Federal status

Threatened due to similarity of

appearance to other crocodilian
species
Size/age at maturity
6 ft./dependent on growth rates
Typical maximum size
males13 to 14 feet,
females9 to 10 feet
Largest SRS alligator
1210 male that died in 1996
Weight
varies; adult males can be
500+ pounds
Longevity
40 or more years in the wild,
record 66 years in captivity
Home range size
up to 2,000 acres for
adult males
Hatchling size
8 to 10 inches
Clutch size
2060 eggs
Incubation period
approximately 65 days
Teeth
74 to 80
Name origin
Alligator is derived from the
Spanish el lagarto which means
the lizard; mississippiensis
means of or belonging to the
Mississippi
Ancestry
fossil records of crocodilian
ancestors, archosaurs, are
known from 225 million years
ago; archosaurs are thought to
have given rise to dinosaurs
and birds
This brochure was produced by the Savannah River Ecology
Laboratory Environmental Outreach Program, in support of
Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC;
www.parcplace.org). Printing was sponsored by SREL
(www.uga.edu/srel/), with additional programsupport fromThe
Christensen Fund and theDepartment of Energy. Text by David
E. Scott, I. Lehr Brisbin, Jr., Travis C. Glenn, and WilliamA.
Hopkins. Photographs by David E. Scott
(except as noted). Layout and design by
Laura L. Janecek.
te mp e r a tu r e s r o se to su c h e xtr e me s? By
u s i n g t h e c o mb i n a t i o n o f e xt e r n a l a n d
inter nal temper atur e-sensitive tr ansmitter s,
r e s e a r c h e r s l e a r n e d t h a t a l l i ga t o r s
r e sp o n d e d to th e r ma l c u e s ve r y r a p id ly,
s e e k in g c o o le r wa te r s in c o ve s , s tr e a m
edges, or on str eam bottoms
o n c e th e ir b o d y te mp e r-
a t u r e r e a c h e d a b o u t
91 F ( 33 C) .
Lik e ma n y wild life
s p e c ie s , a lliga to r s
a r e vu l n e r a b l e t o
envir onmental con-
ta min a n ts . Be c a u s e
alligator s ar e top-level
car nivor es, they can bio-
accu mu late co n tamin an ts
in their tissues thr ough the pr ey
i t e ms t h e y i n ge s t . So me e n vi r o n me n t a l
contaminants can be passed fr om female
a lliga to r s to e ggs , p o te n tia lly a d ve r s e ly
affecting the health of developing offspr ing.
Sc ie n tists a t SREL a r e stu d yin g ma te r n a l
tr ansfer of contaminants fr om females to
their offspr ing. On the SRS, alligator s nest
i n a s wa m p d o wn s t r e a m fr o m a c o a l -
b u r n i n g p o we r p l a n t . Th e s wa m p i s
contaminated with a var iety of potentially
to xic tr a c e e le me n ts in c lu d in g a r s e n ic ,
c a d miu m, a n d s e le n iu m ( Se ) . Of th e s e
e le me n ts , s e le n iu m is o f gr e a t c o n c e r n
b e c a u s e i t r e a d i l y b i o a c c u mu l a t e s a n d
causes developmental abnor malities when
tr a n s fe r r e d fr o m fe ma le s to d e ve lo p in g
e m b r yo s . Mo n i t o r i n g e ffo r t s i n t h e
c o n ta min a te d syste m r e ve a le d th a t a d u lt
fe m a l e a l l i ga t o r s a c c u m u l a t e Se a n d
tr ansfer significant quantities to their eggs.
Concentr ations of Se in eggs and hatchlings
collected fr om the contaminated site ar e
3 - 5 t i m e s h i gh e r t h a n l e ve l s fr o m
uncontaminated samples. For tunately, the
co n cen tr atio n s o f Se d o n o t ap p ear h igh
e n o u gh t o a d ve r s e l y a ffe c t d e ve l o p i n g
offspr ing; embr yonic development, hatch-
ing success, and hatchling size all appear
n o r ma l in c lu tc h e s p r o d u c e d b y fe ma le
alligator s nesting in the contaminated ar ea.
Alligator s fr om the Par Pond population have
a l s o b e e n t h e s u b j e c t s o f c o n t a m i n a n t
stu d ie s. Ele va te d le ve ls o f th e r a d io a c tive
element r adiocesium (
137
Cs) occur in some
por tions of Par Pond as a r esult of r eactor
oper ations. Cesium-137 mimics elemental
p o ta s s iu m wh e n in c o r p o r a te d
into plant and animal tissues;
i n a n i m a l s i t t e n d s t o
co n cen tr ate in mu scle
t i s s u e . SREL s t u d i e s
c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l -
th o u gh s o me in d iv-
id u als h ad elevated
levels of
137
Cs in their
bodies, ther e wer e no
d e t e c t a b l e e ffe c t s o n
in d ivid u al o r p o p u latio n
h ealth .
Ther e is, however, r eason for concer n about
human consumption of alligator s due to a
mu c h mo r e wi d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d e n vi r o n -
mental contaminant, mer cur y ( Hg) . Point-
sour ce pollution and atmospher ic tr anspor t
of this metal have r esulted in many wildlife
sp ecies h avin g elevated Hg levels, even in
p r i s t i n e h a b i t a t s . Hi gh Hg l e ve l s a r e
common in wetland habitats and in top-level
p r e d a to r s. Alliga to r s a r e th e r e fo r e p r ime
c a n d i d a t e s fo r e xh i b i t i n g h i gh Hg
concentr ations. Mer cur y levels in the tissues
of SRS alligator s, as well as those fr om other
southeaster n wetlands, have been analyzed.
Although ther e ar e no national standar ds for
Hg c o n c e n tr a tio n s in r e p tile me a t, if th e
same standar ds that ar e used for fish wer e
applied to alligator s ( 1 mg Hg/ kg wet weight
o f t i s s u e ) , t h e n a h i gh p r o p o r t i o n o f
alligator s fr om the Ever glades, other ar eas
of Flor ida, and the SRS would be consider ed
unsafe for human consumption.
SREL scientists ar e also developing and using
mo d er n an alytical an d DNA tech n iq u es to
le a r n a b o u t a lliga to r s a n d so lve e n vir o n -
mental pr oblems. For example, r esear cher s
have developed micr osatellite DNA loci for
alligator s, which ar e the same type of genetic
m a r k e r s u s e d fo r p a t e r n i t y a n a l ys e s o r
Th e Ame r ic a n a lliga to r, Alligator mississippiensis,
occur s thr oughout most of the southeaster n United States. Alligator s
wer e once hunted pr imar ily to pr oduce leather pr oducts, which became
fashionable in the late 1800s. Untold number s of animals wer e killed dur ing
decades of unr egulated hunting. Even after limited pr otection was put into effect in
some ar eas in the mid-1900s, animals continued to be poached. As a r esult, alligator number s
wer e dr amatically r educed and in some r egions it was fear ed that local populations would go
extinct. Feder al legislation in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Endanger ed Species Act of
1973 and amendments to the Lacey Act in 1981, ensur ed the alligator s pr otection, and eventually its comeback. Today
alligator number s ar e estimated in the millions and they ar e common thr oughout most of their histor ic r ange.
The stor y of the Amer ican alligator, both tr agedy and success, is similar
to that of many of its close kin, the cr ocodiles. Wor ldwide ther e ar e 23
species of cr ocodilians; most wer e also hunted for food and skins,
and by 1971 all cr ocodilians wer e endanger ed, thr eatened, or declining
in number s. Habitat destr uction in many countr ies exacer bated the
declines. But a combination of legislation, effective law enfor cement,
dedicated conser vationists, and innovative sustainable yield har vesting
pr ogr ams r ever sed the decline for many species, despite continuing
habitat loss. Since the 1970s 16 of the 23 cr ocodilian species have
in cr eased in p o p u latio n size. Ho wever, so me sp ecies, su ch as th e
Chinese alligator, r emain highly endanger ed in the wild.
The cur r ent feder al pr otection status of the alligator r emains as thr eatened due to similar ity of appear ance to endanger ed
cr ocodiles ( and pr oducts made fr om their skin) . In some states alligator s may be har vested using contr olled hunts. Alligator s ar e
also br ed and r aised in captivity for the pr oduction of meat and skins, but most of the half million far med alligator s ar e hatched
fr om eggs collected fr om the wild. The pr oducts fr om these tightly r egulated wild har vests and alligator far ms ar e now sold legally,
pr oviding impor tant funds for the conser vation of this species and its habitat.
Habitat
Alligator s live in fr esh and br ackish water habitats but will ventur e into salt
water. Alligator s inhabit swamps, tidal mar shes, cr eeks and r iver s, canals, ponds,
lakes, and r eser voir s. In some ar eas alligator s do something that only a few
species, such as humans and beaver s, do cr eate wetland habitat. In mar sh,
sawgr ass, and floodplain habitats gator s sometimes cr eate gator holes, which
pr ovide a r efuge for many other animals dur ing dr y per iods. Alligator s cr eate
the holes, which can be the size of a small backyar d pool, using their snout,
for efeet, and tail. Alligator s ar e called a keystone species due to the str ong
influence they have on other species.
ALLicA1on EcoLocY
Alligator in a gator hole(photoby T.C. Glenn, SREL).
The American alligator and some crocodile
species are prime examples of the concept of
sustainable use. Sustainable use simply means
that an organism is harvested at levels that can
be continued indefinitely. The specifics of
sustainable use programs vary among croco-
dilian species, and among populations within a
species in different parts of its geographic range.
For example, the harvesting program for
alligators in Florida differs from programs in
Louisiana and other southeastern states; even
populations in different lakes within Florida are
managed differently. The numbers of adult
animals that can be killed, as well as the
proportions of eggs and hatchlings that can be
removed from the wild, are based on annual
population trends. The end result is that the legal,
regulated harvest of various life stages does not
harm the population, and gator and croc
populations can thrive even as humans use them
commercially. In fact, many scientists believe that
some crocodile species would be in far worse
shape, and perhaps would have become extinct,
if there were not a sustainable use management
program for those species. Carefully managed
sustained-yield harvest programs provide direct
economi c benefi ts to l ocal peopl e and
communities, giving everyone an incentive to
protect both the species and its habitat.
human identification at cr ime scenes. Using these mar ker s to
deter mine pater nity in alligator s led to the discover y that about
o n e-th ir d o f all gato r n ests co n tain o ffsp r in g fr o m mu ltip le
father s. In addition, although ther e ar e many 8-10 ft ( 2.4-3 m)
male alligator s in the gator population on the SRS, only the few
ve r y la r ge ma le s ( 1 1 + ft; 3 . 4 + m) s ir e o ffs p r in g. Fin a lly,
micr osatellites have been used in investigations of the effects of
contaminants, leading to the discover y that the Hg and low-
levels of r adioactive contamination in some alligator s on the
SRS ar e not r esulting in incr eased mutation r ates r elative to
gator s fr om other populations. Continuing r esear ch will use
th e se ge n e tic ma r k e r s to ma k e mo r e d isc o ve r ie s a b o u t th e
biology of alligator s, solve other envir onmental pr oblems, and
even pr oduce a map of the alligator genome.
The r ecover y of alligator populations thr oughout the Southeast,
combined with human population gr owth and encr oachment
on wetland habitats, has incr eased the likelihood of gator-human
inter actions. Even so, the fact r emains that the pr obability of an
a l l i ga t o r a t t a c k i n g a
p e r s o n i s e xt r e m e l y
l o w. Th e n u m b e r o f
a lliga to r s th r o u gh o u t
the r ange at any given
p o i n t i n t i m e i s
p r o b a b l y m o r e t h a n
thr ee million animals,
yet on the aver age ther e
a r e fe we r t h a n 1 0
a tta c k s p e r ye a r. Th e
major ity of attacks have
o c c u r r e d i n Fl o r i d a ,
wher e ther e have been
1 1 fa ta litie s d u r in g a
5 0 -ye a r p e r io d . Mo s t
attacks occur either because alligator s have lost their natur al
fear of humans ( due to being illegally fed by people and lear ning
to associate humans with food) or because they ar e defending
a ter r itor y. Humans can do sever al things to minimize the r isk
of attack:
Do not feed alligator s, ther eby causing them to become
accustomed to humans.
Do not swim in ar eas ( especially near heavily vegetated
shor elines) wher e lar ge ( > 6 feet) alligator s ar e pr esent,
par ticular ly at night/ dusk when they ar e feeding.
Do not attempt to captur e alligator s it is danger ous and
against the law.
Do not appr oach an alligator nest or hatchlings.
HumANs ANo ALLicA1ons
The habitat pr efer ences of alligator s depend
somewhat on the size, age, and sex of the
gator. Lar ge adult male alligator s gener ally
pr efer deep, open water dur ing the entir e
active season. Lar ge females also ar e found
in open water dur ing the br eeding season,
but then move to mar shes and lake edges
dur ing the nesting season and after young
have hatched. Smaller alligator s ( 4-5 ft/ 1.2-
1.5 m or less) typically occur in wetlands
wi t h r e l a t i ve l y d e n s e ve ge t a t i o n , wh i c h
p r o vid e s b o th a h id in g p la c e a n d go o d
habitat for pr ey items.
Reproduction, nesting, & hatching
The time it takes for alligator s to become
matur e, and thus able to r epr oduce, var ies
fr o m p o p u la tio n to p o p u la tio n . Re p r o -
ductive matur ity in alligator s is pr imar ily
r elated to body size, so the age at which an
individual can br eed depends on how fast
it gr ows thr oughout its life. Both males and
females tend to matur e at about 6 feet ( 1.8
m) i n l e n gt h , b u t t h e s i ze a t wh i c h a n
a lliga to r ma y s u c c e s s fu lly b r e e d is a ls o
dependent upon social inter actions among
member s of the population. The cour tship
a n d b r e e d i n g s e a s o n fo r a l l i ga t o r s i s
gener ally fr om Apr il thr ough May, although
ther e ar e some r epor ts of autumn mating.
Br e e d i n g o c c u r s i n o p e n wa t e r. Bo d y
postur ing, snout r ubbing, water slapping,
and bellowing ar e all par t of the cour tship
pr ocess.
Rangeof theAmerican alligator.
After mating, females constr uct shor eline
mound nests made fr om vegetation, leaf
litter, and mud. In June and July females
lay 20-60 eggs in the nest and
cover them with additional
ve ge t a t i o n a n d d e b r i s .
The temper atur e of the
n e s t d u r i n g t h e
mid d le th ir d o f th e
i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d
d eter min es th e sex
o f t h e h a t c h l i n gs .
Constant incubation
te mp e r a tu r e s b e lo w
87.8
o
F ( 31
o
C) dur ing
t h i s p e r i o d p r o d u c e
o n l y fe m a l e s , t e m p e r -
a t u r e s b e t we e n 9 0 . 5 a n d
91.4
o
F ( 32.5-33
o
C) pr oduce only
ma le s , a n d te mp e r a tu r e s a b o ve 9 3 . 2
o
F
( 3 4
o
C) p r o d u c e a h igh p r o p o r tio n o f
females. It gen er ally tak es a little mo r e
t h a n t wo m o n t h s fo r t h e e m b r yo s t o
develop and for hatchlings to emer ge fr om
the eggs. Eggs in alligator nests ar e often
p r e ye d u p o n b y r a c c o o n s , o p o s s u ms ,
skunks, pigs, and other nest pr edator s.
For example, in Flor ida it is consider ed
nor mal if only 50% of the eggs escape
pr edation and hatch. At hatching time the
babies make a call that attr acts the female.
She uncover s the hatchlings in the nest by
digging with her fr ont feet and snout and
may car r y hatchlings in her mouth fr om
the nest to the water s edge.
Mo s t r e p t i l e s p e c i e s d o ve r y l i t t l e
par enting, especially after the eggs have
hatched. In contr ast, female
alligator s will pr otect babies
a t a l l s t a ge s : e ggs i n t h e
nest, hatchlings, and babies
u p t o t h r e e ye a r s o l d .
Hatch lin g gato r s gen er ally
stay together in a pod for
1-3 year s, and make a call
( pr esumably a distr ess call)
to which females r espond.
No n e th e le ss, ma n y h a tc h -
lings ar e pr eyed upon by a
wid e va r ie ty o f a n ima ls , in c lu d in g la r ge
wa d i n g b i r d s , s n a k e s , b a s s , a n d e ve n
bullfr ogs.
Feeding habits
Th e d ie t o f a lliga to r s is
q u i t e va r i e d , a n d i s
d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e
s ize o f th e ga to r. All
gato r s, r egar d less o f
s i ze , a r e p r i m a r i l y
car n ivo r es, alth o u gh
s o me p la n t ma te r ia l
m a y i n c i d e n t a l l y b e
i n ge s t e d . Ha t c h l i n gs
and young alligator s eat
insects, cr ayfish, snails and
other inver tebr ates, small fish,
and amphibians. At 5-6 ft long ( 1.5-
1 . 8 m) alligato r s b egin to feed mo r e o n
lar ge fish , tu r tles, sn ak es, water fo wl an d
wa d i n g b i r d s , a n d s m a l l m a m m a l s . I n
a d d itio n to k e e n e ye s igh t, h u n d r e d s o f
specialized pr essur e sensor s on the snouts
of gator s help them locate pr ey in the water ;
these bumps ar e sensitive enough to detect
r ipples fr om a single dr op of water. Because
alligator s ar e cold blooded their feeding
a c t i vi t y i s d e p e n d e n t o n wa t e r t e mp e r-
atur e gator s will usually stop feeding if
wa te r te mp e r a tu r e s a r e b e lo w a p p r o xi-
m a t e l y 7 0
o
F ( 2 1
o
C) . Th u s , a l l i ga t o r s
gener ally feed fr om late Mar ch/ ear ly Apr il
thr ough October.
Growth & body size
Gr owth r ates in young alligator s var y fr om
4-14 ( 10-36 cm) per year, depending on
TheAmerican alligator (top) and American
crocodile(right) arenativetotheU.S. Thespectacled
caiman (lower left) isestablished in partsof south
Florida. Speciesaredistinguished primarily by
location (rangeand habitat), head shape, and teeth.
An alligator exhibitingicing behavoir.
r epr oductive synchr onization with females
th at r emain ed in th e co o ler p ar ts o f th e
r e s e r vo i r a n d e n t e r e d t yp i c a l wi n t e r
dor mancy. Resear cher s speculated that the
alter ed male activity cycle may have caused
a c h a n ge in th e timin g o f ma le r e p r o -
d u c tio n , a n d ma d e ma le s in c a p a b le o f
br eeding by the time females became active
and r eady to br eed in the spr ing. Indeed,
the ear ly gator population at Par Pond had
a n u n u s u a lly h igh p r o p o r tio n o f a d u lts
( 64%) and few juveniles, the patter n one
might expect if females wer e not nesting
and pr oducing young. However, the same
p a tte r n migh t o c c u r if ma le s a r e mo r e
likely than females to colonize new aquatic
h a b ita ts, r e su ltin g in a ma le -b ia se d se x
r atio with few adult females available for
b r e e d in g. In 1 9 7 4 th e r e we r e 3 . 2 ma le
a lliga to r s fo r e ve r y fe ma le , a n d o n ly a n
estimated 15 females in all of Par Pond.
Mu l t i p l e p o s s i b l e c a u s e s fo r a s i n gl e
o b se r ve d p a tte r n illu str a te s wh y sc ie n c e
can be so challenging!
By the mid-1980s the Par Pond alligator
population had near ly doubled fr om 1974
estimates, to a total of almost 200 adults
and juveniles ( 42%) , with 24 adult females.
SREL s c i e n t i s t s fo u n d
themselves in a unique
position in 1991, when
Par Po n d was lo wer ed
appr oximately 18 ft ( 5.5
m) wh ile r ep air s wer e
m a d e t o t h e d a m .
Ra d i o t r a c k i n g s t u d i e s
dur ing the 3-year per iod
o f l o w wa t e r l e ve l
s h o we d t h a t b r e e d i n g
females r emained in the
lo we r e d r e se r vo ir a n d
continued to nest successfully. However,
sur vival of young fr om these nests was
extr emely lo w b ecau se th e d r aw-d o wn
had denuded the r eser voir shor eline of
much of the emer gent aquatic vegetation
th a t n e wly h a tc h e d a lliga to r s n e e d fo r
pr otection fr om pr edator s. Some adult
alligator s, pr imar ily males, moved fr om
Par Pond to near by bodies of water. L-
Lake, a new r eser voir constr ucted in late
1985, is appr oximately 4 miles ( 6.4 km)
fr om Par Pond. By 1988 alligator s had
n o t co lo n ized th e r eser vo ir, b u t in th e
1 9 9 0 s a l l i ga t o r s b e ga n t o t a k e u p
r esidence in the new lake, although none
we r e i d e n t i fi e d a s k n o wn Pa r Po n d
animals. Resear cher s continue to study
the colonization of L-Lake by alligator s,
which had r eached a population size of
sever al dozen ( mostly adults) by the late
1 9 9 0 s.
SREL b i o l o gi s t s h a ve a l s o u s e d t h e
t e c h n i q u e o f r a d i o t e l e me t r y t o l e a r n
a b o u t a l l i ga t o r p h ys i o l o gy. Ra d i o -
tr ansmitter s can be designed so that the
p u l s e r a t e o f t h e r a d i o s i gn a l i s
d ep en d en t o n temp er atu r e, simp ly
meaning that the sound a biologist
h ear s wh en tr ack in g th e an imal is
slower when cold and faster when
war m. In the case of a lar ge alligator,
r e s e a r c h e r s a t t a c h e d o n e t r a n s -
mitter on a collar to the outside of
t h e a n i m a l , a n d i n s e r t e d o n e
tr ansmitter into the stomach, so that
both the envir onmental temper atur e
an d b o d y temp er atu r e wer e d eter min ed .
Using these methods r esear cher s studied
t h e b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e a n d b e h a vi o r
r e la tio n sh ip s o f la r ge r a lliga to r s a s th e y
faced cold weather in unheated r eser voir s.
Si mi l a r t e c h n i q u e s we r e u s e d i n o t h e r
stu d ie s o f th e e ffe c ts o f th e r ma l e fflu e n t
fr o m r e a c t o r s . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o o l i n g
r e s e r vo ir s , th r e e SRS s tr e a ms r e c e ive d
ther mal effluent dur ing per iods of r eactor
oper ation. In the 1980s SREL r esear cher s
e xa min e d h o w h o t wa te r p lu me s in SRS
s tr e a ms a ffe c te d a lliga to r s . At th e time ,
a l l i ga t o r s we r e s t i l l a fe d e r a l l y l i s t e d
e n d a n ge r e d s p e c i e s i n i n l a n d So u t h
Car olina, and the impact of hot water on
alligator s was of concer n to the Depar tment
o f En e r gy. Re s e a r c h e r s h a d a l r e a d y
d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l t h e r m a l
maximu m ( CTM) , o r th e temp er atu r e at
which alligator s would over heat and die,
was 100 F ( 38 C) . Temper atur es in par ts
o f s o m e SRS s t r e a m s e xc e e d e d 1 0 4 F
( 40 C) when r eactor s wer e oper ating. How
d i d a l l i ga t o r s r e s p o n d wh e n wa t e r
ALLicA1on HzszAncH A1 SHEL
temper atur e, food r esour ces of the habitat, and the animals sex, size,
a n d a ge . Fo r e xa mp le , ju ve n ile a lliga to r s in so me So u th Ca r o lin a
populations aver age 7.5 ( 19 cm) of gr owth per year, while those in
Louisiana may gr ow 12 ( 30.5 cm) per year. Because matur ity is r elated
to body size, this means that alligator s in Louisiana may r each matur ity
ear lier than those in South Car olina. As alligator s get lar ger their gr owth
r ate slows, and once an alligator becomes r epr oductively matur e its
gr owth r ate dr ops dr amatically. Male alligator s gr ow faster and lar ger
than females. Females can attain appr oximately 9 ft ( 2.7 m) in length
and 200+ lbs ( 91 kg) . Males can gr ow to 13+ ft ( 4 m) and 500+ lbs
( 227 kg) . The r ecor d alligator, taken on Mar sh Island, Louisiana, was
r epor ted to be 192 long.
Interesting behaviors
For an animal with a maximum br ain mass of less than ounce ( ~ 10.5
gr ams) , alligator s demonstr ate some inter esting behavior s.
In the temper ate por tions of their r ange, alligator s constr uct dens
( a cave-like str uctur e in the bank of the water way) wher e they
r emain dor mant dur ing winter months. Gator s also exhibit icing
behavior in r esponse to extr eme cold. Befor e a pond fr eezes, an
adult will move to shallow water, place its nostr ils ( on the tip of
the snout) out of the water, and let its snout become fr ozen into
the ice. Hatchlings and juveniles may not be as successful at this,
which may explain ( in par t) the limits to the r ange of the alligator.
Humans can hear a wide var iety of the sounds that alligator s use
to c o mmu n ic a te , fr o m
coughing and hissing to
distr ess yelps, hatching
calls, and bellowing. In
ad d itio n , alligato r s ar e
one of many species of
a n ima ls th a t c o mmu n -
icate using sounds that
we c a n n o t h e a r .
Humans hear sound in
the r ange of 20-20,000
Hz ( h e r t z; c yc l e s p e r
s e c o n d ) , a n d s o m e
a l l i ga t o r vo c a l i za t i o n s
ar e below 20 Hz, in the infr asound r ange. Low fr equency sound
can tr avel ver y long distances.
Resear cher s who have used r adiotr ansmitter s to tr ack alligator s
have lear ned that they have lar ge home r ange sizes, with males
using a lar ger ar ea than females. Males move the most and have
their lar gest home r anges dur ing the br eeding season, and females
move the least and have their smallest r anges dur ing the nesting
s e a s o n . Alliga to r h o me r a n ge s ize d e p e n d s o n ma n y fa c to r s ,
including the location and type of habitat, but an adult male alligator
may have a home r ange of mor e than 1,000 acr es.
Unique among r eptiles, cr ocodilians have been obser ved br inging
food to their young.
The Univer sity of Geor gias Savannah River Ecology Labor ator y ( SREL)
began conducting ecological studies on the newly cr eated Savannah
River Site ( SRS) on the upper Coastal Plain of South Car olina in 1951.
Stu d ie s o f th e Ame r ic a n a lliga to r o n th e SRS h a ve in c r e a s e d o u r
knowledge about its basic ecology and pr ovided insights on the effects
o f in d u s tr ia l fa c ilitie s o n a lliga to r s . SRELs o n go in g r e s e a r c h , in
collabor ation with r esear cher s fr om ar ound the wor ld, continues to
lead to new discover ies about alligator s and other cr ocodilians.
The SREL pr ogr am of alligator r esear ch began in the late 1960s when
n u c le a r p r o d u c tio n r e a c to r s we r e p e r io d ic a lly d is c h a r gin g h e a te d
effluents into cooling r eser voir s and str eams on the SRS. The heated
water s cr eated u n iq u e gr ad ien ts o f water temp er atu r e n ever b efo r e
exper ienced by alligator s. As one example of a ther mal effect, alligator s
that inhabited the war m por tions of the 2,840 acr e ( 1,150 hectar e)
Par Pond r eser voir wer e noted to bask less fr equently, especially dur ing
cooler months, than gator s in nor mal-temper atur e water. Resear ch over
th e n e xt d e c a d e d o c u me n te d th e s e a s o n a l u s e o f h e a te d wa te r s ,
p a r tic u la r ly b y la r ge r ma le s th a t mo ve d in to th e wa r m wa te r s a n d
r emained active dur ing the winter months of the year. The pr olonged
active season of these lar ger male alligator s seemed to put them out of
H
a
t
c
h
l
i
n
g
g
a
tor
hitching
a
r
id
e
o
n
M
o
m
.
The habitat pr efer ences of alligator s depend
somewhat on the size, age, and sex of the
gator. Lar ge adult male alligator s gener ally
pr efer deep, open water dur ing the entir e
active season. Lar ge females also ar e found
in open water dur ing the br eeding season,
but then move to mar shes and lake edges
dur ing the nesting season and after young
have hatched. Smaller alligator s ( 4-5 ft/ 1.2-
1.5 m or less) typically occur in wetlands
wi t h r e l a t i ve l y d e n s e ve ge t a t i o n , wh i c h
p r o vid e s b o th a h id in g p la c e a n d go o d
habitat for pr ey items.
Reproduction, nesting, & hatching
The time it takes for alligator s to become
matur e, and thus able to r epr oduce, var ies
fr o m p o p u la tio n to p o p u la tio n . Re p r o -
ductive matur ity in alligator s is pr imar ily
r elated to body size, so the age at which an
individual can br eed depends on how fast
it gr ows thr oughout its life. Both males and
females tend to matur e at about 6 feet ( 1.8
m) i n l e n gt h , b u t t h e s i ze a t wh i c h a n
a lliga to r ma y s u c c e s s fu lly b r e e d is a ls o
dependent upon social inter actions among
member s of the population. The cour tship
a n d b r e e d i n g s e a s o n fo r a l l i ga t o r s i s
gener ally fr om Apr il thr ough May, although
ther e ar e some r epor ts of autumn mating.
Br e e d i n g o c c u r s i n o p e n wa t e r. Bo d y
postur ing, snout r ubbing, water slapping,
and bellowing ar e all par t of the cour tship
pr ocess.
Rangeof theAmerican alligator.
After mating, females constr uct shor eline
mound nests made fr om vegetation, leaf
litter, and mud. In June and July females
lay 20-60 eggs in the nest and
cover them with additional
ve ge t a t i o n a n d d e b r i s .
The temper atur e of the
n e s t d u r i n g t h e
mid d le th ir d o f th e
i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d
d eter min es th e sex
o f t h e h a t c h l i n gs .
Constant incubation
te mp e r a tu r e s b e lo w
87.8
o
F ( 31
o
C) dur ing
t h i s p e r i o d p r o d u c e
o n l y fe m a l e s , t e m p e r -
a t u r e s b e t we e n 9 0 . 5 a n d
91.4
o
F ( 32.5-33
o
C) pr oduce only
ma le s , a n d te mp e r a tu r e s a b o ve 9 3 . 2
o
F
( 3 4
o
C) p r o d u c e a h igh p r o p o r tio n o f
females. It gen er ally tak es a little mo r e
t h a n t wo m o n t h s fo r t h e e m b r yo s t o
develop and for hatchlings to emer ge fr om
the eggs. Eggs in alligator nests ar e often
p r e ye d u p o n b y r a c c o o n s , o p o s s u ms ,
skunks, pigs, and other nest pr edator s.
For example, in Flor ida it is consider ed
nor mal if only 50% of the eggs escape
pr edation and hatch. At hatching time the
babies make a call that attr acts the female.
She uncover s the hatchlings in the nest by
digging with her fr ont feet and snout and
may car r y hatchlings in her mouth fr om
the nest to the water s edge.
Mo s t r e p t i l e s p e c i e s d o ve r y l i t t l e
par enting, especially after the eggs have
hatched. In contr ast, female
alligator s will pr otect babies
a t a l l s t a ge s : e ggs i n t h e
nest, hatchlings, and babies
u p t o t h r e e ye a r s o l d .
Hatch lin g gato r s gen er ally
stay together in a pod for
1-3 year s, and make a call
( pr esumably a distr ess call)
to which females r espond.
No n e th e le ss, ma n y h a tc h -
lings ar e pr eyed upon by a
wid e va r ie ty o f a n ima ls , in c lu d in g la r ge
wa d i n g b i r d s , s n a k e s , b a s s , a n d e ve n
bullfr ogs.
Feeding habits
Th e d ie t o f a lliga to r s is
q u i t e va r i e d , a n d i s
d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e
s ize o f th e ga to r. All
gato r s, r egar d less o f
s i ze , a r e p r i m a r i l y
car n ivo r es, alth o u gh
s o me p la n t ma te r ia l
m a y i n c i d e n t a l l y b e
i n ge s t e d . Ha t c h l i n gs
and young alligator s eat
insects, cr ayfish, snails and
other inver tebr ates, small fish,
and amphibians. At 5-6 ft long ( 1.5-
1 . 8 m) alligato r s b egin to feed mo r e o n
lar ge fish , tu r tles, sn ak es, water fo wl an d
wa d i n g b i r d s , a n d s m a l l m a m m a l s . I n
a d d itio n to k e e n e ye s igh t, h u n d r e d s o f
specialized pr essur e sensor s on the snouts
of gator s help them locate pr ey in the water ;
these bumps ar e sensitive enough to detect
r ipples fr om a single dr op of water. Because
alligator s ar e cold blooded their feeding
a c t i vi t y i s d e p e n d e n t o n wa t e r t e mp e r-
atur e gator s will usually stop feeding if
wa te r te mp e r a tu r e s a r e b e lo w a p p r o xi-
m a t e l y 7 0
o
F ( 2 1
o
C) . Th u s , a l l i ga t o r s
gener ally feed fr om late Mar ch/ ear ly Apr il
thr ough October.
Growth & body size
Gr owth r ates in young alligator s var y fr om
4-14 ( 10-36 cm) per year, depending on
TheAmerican alligator (top) and American
crocodile(right) arenativetotheU.S. Thespectacled
caiman (lower left) isestablished in partsof south
Florida. Speciesaredistinguished primarily by
location (rangeand habitat), head shape, and teeth.
An alligator exhibitingicing behavoir.
r epr oductive synchr onization with females
th at r emain ed in th e co o ler p ar ts o f th e
r e s e r vo i r a n d e n t e r e d t yp i c a l wi n t e r
dor mancy. Resear cher s speculated that the
alter ed male activity cycle may have caused
a c h a n ge in th e timin g o f ma le r e p r o -
d u c tio n , a n d ma d e ma le s in c a p a b le o f
br eeding by the time females became active
and r eady to br eed in the spr ing. Indeed,
the ear ly gator population at Par Pond had
a n u n u s u a lly h igh p r o p o r tio n o f a d u lts
( 64%) and few juveniles, the patter n one
might expect if females wer e not nesting
and pr oducing young. However, the same
p a tte r n migh t o c c u r if ma le s a r e mo r e
likely than females to colonize new aquatic
h a b ita ts, r e su ltin g in a ma le -b ia se d se x
r atio with few adult females available for
b r e e d in g. In 1 9 7 4 th e r e we r e 3 . 2 ma le
a lliga to r s fo r e ve r y fe ma le , a n d o n ly a n
estimated 15 females in all of Par Pond.
Mu l t i p l e p o s s i b l e c a u s e s fo r a s i n gl e
o b se r ve d p a tte r n illu str a te s wh y sc ie n c e
can be so challenging!
By the mid-1980s the Par Pond alligator
population had near ly doubled fr om 1974
estimates, to a total of almost 200 adults
and juveniles ( 42%) , with 24 adult females.
SREL s c i e n t i s t s fo u n d
themselves in a unique
position in 1991, when
Par Po n d was lo wer ed
appr oximately 18 ft ( 5.5
m) wh ile r ep air s wer e
m a d e t o t h e d a m .
Ra d i o t r a c k i n g s t u d i e s
dur ing the 3-year per iod
o f l o w wa t e r l e ve l
s h o we d t h a t b r e e d i n g
females r emained in the
lo we r e d r e se r vo ir a n d
continued to nest successfully. However,
sur vival of young fr om these nests was
extr emely lo w b ecau se th e d r aw-d o wn
had denuded the r eser voir shor eline of
much of the emer gent aquatic vegetation
th a t n e wly h a tc h e d a lliga to r s n e e d fo r
pr otection fr om pr edator s. Some adult
alligator s, pr imar ily males, moved fr om
Par Pond to near by bodies of water. L-
Lake, a new r eser voir constr ucted in late
1985, is appr oximately 4 miles ( 6.4 km)
fr om Par Pond. By 1988 alligator s had
n o t co lo n ized th e r eser vo ir, b u t in th e
1 9 9 0 s a l l i ga t o r s b e ga n t o t a k e u p
r esidence in the new lake, although none
we r e i d e n t i fi e d a s k n o wn Pa r Po n d
animals. Resear cher s continue to study
the colonization of L-Lake by alligator s,
which had r eached a population size of
sever al dozen ( mostly adults) by the late
1 9 9 0 s.
SREL b i o l o gi s t s h a ve a l s o u s e d t h e
t e c h n i q u e o f r a d i o t e l e me t r y t o l e a r n
a b o u t a l l i ga t o r p h ys i o l o gy. Ra d i o -
tr ansmitter s can be designed so that the
p u l s e r a t e o f t h e r a d i o s i gn a l i s
d ep en d en t o n temp er atu r e, simp ly
meaning that the sound a biologist
h ear s wh en tr ack in g th e an imal is
slower when cold and faster when
war m. In the case of a lar ge alligator,
r e s e a r c h e r s a t t a c h e d o n e t r a n s -
mitter on a collar to the outside of
t h e a n i m a l , a n d i n s e r t e d o n e
tr ansmitter into the stomach, so that
both the envir onmental temper atur e
an d b o d y temp er atu r e wer e d eter min ed .
Using these methods r esear cher s studied
t h e b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e a n d b e h a vi o r
r e la tio n sh ip s o f la r ge r a lliga to r s a s th e y
faced cold weather in unheated r eser voir s.
Si mi l a r t e c h n i q u e s we r e u s e d i n o t h e r
stu d ie s o f th e e ffe c ts o f th e r ma l e fflu e n t
fr o m r e a c t o r s . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o o l i n g
r e s e r vo ir s , th r e e SRS s tr e a ms r e c e ive d
ther mal effluent dur ing per iods of r eactor
oper ation. In the 1980s SREL r esear cher s
e xa min e d h o w h o t wa te r p lu me s in SRS
s tr e a ms a ffe c te d a lliga to r s . At th e time ,
a l l i ga t o r s we r e s t i l l a fe d e r a l l y l i s t e d
e n d a n ge r e d s p e c i e s i n i n l a n d So u t h
Car olina, and the impact of hot water on
alligator s was of concer n to the Depar tment
o f En e r gy. Re s e a r c h e r s h a d a l r e a d y
d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l t h e r m a l
maximu m ( CTM) , o r th e temp er atu r e at
which alligator s would over heat and die,
was 100 F ( 38 C) . Temper atur es in par ts
o f s o m e SRS s t r e a m s e xc e e d e d 1 0 4 F
( 40 C) when r eactor s wer e oper ating. How
d i d a l l i ga t o r s r e s p o n d wh e n wa t e r
ALLicA1on HzszAncH A1 SHEL
temper atur e, food r esour ces of the habitat, and the animals sex, size,
a n d a ge . Fo r e xa mp le , ju ve n ile a lliga to r s in so me So u th Ca r o lin a
populations aver age 7.5 ( 19 cm) of gr owth per year, while those in
Louisiana may gr ow 12 ( 30.5 cm) per year. Because matur ity is r elated
to body size, this means that alligator s in Louisiana may r each matur ity
ear lier than those in South Car olina. As alligator s get lar ger their gr owth
r ate slows, and once an alligator becomes r epr oductively matur e its
gr owth r ate dr ops dr amatically. Male alligator s gr ow faster and lar ger
than females. Females can attain appr oximately 9 ft ( 2.7 m) in length
and 200+ lbs ( 91 kg) . Males can gr ow to 13+ ft ( 4 m) and 500+ lbs
( 227 kg) . The r ecor d alligator, taken on Mar sh Island, Louisiana, was
r epor ted to be 192 long.
Interesting behaviors
For an animal with a maximum br ain mass of less than ounce ( ~ 10.5
gr ams) , alligator s demonstr ate some inter esting behavior s.
In the temper ate por tions of their r ange, alligator s constr uct dens
( a cave-like str uctur e in the bank of the water way) wher e they
r emain dor mant dur ing winter months. Gator s also exhibit icing
behavior in r esponse to extr eme cold. Befor e a pond fr eezes, an
adult will move to shallow water, place its nostr ils ( on the tip of
the snout) out of the water, and let its snout become fr ozen into
the ice. Hatchlings and juveniles may not be as successful at this,
which may explain ( in par t) the limits to the r ange of the alligator.
Humans can hear a wide var iety of the sounds that alligator s use
to c o mmu n ic a te , fr o m
coughing and hissing to
distr ess yelps, hatching
calls, and bellowing. In
ad d itio n , alligato r s ar e
one of many species of
a n ima ls th a t c o mmu n -
icate using sounds that
we c a n n o t h e a r .
Humans hear sound in
the r ange of 20-20,000
Hz ( h e r t z; c yc l e s p e r
s e c o n d ) , a n d s o m e
a l l i ga t o r vo c a l i za t i o n s
ar e below 20 Hz, in the infr asound r ange. Low fr equency sound
can tr avel ver y long distances.
Resear cher s who have used r adiotr ansmitter s to tr ack alligator s
have lear ned that they have lar ge home r ange sizes, with males
using a lar ger ar ea than females. Males move the most and have
their lar gest home r anges dur ing the br eeding season, and females
move the least and have their smallest r anges dur ing the nesting
s e a s o n . Alliga to r h o me r a n ge s ize d e p e n d s o n ma n y fa c to r s ,
including the location and type of habitat, but an adult male alligator
may have a home r ange of mor e than 1,000 acr es.
Unique among r eptiles, cr ocodilians have been obser ved br inging
food to their young.
The Univer sity of Geor gias Savannah River Ecology Labor ator y ( SREL)
began conducting ecological studies on the newly cr eated Savannah
River Site ( SRS) on the upper Coastal Plain of South Car olina in 1951.
Stu d ie s o f th e Ame r ic a n a lliga to r o n th e SRS h a ve in c r e a s e d o u r
knowledge about its basic ecology and pr ovided insights on the effects
o f in d u s tr ia l fa c ilitie s o n a lliga to r s . SRELs o n go in g r e s e a r c h , in
collabor ation with r esear cher s fr om ar ound the wor ld, continues to
lead to new discover ies about alligator s and other cr ocodilians.
The SREL pr ogr am of alligator r esear ch began in the late 1960s when
n u c le a r p r o d u c tio n r e a c to r s we r e p e r io d ic a lly d is c h a r gin g h e a te d
effluents into cooling r eser voir s and str eams on the SRS. The heated
water s cr eated u n iq u e gr ad ien ts o f water temp er atu r e n ever b efo r e
exper ienced by alligator s. As one example of a ther mal effect, alligator s
that inhabited the war m por tions of the 2,840 acr e ( 1,150 hectar e)
Par Pond r eser voir wer e noted to bask less fr equently, especially dur ing
cooler months, than gator s in nor mal-temper atur e water. Resear ch over
th e n e xt d e c a d e d o c u me n te d th e s e a s o n a l u s e o f h e a te d wa te r s ,
p a r tic u la r ly b y la r ge r ma le s th a t mo ve d in to th e wa r m wa te r s a n d
r emained active dur ing the winter months of the year. The pr olonged
active season of these lar ger male alligator s seemed to put them out of
H
a
t
c
h
l
i
n
g
g
a
tor
hitching
a
r
id
e
o
n
M
o
m
.
The habitat pr efer ences of alligator s depend
somewhat on the size, age, and sex of the
gator. Lar ge adult male alligator s gener ally
pr efer deep, open water dur ing the entir e
active season. Lar ge females also ar e found
in open water dur ing the br eeding season,
but then move to mar shes and lake edges
dur ing the nesting season and after young
have hatched. Smaller alligator s ( 4-5 ft/ 1.2-
1.5 m or less) typically occur in wetlands
wi t h r e l a t i ve l y d e n s e ve ge t a t i o n , wh i c h
p r o vid e s b o th a h id in g p la c e a n d go o d
habitat for pr ey items.
Reproduction, nesting, & hatching
The time it takes for alligator s to become
matur e, and thus able to r epr oduce, var ies
fr o m p o p u la tio n to p o p u la tio n . Re p r o -
ductive matur ity in alligator s is pr imar ily
r elated to body size, so the age at which an
individual can br eed depends on how fast
it gr ows thr oughout its life. Both males and
females tend to matur e at about 6 feet ( 1.8
m) i n l e n gt h , b u t t h e s i ze a t wh i c h a n
a lliga to r ma y s u c c e s s fu lly b r e e d is a ls o
dependent upon social inter actions among
member s of the population. The cour tship
a n d b r e e d i n g s e a s o n fo r a l l i ga t o r s i s
gener ally fr om Apr il thr ough May, although
ther e ar e some r epor ts of autumn mating.
Br e e d i n g o c c u r s i n o p e n wa t e r. Bo d y
postur ing, snout r ubbing, water slapping,
and bellowing ar e all par t of the cour tship
pr ocess.
Rangeof theAmerican alligator.
After mating, females constr uct shor eline
mound nests made fr om vegetation, leaf
litter, and mud. In June and July females
lay 20-60 eggs in the nest and
cover them with additional
ve ge t a t i o n a n d d e b r i s .
The temper atur e of the
n e s t d u r i n g t h e
mid d le th ir d o f th e
i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d
d eter min es th e sex
o f t h e h a t c h l i n gs .
Constant incubation
te mp e r a tu r e s b e lo w
87.8
o
F ( 31
o
C) dur ing
t h i s p e r i o d p r o d u c e
o n l y fe m a l e s , t e m p e r -
a t u r e s b e t we e n 9 0 . 5 a n d
91.4
o
F ( 32.5-33
o
C) pr oduce only
ma le s , a n d te mp e r a tu r e s a b o ve 9 3 . 2
o
F
( 3 4
o
C) p r o d u c e a h igh p r o p o r tio n o f
females. It gen er ally tak es a little mo r e
t h a n t wo m o n t h s fo r t h e e m b r yo s t o
develop and for hatchlings to emer ge fr om
the eggs. Eggs in alligator nests ar e often
p r e ye d u p o n b y r a c c o o n s , o p o s s u ms ,
skunks, pigs, and other nest pr edator s.
For example, in Flor ida it is consider ed
nor mal if only 50% of the eggs escape
pr edation and hatch. At hatching time the
babies make a call that attr acts the female.
She uncover s the hatchlings in the nest by
digging with her fr ont feet and snout and
may car r y hatchlings in her mouth fr om
the nest to the water s edge.
Mo s t r e p t i l e s p e c i e s d o ve r y l i t t l e
par enting, especially after the eggs have
hatched. In contr ast, female
alligator s will pr otect babies
a t a l l s t a ge s : e ggs i n t h e
nest, hatchlings, and babies
u p t o t h r e e ye a r s o l d .
Hatch lin g gato r s gen er ally
stay together in a pod for
1-3 year s, and make a call
( pr esumably a distr ess call)
to which females r espond.
No n e th e le ss, ma n y h a tc h -
lings ar e pr eyed upon by a
wid e va r ie ty o f a n ima ls , in c lu d in g la r ge
wa d i n g b i r d s , s n a k e s , b a s s , a n d e ve n
bullfr ogs.
Feeding habits
Th e d ie t o f a lliga to r s is
q u i t e va r i e d , a n d i s
d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e
s ize o f th e ga to r. All
gato r s, r egar d less o f
s i ze , a r e p r i m a r i l y
car n ivo r es, alth o u gh
s o me p la n t ma te r ia l
m a y i n c i d e n t a l l y b e
i n ge s t e d . Ha t c h l i n gs
and young alligator s eat
insects, cr ayfish, snails and
other inver tebr ates, small fish,
and amphibians. At 5-6 ft long ( 1.5-
1 . 8 m) alligato r s b egin to feed mo r e o n
lar ge fish , tu r tles, sn ak es, water fo wl an d
wa d i n g b i r d s , a n d s m a l l m a m m a l s . I n
a d d itio n to k e e n e ye s igh t, h u n d r e d s o f
specialized pr essur e sensor s on the snouts
of gator s help them locate pr ey in the water ;
these bumps ar e sensitive enough to detect
r ipples fr om a single dr op of water. Because
alligator s ar e cold blooded their feeding
a c t i vi t y i s d e p e n d e n t o n wa t e r t e mp e r-
atur e gator s will usually stop feeding if
wa te r te mp e r a tu r e s a r e b e lo w a p p r o xi-
m a t e l y 7 0
o
F ( 2 1
o
C) . Th u s , a l l i ga t o r s
gener ally feed fr om late Mar ch/ ear ly Apr il
thr ough October.
Growth & body size
Gr owth r ates in young alligator s var y fr om
4-14 ( 10-36 cm) per year, depending on
TheAmerican alligator (top) and American
crocodile(right) arenativetotheU.S. Thespectacled
caiman (lower left) isestablished in partsof south
Florida. Speciesaredistinguished primarily by
location (rangeand habitat), head shape, and teeth.
An alligator exhibitingicing behavoir.
r epr oductive synchr onization with females
th at r emain ed in th e co o ler p ar ts o f th e
r e s e r vo i r a n d e n t e r e d t yp i c a l wi n t e r
dor mancy. Resear cher s speculated that the
alter ed male activity cycle may have caused
a c h a n ge in th e timin g o f ma le r e p r o -
d u c tio n , a n d ma d e ma le s in c a p a b le o f
br eeding by the time females became active
and r eady to br eed in the spr ing. Indeed,
the ear ly gator population at Par Pond had
a n u n u s u a lly h igh p r o p o r tio n o f a d u lts
( 64%) and few juveniles, the patter n one
might expect if females wer e not nesting
and pr oducing young. However, the same
p a tte r n migh t o c c u r if ma le s a r e mo r e
likely than females to colonize new aquatic
h a b ita ts, r e su ltin g in a ma le -b ia se d se x
r atio with few adult females available for
b r e e d in g. In 1 9 7 4 th e r e we r e 3 . 2 ma le
a lliga to r s fo r e ve r y fe ma le , a n d o n ly a n
estimated 15 females in all of Par Pond.
Mu l t i p l e p o s s i b l e c a u s e s fo r a s i n gl e
o b se r ve d p a tte r n illu str a te s wh y sc ie n c e
can be so challenging!
By the mid-1980s the Par Pond alligator
population had near ly doubled fr om 1974
estimates, to a total of almost 200 adults
and juveniles ( 42%) , with 24 adult females.
SREL s c i e n t i s t s fo u n d
themselves in a unique
position in 1991, when
Par Po n d was lo wer ed
appr oximately 18 ft ( 5.5
m) wh ile r ep air s wer e
m a d e t o t h e d a m .
Ra d i o t r a c k i n g s t u d i e s
dur ing the 3-year per iod
o f l o w wa t e r l e ve l
s h o we d t h a t b r e e d i n g
females r emained in the
lo we r e d r e se r vo ir a n d
continued to nest successfully. However,
sur vival of young fr om these nests was
extr emely lo w b ecau se th e d r aw-d o wn
had denuded the r eser voir shor eline of
much of the emer gent aquatic vegetation
th a t n e wly h a tc h e d a lliga to r s n e e d fo r
pr otection fr om pr edator s. Some adult
alligator s, pr imar ily males, moved fr om
Par Pond to near by bodies of water. L-
Lake, a new r eser voir constr ucted in late
1985, is appr oximately 4 miles ( 6.4 km)
fr om Par Pond. By 1988 alligator s had
n o t co lo n ized th e r eser vo ir, b u t in th e
1 9 9 0 s a l l i ga t o r s b e ga n t o t a k e u p
r esidence in the new lake, although none
we r e i d e n t i fi e d a s k n o wn Pa r Po n d
animals. Resear cher s continue to study
the colonization of L-Lake by alligator s,
which had r eached a population size of
sever al dozen ( mostly adults) by the late
1 9 9 0 s.
SREL b i o l o gi s t s h a ve a l s o u s e d t h e
t e c h n i q u e o f r a d i o t e l e me t r y t o l e a r n
a b o u t a l l i ga t o r p h ys i o l o gy. Ra d i o -
tr ansmitter s can be designed so that the
p u l s e r a t e o f t h e r a d i o s i gn a l i s
d ep en d en t o n temp er atu r e, simp ly
meaning that the sound a biologist
h ear s wh en tr ack in g th e an imal is
slower when cold and faster when
war m. In the case of a lar ge alligator,
r e s e a r c h e r s a t t a c h e d o n e t r a n s -
mitter on a collar to the outside of
t h e a n i m a l , a n d i n s e r t e d o n e
tr ansmitter into the stomach, so that
both the envir onmental temper atur e
an d b o d y temp er atu r e wer e d eter min ed .
Using these methods r esear cher s studied
t h e b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e a n d b e h a vi o r
r e la tio n sh ip s o f la r ge r a lliga to r s a s th e y
faced cold weather in unheated r eser voir s.
Si mi l a r t e c h n i q u e s we r e u s e d i n o t h e r
stu d ie s o f th e e ffe c ts o f th e r ma l e fflu e n t
fr o m r e a c t o r s . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o o l i n g
r e s e r vo ir s , th r e e SRS s tr e a ms r e c e ive d
ther mal effluent dur ing per iods of r eactor
oper ation. In the 1980s SREL r esear cher s
e xa min e d h o w h o t wa te r p lu me s in SRS
s tr e a ms a ffe c te d a lliga to r s . At th e time ,
a l l i ga t o r s we r e s t i l l a fe d e r a l l y l i s t e d
e n d a n ge r e d s p e c i e s i n i n l a n d So u t h
Car olina, and the impact of hot water on
alligator s was of concer n to the Depar tment
o f En e r gy. Re s e a r c h e r s h a d a l r e a d y
d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l t h e r m a l
maximu m ( CTM) , o r th e temp er atu r e at
which alligator s would over heat and die,
was 100 F ( 38 C) . Temper atur es in par ts
o f s o m e SRS s t r e a m s e xc e e d e d 1 0 4 F
( 40 C) when r eactor s wer e oper ating. How
d i d a l l i ga t o r s r e s p o n d wh e n wa t e r
ALLicA1on HzszAncH A1 SHEL
temper atur e, food r esour ces of the habitat, and the animals sex, size,
a n d a ge . Fo r e xa mp le , ju ve n ile a lliga to r s in so me So u th Ca r o lin a
populations aver age 7.5 ( 19 cm) of gr owth per year, while those in
Louisiana may gr ow 12 ( 30.5 cm) per year. Because matur ity is r elated
to body size, this means that alligator s in Louisiana may r each matur ity
ear lier than those in South Car olina. As alligator s get lar ger their gr owth
r ate slows, and once an alligator becomes r epr oductively matur e its
gr owth r ate dr ops dr amatically. Male alligator s gr ow faster and lar ger
than females. Females can attain appr oximately 9 ft ( 2.7 m) in length
and 200+ lbs ( 91 kg) . Males can gr ow to 13+ ft ( 4 m) and 500+ lbs
( 227 kg) . The r ecor d alligator, taken on Mar sh Island, Louisiana, was
r epor ted to be 192 long.
Interesting behaviors
For an animal with a maximum br ain mass of less than ounce ( ~ 10.5
gr ams) , alligator s demonstr ate some inter esting behavior s.
In the temper ate por tions of their r ange, alligator s constr uct dens
( a cave-like str uctur e in the bank of the water way) wher e they
r emain dor mant dur ing winter months. Gator s also exhibit icing
behavior in r esponse to extr eme cold. Befor e a pond fr eezes, an
adult will move to shallow water, place its nostr ils ( on the tip of
the snout) out of the water, and let its snout become fr ozen into
the ice. Hatchlings and juveniles may not be as successful at this,
which may explain ( in par t) the limits to the r ange of the alligator.
Humans can hear a wide var iety of the sounds that alligator s use
to c o mmu n ic a te , fr o m
coughing and hissing to
distr ess yelps, hatching
calls, and bellowing. In
ad d itio n , alligato r s ar e
one of many species of
a n ima ls th a t c o mmu n -
icate using sounds that
we c a n n o t h e a r .
Humans hear sound in
the r ange of 20-20,000
Hz ( h e r t z; c yc l e s p e r
s e c o n d ) , a n d s o m e
a l l i ga t o r vo c a l i za t i o n s
ar e below 20 Hz, in the infr asound r ange. Low fr equency sound
can tr avel ver y long distances.
Resear cher s who have used r adiotr ansmitter s to tr ack alligator s
have lear ned that they have lar ge home r ange sizes, with males
using a lar ger ar ea than females. Males move the most and have
their lar gest home r anges dur ing the br eeding season, and females
move the least and have their smallest r anges dur ing the nesting
s e a s o n . Alliga to r h o me r a n ge s ize d e p e n d s o n ma n y fa c to r s ,
including the location and type of habitat, but an adult male alligator
may have a home r ange of mor e than 1,000 acr es.
Unique among r eptiles, cr ocodilians have been obser ved br inging
food to their young.
The Univer sity of Geor gias Savannah River Ecology Labor ator y ( SREL)
began conducting ecological studies on the newly cr eated Savannah
River Site ( SRS) on the upper Coastal Plain of South Car olina in 1951.
Stu d ie s o f th e Ame r ic a n a lliga to r o n th e SRS h a ve in c r e a s e d o u r
knowledge about its basic ecology and pr ovided insights on the effects
o f in d u s tr ia l fa c ilitie s o n a lliga to r s . SRELs o n go in g r e s e a r c h , in
collabor ation with r esear cher s fr om ar ound the wor ld, continues to
lead to new discover ies about alligator s and other cr ocodilians.
The SREL pr ogr am of alligator r esear ch began in the late 1960s when
n u c le a r p r o d u c tio n r e a c to r s we r e p e r io d ic a lly d is c h a r gin g h e a te d
effluents into cooling r eser voir s and str eams on the SRS. The heated
water s cr eated u n iq u e gr ad ien ts o f water temp er atu r e n ever b efo r e
exper ienced by alligator s. As one example of a ther mal effect, alligator s
that inhabited the war m por tions of the 2,840 acr e ( 1,150 hectar e)
Par Pond r eser voir wer e noted to bask less fr equently, especially dur ing
cooler months, than gator s in nor mal-temper atur e water. Resear ch over
th e n e xt d e c a d e d o c u me n te d th e s e a s o n a l u s e o f h e a te d wa te r s ,
p a r tic u la r ly b y la r ge r ma le s th a t mo ve d in to th e wa r m wa te r s a n d
r emained active dur ing the winter months of the year. The pr olonged
active season of these lar ger male alligator s seemed to put them out of
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.
Federal status
Threatened due to similarity of
appearance to other crocodilian
species
Size/age at maturity
6 ft./dependent on growth rates
Typical maximum size
males13 to 14 feet,
females9 to 10 feet
Largest SRS alligator
1210 male that died in 1996
Weight
varies; adult males can be
500+ pounds
Longevity
40 or more years in the wild,
record 66 years in captivity
Home range size
up to 2,000 acres for
adult males
Hatchling size
8 to 10 inches
Clutch size
2060 eggs
Incubation period
approximately 65 days
Teeth
74 to 80
Name origin
Alligator is derived from the
Spanish el lagarto which means
the lizard; mississippiensis
means of or belonging to the
Mississippi
Ancestry
fossil records of crocodilian
ancestors, archosaurs, are
known from 225 million years
ago; archosaurs are thought to
have given rise to dinosaurs
and birds
This brochure was produced by the Savannah River Ecology
Laboratory Environmental Outreach Program, in support of
Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC;
www.parcplace.org). Printing was sponsored by SREL
(www.uga.edu/srel/), with additional programsupport fromThe
Christensen Fund and theDepartment of Energy. Text by David
E. Scott, I. Lehr Brisbin, Jr., Travis C. Glenn, and WilliamA.
Hopkins. Photographs by David E. Scott
(except as noted). Layout and design by
Laura L. Janecek.
te mp e r a tu r e s r o se to su c h e xtr e me s? By
u s i n g t h e c o mb i n a t i o n o f e xt e r n a l a n d
inter nal temper atur e-sensitive tr ansmitter s,
r e s e a r c h e r s l e a r n e d t h a t a l l i ga t o r s
r e sp o n d e d to th e r ma l c u e s ve r y r a p id ly,
s e e k in g c o o le r wa te r s in c o ve s , s tr e a m
edges, or on str eam bottoms
o n c e th e ir b o d y te mp e r-
a t u r e r e a c h e d a b o u t
91 F ( 33 C) .
Lik e ma n y wild life
s p e c ie s , a lliga to r s
a r e vu l n e r a b l e t o
envir onmental con-
ta min a n ts . Be c a u s e
alligator s ar e top-level
car nivor es, they can bio-
accu mu late co n tamin an ts
in their tissues thr ough the pr ey
i t e ms t h e y i n ge s t . So me e n vi r o n me n t a l
contaminants can be passed fr om female
a lliga to r s to e ggs , p o te n tia lly a d ve r s e ly
affecting the health of developing offspr ing.
Sc ie n tists a t SREL a r e stu d yin g ma te r n a l
tr ansfer of contaminants fr om females to
their offspr ing. On the SRS, alligator s nest
i n a s wa m p d o wn s t r e a m fr o m a c o a l -
b u r n i n g p o we r p l a n t . Th e s wa m p i s
contaminated with a var iety of potentially
to xic tr a c e e le me n ts in c lu d in g a r s e n ic ,
c a d miu m, a n d s e le n iu m ( Se ) . Of th e s e
e le me n ts , s e le n iu m is o f gr e a t c o n c e r n
b e c a u s e i t r e a d i l y b i o a c c u mu l a t e s a n d
causes developmental abnor malities when
tr a n s fe r r e d fr o m fe ma le s to d e ve lo p in g
e m b r yo s . Mo n i t o r i n g e ffo r t s i n t h e
c o n ta min a te d syste m r e ve a le d th a t a d u lt
fe m a l e a l l i ga t o r s a c c u m u l a t e Se a n d
tr ansfer significant quantities to their eggs.
Concentr ations of Se in eggs and hatchlings
collected fr om the contaminated site ar e
3 - 5 t i m e s h i gh e r t h a n l e ve l s fr o m
uncontaminated samples. For tunately, the
co n cen tr atio n s o f Se d o n o t ap p ear h igh
e n o u gh t o a d ve r s e l y a ffe c t d e ve l o p i n g
offspr ing; embr yonic development, hatch-
ing success, and hatchling size all appear
n o r ma l in c lu tc h e s p r o d u c e d b y fe ma le
alligator s nesting in the contaminated ar ea.
Alligator s fr om the Par Pond population have
a l s o b e e n t h e s u b j e c t s o f c o n t a m i n a n t
stu d ie s. Ele va te d le ve ls o f th e r a d io a c tive
element r adiocesium (
137
Cs) occur in some
por tions of Par Pond as a r esult of r eactor
oper ations. Cesium-137 mimics elemental
p o ta s s iu m wh e n in c o r p o r a te d
into plant and animal tissues;
i n a n i m a l s i t t e n d s t o
co n cen tr ate in mu scle
t i s s u e . SREL s t u d i e s
c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l -
th o u gh s o me in d iv-
id u als h ad elevated
levels of
137
Cs in their
bodies, ther e wer e no
d e t e c t a b l e e ffe c t s o n
in d ivid u al o r p o p u latio n
h ealth .
Ther e is, however, r eason for concer n about
human consumption of alligator s due to a
mu c h mo r e wi d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d e n vi r o n -
mental contaminant, mer cur y ( Hg) . Point-
sour ce pollution and atmospher ic tr anspor t
of this metal have r esulted in many wildlife
sp ecies h avin g elevated Hg levels, even in
p r i s t i n e h a b i t a t s . Hi gh Hg l e ve l s a r e
common in wetland habitats and in top-level
p r e d a to r s. Alliga to r s a r e th e r e fo r e p r ime
c a n d i d a t e s fo r e xh i b i t i n g h i gh Hg
concentr ations. Mer cur y levels in the tissues
of SRS alligator s, as well as those fr om other
southeaster n wetlands, have been analyzed.
Although ther e ar e no national standar ds for
Hg c o n c e n tr a tio n s in r e p tile me a t, if th e
same standar ds that ar e used for fish wer e
applied to alligator s ( 1 mg Hg/ kg wet weight
o f t i s s u e ) , t h e n a h i gh p r o p o r t i o n o f
alligator s fr om the Ever glades, other ar eas
of Flor ida, and the SRS would be consider ed
unsafe for human consumption.
SREL scientists ar e also developing and using
mo d er n an alytical an d DNA tech n iq u es to
le a r n a b o u t a lliga to r s a n d so lve e n vir o n -
mental pr oblems. For example, r esear cher s
have developed micr osatellite DNA loci for
alligator s, which ar e the same type of genetic
m a r k e r s u s e d fo r p a t e r n i t y a n a l ys e s o r
Th e Ame r ic a n a lliga to r, Alligator mississippiensis,
occur s thr oughout most of the southeaster n United States. Alligator s
wer e once hunted pr imar ily to pr oduce leather pr oducts, which became
fashionable in the late 1800s. Untold number s of animals wer e killed dur ing
decades of unr egulated hunting. Even after limited pr otection was put into effect in
some ar eas in the mid-1900s, animals continued to be poached. As a r esult, alligator number s
wer e dr amatically r educed and in some r egions it was fear ed that local populations would go
extinct. Feder al legislation in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Endanger ed Species Act of
1973 and amendments to the Lacey Act in 1981, ensur ed the alligator s pr otection, and eventually its comeback. Today
alligator number s ar e estimated in the millions and they ar e common thr oughout most of their histor ic r ange.
The stor y of the Amer ican alligator, both tr agedy and success, is similar
to that of many of its close kin, the cr ocodiles. Wor ldwide ther e ar e 23
species of cr ocodilians; most wer e also hunted for food and skins,
and by 1971 all cr ocodilians wer e endanger ed, thr eatened, or declining
in number s. Habitat destr uction in many countr ies exacer bated the
declines. But a combination of legislation, effective law enfor cement,
dedicated conser vationists, and innovative sustainable yield har vesting
pr ogr ams r ever sed the decline for many species, despite continuing
habitat loss. Since the 1970s 16 of the 23 cr ocodilian species have
in cr eased in p o p u latio n size. Ho wever, so me sp ecies, su ch as th e
Chinese alligator, r emain highly endanger ed in the wild.
The cur r ent feder al pr otection status of the alligator r emains as thr eatened due to similar ity of appear ance to endanger ed
cr ocodiles ( and pr oducts made fr om their skin) . In some states alligator s may be har vested using contr olled hunts. Alligator s ar e
also br ed and r aised in captivity for the pr oduction of meat and skins, but most of the half million far med alligator s ar e hatched
fr om eggs collected fr om the wild. The pr oducts fr om these tightly r egulated wild har vests and alligator far ms ar e now sold legally,
pr oviding impor tant funds for the conser vation of this species and its habitat.
Habitat
Alligator s live in fr esh and br ackish water habitats but will ventur e into salt
water. Alligator s inhabit swamps, tidal mar shes, cr eeks and r iver s, canals, ponds,
lakes, and r eser voir s. In some ar eas alligator s do something that only a few
species, such as humans and beaver s, do cr eate wetland habitat. In mar sh,
sawgr ass, and floodplain habitats gator s sometimes cr eate gator holes, which
pr ovide a r efuge for many other animals dur ing dr y per iods. Alligator s cr eate
the holes, which can be the size of a small backyar d pool, using their snout,
for efeet, and tail. Alligator s ar e called a keystone species due to the str ong
influence they have on other species.
ALLicA1on EcoLocY
Alligator in a gator hole(photoby T.C. Glenn, SREL).
The American alligator and some crocodile
species are prime examples of the concept of
sustainable use. Sustainable use simply means
that an organism is harvested at levels that can
be continued indefinitely. The specifics of
sustainable use programs vary among croco-
dilian species, and among populations within a
species in different parts of its geographic range.
For example, the harvesting program for
alligators in Florida differs from programs in
Louisiana and other southeastern states; even
populations in different lakes within Florida are
managed differently. The numbers of adult
animals that can be killed, as well as the
proportions of eggs and hatchlings that can be
removed from the wild, are based on annual
population trends. The end result is that the legal,
regulated harvest of various life stages does not
harm the population, and gator and croc
populations can thrive even as humans use them
commercially. In fact, many scientists believe that
some crocodile species would be in far worse
shape, and perhaps would have become extinct,
if there were not a sustainable use management
program for those species. Carefully managed
sustained-yield harvest programs provide direct
economi c benefi ts to l ocal peopl e and
communities, giving everyone an incentive to
protect both the species and its habitat.
human identification at cr ime scenes. Using these mar ker s to
deter mine pater nity in alligator s led to the discover y that about
o n e-th ir d o f all gato r n ests co n tain o ffsp r in g fr o m mu ltip le
father s. In addition, although ther e ar e many 8-10 ft ( 2.4-3 m)
male alligator s in the gator population on the SRS, only the few
ve r y la r ge ma le s ( 1 1 + ft; 3 . 4 + m) s ir e o ffs p r in g. Fin a lly,
micr osatellites have been used in investigations of the effects of
contaminants, leading to the discover y that the Hg and low-
levels of r adioactive contamination in some alligator s on the
SRS ar e not r esulting in incr eased mutation r ates r elative to
gator s fr om other populations. Continuing r esear ch will use
th e se ge n e tic ma r k e r s to ma k e mo r e d isc o ve r ie s a b o u t th e
biology of alligator s, solve other envir onmental pr oblems, and
even pr oduce a map of the alligator genome.
The r ecover y of alligator populations thr oughout the Southeast,
combined with human population gr owth and encr oachment
on wetland habitats, has incr eased the likelihood of gator-human
inter actions. Even so, the fact r emains that the pr obability of an
a l l i ga t o r a t t a c k i n g a
p e r s o n i s e xt r e m e l y
l o w. Th e n u m b e r o f
a lliga to r s th r o u gh o u t
the r ange at any given
p o i n t i n t i m e i s
p r o b a b l y m o r e t h a n
thr ee million animals,
yet on the aver age ther e
a r e fe we r t h a n 1 0
a tta c k s p e r ye a r. Th e
major ity of attacks have
o c c u r r e d i n Fl o r i d a ,
wher e ther e have been
1 1 fa ta litie s d u r in g a
5 0 -ye a r p e r io d . Mo s t
attacks occur either because alligator s have lost their natur al
fear of humans ( due to being illegally fed by people and lear ning
to associate humans with food) or because they ar e defending
a ter r itor y. Humans can do sever al things to minimize the r isk
of attack:
Do not feed alligator s, ther eby causing them to become
accustomed to humans.
Do not swim in ar eas ( especially near heavily vegetated
shor elines) wher e lar ge ( > 6 feet) alligator s ar e pr esent,
par ticular ly at night/ dusk when they ar e feeding.
Do not attempt to captur e alligator s it is danger ous and
against the law.
Do not appr oach an alligator nest or hatchlings.
HumANs ANo ALLicA1ons
Federal status
Threatened due to similarity of
appearance to other crocodilian
species
Size/age at maturity
6 ft./dependent on growth rates
Typical maximum size
males13 to 14 feet,
females9 to 10 feet
Largest SRS alligator
1210 male that died in 1996
Weight
varies; adult males can be
500+ pounds
Longevity
40 or more years in the wild,
record 66 years in captivity
Home range size
up to 2,000 acres for
adult males
Hatchling size
8 to 10 inches
Clutch size
2060 eggs
Incubation period
approximately 65 days
Teeth
74 to 80
Name origin
Alligator is derived from the
Spanish el lagarto which means
the lizard; mississippiensis
means of or belonging to the
Mississippi
Ancestry
fossil records of crocodilian
ancestors, archosaurs, are
known from 225 million years
ago; archosaurs are thought to
have given rise to dinosaurs
and birds
This brochure was produced by the Savannah River Ecology
Laboratory Environmental Outreach Program, in support of
Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC;
www.parcplace.org). Printing was sponsored by SREL
(www.uga.edu/srel/), with additional programsupport fromThe
Christensen Fund and theDepartment of Energy. Text by David
E. Scott, I. Lehr Brisbin, Jr., Travis C. Glenn, and WilliamA.
Hopkins. Photographs by David E. Scott
(except as noted). Layout and design by
Laura L. Janecek.
te mp e r a tu r e s r o se to su c h e xtr e me s? By
u s i n g t h e c o mb i n a t i o n o f e xt e r n a l a n d
inter nal temper atur e-sensitive tr ansmitter s,
r e s e a r c h e r s l e a r n e d t h a t a l l i ga t o r s
r e sp o n d e d to th e r ma l c u e s ve r y r a p id ly,
s e e k in g c o o le r wa te r s in c o ve s , s tr e a m
edges, or on str eam bottoms
o n c e th e ir b o d y te mp e r-
a t u r e r e a c h e d a b o u t
91 F ( 33 C) .
Lik e ma n y wild life
s p e c ie s , a lliga to r s
a r e vu l n e r a b l e t o
envir onmental con-
ta min a n ts . Be c a u s e
alligator s ar e top-level
car nivor es, they can bio-
accu mu late co n tamin an ts
in their tissues thr ough the pr ey
i t e ms t h e y i n ge s t . So me e n vi r o n me n t a l
contaminants can be passed fr om female
a lliga to r s to e ggs , p o te n tia lly a d ve r s e ly
affecting the health of developing offspr ing.
Sc ie n tists a t SREL a r e stu d yin g ma te r n a l
tr ansfer of contaminants fr om females to
their offspr ing. On the SRS, alligator s nest
i n a s wa m p d o wn s t r e a m fr o m a c o a l -
b u r n i n g p o we r p l a n t . Th e s wa m p i s
contaminated with a var iety of potentially
to xic tr a c e e le me n ts in c lu d in g a r s e n ic ,
c a d miu m, a n d s e le n iu m ( Se ) . Of th e s e
e le me n ts , s e le n iu m is o f gr e a t c o n c e r n
b e c a u s e i t r e a d i l y b i o a c c u mu l a t e s a n d
causes developmental abnor malities when
tr a n s fe r r e d fr o m fe ma le s to d e ve lo p in g
e m b r yo s . Mo n i t o r i n g e ffo r t s i n t h e
c o n ta min a te d syste m r e ve a le d th a t a d u lt
fe m a l e a l l i ga t o r s a c c u m u l a t e Se a n d
tr ansfer significant quantities to their eggs.
Concentr ations of Se in eggs and hatchlings
collected fr om the contaminated site ar e
3 - 5 t i m e s h i gh e r t h a n l e ve l s fr o m
uncontaminated samples. For tunately, the
co n cen tr atio n s o f Se d o n o t ap p ear h igh
e n o u gh t o a d ve r s e l y a ffe c t d e ve l o p i n g
offspr ing; embr yonic development, hatch-
ing success, and hatchling size all appear
n o r ma l in c lu tc h e s p r o d u c e d b y fe ma le
alligator s nesting in the contaminated ar ea.
Alligator s fr om the Par Pond population have
a l s o b e e n t h e s u b j e c t s o f c o n t a m i n a n t
stu d ie s. Ele va te d le ve ls o f th e r a d io a c tive
element r adiocesium (
137
Cs) occur in some
por tions of Par Pond as a r esult of r eactor
oper ations. Cesium-137 mimics elemental
p o ta s s iu m wh e n in c o r p o r a te d
into plant and animal tissues;
i n a n i m a l s i t t e n d s t o
co n cen tr ate in mu scle
t i s s u e . SREL s t u d i e s
c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l -
th o u gh s o me in d iv-
id u als h ad elevated
levels of
137
Cs in their
bodies, ther e wer e no
d e t e c t a b l e e ffe c t s o n
in d ivid u al o r p o p u latio n
h ealth .
Ther e is, however, r eason for concer n about
human consumption of alligator s due to a
mu c h mo r e wi d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d e n vi r o n -
mental contaminant, mer cur y ( Hg) . Point-
sour ce pollution and atmospher ic tr anspor t
of this metal have r esulted in many wildlife
sp ecies h avin g elevated Hg levels, even in
p r i s t i n e h a b i t a t s . Hi gh Hg l e ve l s a r e
common in wetland habitats and in top-level
p r e d a to r s. Alliga to r s a r e th e r e fo r e p r ime
c a n d i d a t e s fo r e xh i b i t i n g h i gh Hg
concentr ations. Mer cur y levels in the tissues
of SRS alligator s, as well as those fr om other
southeaster n wetlands, have been analyzed.
Although ther e ar e no national standar ds for
Hg c o n c e n tr a tio n s in r e p tile me a t, if th e
same standar ds that ar e used for fish wer e
applied to alligator s ( 1 mg Hg/ kg wet weight
o f t i s s u e ) , t h e n a h i gh p r o p o r t i o n o f
alligator s fr om the Ever glades, other ar eas
of Flor ida, and the SRS would be consider ed
unsafe for human consumption.
SREL scientists ar e also developing and using
mo d er n an alytical an d DNA tech n iq u es to
le a r n a b o u t a lliga to r s a n d so lve e n vir o n -
mental pr oblems. For example, r esear cher s
have developed micr osatellite DNA loci for
alligator s, which ar e the same type of genetic
m a r k e r s u s e d fo r p a t e r n i t y a n a l ys e s o r
Th e Ame r ic a n a lliga to r, Alligator mississippiensis,
occur s thr oughout most of the southeaster n United States. Alligator s
wer e once hunted pr imar ily to pr oduce leather pr oducts, which became
fashionable in the late 1800s. Untold number s of animals wer e killed dur ing
decades of unr egulated hunting. Even after limited pr otection was put into effect in
some ar eas in the mid-1900s, animals continued to be poached. As a r esult, alligator number s
wer e dr amatically r educed and in some r egions it was fear ed that local populations would go
extinct. Feder al legislation in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Endanger ed Species Act of
1973 and amendments to the Lacey Act in 1981, ensur ed the alligator s pr otection, and eventually its comeback. Today
alligator number s ar e estimated in the millions and they ar e common thr oughout most of their histor ic r ange.
The stor y of the Amer ican alligator, both tr agedy and success, is similar
to that of many of its close kin, the cr ocodiles. Wor ldwide ther e ar e 23
species of cr ocodilians; most wer e also hunted for food and skins,
and by 1971 all cr ocodilians wer e endanger ed, thr eatened, or declining
in number s. Habitat destr uction in many countr ies exacer bated the
declines. But a combination of legislation, effective law enfor cement,
dedicated conser vationists, and innovative sustainable yield har vesting
pr ogr ams r ever sed the decline for many species, despite continuing
habitat loss. Since the 1970s 16 of the 23 cr ocodilian species have
in cr eased in p o p u latio n size. Ho wever, so me sp ecies, su ch as th e
Chinese alligator, r emain highly endanger ed in the wild.
The cur r ent feder al pr otection status of the alligator r emains as thr eatened due to similar ity of appear ance to endanger ed
cr ocodiles ( and pr oducts made fr om their skin) . In some states alligator s may be har vested using contr olled hunts. Alligator s ar e
also br ed and r aised in captivity for the pr oduction of meat and skins, but most of the half million far med alligator s ar e hatched
fr om eggs collected fr om the wild. The pr oducts fr om these tightly r egulated wild har vests and alligator far ms ar e now sold legally,
pr oviding impor tant funds for the conser vation of this species and its habitat.
Habitat
Alligator s live in fr esh and br ackish water habitats but will ventur e into salt
water. Alligator s inhabit swamps, tidal mar shes, cr eeks and r iver s, canals, ponds,
lakes, and r eser voir s. In some ar eas alligator s do something that only a few
species, such as humans and beaver s, do cr eate wetland habitat. In mar sh,
sawgr ass, and floodplain habitats gator s sometimes cr eate gator holes, which
pr ovide a r efuge for many other animals dur ing dr y per iods. Alligator s cr eate
the holes, which can be the size of a small backyar d pool, using their snout,
for efeet, and tail. Alligator s ar e called a keystone species due to the str ong
influence they have on other species.
ALLicA1on EcoLocY
Alligator in a gator hole(photoby T.C. Glenn, SREL).
The American alligator and some crocodile
species are prime examples of the concept of
sustainable use. Sustainable use simply means
that an organism is harvested at levels that can
be continued indefinitely. The specifics of
sustainable use programs vary among croco-
dilian species, and among populations within a
species in different parts of its geographic range.
For example, the harvesting program for
alligators in Florida differs from programs in
Louisiana and other southeastern states; even
populations in different lakes within Florida are
managed differently. The numbers of adult
animals that can be killed, as well as the
proportions of eggs and hatchlings that can be
removed from the wild, are based on annual
population trends. The end result is that the legal,
regulated harvest of various life stages does not
harm the population, and gator and croc
populations can thrive even as humans use them
commercially. In fact, many scientists believe that
some crocodile species would be in far worse
shape, and perhaps would have become extinct,
if there were not a sustainable use management
program for those species. Carefully managed
sustained-yield harvest programs provide direct
economi c benefi ts to l ocal peopl e and
communities, giving everyone an incentive to
protect both the species and its habitat.
human identification at cr ime scenes. Using these mar ker s to
deter mine pater nity in alligator s led to the discover y that about
o n e-th ir d o f all gato r n ests co n tain o ffsp r in g fr o m mu ltip le
father s. In addition, although ther e ar e many 8-10 ft ( 2.4-3 m)
male alligator s in the gator population on the SRS, only the few
ve r y la r ge ma le s ( 1 1 + ft; 3 . 4 + m) s ir e o ffs p r in g. Fin a lly,
micr osatellites have been used in investigations of the effects of
contaminants, leading to the discover y that the Hg and low-
levels of r adioactive contamination in some alligator s on the
SRS ar e not r esulting in incr eased mutation r ates r elative to
gator s fr om other populations. Continuing r esear ch will use
th e se ge n e tic ma r k e r s to ma k e mo r e d isc o ve r ie s a b o u t th e
biology of alligator s, solve other envir onmental pr oblems, and
even pr oduce a map of the alligator genome.
The r ecover y of alligator populations thr oughout the Southeast,
combined with human population gr owth and encr oachment
on wetland habitats, has incr eased the likelihood of gator-human
inter actions. Even so, the fact r emains that the pr obability of an
a l l i ga t o r a t t a c k i n g a
p e r s o n i s e xt r e m e l y
l o w. Th e n u m b e r o f
a lliga to r s th r o u gh o u t
the r ange at any given
p o i n t i n t i m e i s
p r o b a b l y m o r e t h a n
thr ee million animals,
yet on the aver age ther e
a r e fe we r t h a n 1 0
a tta c k s p e r ye a r. Th e
major ity of attacks have
o c c u r r e d i n Fl o r i d a ,
wher e ther e have been
1 1 fa ta litie s d u r in g a
5 0 -ye a r p e r io d . Mo s t
attacks occur either because alligator s have lost their natur al
fear of humans ( due to being illegally fed by people and lear ning
to associate humans with food) or because they ar e defending
a ter r itor y. Humans can do sever al things to minimize the r isk
of attack:
Do not feed alligator s, ther eby causing them to become
accustomed to humans.
Do not swim in ar eas ( especially near heavily vegetated
shor elines) wher e lar ge ( > 6 feet) alligator s ar e pr esent,
par ticular ly at night/ dusk when they ar e feeding.
Do not attempt to captur e alligator s it is danger ous and
against the law.
Do not appr oach an alligator nest or hatchlings.
HumANs ANo ALLicA1ons