e"t 3ashout0

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o The co"structio" <oi"ts 2et3ee" the lifts 3ere re are! 3ith u"!er3ater ro2ots a"! airlifti"%0 o A 7cm thic4 layer of a"ti3ashout mortar 3as ace! o5er the co"structio" <oi"t rior to laci"% a"other lift of tremie co"crete0 The total of :-*---m 7 of co"crete 3as lace! i" the steel caisso"0

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#" CONCLUSION
Coffer!ams are tem orary structures a"! use! i" cases 3here the la" area of fou"!atio" is 5ery lar%e* !e th of 3ater is less a"! for the soft soils* 3here soils allo3 easy !ri5i"% of sheet iles0 Caisso"s are erma"e"t structures a"! 2ecomes eco"omical i" cases 3here the la" area of fou"!atio" is small* lar%e !e th of 3ater a"! for loose soils0 &uctio" caisso" a"chors are %ai"i"% co"si!era2le acce ta"ce i" the offshore i"!ustry0 The suctio" caisso" is a hi%hly 5ersatile a"! efficie"t a"chor co"ce t that ca" 2e i"stalle! easily as com are! to !ri5e" iles* es ecially i" !ee 3aters0 The i"stallatio" roce!ure is sim le a"! re$uires "o hea5y lift 5essel0 The %eometry to 2e use! is !e e"!e"t o" the soil ty e0 At rese"t* the tremie laceme"t metho! is the sta"!ar! 3ay of laci"% hi%h/$uality co"crete u"!er3ater0 The other laceme"t metho! are "ot a2le to relia2ly lace hi%h/ $uality u"!er3ater co"crete for ma<or structures* althou%h they may fi"! a licatio" i" s ecial cases For massi5e u"!er3ater co"crete co"structio" of "a5i%atio" structures* the um metho! shoul! 2e rohi2ite!0

,.

REFERENCES
10 A!!&!!+&.5 01 *./& 9)5& 60.6 &5& T&68.0'0(2&! 10 2.-58&-9&5 60.!5 *6520. 01 .)72()520. !5 *65* &!- 2y &am 80 'ao* Dale E0 +er"er* +e" C0 Ger3ic4 ,0 U./& 9)5& 60.6 &5&- 2y Dr La%a!ish R 70 F0*./)520. &.(2.&& 2.(- 2y R0 +0 Pec4* 10 E (a"so"* T0(0 Thor"2ur" 90 C0.6 &5& 5&68.0'0(- > 2y M & &hettyM

7-