3. Sentence types (by structures) 3.1.

Simple sentences A simple sentence is a sentence with only one clause and no subordinate clause. e.g. There is no hope. Edgar and Stanley are good friends. (compound subject) The boss, but not his secretary, is flying to Paris. It wasnt cold or wet. (compound complement) Both the boss and his secretary are flying to Paris. (correlative subject) He gained not gold nor the applause of the multitude. (correlative object) Her smile was both quick and friendly. (correlative complement) He works not fast but carefully. (correlative adverb)

3.1.1. Basic word order in a sentence a. Subject + verb (e.g. My head aches.) b. Subject + verb + complement (e.g. Frank is clever.) c. Subject + verb + direct object (e.g. We enjoyed the play.) d. Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object (e.g. The firm gave Sam a watch.) e. Subject + verb + object + complement (e.g. They made Sam redundant.)

3.2. Compound sentences A compound sentence consists of two or more independent (main) clauses which may be joined together by any of the following: A semi-colon: Christmas vacation began on Wednesday; we had plenty of time to look for temporary employment. A semi-colon followed by a connecting adverb: Christmas vacation began on Wednesday; therefore, we had plenty of time to look for temporary employment. A coordinating conjunction: Christmas vacation began on Wednesday, so we had plenty of time to look for temporary employment.

3.1.2. Some common variations on the basic word order Note some common variations in the basic subject/ verb/ (object)/ (adverbial) order: - Reporting verbs in direct speech (e.g. You have eaten a lot! cried Frank.) - Certain conditional sentences (e.g. Should you see him, please give him my regards.) - Time references requiring special emphasis (e.g. Last night we went to the cinema.) - -ly adverbs of manner/ indefinite time (e.g. The whole building suddenly began to shake. Suddenly, the whole building began to shake.) - Adverbs of frequency (e.g. We often played dangerous games when we were children.) - Adverb phrases (e.g. Inside the parcel (there) was a letter.) - Negative adverbs (e.g. Never, in world history, has there been such a conflict.) - Adverb particles and here, there (e.g. Away to east they flew. Off they go! Here comes the bus.) - Fronting for special emphasis: A fine mess you have made of this.

3.2.1. Coordinating conjunctions AND, OR and BUT AND is the conjunction which has the most general meaning and use. It is used to suggest that something continues or increases over a period of time e.g. He lay down on the floor and cried and cried. to link two clauses when the second clause continues the point that has been made in the first e.g. You could only really tell the effects of the diseases in the long term, and five years was not long enough. to add a fact that contrasts with what has been said e.g. Some praise the work and some praise the architect. to make a comment on the first clause e.g. They disliked John and that is not surprising in view of his behavior. to join two clauses when the first implies a condition e.g. Search his pockets and you will find the watch. Spare the rod and spoil the child. to express a consequence or result of the event in the first clause e.g. A quarrel arouse amongst them, and each man went away to his own house.

OR conveys different meanings. It is used to mention two or more alternatives or possibilities e.g. We can meet this afternoon, or we can discuss the matter at dinner. to introduce a comment which corrects or modifies what has just been said (=or rather) e.g. Han Mac Tu was afflicted with Hansens disease, or, as it is more commonly known, leprosy. to include someone or something else in a negative statement e.g. The child never smiles or laughs. to imply a negative condition (= if not) e.g. Get off this property or (else) I will call the police. to give a reason for ones opinion (explanation or justification) e.g. He obviously does not have a plan, or he would have said something. BUT as conjunction is mainly used to express a contrast or introduce an added statement. It is used: for introducing a different idea e.g. We are making good progress, but we have still got a long way to go. after an excuse or apology for what one is about to say e.g. I am sorry, but it is nothing to do with you. for changing the subject (mainly spoken) e.g. Theres also the question of how we are going to pay for this, but we can discuss that some other time. after a negative statement for saying that something does not happen without something else happening or being true e.g. I never take a bath but the phone rings or someone knocks at the door. as an alternative of except that e.g. I would have gone to the party last night, but I had too much work to do.

to refer to a time sequence e.g. I got dress and had my breakfast to denote a pure addition e.g. He has long hair and (also) he often wears jeans.

3.3. Complex sentences A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. e.g. The vows of love we make will live until we die. One main clause: The vows of love will live. Two subordinate clauses: we make; until we die. Types of subordinate clauses in complex sentences:

3.2.2. Correlative conjunctions The coordination of clauses is made more emphatic by correlative conjunctions. The most important correlatives are illustrated in the following examples. e.g. These headlines both mystified and infuriated him. Either we raise money from outside or we face unpalatable options such as closing part of museum. The thought neither distressed nor delighted her. He not only disliked the way we spoke, but (also) disapproved of the way we dressed.

3.3.1 Subordinate clause = Nominal clause A nominal clause functions nearly in the same places as noun phrases. It functions as subject, object, or complement of a clause. A nominal clause can be introduced by: that e.g. 1/ Scientists claims that staying up late is harmful to your health. (that clause as object) 2/ That Jimmy learned how to swim is a miracle. (that clause as subject) Wh-word (i.e. who(ever), whom(ever), whose, what(ever), when(ever), where(ever), how(ever), why, whether or if) e.g. 1/ What he had done shocked all of his friends at the party last night. (What he had done clause as subject) 2/ The winner will be whoever runs fastest. (whoever runs fastest clause as subject complement) 3/ He did not listen to what I was saying. (what I was saying clause as object of a preposition) 4/ We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult. (that the final exam will be difficult clause as adjective complement)

Antecedent

3.3.2. Subordinate clause = Adjective clause (Relative clause) A relative clause functions as a post-modifier in a noun phrase. It is introduced by a certain relative pronoun depending on whether the antecedent is personal or nonpersonal and function it does. Function Subject Object Object Relative pronoun Who, that Example - A man who has not been flogged is not educated. - All that glitters is not gold. - She is the lady whom I will never forget all through my life. - The point which counts now is to forget all and move on. - The question which I would like to lay special emphasis on is our urgent preparation for the coming event. - This is the moment when anyone cannot help crying.

Personal noun

Non-personal noun

Subject

Who, whom, that Which, that Which, that

Noun of time/ Adverbial place (usu. prep. + noun) Noun Noun Noun Possessive Subject Object Subject Subject Object

When (time) Where (place) Why (reason) Whose Which But As

Whole clause

- It was the place where my parents first came to live. - It is the reason why he has quit working. - Mrs. Smith, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job. - She has helped me to get out of trouble, which will be unforgettable for me. - There was not one boy in the class but knew (= that did not know) exactly what the teacher was referring to. - They stayed at the hotel as we had booked.

Adverbial clause of Introduced by Time when(ever), while, after, before, since, as soon as, until, once, now (that), the moment (that), no sooner than, hardly/ scarcely when, etc. Place where(ever) Manner as, as if, as though Cause/ Reason because, since, as, now that Purpose Concession/ Contrast

3.3.3. Subordinate clause = Adverbial clause - An adverbial clause functions as adjunct, giving such circumstantial information about an action or event as time, place, or manner. - The clauses in complex sentences are joined by subordinating conjunctions. Example 1/ How many roads must a man walk down before he is called a man? 2/ No sooner had he entered the office than the telephone rang. 3/ We have known each other since we were five. I will follow you wherever you may go. He behaves as if he were a boss here. Because he is the breadwinner in the family, he receives most of the respect. We all try to study hard in order that our parents would be pleased. 1/ She decided to leave although it was raining heavily outside. 2/ No matter what you do, we wont believe you.

Result

Condition Comparison

3.4. Compound-complex sentences A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. e.g. When two men fight a duel, the matter is trivial but when two million people fight two hundred million other people, the matter is serious. (Bertrand Russell)

So (that), in order that, for fear that, lest Al(though), even though, whereas, even if, while, whatever, wherever, whenever, whoever, no matter, come what may So that, such that 1/ She was so beautiful that people could not take their eyes off her. 2/ It was such a lovely day that we decided to have a picnic. If, unless, provided, If a picture paints a thousand words, then providing, supposing, as/ why cant I paint you? so long as, on condition that As When in Rome, do as the Romans do.