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Engineering Metrology UME403
Credits
2.0
2
Marks Breakup
Mid Sem Test Quiz (2) Lab Evaluation End Sem Exam 25 10 25 40
TOTAL
100
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What is Measurement
What is Measurement
Measurement can generally be defined as the assignment of a value to time, length, and mass. We cannot escape measurement.
What is Measurement
Our daily lives are greatly influenced by the clock, a device that measures time.
What is Measurement
The mass or weight of almost every product we buy is measured.
What is Measurement
The measure of length is incorporated into every creation of humans, ranging from the minute components of an integrated circuit to the many thousands of kilometres of superhighways.
What is Measurement
Measurement, in the modern age, has been developed to an exact science known as
Metrology
What is Measurement
Mass production of goods has made necessary very complex systems of metrology to check and control the critical dimensions that control standardization and interchangeability of parts.
What is Measurement
Components of an automobile, for example, may be manufactured at locations far removed from one another and then brought to a central assembly point, with the assurance that all parts will fit as intended by the designer.
What is Measurement
In addition, the development and maintenance of a vast system of carefully controlled measurement has permitted manufacturers to locate their factories close to raw materials and available labour. Because of the standardization of measurement, industry has been able to diversify its products.
What is Measurement
Thus, manufacturers can do what they do best, and manufacturing effort can be directed toward product quality and production at a competitive price. As a result, metrology affects not only the technical aspects of production but also the economic aspects.
Elements of a measurement system

A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of some variable being measured. In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single unit that gives an output reading or signal according to the magnitude of the unknown variable applied to it.

However, in more complex measurement situations, a measuring system consists of several separate elements as shown in Figure.
Measured variable
Sensor
Variable conversion element
Signal processing
Output
Signal presentation or recording
Signal transmission
Sensor
Liquid/mercury in a glass thermometer
Thermocouple
Sensor
Strain gauge
Sensor
The first element in any measuring system is the primary sensor: this gives an output that is a function of the measurand (the input applied to it). For most but not all sensors, this function is at least approximately linear. Some examples of primary sensors are a liquid/mercury in a glass thermometer, a thermocouple and a strain gauge.
Variable Conversion Element

Variable conversion elements are needed where the output variable of a
primary transducer is in an inconvenient form and has to be converted to a more convenient form. For instance, the displacement-measuring strain gauge has an output in the form of a
varying resistance.

The resistance change cannot be easily measured and so it is converted to a change in voltage by a bridge circuit, which is a typical example of a variable conversion element.
Signal Processing Elements

Signal processing elements exist to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system in some way. A very common type of signal processing element is the electronic amplifier, which amplifies the output of the primary transducer or variable conversion element, thus improving the sensitivity and resolution of measurement.
Signal Processing Elements

This element of a measuring system is particularly important where the primary transducer has a low output. For example, thermocouples have a typical output of only a few millivolts.
Additional Components
In addition to these three components just mentioned, some measurement systems have one or two other components,
firstly
to point and
transmit
the signal to some remote
secondly
to display or record the signal if it is not fed automatically into a feedback control system.
Signal transmission is needed when the
observation or application point of the output of a measurement system is some distance away from the site of the primary transducer. The signal transmission element has traditionally consisted of single or multicored cable, which is often screened to minimize signal corruption by induced electrical noise.
The final optional element in a measurement system is the point where the measured signal is utilized. This element in the measurement system takes the form either of a signal presentation
unit or of a signal-recording unit.
Choosing appropriate measuring instruments

Specification of the instrument :
especially parameters like the desired measurement accuracy, resolution, sensitivity and dynamic performance.
Environmental
conditions
that
the
instrument will be subjected to

as some conditions will immediately either eliminate the possibility of using certain types of instrument or else will create a requirement for expensive protection of the instrument.

The extent to which the measured system will be disturbed during the measuring
process :
For example, significant pressure loss can be caused to the measured system in some techniques of flow measurement.
Published literature is of considerable help

in the choice of a suitable instrument for a particular measurement situation.

The instrument characteristics
Characteristics are the features that form the technical basis for a comparison between the relative merits of different instruments. Generally, the better the characteristics, the higher the cost.
Cost is very strongly correlated with the

performance of an instrument:
Increasing the accuracy or resolution of an instrument, for example, can only be done at a penalty of increasing its manufacturing cost.

Durability and the maintenance
As well as purchase cost, other important factors in the assessment exercise are instrument durability and the maintenance requirements.
Instrument Types
Active and passive instruments. Null-type and deflection-type instruments. Analogue and digital instruments. Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output Smart and non-smart instruments
Active and passive instruments.

Active :
An active instrument requires power source. The quantity being measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external power source.
Passive:
A passive component does not require an external power source. The instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured

Scale
Spring
Pointer
Pivot
Piston Fluid
Passive instrument

An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring device shown in Figure. The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a pointer against a scale. The energy expended in moving the pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure measured: there are no other energy inputs to the system.
Float
Pivot
Petrol
Output voltage
Active instrument

An example of an active instrument is a float-type petrol tank level indicator as sketched in Figure . Here, the change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists of a proportion of the external voltage source applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.

The energy in the output signal comes from the external power source: the primary transducer float system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from this external power source.
Null-type and deflection-type

The pressure gauge just mentioned is a good example of a deflection type of instrument, where the value of the quantity being measured is displayed in terms of the amount of movement of a pointer. An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge shown in Figure , which is a null-type instrument.

Weights
Piston Fluid

Here, weights are put on top of the piston until the downward force balances the fluid pressure. Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level, known as the null point. Pressure measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed to reach this null position.

The accuracy of these two instruments depends on different things. For the deflection-type
accuracy depends on calibration of the spring. the linearity and
For the null-type

accuracy relies on the calibration of the weights.

As calibration of weights is much easier than careful choice and calibration of a linearcharacteristic spring, this means that the null type of instrument will normally be the more
accurate. In terms of usage, the deflection type instrument is clearly more convenient.

It is far simpler to read the position of a pointer against a scale than to add and subtract weights until a null point is reached. A deflection-type instrument is therefore the one that would normally be used in the workplace.
Analogue And Digital Instruments

An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being measured changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within the range that the instrument is designed to measure. The deflection-type of pressure gauge described earlier is a good example of an analogue instrument.

As the input value changes, the pointer moves with a smooth continuous motion. The pointer can therefore take an infinite number of positions within its range of movement but the number of different positions that the eye can discriminate between is strictly limited. This discrimination depends upon how large the scale is and how finely it is divided.

A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a
finite number of values.

The revolution counter sketched in Figure is an example of a digital instrument. A cam is attached to the revolving body whose motion is being measured, and on each revolution the cam opens and closes a switch.
Switch
Counter
Cam
Switch
Counter

The switching operations are counted by an electronic counter. This system can only count whole revolutions and cannot discriminate any motion that is less than a full revolution. The distinction between analogue and digital instruments has become particularly important with the rapid growth in the application of microcomputers to automatic control systems.

Any digital computer system performs its computations in digital form. An instrument whose output is in digital form is therefore particularly advantageous in such applications, as it can be interfaced directly to the control computer.
Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output

Indicating instruments : give an audio or visual indication of the magnitude of the physical quantity measured .
Instruments with a Signal output :

those that give an output in the form of a measurement signal whose magnitude is proportional to the measured quantity.

The class of indicating instruments normally includes all null-type instruments and most passive ones. Indicators can also be further divided into those that have an analogue output and those that have a digital display. Instruments that have a signal-type output are commonly used as part of automatic control systems.

In other circumstances, they can also be found in measurement systems where the output measurement signal is recorded in some way for later use. Usually, the measurement signal involved is an electrical voltage, but it can take other forms in some systems such as an electrical current, an optical signal or a pneumatic signal.
Smart and non-smart instruments

The advent of the microprocessor has created a new division in instruments between those that do incorporate a microprocessor (smart) and those that dont.
Static Characteristics Of Instruments

Static characteristics of instruments are
defined in terms of accuracy, sensitivity, resolution, etc. precision,
Normally, these values do not change with time once the instrument is manufactured. The quality of measurement depends on these characteristics.
Static Characteristics Of Instruments

The cost of an instrument will increase when we want to achieve higher values of these characteristics. The terms used to express the static characteristics of a measuring instrument are explained in the next slides.
Accuracy
The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of the instrument is to the correct value.
In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy figure rather than the accuracy figure for an instrument.
Accuracy
Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading
might be wrong, and is often quoted as a %age of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument. If, for example, a pressure gauge of range 010 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of 1.0% f.s., then the maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar.
Accuracy
The accuracy of a measuring system is normally stated in terms of the errors introduced
Accuracy
However , it is a common practice to express the error as a percentage of the measuring range of the equipment:
Accuracy Numericals
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-1 bar with an accuracy of 5% fs(full-scale) has a maximum error of: ???
Accuracy Numericals
A pressure gauge with a range between 0 - 10 bar is found to have an error of 0.15 bar when calibrated by the manufacturer. Calculate :
a. The error percentage of the gauge. b. The error percentage when the reading obtained is 2.0 bar.
Accuracy Numericals
Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

Precision is a term that describes an instruments degree of freedom from random
errors. If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high precision instrument, then the spread of readings will be very
small.
Precision is often, though confused with accuracy. incorrectly,

High precision does not imply anything about measurement accuracy. A high precision instrument may have a
low accuracy. Low accuracy measurements from a high

precision instrument are normally caused by a bias in the measurements, which is removable by recalibration.
Low Precision Low Accuracy
High Precision Low Accuracy
High Precision High Accuracy

Repeatability describes the closeness of
output readings when the same input is applied repetitively over a short
period of time, with the same measurement conditions,
same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

Can the person producing the measurement repeat in the future what he/she did in the past?

Can a second person reproduce the measurement made by the first person?

Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of measurement.
Tolerance
Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some value. When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured component from some specified value. For instance, crankshafts are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as so many microns (10-6m), and electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of perhaps 5%.
Tolerance
One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value 1000 W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere between 950 W and 1050 W.
Range and span

The input range of an measuring device is specified by the minimum and maximum values of input variable (Xmin to Xmax), for example: from -10 to +150C (for the measurement device with temperature input). The output range of an measuring device is specified by the minimum and maximum values of output variable (Ymin to Ymax), for example: from 4 to +20 mA (for the measurement element with current output).
Range and span

The input span of a measuring devices is specified by the difference between maximum Xmax and minimum Xmin values of input variables: (Xmax- Xmin ). For example, for a measuring devices with input range from -10C to +150 Cthe input span is: +150 C - (-10C)= 160C.
Linearity
The working range of most of the instruments provides a linear relationship between the output (reading taken from the scale of the instrument) and input (measurand, signal presented to the measuring system). Linearity is the consistency of accuracy over the range of measurement. A slope of one (unity) between measured and true value is perfect
Linearity
FSO = Full scale output
Linearity
Linearity is termed as Nonlinearity. The non-linearity is then defined as the maximum deviation of any of the output readings marked X from this straight line. Nonlinearity = maximum deviation from the reading of x and the straight line. Non-linearity is usually expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.
Sensitivity of measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is the ratio
(Output)
(Input)
The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the straight line drawn on Figure. If, for example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10 degrees in a pressure transducer, the sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar (assuming that the deflection is zero with zero pressure applied).
If the input-output relation is linear the sensitivity will be constant for all the values of input
Output Y
(Output) (Input)
Input X
(Output)
Output Y
(Input) If the input-output relation is non-linear, the sensitivity of the instrument depends upon the input quantity
(Output) (Input)
Input X
Sensitivity has no unique units. It has a wide range of units which are dependent upon the instrument of measuring system. Eg:
mm/micro amp mm/ohms counts/volt Ohms/degree Celsius.
A bourdon tube pressure guage requires 10 bar to produce 3 vernier division changes in the scale. Determine the static sensitivity.
Sensitivity of measurement Numerical

The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were measured at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in ohms/C.
When an instrument consists of different elements connected in series having static sensitivities of K1, K2, K3 etc, then the overall sensitivity is expressed as follows:
K1
K2
K3
K1
K2
K3
Overall Sensitivity (k) = k1 x k2 x k3 k= B A x C B x D C

A measuring system consisting of a transducer, amplifier and a recorder, with sensitivity for each equipment given below:
Transducer sensitivity Amplifier gain Recorder sensitivity 0.2 mV/C 2.0 V/mV 5.0 mm/V

(k) = k1 x k2 x k3 x 2.0 V x 5.0 mm V mV V
k = 0.2 mV C
k = 2.0 mm/C
Transfer Function TF (Output/Input relationship)

The transfer function of the measuring device is the most important characteristic, describing the instrument's conversion, giving the general relation between input and output variables and parameters of measuring instrument :

Where: X is the input variable, Y is the output variable and a1, a2 a3 are the parameters of the measuring instruments.

The sensitivity K is the most important a linear measuring device and is a object of a special attention when the device is designed. Usually, the instruments manufacturers make efforts to obtain a linear transfer function such as
Output Y
Input X

For some measuring devices (for example the transducers with current output signal 4 to 20 mA) the output variable can contain constant
Output Y
Input X

As can be seen in Fig, the sensitivity of a device with linear TF is constant for the whole measurement range.

For some measuring devices the transfer function is nonlinear such as :
Output Y
Input X

For the devises with non-linear TF the sensitivity varies in the measurement range and may be calculated for a concrete point only or as a average value for some interval in the range interval.
Threshold
When the input signal to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, there will be some minimum value input before which the instrument will not detect any output change. This minimum value is called the threshold of the instrument. Thus threshold defines the minimum value of input which is necessary to cause a detectable change from zero output.
Threshold
Threshold may be caused by backlash or internal noise.
0Kg
Measurement System
0 Kg
2Kg
Measurement System
0 Kg
3Kg
Measurement System
3 Kg
Resolution
Resolution is the smallest difference in dimensions that the measuring instrument can detect or distinguish.
Resolution
For example, a dial gauge indicates 100 mm. A variation of 0.1 mm moves the comparators needle, whereas a variation of 0.05 mm does not move the needle. Hence, the resolution of the comparator is 0.1 mm. In terms of a measurement system, it is quantified by the smallest scale increment or least count (least significant digit) of the output readout indicator.
Resolution
When the input signal is increased from nonzero value, one observes that the instrument output does not change until a certain input increment is exceeded. This increment is termed resolution or discrimination. Thus resolution defines the smallest change of input for which there will be a change of output.
Resolution
3Kg
Measurement System
3 Kg
3.5Kg
Measurement System
3 Kg
4Kg
Measurement System
4 Kg
Sensitivity to disturbance
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc. These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument specification. As variations occur in the ambient temperature etc., certain static instrument characteristics change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of this change.
Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as
zero drift and sensitivity drift.

Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias.
Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument. The mechanical form of weight scale is a common example of an instrument that is prone to bias.
It is quite usual to find that there is a reading of perhaps 1 kg with no one stood on the scale. If someone of known weight 70 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 71 kg, and if someone of known weight 100 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 101 kg.
Zero drift is normally removable by calibration. In the case of the weight scale just described, a thumbwheel is usually provided that can be turned until the reading is zero with the scales unloaded, thus removing the bias. Zero drift is also commonly found in instruments like voltmeters that are affected by ambient temperature changes.
Typical units by which such zero drift is measured are volts/C. This is often called the zero drift coefficient related to temperature changes. If the characteristic of an instrument is sensitive to several environmental parameters, then it will have several zero drift coefficients, one for each environmental parameter.
A typical change in the output characteristic of a pressure gauge subject to zero drift is shown in Figure.
Sensitivity drift(also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an instruments sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change. It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how much drift there is for a unit change in each environmental parameter that the instrument characteristics are sensitive to.
Many components within an instrument are affected by environmental fluctuations, such as temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of elasticity of a spring is temperature dependent. Figure shows what effect sensitivity drift can have on the output characteristic of an instrument.
If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity drift at the same time, then the typical modification of the output characteristic is shown in Figure.
Sensitivity to disturbance Numerical

A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20C and has the following deflection/load characteristic.

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30C and the following deflection/load characteristic is measured.
Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per C change in ambient temperature.

At 20C, deflection/load characteristic is a straight line.
Sensitivity = 20 mm/kg.
At 30C, deflection/load characteristic is still a straight line.

Sensitivity = 22 mm/kg.

Bias (zero drift) = 5 mm (the no-load deflection) Sensitivity drift = 2 mm/kg Zero drift/C = 5/10 = 0.5 mm/C Sensitivity drift/C = 2/10 = 0.2 (mm per kg)/C

An instrument is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20Cand the following output readings y are obtained for various input values x:
Determine the measurement expressed as the ratio y/x.
sensitivity,

When the instrument is subsequently used in an environment at a temperature of 50C, the input/output characteristic changes to the following:
Determine the new measurement sensitivity. Hence determine the sensitivity drift due to the change in ambient temperature of 30C.
Hysteresis effects
Figure illustrates the output characteristic of an instrument that exhibits hysteresis. If the input measured quantity to the instrument is steadily increased from a negative value, the output reading varies in the manner shown in curve (a).
Hysteresis effects
Hysteresis effects
If the input variable is then steadily decreased, the output varies in the manner shown in curve (b). The non-coincidence between these loading and unloading curves is known as hysteresis.
Hysteresis effects
Two quantities are defined, maximum input hysteresis and maximum output hysteresis, as shown in Figure . These are normally expressed as a percentage of the full-scale input or output reading respectively.
Hysteresis effects
Hysteresis is most commonly found in instruments that contain springs, such as the passive pressure gauge and the Prony brake (used for measuring torque). Hysteresis may be the result of mechanical friction, magnetic effects, elastic deformation, or thermal effects.
Hysteresis effects
Devices like the mechanical flyball (a device for measuring rotational velocity) suffer hysteresis from both of the above sources because they have friction in moving parts and also contain a spring. Hysteresis can also occur in instruments that contain electrical windings formed round an iron core, due to magnetic hysteresis in the iron.
Hysteresis effects
This occurs in devices like the variable inductance displacement transducer, the LVDT and the rotary differential transformer.
Dead space
Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which there is no change in output value. Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis also displays dead space, as marked on Figure . Some instruments that do not suffer from any significant hysteresis can still exhibit a dead space in their output characteristics, however. Backlash in gears is a typical cause of dead space.
Dead space
Backlash is commonly experienced in gear sets used to convert between translational and rotational motion (which is a common technique used to measure translational velocity).

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Engineering Metrology UME403

Elements of a measurement system

Elements of a measurement system

Elements of a measurement system

Variable conversion element

Signal presentation or recording

Liquid/mercury in a glass thermometer

Variable Conversion Element

Variable Conversion Element

Variable Conversion Element

Signal Processing Elements

Signal Processing Elements

the signal to some remote

unit or of a signal-recording unit.

Choosing appropriate measuring instruments

instrument will be subjected to

Choosing appropriate measuring instruments

Published literature is of considerable help

Choosing appropriate measuring instruments

Cost is very strongly correlated with the

Choosing appropriate measuring instruments

Active and passive instruments.

Active and passive instruments.

Active and passive instruments.

Active and passive instruments.

Active and passive instruments.

Active and passive instruments.

Null-type and deflection-type

Null-type and deflection-type

Null-type and deflection-type

Null-type and deflection-type

For the null-type

Null-type and deflection-type

Null-type and deflection-type

Analogue And Digital Instruments

Analogue And Digital Instruments

Analogue And Digital Instruments

finite number of values.

Analogue And Digital Instruments

Analogue And Digital Instruments

Analogue And Digital Instruments

Analogue And Digital Instruments

Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output

Instruments with a Signal output :

Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output

Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output

Smart and non-smart instruments

Static Characteristics Of Instruments

Static Characteristics Of Instruments

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

low accuracy. Low accuracy measurements from a high

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

Low Precision Low Accuracy

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

High Precision Low Accuracy

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

High Precision High Accuracy

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

Precision, Repeatability & Reproducibility

Range and span