HEAT

CHAPTER 11 HEAT DEFINITION Total Kinetic energy of a body is known as HEAT. OR Transfer of energy from a hot body to a cold one is termed as Heat. Heat is measured by using an measurement centimeter. UNITS Since heat is a force of energy therefore its unit is Joule (J). TEMPERATURE DEFINITION The a erage kinetic energy of a body is known as Tem!erature. OR

The "uantitati e determination of degree of hotness may be termed as Tem!erature. SCALES OF TEMPERATURE There are three main scales of tem!erature. #. $elsius Scale %. &ahrenheit Scale '. Kel in Scale $elsius and &ahrenheit scales are also known as Scales of (raduation. #. Celsius Scale The melting !oint of ice and boiling !oint of water at standard !ressure ()*cm of Hg) taken to be two fi+ed !oints. ,n the $elsius (centigrade) scale the inter al between these two fi+ed !oints is di ided into hundred e"ual !arts. Each !art thus re!resents one degree $elsius (#-$). This scale was suggested by $elsius in #).%. /athematically0 -$ 1 K 2 %)' ,3 -$ 1 456 (-& 2 '%) %. Fahrenheit Scale The melting !oint of ice and boiling of water at standard !ressure ()*cm of Hg) are taken to be two fi+ed !oints. ,n &ahrenheit scale the lower fi+ed !oint is marked '% and u!!er fi+ed !oint %#%. The inter al between them is e"ually di ided into #78 !arts. Each !art re!resents one

degree &ahrenheit (#-&). /athematically0 -& 1 654 (-$ 9 '%) '. Kel in Scale The lowest tem!erature on Kel in Scale is :%)'-$. Thus 8- on $elsius scale will be %)' on Kel in scale written as %)'K and #88 on $elsius scale will be ')'K. The si;e of $elsius and Kel in scales are same. /athematically0 K 1 -$ 9 %)' THERMAL E!UILI"RIUM Heat flows from hot body to cold body till the tem!erature of the bodies becomes same0 then they are said to be in Thermal E"uilibrium. THERMAL E#PANSION DEFINITION The !henomenon due to which solid e+!erience a change in its length0 olume or area on heating is known as Thermal E+!ansion. E$%lanati&n <f we su!!ly some amount of heat to any substance then si;e or sha!e of the substance will increase. This increment is known as Thermal E+!ansion. Thermal

e+!ansion is due to the increment of the am!litudes of the molecules. T'%es &( Ther)al E$%ansi&n There are three ty!es of Thermal E+!ansion. #. =inear E+!ansion %. Su!erficial E+!ansion '. >olumetric E+!ansion. #. Linear E$%ansi&n. <f we su!!ly some amount of heat to any rod0 then the length of the rod0 then the length of the rod will increase. Such increment is known as =inear E+!ansion. %. Su%er(icial E$%ansi&n* <f we a!!ly some amount of heat to any s"uare or rectangle then area of the s"uare or rectangle will increase. Such increment is known as Su!erficial E+!ansion. '. +&lu)etric E$%ansi&n. <f we a!!ly some amount of heat to any cube0 then the olume of the cube will increase. Such increment is known as >olumetric E+!ansion. COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR E#PANSION CONSIDERATION =et =o be the initial length of rod at t# -$. <f we increase the tem!erature from t# -$ to t% -$0 then length of the

rod will increase. This increment in length is denoted by ?=. The increment in length de!ends u!on the following two factors. #. ,riginal =ength (=o) %. @ifference in tem!erature ?t Deri ati&n The increment in length is directly !ro!ortional to the original length and tem!erature difference. /athematically0 ?= A =o B2 (<) ?= A ?t B2 (<<) $ombining e" (<) and (<<)0 we get ?= A =o?t 1C ?= 1 A=o?t Dhere E is the constant of !ro!ortionality and it is known as coefficient of =inear E+!ansion. <t is defined as0 <t is the increment in length !er unit length !er degree rise in tem!erature. <ts unit is #5-$ or -$. <f =t is the total length0 then =t 1 =o 9 ?= 1C =t 1 =o 9 E=o?t 1C =t 1 =o (# 9 E?t) COEFFICIENT OF +OLUMETRIC E#PANSION C&nsi,erati&n =et >o be the initial length of rod at t# -$. <f we increase the tem!erature from t#-$ to t%-$ then length of the rod

will increase. This increment in length is denoted by ?>. The increment in length de!ends u!on the following two factors. '. ,riginal >olume (=o) .. @ifference in tem!erature ?t Deri ati&n The increment in olume is directly !ro!ortional to the original olume of tem!erature difference. /athematically0 ?> A >o B: (<) ?> A ?t B: (<<) $ombining e" (<) and (<<)0 we get0 ?> A >o ?t 1C ?> 1 F>o?t Dhere F is the constant of !ro!ortionality and it is known as coefficient of >olumetric E+!ansion. <t is defined as <t is the increment in olume !er unit olume !er degree rise in tem!erature. <ts unit is #5-$ or -$:#. <f >t is the total olume then >t 1 >o 9 ?> 1C >t 1 >o 9 EF>o ?t 1C >t 1 >o (# 9 F?t) State an, E$%lain "&'le-s La. an, Charle-s La.* INTRODUCTION (as =aws are the laws0 which gi e relationshi! between Gressure0 >olume0 tem!erature and mass of the gas.

There are two gas laws. #. HoyleIs =aw %. $harleIs =aw "O/LE-S LA0 State)ent 1 According to first statement of HoyleIs =awJ >olume of the known mass of gas is in ersely !ro!ortional to the !ressure0 if tem!erature is ke!t constant. /athematical &orm /athematically0 > A #5G 1C > 1 K #5G 1C G> 1 K ($onstant) G#># 1 G%>% 1 K 1 K 1C G#># 1 G%>% The abo e e"uation is mathematical form of HoyleIs =aw. State)ent II According to second statement of HoyleIs =aw. The !roduct of the !ressure and olume of the known mass of the gas remain constant if the tem!erature is ke!t constant. State)ent III According to third statement of HoyleIs =aw. The !roduct of !ressure and olume of a gas is directly

!ro!ortional to the mass of a gas0 !ro ided that tem!erature is ke!t constant. /athematical &orm /athematically0 G> A m 1C G> 1 Km 1C G>5m 1 K 1C G#>#5m# 1 G%>%5m% Li)itati&ns &( "&'le-s La. HoyleIs =aw does not hold good at high !ressure0 because at high !ressure gases con ert into li"uid or solid. 1ra%hical Re%resentati&n The gra!h between !ressure and olume is a cur ed line0 which shows that olume and !ressure are in ersely !ro!ortional to each other. CHARLE-S LA0 State)ent I According to first statement of $harleIs =aw. >olume of known mass of gas is directly !ro!ortional to the absolute tem!erature0 if then !ressure is ke!t constant. /athematical &orm /athematically0 >AT

1C > 1 KT 1C >5T 1 K ,3 1C >#5T# 1 >%5T% The abo e e"uation is mathematical form of $harles =aw. State)ent II According to second statement of $harles =aw. The ratio between olume and tem!erature of the known mass of a gas is always constant0 if !ressure is ke!t constant. Li)itati&ns &( the La. This law does not hold good at low tem!erature because at low tem!erature gases con ert into li"uid or solid. 1ENERAL 1AS E!UATION <t is the combination of HoyleIs law0 $harleIs =aw and A ogadroIs =aw. According to HoyleIs =aw. > A #5G B: (<) According to $harleIs =aw > A T B: (<<) According to A ogadroIs =aw > A n B: (<<<) $ombining e" (<)0 e" (<<) and e" (<<<) > E nT5G 1C > 1 3nT5G

1C G> 1 3nT B: (A) Dhere 3 is the uni ersal gas constant0 De Know that 3 1 35LA 1C 3 1 KLA Dhere K is the Holt;man constant0 <ts alue is K 1 #.'7 + #8(:%') J5K Substituting the alue of 3 in e" (A) 1C G> 1 nKLAT 1C G> 1 nLAKT Hut nLA 1 L# (Total number of molecules)0 therefore0 G> 1 LtKT 1C G 1 Lt5> KT Since Lt5> 1 L (Total Lumber of molecules in a gi en olume)0 therefore0 G 1 LKT The abo e e"uation is other form of (eneral (as E"uation. !s* 0hat are the 2asic %&stulates &( Kinetic M&lecular The&r' %( 1ases3 INTRODUCTION The !ro!erties of matter in bulk can howe er be !redicted on molecular basis by a theory known as Kinetic /olecular theory of gases. The characteristic of this theory are described by some fundamental assum!tions0 which e+!lained belowJ

"ASIC POSTULATES OF KINETIC MOLECULAR THEOR/ OF 1ASES #. C&)%&siti&n All gases are com!osed of small0 s!herical solid !article called molecules. %. Di)ensi&n &( M&lecules The dimensions of the molecules is com!ared to the se!aration between the molecule is ery small. '. Nu)2er &( M&lecules At standard condition0 there are ' + #8(%') molecules in a cubic meter. .. Pressure &( 1as (as molecules collide with each other as well as with the wall of the container and e+ert force on the walls of the container. This force !er unit are is known as Gressure. 4. C&llisi&n "et.een the M&lecules The collision between the molecules is elastic in which momentum and Kinetic energy remains constant. ). Kinetic Ener4' &( M&lecules <f we increase the tem!erature of gas molecules0 then K.E will also increase. <t means that a erage kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly !ro!ortional to the absolute tem!erature.

7. F&rces O( Interacti&n There is no force of attraction or re!ulsion between the molecules. 6. La. &( Mechanics Lewtonian mechanics is a!!licable to the motion of molecules. THERMOD/NAMICS DEFINITIONS The branch of Ghysics that deals with the con ersion of heat energy into mechanical energy or work or transformation of work into heat energy is known as Thermodynamics. La.s &( Ther)&,'na)ics There are two laws of thermodynamics. #. &irst =aw of Thermodynamics %. Second =aw of Thermodynamics State and e+!lain first law of Thermodynamics. Dhat are the a!!lication of first law of ThermodynamicsM FIRST LA0 OF THERMOD/NAMICS First State)ent Dhene er heat energy is con erted into work or work is transformed into heat energy0 the total amount of heat

energy is directly !ro!ortional to the total amount of work done. /athematical E+!ression /athematically0 NAD 1C N 1 JD Dhere J is the mechanical e"ui alent of heat or Ooules constant. <ts alue is ..% Ooules. Sec&n, State)ent <f ?N is the amount of heat su!!lied to any system0 then this heat will be utili;ed to increase the internal energy of the system in the work done in order to mo e the !iston. /athematical E+!ression /athematically0 ?N 2 Au 9 ?w The abo e e"uation is the mathematical form of first law of thermodynamics. Dhere ?u 1 <nternal energy of the system. ?w 1 Amount of work done. ?N will be !ositi e when heat is su!!lied to the system and it is negati e when heat is reOected by the system. ?w will be !ositi e when work is done by the system and it will be negati e when work is done on the system.

Thir, State)ent &or a cyclic !rocess0 the heat energy su!!lied to a system and work done on the system is e"ual to the sum of heat energy reOected by the system. /athematical E+!ression /athematically0 N(<L) 9 D(<L) 1 N(,PT) 9 D(,PT) N(<L) 2 N(,PT) 1 D(,PT) 9 D(<L) ?N 1 ?D QdN 1 QdD QShows cyclic !rocess F&urth State)ent &or a system and surrounding the total amount of heat energy remains constant APPLICATIONS OF THE LA0 There are four a!!lications of first law of Thermodynamics. #. <sometric or <socohric Grocess. %. <sobaric Grocess '. <sothermal Grocess .. Adiabatic Grocess #. Is&)etric &r Is&c&hric Pr&cess The !rocess in which olume of the system remains constant is known as <sometric Grocess.

<n this !rocess all su!!lied amount of heat is utili;ed to increase the internal energy of the system. /athematical &orm <n this !rocess first law of thermodynamics take the following form. ?N 1 ?u 9 ?D Hut0 ?D 1 8 1C ?N 1 ?u 1 8 1C ?N 1 ?u %. Is&2aric Pr&cess The !rocess in which !ressure is ke!t constant is known as isobaric !rocess. <n this !rocess0 all su!!lied amount of heat is utili;ed for the following two functions. i. To increase the internal energy of the system. ii. <n work done in order to mo e the !iston u!ward. '. Is&ther)al Pr&cess A !rocess in which tem!erature is ke!t constant is known as <sothermal Grocess. There are two !arts of isothermal !rocess. i. <sothermal E+!ansion ii. <sothermal $om!ression i. Is&ther)al E$%ansi&n <n this !rocess cyclinder is !laced on a source and !iston

is allowed to mo e u!ward. Dhen we do so tem!erature and !ressure of the working substance will decrease while olume will increase. <n order to kee! the tem!erature constant0 we ha e to su!!ly re"uired amount of heat from source to cylinder. Since in this e+!ansion0 tem!erature is constant therefore it is known as <sothermal E+!ansion. ii. Is&ther)al C&)%ressi&n <n this !rocess0 cylinder is !laced on a sink and !iston is allowed to mo e downward. Dhen we do so tem!erature and !ressure of working substance will increase while olume will decrease. <n order to maintain the tem!erature0 we ha e to reOect re"uired amount of heat from cylinder to the sink. Since in this com!ression0 tem!erature is ke!t constant therefore it is known as isothermal com!ression. SECOND LA0 OF THERMOD/NAMICS Intr&,ucti&n <t is inherit tendency of heat that it always flows from hot reser oir to cold reser oir. 3ather than to flow in both the directions with e"ual !robability. ,n the basis of this tendency of heat a law was !ro!osed that is known as Second =aw of Thermodynamics. State)ent <t is im!ossible to construct a !rocess which reser es the

natural tendency of heat. This law is also known as =aw of heat and can also be stated as Efficiency of heat engine is always less than unity. E$%lanati&n /any statements of this law has been !ro!osed to co er similar but different !oint of ies in which two are gi en below. #. =ord Kel in Statement %. $lauses Statement #. L&r, Kel in State)ent According to this statement0 <t is im!ossible to construct a heat engine which e+tract all heat form the source and con ert it into e"ual amount of work done and no heat is gi en to the sink. /athematically0 N# R D N% R , %. Clauses State)ent According to $lauses Statement0 Dithout the !erformance of e+ternal work heat cannot flow from cold reser oir towards0 the hot reser oir. E+am!le <n case of refrigerator flow of heat is unnatural but this

unnatural flow of heat is !ossible only when we a!!ly electrical !ower on the !um! of the refrigerator. !s* De(ine the ter) Entr&%' an, 1i e its Uses ENTROP/ De(initi&n <t measures the disorderness of any system. /athematically0 ?S 1 ?N5T Dhere ?s shows change in entro!y. Pnits Joule !er degree Kel in 2 J5-K. E$%lanati&n As we know that incase of isometric !rocess olume is constant. <n case of <sothermal !rocess tem!erature and !ressure is constant0 but in case of adiabatic !rocess neither tem!erature0 nor !ressure or olume is constant but one thermal !ro!erty is constant which is known as Entro!y. There are two ty!es of Entro!y. #. Gositi e Entro!y %. Legati e Entro!y

#. P&siti e Entr&%' <f heat is su!!lied to the system the entro!y will be !ositi e. %. Ne4ati e Entr&%' Dhen heat is reOected by the system the entro!y will be negati e. !s* 0hat is car2&t en4ine an carn&t c'cle3 CARNOT EN1INE De(initi&n S$arnot engine is an ideal heat engine which con erts heat energy into mechanical energy. 0&r5in4 &( Carn&t En4ine <t consists of a cylinder and a !iston. The walls of the cylinder are non:conducting while the bottom surface is the conducting one. The !iston is also non:conducting and friction less. <t works in four ste!s. Dhich are as follows. #. <sothermal E+!ansion %. Adiabatic E+!ansion '. <sothermal $om!ression .. Adiabatic $om!ression #. Is&ther)al E$%ansi&n &irst of all0 cylinder is !laced on a source and allow to

mo e u!ward as a result tem!erature and !ressure of the working substance decreases0 while olume increases. <n order to maintain tem!erature we ha e to su!!ly more amount of heat from source to the cylinder. Since in this e+!ansion tem!erature is ke!t constant. %. A,ia2atic E$%ansi&n Secondly cylinder is !laced on an insulator and !iston is allow to mo e downward as a result tem!erature and !ressure of working substance will decrease. Dhile olume will increase but no heat is gi en or taken of the cylinder. '. Is&ther)al C&)%ressi&n <n this state cylinder is !laced on a sink and !iston is allow to mo e downward as a result tem!erature and !ressure of the working substance will increase while olume will decrease. <n order to maintain tem!erature we ha e to reOect e+tra heat from cylinder to the sink. Since in this com!ression tem!erature is constant. .. A,ia2atic C&)%ressi&n &inally cylinder is !laced on an insulator and !iston is a flow to mo e downward0 when we do so neither tem!erature nor !ressure or olume is constant. Hut no heat is gi en or taken out of the cylinder. CARNOT C/CLE De(initi&n

Hy combining the four !rocessess <sothermal E+!ansion0 Adiabatic E+!ansion0 <sothermal $om!ression and Adiabatic $om!ression which are carried out in carnot engine0 then we get a cycle knows as $arnot cycle. !s* H&. can .e increase the e((icienc' &( Heat En4ine3 <f we want to increase the efficiency of any heat engine then for this !ur!ose we ha e to increase tem!erature of source as ma+imum as !ossible and reduce the tem!erature of sink as minimum as !ossible. !s* De(ine S%eci(ic Heat an, M&lar S%eci(ic Heat* SPECIFIC HEAT De(initi&n S!ecific heat is the amount of heat re"uired to raise the tem!erature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree centigrade. @ifferent substances ha e different s!ecific heat because number of molecules in one kg is different in different substances. <t is denoted by c. Mathe)atical E$%ressi&n $onsider a substance ha ing mass m at the tem!erature t#. The amount of heat su!!lied is ?N0 which raises the tem!erature to t%. The change in tem!erature is ?t.

The "uantity of heat is directly !ro!ortional to the mass of the substance. ?N A m And the tem!erature difference ?N A ?t $ombining both the e"uations ?N A m?t 1C ?N 1 cm?t 1C c 1 ?N 5 m?t B: (<) Dhere c is the s!ecific heat of the substance. <ts unit is Joules 5 Kg-$. MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT De(initi&n /olar s!ecific heat is the amount of heat re"uired to raise the tem!erature of one mole of a substance through one degree celsius. Almost all the substances ha e the same amount of molar s!ecific heat because the numbers of molecules in all substances are same in one mole. <t is denoted by c/. Mathe)atical E$%ressi&n /athematically0 Lo. of /oles 1 /ass 5 /olecular /ass 1C n 1 m 5 / 1C n/ 1 m

1C n/ 1 ?N 5 n?t Dhere n is the number of moles. The unit of molar s!ecific heat is J5Kg-$. !s* De(ine M&lar S%eci(ic Heat at C&nstant &lu)e an, at C&nstant Pressure* MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT +OLUME De(initi&n The amount of heat re"uired to raise the tem!erature of one mole of any gas through one degree centigrade0 at constant olume is known as molar s!ecific heat olume. <t is denoted by $ . Mathe)atical E$%ressi&n /athematically0 ?N 1 n$ ?t Dhere ?N is the heat su!!lied at constant olume. MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT PRESSURE De(initi&n The amount of heat re"uired to raise the tem!erature of unit mass of a substance through one degree centigrade at constant !ressure is known as /olar S!ecific Heat at $onstant Gressure.

<t is denoted by $!. Mathe)atical E$%ressi&n /athematically0 ?N! 1 n$!?t Dhere ?N! is the heat su!!lied at constant olume.