Jordan - Approaches To Learning

Approaches to Learning
ANNE JORDAN ORISON CARLILE ANNETTA STACK
Approaches to learning
Approaches to Learning A Guide For Teachers
Anne Jordan Orison Carlile and Annetta Stack
Open University Press McGraw- ill !ducation McGraw- ill ouse Shoppenhan"ers #oad Maidenhead $erkshire !n"land S%& '(% e)ail* en+uiries,openup-co-uk world wide we.* www-openup-co-uk and Two Penn Pla/a0 1ew 2ork0 12 343'35''670 USA
First pu.lished '446 Copyri"ht 8 Anne Jordan0 Orison Carlile and Annetta Stack '446 All ri"hts reserved- !9cept :or the +uotation o: short passa"es :or the purpose o: criticis) and review0 no part o: this pu.lication )ay .e reproduced0 stored in a retrieval syste)0 or trans)itted0 in any :or) or .y any )eans0 electronic0 )echanical0 photocopyin"0 recordin" or otherwise0 without the prior written per)ission o: the pu.lisher or a licence :ro) the Copyri"ht %icensin" A"ency %i)ited- ;etails o: such licences <:or repro"raphic reproduction= )ay .e o.tained :ro) the Copyri"ht %icensin" A"ency %td o: Sa::ron ouse0 &>34 ?ir.y Street0 %ondon0 !C31 6TSA catalo"ue record o: this .ook is availa.le :ro) the $ritish %i.rary @S$1-34* 4-AA-B''&C4-3 <p.= 4-AA-B''&C3-D <h.= @S$1-3A* 7C6-4-AA-B''&C4-' <p.= 7C6-4-AA-B''&C3-7 <h.= %i.rary o: Con"ress Catalo"in"-in-Pu.lication ;ata C@P data applied :or
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Ge dedicate this .ook to our :a)ilies-
Contents
List of figures List of tables Acknowledgements @ntroduction 3 ' A H B & C 6 7 34 33 3' 3A 3H 3B 3& 3C Philosophy o: education $ehaviouris) Co"nitivis) Constructivis) Social learnin" Cultural learnin" @ntelli"ence %i:e course develop)ent Adult learnin" Ialues Motivation The learnin" .ody %an"ua"e and learnin" !9periential and co)petency-.ased learnin" @nclusivity $lended learnin" The :uture Glossary
viii viii 9i 3 & '3 A& BB &6 6' 7C 33A 3'6 3H' 3BH 3&7 36H 377 '3& ''C 'H' 'B'
viii
APP#OAC !S TO %!A#1@1G* A GU@;! FO# T!AC !#S
Figures
1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 5.1 5.2 6.1 7.1 7.2 8.1 8.2 9.1 11.1 12.1 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 Philosophy and its educational i)plications AristotleJs ani)atin" principles Unconditional and conditional responses A co)parison o: classical conditionin" and ullJs theory #ein:orce)ent and punish)ent An e9a)ple o: a learnin" outco)e @nput-process-output )odel o: .rain processes Perceptual cate"ori/ation #a..it or duckK Theories o: selective attention ow e9perience is encoded Modal )odel o: )e)ory Gorkin" )e)ory )odel Associative network Peer "roup e::ects on children #eciprocal deter)inis) Culture as ice.er" The .ell curve o: nor)al distri.ution @( variance o: )en and wo)en $iolo"icalF)aturational )odel o: develop)ent $ron:en.rennerJs ecolo"ical )odel o: develop)ent !volvin" ter)inolo"y in adult education MaslowJs hierarchy o: needs The .rain ?ol.Js learnin" cycle Skill0 co)petence and co)petency #ole co)petence )odel Fro) potential to role co)petence ow to re:lect Gater:all )odel o: so:tware develop)ent y.rid @; )odel %inear navi"ation 1on-linear navi"ation ierarchical navi"ation Co)posite navi"ation C 3& '' 'H 'B A' AC A7 H4 H' HH HB H& H6 C4 CB 6A 34' 34& 33H 33B 3'7 3B& 3CA '4' '4A '4H '4& '34 'A3 'A' 'A& 'A& 'AC 'AC
Ta les
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 ?ey ter)s in classical conditionin" ?ey ter)s in operant conditionin" $loo)Js co"nitive do)ain $loo)Js a::ective do)ain $loo)Js psycho)otor do)ain @nternal processes and their correspondin" instructional events 'H '& '6 '6 '7 A4
CO1T!1TS
i!
3.1 4.1 4.2 6.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 1".1 11.1 11.2 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 15.1 15.2 16.1
;i::erent types o: )e)ory syste)s Co)parin" .ehaviouris)0 co"nitivis) and constructivis) $runerJs representational )odes Assessin" classroo) culture usin" o:stedeJs indices Twentieth-century de:initions o: intelli"ence Sa)ple tasks :ro) $inet and Si)onJs tests G@SC su.test Factorial )odels o: intelli"ence GardnerJs )ultiple intelli"ences Curricular i)plications o: intelli"ence theories @ntelli"ence theories and classroo) strate"ies !riksonJs ei"ht sta"es o: psychosocial develop)ent PeckJs sta"es o: )iddle a"e PeckJs sta"es o: old a"e ?ohl.er"Js theory o: )oral develop)ent Pia"etJs theory o: co"nitive develop)ent Pia"etJs and Iy"otskyJs theories o: develop)ent* a co)parison $iolo"ical and co"nitive aspects o: a"ein" !ducational i)plications o: $a9ter Ma"oldaJs theory !ducational i)plications o: adult thinkin" !ducational values and i)plications in twentieth-century !n"land McGre"orJs D and 2 theory !9a)ples o: )otivational orientations $rain lo.es and related responsi.ilities %e:t and ri"ht he)isphere co"nitive )ode speciali/ation Sta"es o: psycho)otor develop)ent %e:t and ri"ht .rain thinkin" Socio-cultural roles o: lan"ua"e in relation to the curriculu) Co"nitive roles o: lan"ua"e in relation to classroo) activities #elationship .etween lan"ua"e and thinkin" Pia"etJs develop)ental sta"es* co"nitive and lin"uistic develop)ent Phonic and whole-word )ethod o: readin" The i)portance o: e9perience in de:initions o: learnin" Theorists and e9periential ele)ents $loo)Js ta9ono)ies o: learnin" Criteria :or assessin" re:lective writin" A constructively ali"ned approach to learnin" to drive ard and so:t trans:era.le skills Si)pli:ied typolo"y o: disa.ilities Movin" to inclusion* :or) o: or"ani/ation and reor"ani/ation Synchronous and asynchronous co))unication tools
HH BB B6 66 7C 343 34A 34H 34B 34C 346 33C 33C 33C 336 337 3'4 3'3 3'H 3'B 3H6 3B6 3B7 3CH 3CH 3C& 364 36H 36B 367 367 37B '44 '43 '4B '47 '3' '3A '3& ''' 'AH
Ac#no$le%ge&ents
Ge would like to acknowled"e the help o: )any people in the writin" o: this .ookFirst0 we are inde.ted to our editor Catherine Pratt :or her thorou"hness and acuityGe would also like to acknowled"e the assistance o: Claire Marie Fannin" who constructed the "lossary and #o. Carlile who la.oured over per)issions and re:erencin"Peter Jordan read chapters :or us and )ade )any help:ul su""estions0 and Celia Carlile "ave us constant supportGe would like to thank our collea"ue Mary Fenton :or the use o: her house as a writin" retreat0 and our eads o: School and ;epart)ent > ;olores Gilhooly0 Paul $arry and MLcheMl N h!i"eartai"h at the Gater:ord @nstitute o: Technolo"y > :or their supportFinally0 we would like to acknowled"e the help o: Gillie ;onnelly0 in G@T0 :or :undin" supportGe are truly "rate:ul :or all their help- Ge wish to acknowled"e the :ollowin" :or per)ission to reproduce )aterial within this .ook- !very e::ort has .een )ade to contact copyri"ht holders0 .ut i: any have .een overlooked0 we should .e pleased to )ake the necessary arran"e)ents at the :irst opportunityFigures' Fi"ure B-A $A1;U#A0 A%$!#T0 SOC@A% FOU1;AT@O1S OF T OUG T E ACT@O1* A SOC@A% COG1@T@I! T !O#20 3st !dition0 376&0 P"-'H- #eprinted .y per)ission o: Pearson !ducation0 @nc-0 Upper Saddle #iver0 1JFi"ure 3H-3 ?ol.0 ;- <376H=- Experiential Learning- !n"lewood Cli::s0 1J* Prentice allTa les' Ta.le C-A Good0 C-0 %ittleton0 ?- and Sheehy0 ?- <eds= ;evelop)ent Psycholo"y in Action- O9:ord* $lackwell Press and Open University Press- Copyri"ht The Open University0 #eproduced .y kind per)issionTa.le 3'-' #osen/wei"0 M- #-0 $reedlove0 S-M- and Gatson0 1-I- <'44B= $iolo"ical Psycholo"y* An @ntroduction to $ehavioural and Co"nitive 1euroscience <Hth edn-=Sunderland0 MA* Sinauer Associates0 @ncead o: #esearch
(ntro%uction
This .ook ai)s to )ake li:e easier :or educators .y "atherin" to"ether )any o: the theoretical approaches that in:or) the )odern principles and practices o: western education- Githout sacri:icin" depth or ri"our0 it atte)pts to provide a lucid and succinct overview o: these theoretical approaches0 and considers their i)plications :or policy and practiceThe authors are co))itted to the view that theory has )any practical i)plications and to its value in supportin"0 con:ir)in" and opti)i/in" .est practiceThis is e9pressed in the title Approaches to Learning: A Guide for Teachers which is deli.erately a).itiousUnderlyin" the .ook is the )a9i) that there is Onothin" as practical as a "ood theoryJ <%ewin 37HA* AB= and that educators .ase their pro:essional practices on so)e aspects o: theory0 however derived!ducational theory )ay .e considered as the distilled e9periences o: others and the purpose o: this .ook is to share the e9perience and conclusions o: theorists who have thou"ht deeply a.out the educational processConsciously or unconsciously0 everyone holds theories o: learnin"0 since all action is .ased on assu)ptions which )ay or )ay not have .een articulated or tested- Ge hope that this .ook will help educators to .eco)e aware o: alternative views0 so that they can clari:y their ownThe educatorJs role as a :acilitator o: student learnin" is dependent upon the theory o: learnin" held- The educatorJs views )ay :or) a coherent wholeP alternatively they )ay hold scraps o: inco)pati.le theory- @t is i)portant not to have principles which clash0 so .rin"in" the) to li"ht will help in their or"ani/ation so that they can .e used )ore consciously to en"a"e in on"oin" in+uiryA knowled"e o: theory "ives the educator* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q insi"ht into theoretical positionsP access to the considered e9perience o: othersP validation and a::ir)ation o: e9istin" practiceP )ind-tools :or reco"ni/in"0 analysin" and evaluatin" issuesP power to )anipulate and develop concepts in a re:lective )annerP ter)inolo"y to e9plore episte)olo"ical and peda"o"ical topicsP shared educational discourse :or en"a"e)ent in the scholarship o: teachin"P Rusti:ications :or personal teachin" practices to collea"ues and stakeholdersP protection :ro) unproven and :addish ideas-
There are )any theories o: education0 drawn :ro) a nu).er o: separate disciplinesThis .ook places the) side .y side in order to )ake links and co)parisons- @t allows
2 APP#OAC !S TO %!A#1@1G* A GU@;! FO# T!AC !#S
the educator to see areas o: interest that can .e pursued in relation to others0 addin" depth and .alance to knowled"e- Gith only a partial knowled"e o: theory there is a dan"er o: .eco)in" so co))itted to one theoretical approach that it shuts o:: consideration o: others- For e9a)ple0 an educator )ay .eco)e so ena)oured o: popular OdiscoveryJ or O"uidedJ )ethods o: learnin" that they i"nore the insi"hts o: theorists who clai) that knowled"e is appropriated and passed down :ro) one "eneration to another- This )akes it di::icult to "ain an o.Rective view o: the "eneral direction o: theoryThe .ook will .e o: value in pre-service0 in-service teacher education0 post"raduate studies0 curriculu) desi"n and ad)inistration- @t is an ideal introductory course te9t :or university education and teacher trainin" pro"ra))es- @t can .e read as a series o: stand-alone chapters or as an inte"rated overview o: theoretical perspectives drawn :ro) philosophy0 psycholo"y0 sociolo"y and peda"o"y that are use:ul in "uidin" educational principles and practiceSince the te9t is an overview0 it will stress the )ore i)portant te9ts and theorists- #e:erences there:ore will .e to esta.lished sources rather than to cuttin"ed"e research or :indin"s which have not yet settled into "eneral )eta-theoriesSince this is an introductory te9t that covers a vast area0 it is pitched at a level that can .e understood easily- There are di::iculties with si)pli:yin" co)ple9 philosophical ar"u)ents in so)e chapters > :or e9a)ple )ind-.ody de.ates and the pro.le) o: consciousness in chapter 3' OThe learnin" .odyJ- owever0 despite the atte)pt at reasona.ly si)ple e9planations0 the te9t is well-re:erenced0 so that interested readers can pursue topics in "reater depth i: they wishA nu).er o: key theorists such as Iy"otsky have di::erent di)ensions to their work0 and are viewed :ro) di::erent perspectives in di::erent chapters so the student will o.tain a )ulti-:aceted view with the .onus o: revision to e).ed the )aterial in the )e)ory- $y the end o: the .ook it is hoped that readers will have a nuanced and .alanced understandin" o: the theories presented!ducation can .e construed accordin" to a nu).er o: di)ensions0 and each chapter will tend to e)phasi/e one set o: di)ensions over others0 althou"h the )ost o.vious di)ension o: learnin" and teachin" will appear in every chapter- Other di)ensions are those o:*
Q Q Q Q Q
.ehaviour > thinkin"P individual > societyP adult-centred > child-centredP process > outco)eP institution > learner-
This .ook ori"inates :ro) a speci:ic conte9t o: western education policy and practice0 particularly o: the !n"lish speakin" world- Most o: our e9a)ples and re:erences there:ore are to !n"lish or 1orth A)erican educationGe use the ter) OlearnerJ when re:errin" to individual learners and their co"nitive processes- Ge use the ter) OpupilsJ or OstudentsJ when re:errin" to the) in relation to the teacher or the classroo)-
@1T#O;UCT@O1
!ach chapter contains* Q Q Q Q Q Q an accessi.le introduction to relevant theoriesP critical insi"hts drawn :ro) the theories discussedP a su))ary o: key ideasP e9a)ples and illustrations drawn :ro) conte)porary research and practiceP .ulleted lists o: points )adeP practical i)plications :or educationalists-
Chapter 30 OPhilosophy o: educationJ0 considers the develop)ent o: western learnin" theories in the li"ht o: educational philosophy- The )aRor paradi")s discussed are those o: idealis)0 e)piricis) and develop)ent- The chapter traces the philosophical underpinnin"s o: teachin" strate"ies such as re:lective +uestionin"0 pro.le)-solvin" and critical thinkin"Chapter '0 O$ehaviouris)J0 provides an account o: .ehaviourist learnin" theory and its in:luence upon learnin" and teachin"- @t presents an overview o: .ehaviouris)Js )ain constructs and it considers the role o: .ehaviouris) in current learnin" and teachin" strate"iesChapter A0 OCo"nitivis)J0 presents a succinct account o: theories o: co"nitive in:or)ation-processin"- @t discusses the :ive processes involved in co"nition > sensation0 perception0 attention0 encodin" and )e)ory and outlines their i)plications :or the learnin" process- The chapter also o::ers advice to learners and teachers on how to enhance learnin" capa.ilityChapter H0 OConstructivis)J0 is not one0 .ut an a)al"a) o: theories which e)phasi/e )eanin"-)akin"- Three perspectives o: constructivis) are discussed* trivial constructivis) and individual )eanin"-)akin"P social constructivis)0 which e)phasi/es colla.orative )eanin"-)akin"P and critical constructivis)0 which considers the construction o: )eanin" as e)power)ent- The chapter concludes with the i)plications o: constructivist theory :or educatorsChapter B0 OSocial learnin"J0 considers the role o: society in learnin"- Social learnin" is e9a)ined :ro) two perspectives- The sociolo"ical perspective e9plores ways in which societal structures in:luence the learnin" o: social roles- The psycholo"ical perspective outlines the ways that social identities are :or)ed and considers the relationship .etween identity0 sel:-estee) and sel:-e::icacyChapter &0 OCultural learnin"J0 e9plores the ways in which culture in:luences learnin"This chapter considers theories a.out the cultural deter)ination and e9pression o: )eanin"0 and outlines the educational i)plications o: these theoriesChapter C0 O@ntelli"enceJ0 outlines the concept o: intelli"ence and presents a nu).er o: traditional and )odern de:initions and their Rusti:ications- This includes an e9a)ination o: the use o: intelli"ence testin" :or educational selection purposes0 and concludes .y drawin" out other learnin" and teachin" i)plicationsChapter 60 O%i:e course develop)entJ0 deals with chan"es and develop)ent over the li:e course- Three )odels are outlined0 each o: which takes a di::erent perspective on
learnin" and develop)ent- A nu).er o: develop)ental theories are e9a)ined which contrast holistic0 psychosocial and )oral theories with co"nitive ones- The :inal section considers the key issues discussed and outlines their teachin" and learnin" i)plicationsChapter 70 OAdult learnin"J0 provides an e9planation o: the ter)inolo"y associated with adult education and learnin"- @t outlines the history o: adult education .e:ore analysin" so)e areas o: conte)porary interest0 includin" access0 power and the rise o: instru)entalis)- Finally it sets out so)e i)plications :or learnin" and teachin" practices in the education o: adultsChapter 340 OIaluesJ0 e9plores the value o: education as an instru)ent in achievin" the "oals o: society and the individual- The chapter also discusses the policies and "oals o: educators and the ways that values shape practice- The values o: educators in shapin" the curriculu) are discussed in the :inal part o: the chapterChapter 330 OMotivationJ0 outlines how )otivation theories a::ect learnin"- This chapter traces the evolution o: )otivation theory and discusses )otivation :ro) the perspectives o: content and process- This chapter concludes with the practical i)plications o: )otivational theories :or teachin" and learnin"Chapter 3'0 OThe learnin" .odyJ0 presents individuals as e).odied learners- The chapter draws on a ran"e o: disciplines to ar"ue that learnin" is not si)ply a :unction o: the )ind0 .ut is inherently physical- The physical environ)ent and physiolo"ical needs o: learners are e9plored and the chapter concludes .y addressin" the teachin" and learnin" i)plications o: the theories presentedChapter 3A0 O%an"ua"e and learnin"J0 considers the si"ni:icance o: lan"ua"e in thinkin" and learnin"- @t investi"ates lan"ua"e develop)ent :ro) a nu).er o: di::erent perspectives0 includin" its role in reproducin" societal advanta"e- The chapter concludes with su""estions :or enhancin" lin"uistic and co))unicative strate"ies in the classroo)Chapter 3H0 O!9periential and co)petency-.ased learnin"J0 e9a)ines theories o: e9periential learnin"0 and skill and co)petence ac+uisition- The :irst section o: the chapter presents the ideas o: key e9periential theorists- The second section outlines a :ra)ework :or the develop)ent o: co)petence-.ased learnin"- The chapter concludes with the practical i)plications o: these theories :or teachin" and learnin"Chapter 3B0 O@nclusivityJ0 presents an overview o: the historical constructs o: disa.ility- The chapter discusses two current discourses o: disa.ility0 the de:icit and the inclusivity )odels0 to"ether with their Rusti:ications0 and indicates the stance adopted .y the authors- @t evaluates the educational conse+uences ste))in" :ro) .oth discourses and points to a co)pro)ise positionChapter 3&0 O$lended learnin"J0 .e"ins .y de:inin" and distin"uishin" the ter)s .lended learnin" and co)puter-.ased learnin"- The chapter outlines the develop)ent o: relevant theories and their current use in online colla.orative learnin" syste)s-
@1T#O;UCT@O1
Chapter 3C0 OThe :utureJ0 considers three )aRor trans:or)ations occurrin" in )odern society > individuali/ation0 the network society and "lo.ali/ation0 and identi:ies si"ni:icant trends and i)plications :or education0 to"ether with so)e strate"ies :or educators-
)e*erences
%ewin0 ?- <37HA= Forces .ehind :ood ha.its and )ethods o: chan"e0 Bulletin of the National Reseach ouncil! 346* AB>&B-
Chapter 1 +hilosoph, o* e%ucation
(ntro%uction
So)e people think that the philosophy o: education is the )ost i)portant aspect o: teacher trainin"- Others clai) it is so :ar re)oved :ro) classroo) practice that it is a waste o: ti)e- This chapter .e"ins .y e9plainin" the value o: educational philosophy .e:ore identi:yin" three )aRor philosophical cate"ories > ideas0 e9perience and develop)ent > under which the work o: so)e key theorists is "rouped as shown in Fi"ure 3-3- Ge also outline the educational i)plications and conse+uences o: these cate"ories and theoristsThe philosophy o: education is i)portant .ecause it e9plains how educational theories arise- $y e9a)inin" the philosophy o: education0 we are a.le to see why and how theories co)ple)ent or oppose each other- An understandin" o: philosophy is there:ore use:ul in "uidin" and criti+uin" the develop)ent o: educational theoryPhilosophical knowled"e )ay provide a Rusti:ication :or teachin" )ethodolo"iesP reveal and challen"e assu)ptions a.out the nature o: teachin"P and provide a lan"ua"e :or educational de.ateFinally0 philosophy is vital :or the pro)otion o: teachin" as a scholarly and pro:essional activity- !ducation has only recently .een reco"ni/ed as a su.Rect in its own ri"ht- Many educational theories are drawn :ro) other disciplines0 and a philosophy o: education can provide a peda"o"ical history o: ideas0 theories and voca.ulary- @t helps to place the educational discipline on a si)ilar philosophical :ootin" to other disciplines throu"h the esta.lish)ent o: a distinct discourse and rationale-
-e, %e*initions in e%ucational philosoph,

The philosophy o: education can .e de:ined as the study o: the purposes0 processes0 nature and ideals o: educationThe word OeducationJ derives :ro) one or .oth o: the :ollowin" concepts* Q Q O!ducareJ > to draw out and reali/e potentialP O!ducereJ > to .rin" up and nurture-
$oth o: these concepts )er"e in ?antJs :a)ous clai) that the purpose o: education is to ena.le hu)anity to develop and to i)prove* OMan can only .eco)e )an .y educationJ <?ant 364AF37&4* &=-
P @%OSOP 2 OF !;UCAT@O1
!ducation atte)pts to develop personality in a pre:erred direction- O!ducareJ and OeducereJ co)e to"ether here0 .ecause Odevelop)entJ indicates "rowth and the Opre:erred directionJ indicates a speci:ic direction :or that "rowth to occur-
Ideas
Experience
Development
Idealism
Empiricism
Romanticism
Teleology
Theory before practice Logical thinking Liberal education
Technicalrational curriculum
Childcentred education
Curriculum design
Development theory
Figure 1.1
Philosophy and its educational i)plications-
(%eas
This cate"ory o: western thou"ht clai)s that ideas are )ore i)portant than0 and take precedence over e9periences- @deas are universal unchan"in"0 and act as the te)plate and or"ani/in" :ra)ework :or e9perience- Fro) this :lows a view o: education as the ac+uisition o: the )ental trainin" necessary to co)prehend ideas- This view is )eritocratic > only those capa.le o: a.stract thou"ht can .ene:it :ro) such trainin"-
(%ealis&
The philosophical doctrine that ste)s :ro) the cate"ory o: thou"ht associated with ideas is Oidealis)J > the notion that ideas represent reality- @dealis) ori"inates with Plato0 the third-century $C thinker0 who .elieved that there is an o.Rective truth0 e9pressed throu"h the unchan"in" world o: the OFor)sJ- These For)s were ori"inally proposed .y PlatoJs )entor Socrates0 who wrote nothin" hi)sel:0 .ut who :eatured in a series o: dialo"ues written .y Plato- @n these0 Socrates en"a"es in discussions with Athenian citi/ens0 drawin" out their ideas on virtueFor Socrates0 ideas e9ist prior to e9perience in two ways* they are )ore i)portant0 and they are already in e9istence- @n the Socratic dialo"ues0 Socrates "ives the e9a)ple o: the slave .oy who had no knowled"e o: "eo)etry .ut was a.le to understand a theore) drawn in the sand- e clai)s that the .oy already possessed this knowled"e in so)e way0 and was Ore)e).erin"J it <Geiss '443=- Socrates .elieved that there were o.Rective )athe)atical truths and )ore i)portant still0 truths a.out virtue-
A .elie: in the o.Rective truth o: ideas was a reRection o: the SophistsJ position that truth was relative- The Sophists were paid teachers o: ar"u)ent who saw two sides <at least= to every ar"u)ent and .elieved that individuals si)ply needed help to present their own sides convincin"ly- For e9a)ple0 stealin" is "ood :or a .ur"lar .ut .ad :or a householder- Another reason :or PlatoJs co))it)ent to the world o: ideas is the unrelia.ility o: the senses- @n his dialo"ue0 the Theaetus0 he shows that the world o: e9perience is )isleadin"0 transient and personal0 with the sa)e o.Rect appearin" white at one ti)e and "rey at anotherPlatoJs thinkin" has si"ni:icant i)plications :or ideas a.out education and knowled"e- Accordin" to Plato0 to .e )orally "ood is to possess true knowled"e- $ut the process o: ac+uirin" true knowled"e is pain:ul0 .ecause )ost o: us are chained to the world o: the senses0 una.le to look .eyond- Clear-si"htedness and knowled"e involves overco)in" preRudice and i"norance a:ter ri"orous )ental and ideolo"ical trainin" <Republic Bk "##=The elevation o: )ental over physical activity or e9perience reappears in the writin"s o: the French seventeenth-century philosopher #enS ;escartes- ;escartes is :a)ous :or the dualis) he proposed .etween the )ind and the .ody > the clai) that the )ind and .ody are separate entities0 with only the )ind in touch with ulti)ate reality- The .ody inha.its the "ross world o: physical sensation and is controlled .y the )ind0 Rust as the auto)atons that ;escartes saw in the #oyal Gardens at St Ger)aine in Paris were controlled .y water;escartesJ thinkin" was si)ilar to PlatoJs- For .oth0 ideas are in the )ind and the senses are deceptive- ;escartes proposed a )ethod o: Osyste)atic dou.tJ in which everythin" in the universe was to .e +uestioned until he ca)e to so)ethin" he could not dou.t- $y this )eans he arrived at his :a)ous principle0 OCo"ito er"o su)J > O@ think0 there:ore @ a)J- The philosopher cannot dou.t that he is thinkin"P there:ore his e9istence is proven- avin" esta.lished one certainty0 ;escartes proceeded0 .y a se+uence o: lo"ical deductions0 to esta.lish the e9istence o: the universePlato and ;escartes illustrate the )ain characteristics o: idealist thou"ht0 and their ideas were instru)ental in shapin" the Opro.le) o: knowled"eJ > how do we know what we knowK Ghat is the role o: the sensesK @s everythin" we know in the )indK @dealis) has three )ain i)plications :or education* Q Q Q an e)phasis on theory .e:ore practiceP an e)phasis on lo"ical thinkin"P a hi"h value attached to li.eral education-
Theor$ before practice The principle that education should concentrate solely on conceptual and )oral develop)ent is an educational le"acy o: idealis)- Teachin" should deal with a.stract su.Rects such as )athe)atics and philosophy0 with principles e9pounded .e:ore application- The teacherJs role is to draw out the knowled"e o: principles that learners already possess and help learners to or"ani/e these coherently- @n this view o: education0 teachers are very i)portant-
Teachers are also needed :or the clari:ication o: ideas0 .ecause te9ts alone are insu::icient- @n the %haedrus! Socrates )aintains that the written word is su.Rect to )isinterpretation .y readers- ;ialo"ue is pre:era.le .ecause the teacher can o::er clari:ication or challen"e )isinterpretations0 "uidin" learners towards true principles and away :ro) :aulty conclusionsAn example of &ocratic 'uestioning @n $ook @ o: The Republic <AC=0 the Sophist Thrasy)achus clai)s that ORustice is the advanta"e o: the stron"erJ- Socrates +uestions hi) a.out this- ere is a si)pli:ied version o: their dialo"ue&ocrates* Thras$machus* &ocrates* Thras$machus* &ocrates* Thras$machus* ;o you think it is Rust to o.ey all lawsK 2es- %aws are )ade .y the stron"er :or their advanta"e so it is Rust to o.ey all laws;oes a ruler so)eti)es )ake )istakes when )akin" lawsK 2es- So)eti)es he )ay )ake a law that is not to his advanta"e$ecause it is Rust to o.ey all laws0 is it there:ore so)eti)es Rust to o.ey laws that are not to the advanta"e o: the rulerK 2es<Plato The Republic AAB a>d= ere Socrates has led Thrasy)achus to contradict hi)sel:- Justice .oth is and is not to the advanta"e o: the stron"erSocratic or dialo"ic +uestionin" provides not only a use:ul classroo) techni+ue .ut a .asic Rusti:ication o: the teacherJs role- @n recent ti)es0 there has .een a renewed interest in teacher +uestionin" and classroo) discussion as an aid to studentsJ ac+uisition o: concepts- For e9a)ple0 the U? OThinkin" To"etherJ pro"ra))e :or pri)ary school children ai)s to develop critical thinkin" throu"h appropriate +uestionin" .y peers and teachers <;awes et al- '444=- !ven in distance or online learnin" conte9ts0 it is i)portant to create a learnin" environ)ent that allows :or the possi.ility o: )ultiple interpretations in order to "uide learners towards a .etter understandin" o: conceptsTheor$ before practice: educational implications Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Theoretical su.Rects are valued )ore than practical ones in the curriculu)%earnersJ previous ideas are esta.lishedMisconceptions are challen"ed@deas are or"ani/ed in a su.Rect outlineGeneral theories are e9tracted :ro) e9a)plesTheory is presented and then testedGeneral principles are e)phasi/ed over particular e9a)ples%earnin" is "uided throu"h dialo"ue and +uestionin"-
1"
Understandin" ideas is e)phasi/ed over their )e)ori/ation-
Logical thinking %o"ical thinkin" is the second educational le"acy o: idealis)- ;ialo"ical approaches such as those used .y Plato led to lo"ical thinkin" and the rules that were laid down .y PlatoJs successor0 Aristotle- So)e o: AristotleJs )ost i)portant rules concern concept :or)ation and deductive reasonin"- ;eductive reasonin" pro"resses :ro) the "eneral case to the particular case .y lo"ical in:erence- Aristotle <377B= o::ers a well-known e9a)ple in a three-step ar"u)ent called a syllo"is)* 3'AMaRor pre)ise > all )en are )ortalMinor pre)ise > Socrates is a )anConclusion > Socrates is )ortal-
These ideas are the .ases o: )athe)atical and "eo)etrical theore) constructionThey allow us to e9plain why so)e ar"u)ents are :aulty as a result o: incorrect relationships .etween pre)ises and their conclusions- AristotleJs rules have had other applications too- For e9a)ple0 in order to evaluate ar"u)ent0 Aristotle classi:ied di::erent types o: :alse reasonin" and :allacies- These include reasonin" in which ar"u)ent is swayed .y appeals to e)otion or .y threats- A pu.lic de)onstration o: the rules o: ar"u)ent still survives in the Oviva voceJ or de:ence o: the Ph; thesis0 which developed in the Middle A"es%o"ical and analytical thinkin" has re"ained i)portance in late twentiethcentury education- The OThinkin" SkillsJ and the associated OPhilosophy :or ChildrenJ )ove)ents atte)pted to incorporate critical thinkin" and lo"ic into the school curriculu) <%ip)an et al- 3764=;escartesJ thinkin" has also had i)plications :or conte)porary education- For e9a)ple0 syste)atic dou.t .eca)e a :orerunner o: e)piricis) and the western scienti:ic )ethod0 and is particularly i)portant in de:ences o: hi"her education whose role is to develop sceptical0 critical and independent thinkersLogical thinking: educational implications Q Q Q Q Q Q Critical thinkin" is encoura"ed in schoolsScepticis) is a valued acade)ic stance!ducators search :or a ran"e o: analytical toolsConver"ent and diver"ent thinkin" are developed as part o: education@ntellectual :reedo) and :reedo) o: speech are pri/ed .y acade)ic institutionsThinkin" is pro)oted as a "eneric trans:era.le skill-
Liberal education Aristotle clai)ed that the "ood li:e can .e achieved throu"h an education in the li.eral arts0 where knowled"e is valued :or its own sake and is its own reward- This is
11
the third educational le"acy o: idealis)- A li.eral education is devoted to the study o: :irst principles0 or theoretical ideas0 .ecause hu)anityJs "oal is to ac+uire knowled"eAristotleJs reasons :or the pro)otion o: li.eral education were not related to the )ind alone- A li.eral or :ree education consists o: su.Rects suita.le :or the :ree citi/en0 and includes literature and the arts which develop the whole person- 1ew)an clai)s that a li.eral education pro)otes the attri.utes o: :reedo)0 e+uita.leness0 cal)ness0 )oderation and wisdo) > in short0 a philosophical ha.it o: )ind < eath 37B7=- On the contrary0 Oilli.eral su.RectsJ like trades and skills Oa.sor. and de"rade the )indJ and are only suita.le :or slaves and wa"e-earners- There:ore0 no su.Rect should .e included in the curriculu) si)ply .ecause o: its vocational valueCartesian )ind>.ody dualis) has also in:luenced curriculu) desi"n in the pastP so)e su.Rects have .een valued a.ove others .ecause o: their e)phasis on ideas and the )ind0 at the e9pense o: e9perience and the .ody- For e9a)ple0 the curriculu) in the !n"lish "ra))ar school and the Ger)an "y)nasiu) re:lected an elitist pre:erence :or the theoretical and cere.ral a.ove the practical and physicalThe role o: the li.eral education teacher or curriculu) desi"ner is to introduce learners to the :inest e9e)plars o: thou"ht :ro) all a"es- For irst <37&B=0 a $ritish educationalist0 the curriculu) )ust initiate the learner into all the )aRor :or)s o: thou"ht- The curriculu) should there:ore .e .road and wide-ran"in"- !ven when the overall concept o: a li.eral education was under attack :ro) narrow vocationalists in the twentieth century0 it survived in a su.Rect called %i.eral Studies0 tau"ht as part o: :urther and hi"her education-
Liberal education: educational implications Q Q Q Q Q Q !ducation is valued :or its own sake rather than :or its use:ulnessA .alanced curriculu) is necessary to develop the whole person intellectually and )orallySo)e su.Rects are )ore hi"hly valued than others > :or e9a)ple0 the arts and hu)anities are valued over vocational su.Rects%i.eral education introduces learners to a ran"e o: disciplines and ways o: thinkin"Teachin" is a co)ple9 hu)an activity de)andin" personal characteristics and insi"ht;e.ate and discussion are encoura"ed in li.eral classroo)s-
.!perience
The second )aRor cate"ory o: western thou"ht identi:ied in this chapter clai)s that e9perience is )ore si"ni:icant than theory- %earnin" involves either Odoin"J or .ein" Odone toJThis cate"ory is split into two philosophical strands* e)piricis) and ro)anticis)- !)piricists clai) that the learner is the passive recipient o: e9perience- Ghat
12
)atters is the way this e9perience is or"ani/ed- This perspective leads to a technical conception o: education0 in which teachers and curriculu) developers are i)portant arran"ers o: appropriate e9periences;ia)etrically opposed is the ro)anticist clai) that :or)al education is unnecessary and restrictive- Children learn naturally :ro) their e9periences and :ro) contact with key in:luences-
.&piricis&
The view that all knowled"e is "ained :ro) the senses ca)e to pro)inence in the seventeenth century0 when the !n"lish philosopher John %ocke in his Essa$ oncern( ing )uman *nderstanding ar"ued that Othere is nothin" in the )ind which was not :irst in the sensesJ <S)ith et al- '44H=- @n this view0 the )ind is a .lank slate on which e9periences are i)printed- Accordin" to %ocke0 all pri)ary and secondary ideas0 includin" a.stract ideas0 co)e either :ro) the senses or the )indJs re:lections on sensory e9perienceThe ei"hteenth-century e)piricist ;avid u)e in his En'uir$ oncerning )uman *nderstanding < u)e 3CA7F'44C= developed %ockeJs ar"u)ent- @n esta.lishin" a science o: hu)an nature0 u)e atte)pted to rely solely on the evidence o: the senses and e9perience- e denied the e9istence o: any ideas which did not co)e :ro) e9perience0 includin" those o: God0 the sel:0 causation and inductive knowled"eConcernin" causation0 he said that all we perceive :ro) our e9perience is a re"ular association .etween two events- Ge cannot prove that one event is the cause o: another- Usin" the sa)e ar"u)ent0 u)e attacked the principle o: induction > the process o: in:errin" :ro) particular cases to "eneral rules0 the .asis o: the scienti:ic e9peri)ental )ethodAccordin" to the e)piricists0 :or a state)ent to .e valid it )ust either .e true .y de:inition or it )ust .e open to veri:ication .y e9perience- A-J- Ayer0 a twentiethcentury e)piricist0 endorsed this view- e classi:ied valid state)ents as either analytic or syntheticAnal$tic: &$nthetic: Ieri:ia.le .y analysin" the )eanin" o: the words* OA .achelor is an un)arried )an-J Ieri:ia.le .y e)pirical o.servation* OThe heart contains :our cha).ers-J
e dis)issed state)ents on ethics0 aesthetics0 and theolo"y as )ere value Rud"e)ents <Ayer 37B'=A co)pro)ise .etween idealis) and e)piricis) is :ound in the theory o: knowled"e proposed .y the ei"hteenth-century Ger)an philosopher @))anuel ?antAccordin" to this theory0 the world consists o:* Q Q Noumena > representin" ulti)ate reality and unknowa.le0 .ut "ivin" rise to )ental or"ani/in" structures or cate"oriesP %henomena > thin"s as they appear to us0 structured .y the )ental cate"ories that or"ani/e our perceptions<?Trner 37BB* 73=
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This solution avoids .oth )ind>.ody dualis) and the pro.le) o: causality- ?antJs inter)ediate view su""ests that the )ind structures e9perience0 as spectacles structure si"ht- Twentieth-century thinkers such as 1oa) Cho)sky <37CB= show their de.t to ?antian theory when they clai) that the "ra))atical structures o: lan"ua"e are innate0 .ut voca.ulary and word usa"e are learned :ro) e9perience-
Educational implications of empiricism: the technical(rational model !)piricis) leads to the co))onplace view o: education as the O:illin" o: e)pty vesselsJ > that is0 i)partin" knowled"e to those who lack it- @t re+uires nothin" :ro) the learner .ut passivity and a willin"ness to learnThis view e)er"es in the work o: nineteenth-century e9peri)ental psycholo"ists such as Pavlov0 whose .ehaviourist ar"u)ent is presented in Chapter '0 O$ehaviouris)J- The e)phasis on the care:ul structurin" o: sti)uli and the o.servation o: learnersJ responses led to the .ehaviourist concept o: a Otechnolo"y o: educationJ- $ehaviouris) was hi"hly in:luential in education in the :irst part o: the twentieth century0 especially in the area o: trainin" and co)petencies- @ts curricular approach was Otechnical>rationalJ or O)eans>endJ .ecause it prioriti/ed technical +uestions a.out the correct approach to )ethods over a consideration o: the ends o: education- $ehaviourist learnin" theory was )ost stron"ly endorsed in the :or)er USS# and the US> countries with stron" traditions o: e9peri)ental psycholo"yThe A)erican educationalist $enRa)in $loo) e9panded on the technical> rational )odel <$loo) and ?rathnohl 37B&=- is Co"nitive Ta9ono)y o: %earnin" speci:ies di::erent levels o: knowled"e <:ro) knowled"e0 the lowest0 to evaluation0 the hi"hest= and shows how they can .e de)onstrated in o.serva.le and veri:ia.le .ehaviours0 rather than in )ental acts* 3'AHB&knowled"e > de)onstrated in outlinin"0 recountin"0 de:inin" and enu)eratin" ideasP co)prehension > de)onstrated in paraphrasin"0 reco"ni/in"0 illustratin" and e9plainin" ideasP application > de)onstrated in trans:errin"0 e)ployin" and or"ani/in" ideasP analysis > de)onstrated in .reakin" down0 cate"ori/in"0 co)parin" and contrastin" ideasP synthesis > de)onstrated in su))ari/in"0 "enerali/in" a.out0 inte"ratin" and constructin" ideas and ar"u)entsP evaluation > de)onstrated in appraisin"0 discri)inatin" .etween and assessin" ideas or resolvin" pro.le)s and ar"u)ents-
Educational implications of the technical+rational model Q Q %earnin" is a science and has "eneral principlesThe teacher or desi"ner deter)ines what is learned and how0 accordin" to scienti:ic principles-
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Q Q Q
The purposes or ends o: education are not discussedP values are taken :or "rantedThe learner will respond to learnin" sti)uli in a predicta.le wayThe technical>rational )odel works .est in the trainin" o: skills and co)petencies0 where .ehaviour can .e o.served-
)o&anticis&
#o)anticis) e)er"ed in the ei"hteenth century to provide an alternative perspective on the role o: e9perience in learnin"- Jean-Jac+ues #ousseau was ro)anticis)Js stron"est proponent in what is o:ten called its :irst didactic te9t- ,mile! pu.lished in 3C&'<F'44C= deals with the proper education :or a .oy- For #ousseau "ender was .iolo"ically deter)ined0 and he thou"ht that a di::erent education process was necessary :or "irls0 as shown in ,mile et &ophie ou les &olitaires <3C64F377H=0 the se+uel to ,mileAccordin" to #ousseau0 hu)ans are naturally "ood .ut corrupted .y civili/ation- There:ore0 the child should .e kept away :ro) society and learn throu"h e9posure to natural in:luences > :or e9a)ple0 i: the child .reaks a window0 they should su::er the conse+uences o: the cold wind that will rush throu"h- #ousseau thou"ht that :or)al learnin"0 such as that ac+uired throu"h readin" or )athe)atics0 should .e delayed until the )oral and psycholo"ical :oundations o: personality had .een laid down throu"h interaction with the natural world- Girls should learn to .e the pri)ary educators o: children in the private and )oral sphere0 whereas .oys should learn to carry out their pu.lic responsi.ilities in the wider world#o)anticis) also attached i)portance to the e)otions and there:ore to the education o: the whole person- This included the cultivation o: :eelin" and an e)phasis on the individual0 as opposed to the "roup- @t encoura"ed sel:-e9pression and sel:-actuali/ation- OSenses and :eelin" were pri)aryP thou"ht and a.straction were to .e at their serviceJ <1oddin"s '44C* 3B=-
Educational implications of romanticism: child(centred education Unlike the technical>rational )odel0 which places the teacher at the centre o: the educational process0 ro)anticis) is child-centred- #ousseauJs te9t ,mile was the :oundation :or )any current theories o: child-centred education- For e9a)ple* Q Q Q Steiner teachin" )ethods e)phasi/e an education that .alances head0 heart and hands <!aston 377C=Montessori )ethods o: in:ant teachin" e)phasi/e learnin" throu"h natural )aterials and natural environ)ents <Montessori 373'=A- S- 1eillJs e9peri)ent with pro"ressive education in his :a)ous school0 Su))erhill0 e)phasi/ed the natural "oodness o: the child and the reRection o: all co)pulsory tuition in :avour o: the childJs ri"ht to choose what and what not to learn <1eill 377'=-
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The )odern western e)phasis on reco"ni/in" and encoura"in" di::erences in individuals can .e seen as ori"inatin" in #ousseauJs theory-
Educational implications of child(centred education Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q The purpose o: education is the develop)ent o: the whole personThe childJs e9periences are the central ele)ents o: educationChildren should .e :ree to choose what to learn and how to learn@ndividual e9periences0 e9pression and creativity are encoura"ed as part o: the curriculu)@ndividual learnin" plans can .e used to reco"ni/e the uni+ue characteristics o: every childAll learners are di::erent0 and their individuality is unconditionally pri/edTeachers e9ert )ini)al control .ut act as :acilitators o: learnin" e9periencesThe teacher provides an appropriate and rich environ)ent-
/evelop&ent
$e:ore the twentieth century0 develop)ent0 the third cate"ory o: western thou"ht0 was attached to philosophy rather than psycholo"y0 the discipline with which it is )ore co))only associated- ;evelop)ent is shaped .y the idea that hu)an "rowth involves the un:oldin" o: so)e innate hu)an0 co"nitive or .iolo"ical potential towards a :inal destination- !ducation consists o: providin" the conditions :avoura.le to the :ull e9pression o: this develop)entTo understand the relationship .etween develop)ent and education0 think o: the )etaphor o: the seed0 which will "row to its :ull potential in an enriched environ)ent or :ail to thrive .ecause o: a lack o: proper nutrients- This idea is co))on to )any school )ission state)ents0 which o:ten state OGe will help every child to achieve his or her potentialJ- ow that potential is identi:ied is another )atter-
Teleolog,
The philosophical strand that e)er"es :ro) the develop)ent cate"ory is teleolo"y0 the study o: purposes0 which has its ori"ins in Aristotelian thinkin"- Aristotle was the :irst )aRor thinker to consider the develop)ent o: natural or"anis)s- e was a )aterialist0 interested in studyin" natural and .iolo"ical processes- @n particular0 he wanted to know what thin"s were :or and their :unction or O"oodnessJ > he was interested in their teleolo"y-
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Aristotle was conscious o: the develop)ent o: livin" thin"s as a process0 characteri/ed .y sta"es :ro) seed or e).ryo to plant or ani)al- e identi:ied three types o: ani)atin" principles0 or OsoulsJ0 in livin" thin"s- These are cu)ulative0 with hi"her souls incorporatin" the characteristics o: lower ones <see Fi"ure 3-'=%ivin" thin"s develop accordin" to their ani)atin" principles and natures- For e9a)ple0 Aristotle saw hu)an nature as )ade up o:*
Figure 1.2 Q Q
AristotleJs ani)atin" principlesan OirrationalJ ele)ent0 shared with the ani)al kin"do) and concerned with .odily appetites and passionsP a rational0 co"nitive ele)ent0 uni+ue to hu)ans and capa.le o: "overnin" the irrational ele)ents-
@n hu)anity0 the hi"hest and )ost :ul:illin" :or) o: hu)an activity is directed towards the ac+uisition o: knowled"e and rationality* OAll hu)an .ein"s .y nature desire to knowJ <Aristotle 377B=- There is another aspect o: rationality0 however > )oral "oodness- u)ans seek happiness as their ulti)ate "oal0 and happiness is achieved only throu"h the rational pursuit o: the virtuous li:e- For Aristotle0 the ac+uisition o: knowled"e and the achieve)ent o: happiness are two sides o: the sa)e coinThe ends or purposes o: hu)an develop)ent are deter)ined0 .ut the )ethods o: achievin" these purposes are not- #ather0 they involve activities that need to .e controlled and learned- 1ature0 ha.it and reason are three e+ually i)portant :orces that need to .e cultivated throu"h education0 accordin" to Aristotle <%olitics=- One o: the pri)ary tasks o: the educator is to train the youn" to control the irrational part o: their natures and achieve sel:-discipline- Aristotle considered repetition very i)portant as part o: this aspect o: learnin"- For e9a)ple0 the essence o: )oral .ehaviour is in :ollowin" the ri"ht rule0 and the a.ility to do so depends on :or)in" the ri"ht ha.it- Si)ilarly0 intellectual +ualities such as rationality are produced throu"h
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teachin" that develops the :acility to reco"ni/e the ri"ht scienti:ic or ethical principle in any "iven situation- Aristotle also thou"ht it was i)portant to .alance the theoretical0 practical and i)a"inative parts o: nature so0 unlike Plato0 he endorsed play and leisure as part o: li.eral education* OThere are .ranches o: learnin" and education which we )ust study )erely with a view to leisure spent in intellectual activity0 and these are to .e valued :or their own sakeJ <%olitics=Educational implications of teleological thinking: curriculum design Aristotelian thinkin" has .een in:luential in curriculu) desi"n- $ecause people are driven .y the desire to achieve various ends0 it is i)portant :or the curriculu) <in %atin0 the course :or a chariot race= to set clear ai)s and o.Rectives- The technical>rational )odel o: curriculu) plannin" :ocuses on teachin" o.Rectives or outco)es and on appropriate instructional techni+ues to achieve the)- This is in accord with AristotleJs interest in ai)s or ends and their achieve)ent@)plications :or curriculu) desi"n Q Q Q Q Q Students need to know why they are learnin" a topicStudents are )otivated .y "oalsGoals or learnin" outco)es should .e used to indicate what students will .e a.le to do on co)pletion o: the learnin"Goals )ay need to .e )anu:actured throu"h assess)entGoal-)atchin"0 where student "oals are ali"ned to teachin" "oals0 is an e::icient )otivator-
Educational implications of teleological thinking: de.elopment theor$ @n the )odern era0 develop)ental theories have .eco)e attached to the )odern discipline o: psycholo"y- One o: the )ost si"ni:icant thinkers in this area was the Swiss develop)ental theorist Jean Pia"et who0 like Aristotle0 was hi"hly in:luenced .y .iolo"y- Accordin" to his theory o: co"nitive develop)ent discussed in Chapter H0 OConstructivis)J and Chapter 60 O%i:e course develop)entJ0 children pro"ress throu"h several identi:ia.le0 pre-deter)ined sta"es in their intellectual "rowth- Pia"etJs conte)porary0 the #ussian psycholo"ist %ev Iy"otsky0 while a"reein" that there are identi:ia.le sta"es0 disa"reed a.out their deter)ined nature- This is discussed in Chapter 60 O%i:e course develop)entJ-
-e, i%eas
Q Q The philosophy o: education studies the purposes0 processes0 nature and ideals o: educationThe philosophy o: education e9plains how educational theories arise0 and how they co)ple)ent or oppose each other-
18
Q Q Q Q
@dealis) holds that ideas represent ulti)ate reality so theory precedes practice and conceptual or"ani/ation is para)ount !)piricis) and ro)anticis) stress the si"ni:icance o: e9perience so learnin" is natural > .ut re+uirin" the provision o: e9periences;evelop)ent philosophies e)phasi/e the purpose o: hu)an activity and the nature o: such develop)entThe purposes o: education are articulated and e9pressed at a practical level throu"h the curriculu)-
Conclusions
@n considerin" the value o: the philosophy o: education0 you )i"ht :ind it help:ul to consider the .ene:its that educational philosophy o::ers to the :ield o: education "enerally0 as well as to the educational pro:ession and the individual educator@n the educational :ield0 the philosophy o: education* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q shows that opposin" positions such as idealis) and e)piricis) are de:ensi.leP ena.les us to consider the ori"in and provenance o: educational practicesP provides a lan"ua"e :or educational discourse and de.ateP presents well thou"ht-out ar"u)ents :or di::erent theoretical stancesP challen"es :aulty ar"u)ent0 super:icial de.ate and educational :adsP provides a source o: alternative ideas to challen"e prevailin" orthodo9iesP analyses educationJs ai)s0 roles and )ethods-
For the education pro:ession0 the philosophy o: education* Q Q Q Q Q Q Rusti:ies educational practicesP contri.utes to the scholarship o: teachin"P provides education with deep intellectual rootsP links educators with a tradition o: educational discourseP :acilitates ar"u)ent and de.ateP helps develop evaluative and critical thinkin"-
For the individual educator0 the philosophy o: education* Q Q Q Q Q enriches and deepens personal e9perienceP "ives intellectual credence to instinctive or intuitive practiceP provides pleasure in the e9ploration o: educational ideasP provides intellectual .ackin" :or educational viewsP :acilitates open-)indedness .y presentin" alternative perspectives-
There:ore0 philosophy :or)s an i)portant part o: every educatorJs education-
19
)e*erences
Aristotle <3763= The %olitics <#ev ed- T-J- Saunders=0 %ondon* Pen"uin ClassicsAristotle <377B= &elections <trans- T- @rwin and G- Fine 37BB=- @ndianapolis* ackett Pu.lishin" Co)pany0 @ncAyer0 A- J- <37B'= Language! Truth and Logic- 1ew 2ork* ;over Pu.lications$loo)0 $- and ?rathnohl0 ;- <37B&= Taxonom$ of Educational /b0ecti.es: The lassifica( tion of Educational Goals B$ a ommittee of ollege and *ni.ersit$ Examiners- )andbooks 1 to 2- 1ew 2ork* %on")ans GreenCho)sky0 1- <37CB= The Logic &tructure of Linguistic Theor$- 1ew 2ork* Plenu);awes0 %-0 Mercer0 1- and Ge"eri:0 #- <'444= Thinking Together: A %rogramme of Acti.ities for 3e.eloping Thinking &kills at 4&5- $ir)in"ha)* The (uestions Pu.lishin" Co)pany %td!aston0 F- <377C= !ducatin" the whole child0 Ohead0 heart and handsJ* %earnin" :ro) the Galdor: !9perience0 Theor$ into %ractice! A&<'=* 6C>7Heath0 ;- <37B7= %i.eral education* John Theor$! 7<A=* 3B'>Birst0 P- <37&B= %i.eral education and the nature o: knowled"e0 in #-;- Archa).ault <ed-= %hilosophical Anal$sis and Education- %ondon* #outled"eu)e0 ;- <3CA7F'44C= A Treatise of )uman Nature- Siou9 Falls* 1uIision Pu.lications?ant0 @- <364AF37&4= Education <trans- A- Churston=- Ar.or0 MA* The University o: Michi"an Press?Trner0 S- <37BB= 4ant- %ondon* Pen"uin $ooks%ip)an0 M-0 Sharp0 A- and Oscanyan0 F- <3764= %hilosoph$ in the 1J* Te)ple University PressMiller0 J- <376H= Rousseau: 3reamer of 3emocrac$- %ondon* 2ale University PressMontessori0 M- <373'= The Montessori Method0 &cientific %edagog$ as Applied to hild lassroom- Princeton0 enry 1ew)anJs conception0 Educational
Education in 6the hildren7s )ouses7 trans- Anne !- Geor"e 1ew 2ork* Frederick Stokes Co)pany MCMD@@Mulcahy0 ;- <37C'= Cardinal 1ew)anJs Concept o: a %i.eral !ducation0 Educational Theor$0 ''<3=* 6C>761eill0 A-S- <377'= &ummerhill &chool: A New "iew of hildhood! A- %a). <ed-=- 1ew 2ork* St MartinJs Press1oddin"s0 1- <'44C= %hilosoph$ of Education <'nd edn=- Colorado0 CA* Gestview PressPlato <37&6= The Republic <trans- $- Jowett=- Massachusetts* Air)ont Pu.lishin"#ousseau0 J- <3C&'F3773=0 ,mile or /n Education- Allan $loo)e ed- %ondon* Pen"uin-
2"
#ousseau0 J- J- <3C64F377H= ,mile et &ophie ou Les &olitaires- Paris* #iva"es#ussell0 $- <373'F37B7= The %roblems of %hilosoph$- o)e University %i.rary* O9:ord University PressS)ith0 J-0 Clark0 ?-0 and %ints0 #- <'44H= 181 4e$ Terms in %hilosoph$ and their #mportance for Theolog$- Gest)inster* John ?no9 PressStewart0 ;- <377A= Teachin" or :acilitatin"* a :alse dichoto)y0 Education! 36<3=* 3>3AGeiss0 #- <'443= Iirtue in the Cave0 Moral @n+uiry in PlatoJs Meno- O9:ord* O9:ord University Pressanadian 9ournal of
Chapter 2
0ehaviouris&
(ntro%uction
Ghenever a )o.ile phone rin"s on any .us or train0 people scra).le to check whether itJs theirs- This is a clear e9a)ple o: a near-auto)atic response to a sti)ulus@t illustrates per:ectly one o: the :unda)ental laws underlyin" .ehaviouris) > the crucial .ond .etween sti)ulus and response$ehaviouris) is the )ost in:luential and "enerali/a.le theory o: learnin" that clai)s a scienti:ic .asis- This is .ecause0 like the )ost use:ul theories in any :ield0 it is universal and underpinned .y only a :ew principles- As its na)e su""ests0 it concentrates on .ehavioural chan"es in or"anis)s- Thus0 .ehaviourists de:ine learnin" as a relatively per)anent chan"e in .ehaviour as the result o: e9perience- This chan"e in .ehaviour is always o.serva.le0 with so)e .ehaviourists proposin" that i: no o.serva.le chan"e happens0 no learnin" has occurred- Althou"h .ehaviourists do not deny that learners think0 they )ainly choose to i"nore inaccessi.le )ental processes and :ocus on o.serva.le .ehaviour- The use o: ani)als in early .ehaviourist e9peri)ents0 which con:ined o.servations to e9ternal .ehaviour0 )ay have rein:orced the .ehaviourist e9clusion o: co"nitive activityAlthou"h there are pro.le)s with the .ehaviourist avoidance o: any discussion o: )ental activity0 the theory has nevertheless led to a )ore critical interest in what learners can .e seen to do in order to learn- Moreover0 so)e later .ehaviourists have acknowled"ed co"nitive activity .y stressin" the i)portance o: e9pectation and )otivation within the learnin" process-
The %evelop&ent o* ehaviouris&

Classical con%itioning
$ehaviouris) had its ori"ins in the last years o: the nineteenth century0 when physiolo"ists such as @van Pavlov investi"ated ani)alsJ auto)atic and involuntary responses to sti)uli <Pavlov 37'C=- Classical .ehaviourists .elieve that all learnin" con:or)s to o.serva.le scienti:ic laws "overnin" .ehavioural associations and patternsP the learner si)ply responds to e9ternal sti)uli in a deter)inistic )annerFi"ure '-3 illustrates PavlovJs classic e9peri)ents with do"s which are well known- Pavlov noted that the s)ell o: :ood caused do"s to salivate- This is an Ounconditional responseJ .ecause the do"s reacted naturally to the :ood <the Ounconditional sti)ulusJ=- Pavlov .e"an rin"in" a .ell <a Oconditional sti)ulusJ= i))ediately prior to providin" the :ood0 and discovered that a:ter a certain nu).er o: repetitions0
22
ood
!alivation
"nconditional response
ood
#ell
!alivation
#ell
!alivation
Conditional response
Figure 2.1
Unconditional and conditional responses-
the .ell alone was su::icient to cause salivation- This is a OconditionalJ or trained response and needs to occur conti"uously0 or close in ti)e0 to the unconditionalGhen the conditional sti)ulus <the .ell= is repeatedly presented without the associated unconditional sti)ulus <the :ood=0 the conditional response <salivation= declines until it is non-e9istent- This is called Oe9tinctionJ- The principle o: conditional response underpins the .ehaviour )odi:ication called Oclassical conditionin"J0 which is at the heart o: .ehaviouris)- $ehaviourists tend to use the ter) Oconditionin"J instead o: Olearnin"J to indicate that the su.Rect is chan"ed .y e9ternal rather than co"nitive eventsThe theory o: classical conditionin" can .e used to e9plain how people learn a variety o: involuntary responses0 especially those associated with physiolo"ical :unctionin" or the e)otions- For e9a)ple0 )ost people e9perience darkness as an unconditional sti)ulus :or "oin" to sleepP there:ore0 in particular environ)ental settin"s0 darkness )ay elicit a O"o-to-sleepJ response- Classical conditionin" is also use:ul :or e9plainin" the develop)ent o: :ears and pho.ias- For e9a)ple0 a person who is .itten .y a do" )ay .eco)e a:raid o: that .reed o: do"0 or even o: all do"s-
Reinforcement Shortly a:ter Pavlov0 the A)erican psycholo"ist !dward Thorndike introduced a theory o: learnin" that e)phasi/ed the role o: e9perience in stren"thenin" or weakenin" a sti)ulus>response .ond <Thorndike 3733=- Thorndike created pu//le .o9es :ro) which ani)als learned to escape throu"h trial and error- Thorndike .elieved that rewardin" correct responses stren"thened a particular .ehaviour0 whereas i"norin" incorrect responses "radually weakened it- This is the principle o: rein:orce)ent0 which is de:ined as any event that increases the pro.a.ility that an associated .ehaviour will .e repeated- ThorndikeJs idea that rewards pro)ote learnin" is a key co)ponent o: .ehaviourist theory to the present day- is e9peri)ents provide in:or)ation a.out the nature o: voluntary or sel:-directed .ehaviour0 in contrast to the si)ple responses e)phasi/ed in classical conditionin"- Althou"h Thorndike does not re:er directly to co"nition0 his studies on trial and error su""est that su.Rects undertake so)e level o: )ental in:or)ation-processin"-
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Generali:ation A)erican psycholo"ist John Gatson e9tended the role o: classical conditionin" .eyond re:le9es to include e)otional responses and0 in so doin"0 de)onstrated the principle o: "enerali/ation- is .est-known e9peri)ent0 the case o: O%ittle Al.ertJ0 de)onstrated how :ears )ay .e conditioned- This e9peri)ent involved an 33)onth-old in:ant who learned to :ear white rats throu"h a conditioned association with loud noises- %ittle Al.ert was su.se+uently conditioned to :ear si)ilar o.Rects or ani)als such as white ra..its0 white :urry toys and cotton woolP in other words0 his :ear .eca)e "enerali/ed <Gatson and #ayner 37'4=Gatson also called :or the use o: scienti:ic o.Rectivity in learnin" and coined the ter) O$ehaviouris)J <Gatson 373A=- e was the )ost radical o: the early .ehaviourists* Give )e a do/en healthy in:ants0 well-:or)ed0 and )y own speci:ied world to .rin" the) up in0 and @Jll "uarantee to take any one at rando) and train hi) to .e any type o: specialist @ )i"ht select > doctor0 lawyer0 artist0 )erchant-chie: and0 yes0 even .e""ar-)an and thie:0 re"ardless o: his talents0 penchants0 tendencies0 a.ilities0 vocations and the race o: his ancestors<Gatson 37A4* 6'=
3ri.es
Clark ull atte)pted to descri.e .ehaviour in ter)s o: a series o: scienti:ic laws with )any varia.les and co)ple9 e+uations < ull 37HA=- is theory typi:ied the scienti:ic approach to psycholo"y that was prevalent in his ti)e- e was in:luenced .y ;arwinian evolutionary theory and )aintained that .ehaviour :unctions as a survival )echanis)- For hi)0 .ehaviour is directed towards )a9i)i/in" the chances o: survival- is theory revolves around the satis:action o: .iolo"ical needs0 includin" hun"er0 thirst and sleep0 which are essential to survivalAccordin" to ull0 or"anis)s possess two key characteristics > drive and ha.it stren"th- ;rive is an internal state o: arousal0 which )otivates .ehaviourP Oha.it stren"th )easures the association .etween a particular sti)ulus and response- An or"anis) will usually choose the response connected to the stron"est ha.it- For e9a)ple0 rats in a )a/e that o::ers a choice o: routes will "enerally choose the route to which they are )ost accusto)edThe classical .ehaviourist view has the sti)ulus leadin" directly to the response@n co)parison0 .etween the sti)ulus and response0 ull interposes the or"anis) whose drive and ha.it stren"th )ay vary0 so that the response depends not only on the sti)ulus .ut also on the characteristics o: the intervenin" or"anis)- Fi"ure '-' shows the or"anis) itsel: as an intervenin" varia.le .etween sti)ulus and response and a su))ary o: the key ter)s used in classical conditionin" is "iven in Ta.le '-3-
24
Figure 2.2 Ta le 2.1
A co)parison o: classical conditionin" and ?ey ter)s in classical conditionin"
ullJs theory-
lassical conditioning *nconditional stimulus Neutral stimulus onditional stimulus *nconditional response onditional response ontiguit$ Extinction "ariation
%earnin" in which a su.Rect co)es to respond to a conditional sti)ulus repeatedly presented alon" with an unconditional sti)ulus Any sti)ulus that elicits an auto)atic reaction in an or"anis)
A sti)ulus that does not cause the or"anis) to respond A neutral sti)ulus that elicits a particular reaction .y association with an unconditional sti)ulus An auto)atic reaction elicited .y a sti)ulus
The .ehaviour that occurs when the conditional sti)ulus is presented The close association in ti)e o: conditional and unconditional sti)uli The eli)ination o: .ehaviour .y re)ovin" the unconditional sti)ulus The process o: varyin" the sti)uli in order to produce a )ore "enerali/ed response The .ehaviour that occurs when or"anis)s respond in the sa)e way to sti)uli that are si)ilar to an ori"inal conditional sti)ulus 1eeds such as hun"er0 thirst and sleep The pattern in which :re+uent and conti"uous presentation o: the sti)ulus and response is desi"ned to produce an association .etween the)
Generali:ation 3ri.e stimuli Repetition
)abit strength
The :re+uency o: association .etween a particular sti)ulus and response0 which usually leads an or"anis) to choose the response connected to the stron"est ha.it
1perant con%itioning
$urhaus Frederic Skinner is the .est-known psycholo"ist in the US .ehaviourist tradition- @n the 37A4s0 he adopted a care:ully structured approach called Ooperant conditionin"J in which the .ehaviour o: the su.Rect deter)ines the response to the su.RectJs own actions <Skinner 37A6=-
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For e9a)ple0 in his OSkinner $o9J0 Skinner used positive rein:orce)ent to train rats to press a lever to o.tain :ood pellets- The positive rein:orce)ent provided .y the :ood increases the pro.a.ility that the rats will press the lever a"ain- 1e"ative rein:orce)ent re)oves an aversive sti)ulus a:ter the correct response > :or e9a)ple0 rats press a lever to re)ove an electric shock- The relie: :ro) pain:ul e9perience also increases the pro.a.ility that the lever will .e pressed a"ainSkinner uses the ter) Orein:orcerJ rather than OrewardJ .ecause Orein:orcerJ has an association with .ehaviour whereas OrewardJ does not- A response :ollowed .y a rein:orcin" sti)ulus is stren"thened and is there:ore )ore likely to occur a"ain- The lar"er and )ore appealin" the rein:orcer0 the :aster a response will .e learned- A response that is not :ollowed .y a rein:orcin" sti)ulus is weakened0 and is there:ore less likely to occur a"ain- The link .etween sti)ulus and response "radually .eco)es weaker and su.se+uently dies > :or e9a)ple0 rats repeatedly pressin" a lever without receivin" :ood pellets will eventually a.andon that .ehaviour- This results in e9tinction- There:ore* Q Q desired .ehaviours are rewarded causin" their :re+uency to increaseP undesired .ehaviours are punished causin" their :re+uency to decrease-
Althou"h Skinner did not consider punish)ent as e::ective as rein:orce)ent in )odi:yin" .ehaviour it is still co))only used as a deterrent- Types o: reward and punish)ent are shown in Fi"ure '-A-
Figure 2.3 #ein:orce)ent and punish)ent&ource: .ased on Oates et al- <'44B* BB=Skinner e9peri)ented with what he called continuous and varia.le schedules- @n continuous rein:orce)ent0 every correct response is varia.le rein:orce)ent0 only so)e are- Skinner :ound that varia.le schedules lead to steadier response rates .ecause o: the possi.ility response will pay o::rein:orce)ent rein:orcedP in rein:orce)ent that the ne9t
26
@n other e9peri)ents0 Skinner <37B6a= trained pi"eons to play a type o: ta.le tennis .y a process called Oshapin"J- At :irst pi"eons were rewarded when they per:or)ed an action that va"uely appro9i)ated to the tar"et .ehaviour- Then the reward was restricted to actions that )ore closely )atched the tar"et .ehaviourGradually their .ehaviour was OshapedJ until it was satis:actory- A su))ary o: the key ter)s used in operant coniditonin" is "iven in Ta.le '-'Ta le 2.2 ?ey ter)s in operant conditionin"
/perant conditioning Reinforcement ontinuous reinforcement "ariable reinforcement ;agnitude Repetition Extinction &haping
The process o: shapin" .ehaviour .y :ollowin" it with rein:orce)ent that increases in :re+uency An event that increases the pro.a.ility that the event precedin" it will .e repeated A pattern in which every desira.le response is :ollowed .y rein:orce)ent A pattern in which only so)e desira.le responses are :ollowed .y rein:orce)ent A ter) that descri.es the scale o: a lar"e and appealin" rein:orcer that is likely to produce :aster learnin" o: responses The :re+uency o: rein:orced operant .ehaviour that stren"thens association .etween sti)ulus and response The eli)ination o: .ehaviour .y re)ovin" rein:orce)ent The process o: rein:orcin" .ehaviour as it .eco)es )ore like the tar"et .ehaviour
Later %evelop&ents in ehaviouris&

Althou"h Thorndike had descri.ed ani)al learnin" in ter)s o: trial and error0 Gestalt theorists such as Gol:"an" ?Thler <37'B= presented apes with pro.le)s involvin" out-o:-reach :ood- They appeared to solve the pro.le) throu"h a process o: sudden co"nitive insi"ht rather than .y si)ple trial and error <;avey '44H* '&H=$y the )id-twentieth century0 there was a "rowin" reco"nition that conditionin" involves a co"nitive ele)ent- 1eo-.ehaviourists acknowled"e that operant and classical conditionin" to"ether do not co)pletely deter)ine .ehaviours- For e9a)ple0 the A)erican psycholo"ist !dwin Chace Tol)an de)onstrated that rats could "o .eyond si)ple sti)ulus>response .ehaviour and could learn0 re)e).er and use :acts a.out a )a/e <Tol)an et al- 37H&=- Tol)an later descri.ed such )ental codin"0 storin" and accessin" o: spatial and other in:or)ation as a Oco"nitive )apJ <Tol)an 37H6=- At the ti)e0 however0 this research :ailed to )ake )uch i)pact .ecause .ehaviourists such as Skinner ar"ued that studyin" .ehaviour was )ore use:ul than investi"atin" )ental states <Skinner 37B4=$ehaviouris) and its :ocus on e9ternal .ehaviour do)inated the :ield o: psycholo"y until the 37&4s when co"nitive approaches .rou"ht a renewed interest in internal )ental processes-
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.%ucational i&plications o* ehaviouris&

!ducation has always had the )odi:ication o: .ehaviour as one o: its )ain purposes0 and .ehaviourist principles operate at all educational levels > :ro) the s)ile and approval o: the in:antJs teacher to the award o: credits and de"rees at the hi"hest levels- Althou"h di::erent educational sectors use .ehaviourist principles to di::erent e9tents and in di::erent ways > adults need less .ehavioural control than children0 :or e9a)ple > we can see that .ehaviouris) has in:luenced ideas a.out learner .ehaviour0 curriculu) plannin"0 and the teacherJs role in the classroo)-
Learner ehaviour
1eo-.ehaviourists reco"ni/ed the i)portance o: learnersJ internal characteristics0 such as personality0 )otivation and ha.it- ull <37HA= :actored in )otivation and ha.its as varia.les in his scienti:ic OlawsJ- Skinner <37BA= talks a.out students developin" sel:-control and sel:-)onitorin" pro"ra))es where they identi:y their own rein:orcers and apply .ehaviourist principles to the)selves- For e9a)ple0 a student )i"ht identi:y tendencies towards lateness0 )onitor per:or)ance0 decide which sti)uli are e::ective0 set "oals0 and consider rein:orcers@n the 37&4s0 the investi"ations o: co"nitive science into processes like )e)ory and perception <see Chapter A0 OCo"nitivis)J= provided new perspectives on learnin"Ghereas classical .ehaviouris) :ocused only on the e9ternal )anipulation o: the or"anis)0 the develop)ent o: co"nitive science led to a stron"er awareness o: the i)portance o: internal as well as e9ternal .ehaviours-
0loo&2s ta!ono&, o* learning

@n the 37B4s0 the neo-.ehaviourist $enRa)in $loo) atte)pted to develop a )odel that linked e9ternal and internal .ehaviours <$loo) and ?rathwohl 37B&=- @n his in:luential ta9ono)y o: learnin"0 he proposed three do)ains or spheres o: learnin" > the co"nitive0 a::ective and psycho)otor > which translate learnin" into overt o.serva.le .ehaviours- !ach do)ain presents a set o: .ehaviours0 which are hierarchical accordin" to co)ple9ity and sophisticationThe co"nitive do)ain is the .est-known and )ost educationally applica.le o: $loo)Js do)ains and deals with the ways that internal knowled"e )ay .e revealed .y e9ternal .ehaviour- $ehaviours pro"ress :ro) those de)onstratin" .asic su.Rect knowled"e up to an a.ility to evaluate or Rud"e the worth o: knowled"e- For e9a)ple0 learnin" a lan"ua"e )oves :ro) knowin" si)ple voca.ulary at the lowest level to the a.ility to evaluate literary te9ts at the hi"hest level <see Ta.le '-A=@t is i)portant to re)e).er that the levels in the co"nitive do)ain )ay not .e se+uential or :i9ed- For e9a)ple0 youn" childrenJs learnin" activities need not .e con:ined to the lower levels o: the co"nitive ta9ono)y0 and people )ay operate
28
concurrently at di::erent levels such as knowled"e and analysis- Moreover0 advanced learners )ay use hi"her-order evaluation skills to identi:y the need :or new knowled"e0 a lower-order skillTa le 2.3 $loo)Js co"nitive do)ain
Levels E.aluation &$nthesis Anal$sis Application omprehension 4nowledge
0ehaviours Appraisin"0 discri)inatin"0 assessin"0 resolvin" Su))ari/in"0 "enerali/in"0 inte"ratin"0 constructin" $reakin" down0 cate"ori/in"0 co)parin"0 contrastin" Applyin"0 trans:errin"0 e)ployin"0 or"ani/in" Paraphrasin"0 reco"ni/in"0 illustratin"0 e9plainin" Outlinin"0 recountin"0 de:inin"0 enu)eratin"
&ource: .ased on $loo) and ?rathwohl <37B&=The a::ective do)ain is less well known .ecause it deals with attitudes and values in relation to particular su.Rect areas- @t is use:ul in cate"ori/in" values and levels o: pro:essionalis)- $ehaviours pro"ress :ro) si)ple attentiveness up to an inte"ration o: values and their trans:er to other appropriate situations <see Ta.le '-H=- For e9a)ple0 trainee teachers )ay attend only to events inside the classroo)- owever0 at the hi"hest level they )ay see that teachin" also a::ects what happens outside the classroo)Ta le 2.4 $loo)Js a::ective do)ain
Levels Generali:ation "alue s$stem "alue Response Attention
0ehaviours Trans:errin" e9e)pli:ied nor)s to wider-related conte9ts !9e)pli:yin" social or pro:essional nor)s revealin" inte"ration o: values Actin" respect:ully0 actin" responsi.ly0 takin" care0 principled action #espondin"0 reactin"0 answerin"0 si"nallin" $ein" present0 attendin" to0 noticin"0 heedin"
&ource: .ased on $loo) and ?rathwohl <37B&=The si)plest and )ost o.viously .ehavioural do)ain is the psycho)otor- @t is use:ul in indicatin" levels o: skilled per:or)ance- $ehaviours )ove :ro) the a.ility to "ive an overview o: a task up to )astery o: a skill throu"h practice0 inte"ration and auto)ati/ation <see Ta.le '-B=- For e9a)ple0 a woodwork student pro"resses :ro) :ollowin" a set o: worksheet instructions throu"h to )akin" individual Roints up to desi"nin"0 constructin" and evaluatin" a co)plete piece o: :urniture :or a woodwork proRect-
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Ta le 2.5
$loo)Js psycho)otor do)ain
Level ;aster$ onscious control oordinated performance %artial performance %rocedural task knowledge
0ehaviours Actin" auto)atically with s)ooth and e::ortless e9pertise ;isplayin" co)petence with concentrated e::ort Co).inin" individual ele)ents o: a psycho)otor skill Per:or)in" individual ele)ents o: a psycho)otor skill Statin" procedures0 listin" se+uence o: actions0 :ollowin" instructions
&ource: .ased on $loo) and ?rathwohl <37B&=-
Curriculu& planning an% &o%els o* instruction

$loo)Js ta9ono)ies0 particularly in the co"nitive do)ain0 have .een used to "uide curriculu) plannin"P his concept o: O)astery learnin"J <37&6= has .een particularly in:luential- OMastery learnin"J involves the state)ent o: educational o.Rectives and their translation into learner .ehaviours so as to "enerate criteria :or assess)ent "rades at various levels in the do)ain- For e9a)ple0 in !n"lish literature0 .ehaviours that de)onstrate an understandin" o: the concept o: alliteration )i"ht include* Q Q Q Q Q providin" a de:inition <knowled"e=P "ivin" an e9a)ple <co)prehension=P reco"ni/in" alliteration in conte9t <application=P lookin" closely at e9a)ples <analysis=P appraisin" the e::ectiveness o: alliteration in a "iven conte9t <evaluation=-
The e9plicit linkin" o: co"nitive develop)ents and .ehaviours helps teachers .oth to devise learnin" activities that allow learners to practise the .ehaviours0 and to look :or these .ehaviours when assessin" learnersJ per:or)anceThe 37B4s saw the scienti:ic interest in .ehaviour )odi:ication )er"e with the scienti:ic interest in )ana"e)ent- @n the United States0 this produced a "eneral application o: )ana"e)ent principles and syste)s theory in industry and educationAn e9a)ple o: this is the Otechnical rationalJ )odel o: curriculu) developed :or the US school syste) .y #alph Tyler <37H7= a:ter the Second Gorld Gar- This )odel was .ased on an analysis o: the ways in which educational )aterial could .e .roken down into discrete ele)ents and se+uenced in the appropriate order :or presentation to learnersSkinner thou"ht that this syste)atic delivery o: )aterial could .e per:or)ed relia.ly .y teachin" )achines that could take on the task o: drill and repetition0 i)portant in :or)in" .ehavioural ha.its <Skinner 37B6.=- This would allow the teacher to en"a"e in )ore social interaction with learners- These )achines0 initially )echanical and later co)puter-.ased0 presented )aterials > usually te9t or nu).ers > in care:ully se+uenced0 s)all0 incre)ental steps- This e)phasis on correct se+uencin"
3"
led to the develop)ent o: instructional desi"n <see Chapter 3&0 O$lended learnin"J=0 which is an approach to instruction that atte)pts to incorporate syste)atically all the events a::ectin" learnin" <Ga"nS et al- 377'=- @nstructional desi"n principles have .een used to "uide curriculu) plannin" in the trainin" and vocational world and in the :ield o: co)puter-.ased learnin"-
The teacher2s role in the classroo&

The se+uencin" o: curricular events led to an interest in the correct se+uencin" o: classroo) events and the teacherJs role in sti)ulatin" learnersJ .ehavioural responsesGa"nS :ocused on the i)portance o: arran"in" sti)uli to produce the )ost appropriate and desira.le .ehavioural se+uences- e speci:ied nine Ointernal processes and their correspondin" instructional eventsJ <Ga"nS and Medsker 377&* 3H4P see Ta.le '-&=- These events can .e used to structure lesson plans0 sessions or learnin" )aterialsTa le 2.6 @nternal processes and their correspondin" instructional events
Teacher action 3 Gainin" learnerJs attention ' Statin" session o.Rectives A #e)indin" what was done .e:ore H i"hli"htin" key :eatures B Structurin" learnin" & !ncoura"in" activity C Providin" :eed.ack 6 !valuatin" pro"ress 7 !nhancin" attention and si"nallin" :uture learnin" &ource: .ased on Ga"nS and Medsker <377&* 3H4=-
Learner response 3 #eception and attentiveness ' ?nowin" what to e9pect A Sti)ulation o: lon"-ter) )e)ory H Perceivin" what is i)portant B Creatin" links and associations & Per:or)in" C %earnin" awareness and satis:action 6 Stren"thenin" learnin" 7 Gainin" learnin" overview
+ractical i&plications o* ehaviouris&

Althou"h current educational practice is perhaps )ost in:luenced .y conte)porary theories o: constructivist )eanin"-)akin" <see Chapter H0 OConstructivis)J=0 :our aspects o: it also display .ehaviourist :eatures* curriculu) plannin"0 learnin" outco)es0 assess)ent and .ehaviour )ana"e)ent-
Curriculu& planning
The :ollowin" list outlines curriculu)-plannin" steps co))only undertaken .y teachers at di::erent educational levels-
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3'AHB&C6734333'3A3H-
identi:y the need :or the pro"ra))eP deter)ine the ai)s and instructional o.Rectives o: the pro"ra))eP de:ine the characteristics o: the tar"et "roupP list the precise learnin" outco)esP cate"ori/e learnin" outco)es accordin" to $loo)Js ta9ono)iesP .reak the )aterial down into s)all unitsP care:ully se+uence these unitsP provide :re+uent practice to stren"then the sti)ulus>response .ondP ensure that the learner responds <does thin"s=P o.serve and assess any .ehavioural chan"esP provide opportunities :or :re+uent learner :eed.ackP rein:orce OcorrectJ .ehaviour with i))ediate rewardsP evaluate the e::ectiveness o: the pro"ra))eP )odi:y and i)prove the pro"ra))e-
Learning outco&es
%earnin" outco)es0 which have developed :ro) the .ehavioural educational o.Rectives descri.ed a.ove0 are increasin"ly used at all levels o: education0 althou"h their application is )ore strai"ht:orward when the .ehaviours are easily o.served- Their use is )ore di::icult when applied to co)ple9 and internal thou"ht processesA learnin" outco)e is an e9plicit state)ent o: what a learner will .e a.le to do as a result o: co)pletin" a course o: study- A learnin" outco)e state)ent includes* Q Q Q action0 e9pressed usin" precise .ehavioural ver.sP conte9t0 which re+uires re:erence to the conditions o: per:or)anceP threshold0 which is an indication o: accepta.le per:or)ance > that is0 a state)ent a.out the per:or)ance threshold re+uired-
%earnin" outco)es help learners at all levels to understand e9actly what is e9pected o: the) and to tailor their learnin" activities accordin"ly- Fi"ure '-H identi:ies the ele)ents o: a typical learnin" outco)e- One o: the )aRor contri.utions o: .ehaviouris) to conte)porary educational practice has .een to re)ove the )ysti+ue and va"ueness that has :re+uently characteri/ed the discourse o: educational ai)s and o.Rectives-
Assess&ent
@t is co))only held that e::ective assess)ent tasks should test the per:or)ance o: .ehaviours stated in learnin" outco)es under the sa)e conditions as those under which they were learnt- For e9a)ple0 i: the learnin" outco)e states that apprentice carpenters will .e a.le to han" a door0 the assess)ent should re+uire the) to han" a door rather than descri.e the techni+ue in a written e9a)ination0 which is what o:ten happens-
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$n successful completion of this module% &the learner will be able to play' &accurately all the ma(or and minor scales and arpeggios up to t)o octaves' &on a chosen instrument.'
*ction +behavioural verb , -erformance threshold Context +conditions of performance,
Figure 2.4
An e9a)ple o: a learnin" outco)e-
$ehaviourist principles )ay also .e seen in the )ove towards criterionre:erenced assess)ent- The e9tent to which a learner has achieved stated learnin" outco)es is Rud"ed accordin" to .ehavioural criteria speci:ied in those outco)es- This replaces older concepts o: nor)-re:erenced assess)ent0 which are .ased on ratin" learner per:or)ance in relation to avera"e or Onor)alJ "roup per:or)ance- @n nor)-re:erenced assess)ent0 the pattern o: distri.ution around the nor) )eans a certain portion o: learners )ust .e rated as per:or)in" at a .elow-avera"e levelGhen learners are assessed accordin" to criteria0 however0 it is possi.le that all could )eet the criteria and .e Rud"ed as per:or)in" at a satis:actory level- This shi:t in assess)ent practices is there:ore clearly o: .ene:it to learners$ehaviourist principles are use:ul as part o: :or)ative assess)ent0 which is a kind o: assess)ent desi"ned to provide :eed.ack :or the learner and teacher0 rather than to record or certi:y achieve)ent- For)ative assess)ent )ay .e seen as a :or) o: rein:orce)ent0 desi"ned to )otivate and encoura"e learners- To .e e::ective0 the rein:orce)ent o: desired .ehaviour )ust .e provided consistently and in a ti)ely )anner so that the correct response is rein:orced- Ghen it co)es to assess)ent0 there:ore0 learners should receive :eed.ack as +uickly as possi.le a:ter the assess)ent task-
0ehaviour &anage&ent
Chan"in" or stren"thenin" learnersJ .ehaviours is the ai) o: )ost ele)entary learnin" pro"ra))es0 with this stren"thenin" o: speci:ic .ehaviours actin" as a precursor to the develop)ent o: co"nitive skillsAs part o: the process o: .ehaviour )ana"e)ent0 teachers can use operant conditionin" techni+ues0 which Skinner clai)s work .est in providin" )otivation :or learnin" <Skinner 37&7=- @ndeed0 positive rein:orce)ent or the use o: praise as a )otivator lies .ehind practices that seek to reward learners when they de)onstrate the .ehaviour the teacher has set out to inculcate- #ein:orcers )ay .e* Q Q Q )aterial0 such as pri/es and awardsP social0 such as teacher attention0 approval or praiseP activity-related0 such as an opportunity to en"a"e in a :avourite activityP
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intrinsic0 such as :eelin"s o: sel:-actuali/ation or pride-
The use o: punish)ent to deter undesired .ehaviours is not reco))ended .ecause learners )ay si)ply try to avoid .ein" cau"ht .ehavin" in an inappropriate way0 rather than discontinuin" the .ehaviour in +uestion- The use o: sanctions or a"reed conse+uences o: .ehaviour is pre:era.le to punish)ent .ecause this strate"y draws on the principles o: operant conditionin"0 such that learners are instru)ental in deter)inin" outco)es and hence appropriate rein:orce)ent$ehaviour )odi:ication in the :or) o: Applied $ehavioural Analysis <A$A= is an e::ective teachin" )ethod :or autistic children and those with learnin" and .ehavioural di::iculties- @n this )ethod0 teachers identi:y appropriate tar"et .ehaviours0 which are .roken down into s)all steps that re+uire the child to e9hi.it the desired .ehaviours0 which are care:ully rein:orced- Applied $ehavioural Analysis is an e9pensive )ethod re+uirin" one-on-one tuition0 .ut has .een shown to .e )ore e::ective than )ainstrea) teachin"- Parents are o:ten tau"ht the techni+ues <Oates et al- '44B* BC>6=- @t should .e noted that A$A has .een critici/ed :or its .ehaviourist approach0 which includes a view o: the learner as de:icient0 with education providin" a re)edy deter)ined .y e9perts-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q $ehaviouris) :ocuses on o.serva.le learnin" events as de)onstrated .y sti)ulus and response relationships%earnin" always involves a chan"e in .ehaviourMental processes should .e e9cluded :ro) the scienti:ic study o: learnin"The laws "overnin" learnin" apply e+ually to all or"anis)s0 includin" hu)an or"anis)sOr"anis)s .e"in li:e as .lank slates* there are no innate laws o: .ehaviour%earnin" results :ro) e9ternal events in the environ)ent$ehaviouris) is a deter)inistic theory* the su.Rect has no choice .ut to respond to appropriate sti)uli-
Conclusions
@n drawin" conclusions a.out .ehaviouris)0 you )ay :ind it use:ul to assess the ne"ative0 positive and interestin" aspects o: the theoryOn the ne"ative side0 .ehaviouris) is popularly linked to power and control and has connotations o: ani)al trainin"- @t is also associated with an out)oded industrial trainin" )odel that :ails to take account o: peopleJs a.ility to take action :or the)selves- @t can .e considered anti-hu)anistic in its re:usal to acknowled"e hu)an :reedo) and choice- $ehaviouris) "ives insu::icient wei"ht to conte9tual :actors such as the social0 econo)ic and political conditions and :orces that pro)ote or constrain action- @t also :ails to consider other deter)inants in learnin"0 such as inherited intelli"ence and personality-
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@n hi"her learnin"0 .ehaviourist techni+ues )ay not .e e::ective in pro)otin" deep learnin"0 which is related to personal understandin" and )eanin"-)akin"- @n adult0 :urther0 and hi"her education0 it is also di::icult to apply .ehaviourist principles0 .ecause they o:ten :ail to take account o: creative processes and o: incidental0 une9pected and sel:-initiated learnin"- @n "eneral0 .ehaviouris) is o:ten seen as anti-intellectualOn the other hand0 .ehaviouris) is e::icient in pro)otin" rapid learnin"0 .ecause o: its precise speci:ication o: actions and learnin" outco)es- $ehaviourist principles are also use:ul > they o::er practical and speci:ic advice to the teacher or curriculu) planner a.out what to do$ehaviouris) is not totally anta"onistic to other theories o: learnin"P rather0 it can co-e9ist with later learnin" theories that :ocus on co"nition or the social ac+uisition o: )eanin"- @t )ay serve as a :oundational ele)ent on the .asis o: which )ore co)ple9 co"nitive processes are developed- For e9a)ple0 so)e Asian cultures see repetitive skill ac+uisition as a necessary prere+uisite to the develop)ent o: creativity$ehaviouris) is still o: interest to students and educators .ecause )any hu)an .ehaviours can .e related to or e9plained .y the theory- Many .ehaviourist practices have recently .een incorporated into the educational world > these include the use o: learnin" outco)es in standardi/ed syste)s that pro)ote li:elon" learnin" and pro"ression- @t is possi.le to take a )ore sophisticated view o: what .ehaviourist theory can o::er0 particularly when it is considered as a co)ple)ent to co"nitivist and constructivist theories o: learnin"0 which are considered in the :ollowin" chapters-
)e*erences
$loo)0 $- <37&6= %earnin" :or )astery0 E.aluation omment0 3<'=* 3>B$loo)0 $- and ?rathwohl0 ;- <37B&= Taxonom$ of Educational /b0ecti.es: The lassifi( cation of Educational Goals! b$ a ommittee of ollege and *ni.ersit$ Examiners)andbooks 1 to 2: The ogniti.e! Affecti.e and %s$chomotor 3omain- 1ew 2ork* %on")ans Green;avey0 G- <ed-= <'44H= omplete %s$cholog$- %ondon* odder0 Arnold-
Ga"nS0 #-M-0 $ri""s0 %-J- and Ga"er0 G-G- <377'= %rinciples of #nstructional 3esign <Hth edn=- Forth Gorth* arcourt $race Colle"e Pu.lishersGa"nS0 #-M- and Medsker0 ?-%- <377&= The onditions of Learning: Training ApplicationsFort Gorth* arcourt $race Colle"e Pu.lishersull0 C-%- <37HA= %rinciples of Beha.ior* An #ntroduction to Beha.ior Theor$- 1ew 2ork* Appleton Century Cro:ts?Thler0 G- <37'B= The ;entalit$ of Apes <trans- !- Ginter=- %ondon and 1ew 2ork* ?Paul0 Trench0 Tru.ner and Co- %td-
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Mil"ra)0 S- <37&A= $ehavioral study o: o.edience0 9ournal of Abnormal and &ocial %s$cholog$0 &C* AC3>6Oates0 J-0 Sheehy0 ?- and Good0 C- <'44B= Theories o: develop)ent0 in J- Oates0 CGood and A-Grayson <eds= %s$chological 3e.elopment and Earl$ hildhood- O9:ord* $lackwell Pu.lishin"Oates0 J-0 Good0 C- and Grayson0 A- <'44B= %s$chological 3e.elopment and Earl$ hildhood- O9:ord* $lackwell Pu.lishin"Pavlov0 @-P- <37'C= the erebral onditioned Reflexes: An #n.estigation of the %h$siological Acti.it$ of
ortex <trans- and ed- G-I- Anrep=- O9:ord* O9:ord University Press-
Skinner0 $-F- <37A6= The Beha.ior of /rganisms- 1ew 2ork* Appleton-Century-Cro:tsSkinner0 $-F- <37B4= Are theories o: learnin" necessaryK %s$chological Re.iew0 BC<H=* 37A>'3&Skinner0 $-F- <37BA= &cience and )uman Beha.ior- 1ew 2ork* Mac)illanSkinner0 $-F- <37B6a= #ein:orce)ent today0 American %s$chologist0 3A* 7H>7Skinner0 $-F- <37B6.= Teachin" )achines0 &cience! 3'6* 7&7>CCSkinner0 $-F- <37&7= ontingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Anal$sis- !n"lewood
Cli::s0 1J* Prentice- allThorndike0 !-%- <3733= Animal #ntelligence- 1ew 2ork* Mac)illanTol)an0 !-C- <37H6= Co"nitive )aps in rats and )an0 %s$chological Re.iew0 BB* 367>'46Tol)an0 !-C-0 #itchie0 $-F- and ?alish0 ;- <37H&= Studies in spatial learnin"* @@- Place learnin" versus response learnin"0 9ournal of Experimental %s$cholog$0 A&* ''3>7Tyler0 #- <37H7= Basic %rinciples of urriculum and #nstruction- University o: Chica"o PressGatson0 J-$- <373A= Psycholo"y as the .ehaviorist views it0 %s$chological Re.iew0 '4* 3B6>CCGatson0 J-$- <37A4= Beha.iorism <revised edn=- University o: Chica"o PressGatson0 J-$- and #ayner0 #- <37'4= Conditioned e)otional reactions0 9ournal of Experimental %s$cholog$0 A<3=* 3>3H-
Chapter 3
Cognitivis&
(ntro%uction
ow is it that i: so)eone speaks your na)e0 you i))ediately hear it even thou"h you are not consciously attendin" to itK Certain auto)atic .rain processes have taken place :or this to occur0 and these processes are studied .y co"nitive psycholo"istsCo"nitivis) involves the study o: )ental processes such as sensation0 perception0 attention0 encodin" and )e)ory that .ehaviourists were reluctant to study0 .ecause co"nition occurs inside the O.lack .o9J o: the .rainCo"nitivists .elieve that learnin" results :ro) or"ani/in" and processin" in:or)ation e::ectively- @: educators understand how learners process in:or)ation0 they can desi"n learnin" e9periences that opti)i/e this activity- For e9a)ple0 an awareness o: how learners trans:er short-ter) )e)ories into )eanin":ul knowled"e is likely to .e use:ul in the classroo)-
The %evelop&ent o* cognitivis&

Four :actors in:luenced the develop)ent o: co"nitivis) as a separate discipline in psycholo"y* Q Q Q Q the develop)ent o: e9peri)ental psycholo"yP the )ove :ro) an interest in e9ternal .ehaviours to internal .rain processesP the inade+uacy o: .ehaviouris) to e9plain lan"ua"e ac+uisitionP the develop)ent o: co)puters and an interest in arti:icial intelli"ence-
.!peri&ental ps,cholog,
There is a lon" tradition o: e9peri)ental )e)ory research .y psycholo"ists .e"innin" in the 3664s with er)ann !..in"haus0 who used nonsense sylla.les and words to investi"ate how )e)ory is laid down <;avey '44H* 'AB=The $ritish psycholo"ist Frederic $artlett0 who wrote a .ook called Remembering in 37A'0 is .est known :or his develop)ent o: the concept o: Osche)aJ- G-A- Miller wrote a classic article0 OThe )a"ical nu).er seven0 plus or )inus twoJ0 which investi"ated short-ter) )e)ory as a separate co"nitive entity <Miller 37B&=- This early work on )e)ory paved the way :or )ore sustained research0 such as that .y Atkinson and Shi::rin <37&6= or $addeley and itch <37CH= discussed later in the chapter-
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The shi*t *ro& ehaviouris& to cognitivis&

$ehaviourists ca)e to reali/e that not all learnin" could .e e9plained .y PavlovJs and GatsonJs theories o: si)ple sti)ulus>response and rein:orce)ent- @n 37'C ?Thler de)onstrated that apes solved pro.le)s throu"h a :or) o: thinkin" he ter)ed Oinsi"ht:ul .ehaviouris)J <?Thler 37'B=1eo-.ehaviourists such as Tol)an e9panded this )ental :ocus to a consideration o: purposive .ehaviour in ani)als and people- e de)onstrated that rats .uild up a )ental representation or co"nitive )ap o: their environ)ent and develop e9pectations rather than a set o: in:le9i.le links .etween sti)uli and response <Tol)an 37H6=-
Language ac3uisition
!vidence o: hu)an co"nition ca)e :ro) contested theories o: lan"ua"e ac+uisitionSkinnerJs .ook "erbal Beha.ior <37BC= clai)ed that lan"ua"e was an activity shaped .y the sti)ulus>response )echanis)- The structural lin"uist 1ao) Cho)sky challen"ed this .y ar"uin" that sti)ulus>response does not e9plain how children can "enerate sentences they have not heard .e:ore-
Co&puters an% arti*icial intelligence

Co)puter scientists in the 37B4s were interested in )ental processes that could .e reproduced .y )achines- The co)puter ca)e to .e used as a )etaphor :or co"nitive :unction0 and the .rain ca)e to .e seen as a co)putin" device- For e9a)ple0 co"nitive theory e)ploys an in:or)ation-processin"0 input-process-output )odel0 si)ilar to that used in the co)puter industry <see Fi"ure A-3=-
Figure 3.1
@nput-process-output )odel o: .rain processes-
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+rinciples o* cognition
@n this section0 we consider the :ive .asic processes involved in co"nition > sensation0 perception0 attention0 encodin" and )e)ory > all o: which have i)plications :or the learnin" process-
4ensation
$y sensation0 we )ean the process throu"h which sti)uli :ro) the e9ternal environ)ent are held very .rie:ly in sensory re"isters .e:ore .ein" trans:erred :or :urther processin"- For e9a)ple0 visual in:or)ation is availa.le :or only a.out hal: a second0 and :ewer than ten ite)s can .e held at any one ti)e- Auditory in:or)ation is retained lon" enou"h :or lan"ua"e processin" to occur <Massaro 377A=-
+erception
Perception is the process .y which we interpret and )ake sense o: the thin"s that are presented to our senses- This involves* Q Q Q Q pattern reco"nitionP o.Rect reco"nitionP .otto)-up or top-down processin"P unconscious perception-
%attern recognition !arly in the twentieth century0 Gestalt theorists0 who studied holistic aspects o: co"nition0 identi:ied strate"ies .y which people "roup perceptions o: pattern- Patterns are perceived accordin" to the :our laws o: perception <see Fi"ure A-'=* %roximit$ > we have a tendency to perceive closed :i"ures rather than :ra")ented or unconnected o.Rects&imilarit$ > we tend to perceive s)ooth continuous lines rather than sudden chan"es in directionontinuit$ > si)ilar in:or)ation0 o.Rects0 ele)ents and so on are "enerally cate"ori/ed and "rouped to"etherlosure > o.Rects close to each other )ay .e "rouped to"ether/b0ect recognition Ghereas patterns are two-di)ensional0 o.Rects are three-di)ensional- Marr <376'= proposed a theory o: how we reco"ni/e three-di)ensional o.Rects0 :ro) an increasin" ran"e o: visual cues as an artist )i"ht .uild up a picture0 startin" with an outline and addin" detail*
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Figure 3.2 Perceptual cate"ori/ation&ource: .ased on Andrade and May <'44H*A4=-
5(3 <%rimal sketch= 5-<(3 2(3
Ge see patterns0 lines0 corners and so)e .lack and white shadin"Ge see so)e depth in:or)ation0 te9ture "radients and .inocular cuesGe see A-; nature and spatial relationships .etween o.Rects and the scene-
Bottom(up or top(down processing A key de.ate in co"nition relates to whether it is* Q Q .otto)-up > all the in:or)ation needed :or perception is provided .y the sensory sti)ulusP or top-down > conte9tual knowled"e and reasonin" processes are used to )ake sense o: sensory input-
The A)erican psycholo"ist Ja)es Gi.son <37B4= ar"ued :or the .otto)-up theory0 developin" his ideas while )akin" trainin" :il)s :or pilots- e clai)ed that pilots use environ)ental cues to "au"e distance and depth0 ar"uin" that all the in:or)ation the pilots needed ca)e not :ro) their prior knowled"e .ut :ro) the :ollowin" invariant cues* #nterposition Texture gradient closer o.Rects o.scure )ore distant onesP closer o.Rects appear )ore te9tured than distant onesP
4"
Linear perspecti.e Relati.e retinal si:e ;otion cues /ptical flow pattern
parallel lines conver"e as they recedeP distant o.Rects appear s)allerP o.Rects appear to )ove i: the o.server is )ovin" <)otion paralla9=P i)a"es such as the "round or sky :low as the o.server approaches a point-
The !n"lish psycholo"ist #ichard Gre"ory <3764= ar"ues a"ainst this .otto)-up )odel and clai)s that hi"her-order processes such as in:erence0 deduction and knowled"e o: conte9t are necessary :or perception- e cites letter and word reco"nition :ro) inco)plete in:or)ation as an e9a)ple o: top-down processin"- So)e o: his evidence is .ased on visual illusions and a).i"uous i)a"es that need to .e interpreted on the .asis o: previous e9perience and e9pectation- For e9a)ple0 in a
Figure 3.3 #a..it or duckK &ource: .ased on Andrade and May <'44H*A=.ook a.out s)all :urry ani)als0 the i)a"e in Fi"ure A-A would .e perceived as a ra..it0 whereas it would .e seen as a duck in a .ook a.out .irdsA co))on-sense co)pro)ise su""ests that .otto)-up and top-down approaches are .oth involved in perception- At the initial sta"e0 the .otto)-up approach is needed to esta.lish the sensory data and the invariants- This is :ollowed .y a top-down interpretation that adds conte9tual and hi"her-order in:erences and deductions%earnin" o:ten re+uires this )i9ed approach-
*nconscious perception
This aspect o: co"nition is the a.ility to perceive pheno)ena to which we are not consciously attendin"0 such as .ein" aware that oneJs na)e has .een spokenUnconscious perception is thou"ht to .e involved in su.li)inal learnin"0 which has .een the :ocus o: a thrivin" industry in )otivational tapes and C;s that ai)s to activate the process <Andrade '44B* BB&=-
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Attention
As we have seen0 co"nition .e"ins with the perception o: sensory inputs- This is :ollowed .y attention > the co"nitive process o: selectively concentratin" on one thin" while i"norin" others- OAttention acts as a )eans o: :ocusin" li)ited )ental resources on the in:or)ation and co"nitive processes that are )ost salient at a "iven )o)entJ <Stern.er" 3777* &7=- @t deter)ines what reaches conscious awareness- So0 how are we a.le to :ocus on one sti)ulus and avoid .ein" overloaded with in:or)ationK Ge do this :irst with controlled and auto)atic processes and then throu"h :ocus-
ontrolled and automatic processes Controlled processes re+uire intentional e::ort and conscious awareness- Auto)atic processes0 on the other hand0 re+uire little intention or e::ort and are usually outside conscious awareness and control- They can .e per:or)ed rapidly and at the sa)e ti)e as other processes- A learner driver :inds that drivin" is a hi"hly controlled process that de)ands :ull attention0 .ut :or an e9perienced driver the process is auto)aticAuto)atic processes o:ten develop as a result o: skilled practice- !rrors )ay occur when auto)atic processes are carried out inappropriately > :or e9a)ple0 drivin" to work when you )eant to drive to the .ank-
=ocus ow do we :ocus attention on one piece o: in:or)ation to the e9clusion o: othersK This is a topic o: o.vious interest to the educatorThree types o: theory have .een used to e9plain the processes o: selective attention <see Fi"ure A-H=- The :irst was proposed .y $road.ent <37B6=0 who thou"ht that a :ilter or .ottleneck operated i))ediately a:ter inco)in" in:or)ation was re"istered .y the sensesP this prevents us .ein" overwhel)ed .y sensory dataAlternatively0 Treis)an <37&H= ar"ued that all sensory in:or)ation is processed .eyond the sensory sta"e0 .ut unattended )essa"es are not :iltered .ut weakened <or OattenuatedJ=- This e9plains how you )i"ht hear your own na)e spoken in a crowded roo) > sti)uli such as na)es are so stron" that they reach awareness0 even i: :aintlyFinally0 ?ahne)an <37CA= su""ested that instead o: :ilters or weakened )essa"es0 only a li)ited nu).er o: )essa"es can .e processed- That is0 only a certain a)ount o: attention is availa.le at any one ti)e so the a)ount o: attention a )essa"e receives depends on its i)portance- @: attention is divided0 it will .e directed to where it is needed )ostA later theory <1avon and Gopher 37C7= su""ested that there )i"ht .e separate .anks :or di::erent types o: processin" > visual and auditory- Two tasks will inter:ere i: only .oth are drawin" on the sa)e .ank-
42
Figure 3.4 Theories o: selective attention&ource: .ased on 1aish <'44B=-
.nco%ing
avin" perceived and then attended to sti)uli0 we need to encode in:or)ation .y or"ani/in" it in the :or) o: a )ental representation0 or sche)a- @t could .e ar"ued that learnin" involves the process o: encodin" e9perience- For e9a)ple0 research has shown that instructions to or"ani/e )aterial can .e as e::ective as instructions to learn it- @n one study0 three "roups o: participants were "iven packs o: cards containin" wordsQ Q Q Group 3 was asked to or"ani/e the pack in a )eanin":ul way <recall was not )entioned=Group ' was asked to learn the words :or recallGroup A was asked to or"ani/e the pack and learn the words-
Ghen the "roups were asked to recall the words0 there was no di::erence in their per:or)ance- For "roup 30 the very act o: or"ani/in" the pack precipitated learnin" <Mandler 37&C=&chemata A sche)a is Oa )ental :ra)ework or or"ani/ed pattern o: thou"ht a.out so)e aspect o: the world such as class o: people0 events0 situations or o.RectsJ <$artlett 37A'0 +uoted in ;avey '44H* 'A3=-
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43
Sche)ata are like te)plates developed :ro) previous e9perience0 into which in:or)ation can .e or"ani/ed- They )ean that people do not have to reinterpret the world every ti)e they encounter it- Sche)ata have OslotsJ that can contain either :i9ed or varia.le values- Sche)ata can .e* ultural %erson(related &elf(related Role(related &cenes &cripts knowled"e o: a :a)iliar cultureP e9pectations a.out a :a)iliar personP .elie:s we hold a.out ourselvesP knowled"e o: roles playedP descriptions o: layouts or contents o: a locationP representations o: a typical se+uence o: events<Schank and A.elson 37CC= An e9a)ple o: sche)a :or dinin" in a restaurant could .e as :ollows* &chema* &cenes* &cript* &lots: Type o: restaurant0 location0 style0 cuisine and clienteleP The layout o: the restaurant0 ta.les0 chairs0 dScor0 waitersP Travellin" to the restaurant0 .ein" allocated a space0 havin" the :ood cooked0 .ein" served and payin" :or the )ealP Type o: restaurant0 type o: dScor0 type o: :ood-
The idea o: sche)ata was neatly de)onstrated in a study in which participants were asked to look around a house :ro) a .ur"larJs perspective or :ro) an estate a"entJs perspective <Anderson and Pichert 37C6=- The two "roupsJ recall was very di::erent0 with the O.ur"larsJ notin" open windows and .roken locks0 and the estate a"ents notin" decorative pro.le)s and roo) si/es- ;i::erent sche)ata had .een applied to the sa)e in:or)ation to achieve di::erent "oalsThe encodin" o: e9perience and the "eneration o: sche)ata involve two co)ponents* Q Q The bottom(up in:low o: in:or)ation :ro) the e9ternal world0 )ediated throu"h attention and perceptionP the top(down action o: prior knowled"e that helps to interpret the .otto)up input- @n this co)ponent0 repeated e9perience is "enerali/ed as sche)ata <or OaccretedJ=0 and new e9perience causes old sche)ata to .e i)proved <OtunedJ=- @nconsistent e9perience can cause old sche)ata to .e replaced .y new <OreconstructedJ=-
Sche)ata construction involves structurin" )aterial so that tunin" or reconstruction is :acilitated <see Fi"ure A-B=- These processes o::er so)e insi"ht into learnersJ interpretations-
5e&or,
Me)ory is our a.ility to retain and recall in:or)ation- Althou"h we )ay think o: )e)ory as one particular :aculty0 it involves di::erent kinds o: inter-related syste)s* sensory0 short-ter) <STM= and lon"-ter) <%TM=- !ach o: these has a di::erent purpose <see Ta.le A-3=-
44
Figure 3.5 Ta le 3.1
ow e9perience is encoded;i::erent types o: )e)ory syste)s
5e&or, t,pe Sensory STM %TM
A&ount o* %ata Iery lar"e %i)ited Iery lar"e
/uration Iery short Short Iery lon"
@n addition0 Tulvin" <376B= su.divides %TM into* Episodic &emantic %rocedural )e)ories o: thin"s that have happenedP )e)ories o: :acts0 concepts and principlesP knowled"e o: how to do thin"s-
For e9a)ple0 when asked .y a teacher a.out the events o: a :ield trip0 a learner )akes conscious use o: episodic )e)ory- Se)antic )e)ory is used to recall a co)ple9 scienti:ic e+uation0 and procedural )e)ory is used to carry out a :a)iliar e9peri)ental techni+ue in the la.oratoryPeople su::erin" :ro) a)nesia )ay have .adly da)a"ed episodic )e)ories o: past li:e yet their se)antic )e)ory <o: lan"ua"e0 say= and their procedural )e)ory )ay .e per:ect <$addeley and Gilson 3766=- A particularly strikin" e9a)ple o: evidence o: separate short-ter) and lon"-ter) )e)ories is seen in the co)parison
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45
.etween two a)nesiacs0 re:erred to as -M- and ?-F- The short-ter) )e)ory o: -Mwas nor)al in that he could recall se+uences o: letters and nu).ers "iven to hi)0 .ut his lon"-ter) )e)ory was practically non-e9istent- e could not re)e).er where he lived or reco"ni/e a photo"raph o: hi)sel:0 nor could he recall the na)e o: the Pri)e Minister <Postle and Corkin 3776=- ?-F- was the e9act opposite* she could re)e).er only one ite) in short-ter) )e)ory tests0 .ut her lon"-ter) )e)ory was nor)al <Shallice and Garrin"ton 37C4=The way )e)ory operates has .een descri.ed accordin" to three )aRor theoretical )odels* )odal0 workin" )e)ory and deep and sur:ace processin"- There is also the neural network )odel0 which tries to enco)pass )e)ory0 knowled"e ac+uisition and co"nition as a wholeThe modal model Atkinson and Shi::rin <37&6= proposed a )odal )odel containin" two separate
Figure 3.6 Modal )odel o: )e)ory&ource: .ased on Atkinson and Shi::rin <37&6= stora"e syste)s0 STM and %TM0 which code in:or)ation di::erently <see Fi"ure A-&=-
@n this )odel0 e9ternal data "oes into the sensory stores .e:ore enterin" the STM store- Selected in:or)ation is trans:erred :ro) the sensory )e)ory stores to STM#esidual in:or)ation is i"nored and lostSTM is a store o: li)ited capacity and duration- @t is so)eti)es known as Oworkin" )e)oryJ .ecause it has several :unctions such as rehearsal0 codin"0 decision)akin" and retrieval- @t has a capacity o: appro9i)ately B to 7 .its o: in:or)ationSo)e in:or)ation )ay .e chunked in lar"er .its0 however0 and there:ore )ore can .e stored and )anipulated- The li:e o: )aterial in STM can .e prolon"ed .rie:ly .y repetition <rehearsal= as in the repetition o: a new telephone nu).er until it is dialled- @: the in:or)ation is encoded <related to prior knowled"e and placed in a sche)a= it can .e trans:erred to %TM stores- Otherwise it will .e :or"otten-
46
The %TM is a store o: enor)ous capacity and inde:inite duration- @n:or)ation held in %TM is encoded in sche)ata- The stren"th o: a particular )e)ory will depend upon the nu).er o: associations with si)ilar sche)ata and the intensity o: the )e)ory as deter)ined .y vividness and e)otional i)pact- @: )aterial has .een weakly encoded or in:re+uently recalled0 it )ay .e in %TM .ut inaccessi.leRetrie.al A process o: cuein" ena.les )e)ories to .e retrieved :ro) %TM- A )e)ory )ay .e tri""ered .y )any di::erent cues such as )ne)onics and the O)ethod o: lociJ where ite)s in a list are recalled .y associatin" the) with particular places- This )ethod is attri.uted to the ancient Greek poet Si)onides0 who re)e).ered the na)es o: those killed in a :ire in a .an+uetin" hall .y )e)ori/in" where they had .een sittin" at dinner <$runin" et al- '44H* C4>H=Althou"h there are certain controllin" processes such as encodin" and rehearsal0 the )odal )odel is essentially passive with )e)ory stores actin" )erely as stora"e locations- @t is also se+uentialP in:or)ation )ust :irst "o throu"h STM .e:ore .ein" trans:erred to %TM- This cannot e9plain how0 :or e9a)ple0 the a)nesiac ?-F- <see a.ove= was a.le to lay down new lon"-ter) )e)ories despite the a.sence o: short-ter) )e)ory capa.ility>orking memor$ $addeley and itch <37CH= proposed this )ore dyna)ic )odel o: )e)ory0 which was :urther developed .y $addeley <376&0 '443=- The workin" )e)ory )odel consists o: three parts* the central e9ecutive0 the phonolo"ical loop and the visuospatial scratchpad <see Fi"ure A-C=-
-termemory memory Short-term
Long-term memory
/isuo-spatial scratchpad
Episodic memory
!ensory store
Central executive
!emantic memory -rocedural memory
-honological store
Figure 3.7 Gorkin" )e)ory )odel&ourse* $ased on $addeley <376A=-
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47
The central e9ecutive controls what enters into STM and decides what processes will .e undertaken <trans:er to %TM0 :or e9a)ple=- The central e9ecutive also controls the other two co)ponents > the phonolo"ical or articulatory loop and the visuospatial scratchpad- Althou"h under the overall control o: the central e9ecutive0 these two also have their own resources o: attention and processin"The phonolo"ical or articulatory loop is an auditory )e)ory store that holds a li)ited a)ount o: acoustic data :or a .rie: period o: a :ew seconds .y )eans o: rehearsal- Si)ilarly0 the visual-spatial scratchpad is a short-ter) store in which visual i)a"es can .e e9a)ined and )anipulated <:or e9a)ple0 .y rotation=@n ter)s o: learnin"0 this )odel su""ests that it is i)portant :or learners to look .ack on what they have already done- @n this way0 associations can .e )ade .etween new )aterial arrivin" .otto)-up :ro) the environ)ent and top-down )aterial already stored in )e)ory- For e9a)ple0 people so)eti)es e9perience a Olearnin" plateauJ when they :eel una.le to learn new )aterial- One e9planation is that previous )aterial has not yet .eco)e or"ani/ed and encoded in )e)ory so the new )aterial has no suita.le synaptic connections availa.le to it- Consistent work to e).ed previous learnin" will help new learnin"-
3eep and surface processing model ;eveloped .y Craik and %ockhart <37C'=0 this is a +ualitatively di::erent approach :ro) the )odels a.ove- @t is less interested in interactin" su.syste)s than in the depth o: in:or)ation-processin" and its i)plications :or )e)ory and recall- The )odel proposes that inco)in" in:or)ation is processed at di::erent levels- The stren"th o: encodin" will deter)ine the duration o: the )e)ory- Mere repetition0 :or e9a)ple0 leads to shallow encodin" resultin" in short-lived )e)ory- ;eep encodin" involves the "eneration o: connections to previous knowled"e and e9istin" sche)ata and results in )ore per)anent )e)oriesAlthou"h this is a plausi.le hypothesis0 there is no clear description o: the processes that ena.le shallow encodin" to lay down short-ter) )e)ories and deep encodin" to lay down lon"-ter) )e)ory- The de:initions appear to .e circular1evertheless0 the notion o: deep and sur:ace processin" has in:luenced areas o: learnin" theory0 and underpins the idea o: deep and sur:ace learnin" developed .y Ferenc Marton and #o"er SUlRT <37C&=- Accordin" to Marton and SUlRT0 deep learners try to understand )aterial .y linkin" it to already known conceptsP sur:ace learners si)ply re)e).er :acts0 which pro)otes neither understandin" nor retention-
Associati.e network models All three )odels a.ove are to so)e e9tent .ased on an outdated co)puter )odel that e)phasi/es se+uential steps and central control in in:or)ation-processin"- $ut .rains are not co)puters- $rains are )uch slower than co)puters in processin" individual si"nals- On the other hand0 .rains are very "ood at parallel processin"0 with )any activities "oin" on at once- @n :act0 conte)porary superco)puters try to .e .rain-like .y havin" parallel processors linked to"ether-
48
The associative network )odel atte)pts to address the de:iciencies o: these earlier0 co)puter-.ased )odels .y representin" knowled"e as a we. within which )e)ory processes operate- The networks consist o:* Q Q Q nodes > individual conceptsP links > relations .etween the nodesP activation o: the links-
This )odel clai)s that knowled"e is not stored as separate units- #ather0 what is stored is connection stren"th .etween di::erent ideas in the network- Ghen people search their )e)ories0 they sti)ulate particular nodes- This activates the links connected to those nodes0 which activate other links and so on- Thus activation spreads :ro) node to node- Me)ory stren"th in particular areas o: knowled"e )eans stron" links .etween nodes- Ghen a particular node is activated0 it Oli"hts upJ a whole array o: associated nodes- Fi"ure A-6 is an e9a)ple o: an associative network o: ideas-
Figure 3.8
Associative network-
+ractical i&plications o* cognitivis& *or e%ucators

Co"nitivists )aintain that learnin" involves developin" e::ective ways o: .uildin" sche)ata and processin" in:or)ation- ?nowin" how learners process in:or)ation should .e help:ul in desi"nin" appropriate learnin" e9periences- For co"nitivists0 the teacher is in control o: the learnin"0 althou"h they also hold that people learn .est when encoura"ed to discover in:or)ation pertinent to their own needs- Thus0 teachers should desi"n )aterial that sti)ulates learnersJ co"nitive processes and encoura"es learners to )ake )ental connections :or the)selves@n this section0 we outline so)e o: the practical educational i)plications o: co"nitivis) as they correspond to key sta"es in the co"nitivist )odel o: learnin"* sensation0 perception0 attention0 encodin" and )e)ory-
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4ensation
Teachers and instructional desi"ners need to consider care:ully the a)ount and type o: in:or)ation they present and the speed at which it is presented- Paivio <376&= ar"ues that the )ind processes visual and auditory )aterial alon" di::erent channels and in di::erent ways :or encodin"0 stora"e and later retrieval- @n order to take account o: processes o: sensation teachers should* Q Q Q Q li)it co)petin" and distractin" sensory i)pressionsP use )aterials and draw on e9periences that involve all the sensesP present in:or)ation in )ore than one sensory )ode to :acilitate dual encodin"P direct the processin" o: sensory in:or)ation-
+erception
@n:or)ation-processin" is .oth O.otto) upJ and Otop downJ- Top-down processin" is perhaps the )ore i)portant- @n order to take account o: processes o: perception teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q arouse perceptual interest with stron"ly de:ined )aterialP e)phasi/e the distinctiveness o: )aterial in processin"P point out patterns in )aterialsP present )aterial in a structured :or) > e-"- dia"ra)s or storiesP place learnin" in conte9t and take conte9tual :actors into accountP review knowled"e and assist learners to see relationships .etween old and newP e9plore attitudes and e)otional responses to a topic and deal with any ne"ativity-
Attention
A key concern :or teachers is how to direct learnersJ attention when there are co)petin" sensory i)pressions and )e)oryOne way that teachers can address the issue o: en"a"in" learnersJ attention is .y )eans o: oward GardnerJs work on )ultiple intelli"ences <M@= theory discussed in Chapter C0 O@ntelli"enceJ- e su""ested that Oany rich0 nourishin" topic > any concept worth teachin" > can .e approached in at least :ive di::erent ways that will )ap onto the )ultiple intelli"encesJ <Gardner 3773* 'HB=- Gardner thinks o: a topic as a roo) with several entry points that will en"a"e the attention o: di::erent types o: learnersThese entry points and the )eans that teachers can use to access the) include the* Narrational Logical('uantitati.e =oundational .y )eans o: a storyP .y deductive reasonin"P .y discussin" underlyin" conceptsP
5"
Aesthetic Experiential
.y appeal to artistic sensitivityP .y so)e direct e9perience-
Attention is linked to learner )otivation- ?ellerJs A#CS )otivational )odel proposes that )otivation includes :our cate"ories > attention0 relevance0 con:idence and satis:action <?eller 376AP ?eller and ?opp 376C=@n order to "ain and )aintain attention teachers should* Q Q Q Q arouse initial interest .y novelty and departure :ro) the e9pectedP present the su.Rect in an interestin" way > e-"- presentin" a pro.le)P vary teachin" )ethods with e9ercises and activities that )aintain interestP pro)ote active listenin" in lectures or presentations-
4hort6ter& &e&or,
Short-ter) )e)ory <STM= is li)ited .oth in capacity and duration- @n order to take account o: these li)itations on STM teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q li)it the nu).er o: lists or ite)s to .e co))itted to )e)ory at one ti)eP .e aware that learners re)e).er :irst and last ite)s on a list .etter than central onesP "roup ite)s into OchunksJ with less than ten ite)s to .e )e)ori/ed at one ti)eP .e conscious o: inter:erence .etween di::erent types o: in:or)ation to .e learntP use repetition or )aintenance rehearsal to retain in:or)ation :or a short period-
7or#ing &e&or,
The concept o: workin" )e)ory has replaced STM as a )odel :or )ore active and non-serial processin" o: in:or)ation- !ncodin" is the process o: or"ani/in" )aterial and )akin" it )eanin":ul so that it can eventually .e placed in lon"-ter) )e)ory@n order to activate workin" )e)ory teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q tell learners which in:or)ation is )ost i)portantP .e"in with an overview or outline o: the )aterial to .e learntP state the o.Rectives or learnin" outco)es o: a learnin" sessionP develop auto)aticity and speed o: response in learners throu"h re"ular practiceP encoura"e learners to use the knowled"e they already possessP encoura"e re:lection and )eta-co"nitionP link di::icult-to-re)e).er ite)s to )ore )eanin":ul onesP encoura"e visuali/ation > use i)a"e representationsP
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Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
use ver.al )e)ory aids such as )ne)onicsP use )ind-)appin" techni+uesP use "uided +uestionin" to activate e9istin" sche)ata and conceptsP )atch encodin" strate"ies with )aterial to .e learnedP understand that learners )ay need to )ake sche)ata e9plicit and challen"e their own assu)ptionsP present content in increasin" order o: co)ple9ityP revisit topics to stren"then retention-
Long6ter& &e&or,
%on"-ter) )e)ory <%TM= is the per)anent repository o: accu)ulated in:or)ation#etrieval re+uires cues that )ay .e sensory0 co"nitive or e)otional- Cues create associations that activate <%TM=- For e9a)ple0 particular son"s o:ten arouse power:ul )e)ories- @n order to pro)ote recall teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q link )aterials to cues that can .e used to recall the)P re)ind learners that cues are su::icient to recall the )aterialP encoura"e learners to create their own cuesP teach revision techni+uesP encoura"e learners to discover and use their stren"ths and styles-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q %earnin" does not always involve a chan"e in .ehaviourCo"nitivis) :ocuses on internal )ental learnin" processesThe key )etaphor in co"nitivis) is the co)puter )odelThis )odel assu)es discrete sta"es throu"h which in:or)ation is processed%earners actively process0 store and retrieve in:or)ation :or use%earners or"ani/e and interpret in:or)ation to create knowled"e-
Conclusions
Co"nitivis) presents a scienti:ic approach to learnin" and o::ers a coherent understandin" o: the processes involved- @t presents theoretical support :or teachin" practices and su""ests a ran"e o: use:ul teachin" strate"ies that encoura"e learnin"owever0 it could .e ar"ued that its :ocus on learnin" as an individual )ental event i"nores social processes and e).odi)ent- @ts treat)ent o: teachin" as a technical-rational activity i"nores the ele)ent o: re:lective practice and artistry involvedCo"nitivis) can .e seen as a pro"ressive step towards an approach that co).ines co"nitive processes with the ele)ent o: individual and shared )eanin")akin" that is constructivis)- This is e9plored in the ne9t chapter-
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)e*erences
Anderson0 #-C- and Pichert0 J-G- <37C6= #ecall o: previously unrecalla.le in:or)ation :ollowin" a shi:t in perspective0 9ournal of "erbal Learning and "erbal Beha.iour0 3C* 3>3'Andrade0 J- <'44B= Consciousness0 in 1- $rais.y and A- Gellatly <eds= %s$cholog$- O9:ord* O9:ord University PressAndrade0 J- and May0 J- <'44H= #nstant Notes on Scienti:ic Pu.lishers0 Taylor E Francis Groupogniti.e
ogniti.e %s$cholog$- %ondon* $@OS
Atkinson0 #-C- and Shi::rin0 #-M- <37&6= u)an )e)ory* a proposed syste) and its control processes0 in ?-G- Spence <ed-= The %s$cholog$ of Learning and ;oti.ation: Ad.ances in Research and Theor$0 "ol- 5- 1ew 2ork* Acade)ic Press0 67>37B$addeley0 A-;- <376A= Gorkin" )e)ory0 %hilosophical Transactions of the Ro$al &ociet$%ondon* $A4'0 A33>'H$addeley0 A-;- <376&= >orking ;emor$- %ondon* O9:ord University Press$addeley0 A-;- <'443= @s workin" )e)ory still workin"K American %s$chologist! B&<33=* 6B3>&H$addeley0 A-;- and itch0 G- <37CH= Gorkin" )e)ory0 in G- $ower0 <ed-= The %s$cholog$ of Learning and ;oti.ation: Ad.ances in Research and Theor$- 1ew 2ork* Acade)ic Press0 CH'>CB$addeley0 A-;- and Gilson0 $-A- <3766= Frontal a)nesia and the dyse9ecutive syndro)e0 Brain and ognition! C* '3'>A4$artlett0 F-C- <37A'= Remembering: A &tud$ in Experimental and &ocial %s$cholog$Ca).rid"e* Ca).rid"e University Press$road.ent0 ;- <37B6= %erception and ommunication- O9:ord* Per"a)on Press-
$runin"0 #- -0 Schraw0 G-J-0 1or.y0 M- and #onnin"0 #-#- <'44H= ogniti.e %s$cholog$ and #nstruction0 <Hth edn=- 1ew Jersey* Pearson0 Merrill Prentice allCraik0 F-@-M- and %ockhart0 #-S- <37C'= %evels o: processin"* a :ra)ework :or )e)ory research0 9ournal of "erbal Learning and "erbal Beha.iour0 33* &C3>6H;avey0 G- <ed-= <'44H= omplete %s$cholog$- %ondon* odder0 Arnold-
Gardner0 - <3773= The *nschooled ;ind: )ow hildren Think and )ow &chool &hould Teach- 1ew 2ork* $asic $ooksGi.son0 J-J- <37B4= The %erception of the "isual >orld- $oston* ou"hton Mi::linGre"ory0 #-%- <3764= Perceptions as hypotheses0 %hilosophical Transactions of the Ro$al &ociet$ of London B0 '74* 363>7C?ahne)an0 ;- <37CA= Attention and Effort- !n"lewood Cli::s0 1J* Prentice- all-
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?eller0 J-M- <376A= Motivational desi"n o: instruction0 in !-;- #ei"eluth <ed-= #nstruc( tional 3esign Theories and ;odels: An /.er.iew of their urrent &tatus- illsdale0 1J* !rl.au)?eller0 J-M- and ?opp0 T-G- <376C= An application o: the A#CS )odel o: )otivational desi"n0 in !-;- #ei"eluth <ed-= #nstructional Theories in Action- illsdale0 1J* !rl.au) Associates0 @nc?Thler0 G- <37'B= The ;entalit$ of Apes <trans- !- Ginter=- %ondon and 1ew 2ork* ?Paul0 Trench0 Tru.ner and Co- %tdMandler0 G- <37&C= Or"anisation in )e)ory0 in ?-G- Spence and J-T- Spence <eds= The %s$cholog$ of Learning and ;oti.ation "ol #- 1ew 2ork* Acade)ic Press0 A'C>C'Marr0 ;- <376'= "ision: A omputational #n.estigation into the )uman Representation and %rocessing of "isual #nformation- San Francisco0 CA* G- - Free)anMarton0 F- and SUlRT0 #- <37C&= On +ualitative di::erences in learnin" 3> outco)e and process0 British 9ournal of Educational %s$cholog$0 H&* H>33Massaro0 ;- <377A= @n:or)ation processin" )odels* )icroscopes o: the )ind0 Annual Re.iews! HH* A6A>H'BMiller0 G-A- <37B&= The )a"ical nu).er seven0 plus or )inus two* so)e li)its on our capacity :or in:or)ation processin"0 %s$chological Re.iew0 &A* 63>7C1aish <'44B= in 1- $rains.y and A- Gellathy <eds= Open University Pressogniti.e %s$cholog$- Milton ?eynes*
1avon0 ;- and Gopher0 ;- <37C7= On the econo)y o: the hu)an in:or)ation processin" syste)0 %s$chological Re.iew0 '34<&=* 7H>34'Paivio0 A- <376&= ;ental Representations: A 3ual University Pressoding Approach- O9:ord* O9:ord
Postle0 $-#- and Corkin0 S- <3776= @)paired word-ste) co)pletion pri)in" .ut intact perceptual identi:ication pri)in" with novel words* evidence :ro) a)nesic patient -M-0 Neurops$chologia0 A7<3'=* H'3>H4Schank0 #- and A.elson0 #- <37CC= &cripts! %lans! Goals! and *nderstanding: An #n'uir$ into )uman 4nowledge &tructures- illsdale0 1J* %awrence !rl.rau)Shallice0 T- and Garrin"ton0 !-?- <37C4= @ndependent :unctionin" o: ver.al )e)ory stores* a neuropsycholo"ical study0 The ?uarterl$ 9ournal of Experimental %s$cholog$0 ''* '&3>CASkinner0 $-F- <37BC= "erbal Beha.ior- 1ew 2ork* Apple"on Century Cro:tsStern.er"0 #-J- <3777= Colle"e Pu.lishersogniti.e %s$cholog$ <'nd edn=- Orlando0 CA* arcourt $race
Tol)an0 !-C- <37H6= Co"nitive )aps in rats and )an0 %s$chological Re.iew0 BB* 367-
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Treis)an0 A-M- <37&H= Ier.al cues0 lan"ua"e and )eanin" in selective attention0 American 9ournal of %s$cholog$0 CC<'=* '4&>37Tulvin"0 !- <376B= A6B>76ow )any )e)ory syste)s are thereK American %s$chologist0 H4*
Chapter 4 Constructivis&
(ntro%uction
So)e teachers take a "reat interest when their pupils o::er an incorrect answer to a +uestion- @n such a situation0 these teachers proceed .y askin" pupils to e9plain how they arrived at that answer- @t is likely that these teachers are operatin" :ro) a constructivist perspective0 which sees learners as constructors o: )eanin"- $y investi"atin" the ori"ins o: a wron" answer0 the teacher can uncover the learnerJs thinkin" processes0 su.se+uently challen"in" and re:inin" :aulty )ental constructs@t is di::icult to draw a clear distinction .etween constructivis) and co"nitivis) <see Chapter A0 OCo"nitivis)J= .ecause constructivis) is a natural pro"ression :ro) co"nitivis) and .oth are interested in co"nitive processes- $ut whereas co"nitivis) :ocuses on how in:or)ation is processed0 constructivis) :ocuses on what people do with in:or)ation to develop knowled"e- @n particular0 constructivis) holds that people actively .uild knowled"e and understandin" .y synthesi/in" the knowled"e they already possess with new in:or)ation- For constructivists0 learnin" is an active process throu"h which learners OconstructJ new )eanin"- See Ta.le H-3 :or a co)parison o: .ehaviouris)0 co"nitivis) and constructivis)Ta le 4.1 Co)parin" .ehaviouris)0 co"nitivis) and constructivis)
Theor, $ehaviouris)
5ental activit, Learning process @rrelevant Sti)ulus>response #ein:orce)ent !9ternal event
)ole o* teacher Controls environ)ent and sti)uli Applies co"nitive principles to :acilitate co"nitive processes Supports )eanin"-)akin" Challen"es e9istin" ideas
Co"nitivis)
Perception attention processin"
Me)ory Sur:ace and deep learnin" !ncodin" @nternal event )ental constructs @nternal event
Constructivis)
Meanin"-)akin" #etunin" sche)ata and
The distinction .etween co"nitivis) and constructivis) .eco)es clearer i: we consider an e9a)ple such as readin"- This activity re+uires the co"nitive processes o: perception and reco"nition o: the shapes o: letters0 as well as the recall o: their sounds :ro) )e)ory- $ut i: a .ook is to .e understood0 the reader )ust construct an
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understandin" o: the )eanin" o: the te9t and what it )eans to the reader- @n this chapter0 we outline the .ack"round to constructivist theory0 .e:ore tracin" its develop)ent throu"h the )aRor ideas o: several key proponents* Pia"et0 $runer0 Iy"otsky0 $andura0 Freire and a.er)as- The chapter also provides an overview o: constructivis)Js chie: i)plications :or the educator-
5ain categories o* constructivist theor,

#ather than one uni:ied theory0 constructivis) is a .road "roup o: theories that e9plains knowled"e ac+uisition and learnin"- @t has links to other :ields includin" social science0 philosophy0 politics and history0 each o: which reco"ni/es that learners interpret and )ake their own sense o: e9perience and the in:or)ation they receiveThe di::erent types o: constructivist thinkin" are "enerally classi:ied accordin" to their )ain e)phases- At one e9tre)e0 there is a co))on-sense .elie: that individuals .uild and re:ine their personal understandin"s o: the world .ased on what they already knowP at the other0 is a type o: radical constructivis) such as that cha)pioned .y the US acade)ic !rnst von Glasers:eld- e clai)s that knowled"e is a process and product o: the hu)an .rain0 and that the e9tent to which knowled"e re:lects e9ternal reality cannot there:ore .e deter)ined* Owe are responsi.le :or the world we are e9periencin"J <von Glasers:eld '44C=ere we will discuss the cate"ories o: constructivis) that are )ost relevant to learnin" and education > trivial constructivis)0 social constructivis) and critical constructivis)-
Trivial constructivis&
Ghen used to descri.e this cate"ory o: constructivist thou"ht0 OtrivialJ )eans Oo.viousJ rather than Oinsi"ni:icantJ or Ouni)portantJ- @t indicates the co))on-sense view that knowled"e is not ac+uired throu"h a process o: trans)ission :ro) an e9ternal source to an individualP rather0 people actively construct knowled"e in an e::ort to )ake sense o: the worldAccordin" to trivial constructivis)0 people construct )ental )odels o: the way thin"s are- These )ental )odels > or OconstructsJ > :or) personal understandin"sGhen new in:or)ation is received0 the new )ental constructs have to .e acco))odated within previously e9istin" constructs- The new knowled"e is adapted rather than adopted- A particularly i)portant process occurs when new constructs con:lict with old- %earners are likely to .eco)e pu//led0 causin" the) to reconsider and recon:i"ure )ental constructs- This iterative and active process leads to richer understandin" and i)proved learnin"Githin certain li)its0 di::erent learners receive di::erent i)pressions o: any new in:or)ation .ecause this in:or)ation is .ein" acco))odated within the learnersJ di::erent and previously e9istin" constructs- This has si"ni:icant i)plications :or the learnin" and teachin" process .ecause teachers )ust .e aware that learners .rin"
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di::erent )ental :ra)eworks to that process- For e9a)ple0 i: a teacher re:ers to the word Oho)eJ0 pupils :ro) di::erent :a)ily and ho)e environ)ents will interpret the concept di::erently@t is i)portant to sound a note o: caution here- Constructivis) says that learnin" is a personal act0 .ut not to the e9tent that learnin" is co)pletely di::erent :or every individual0 renderin" shared )eanin" i)possi.le- Constructivis) is underpinned .y the .elie: that we and our )ental constructs are )ore alike than unlike > how else could we survive as social .ein"sK The thinkers )ost o:ten associated with trivial constructivis) are Jean Pia"et and Jero)e $runer-
%iaget Jean Pia"et <367&>3764= is co))only considered the pioneer and parent o: constructivist thou"ht- is theory o: co"nitive develop)ent0 also discussed in Chapter 6 O%i:e course develop)entJ0 is .ased on the idea that childrenJs active en"a"e)ent with their environ)ent leads the) to the construction o: )eanin" and to learnin"- Play is particularly i)portant :or co"nitive develop)ent0 .ecause this is when children actively e9plore the world- Pia"et <37&7= ar"ued that co"nitive develop)ent and conceptual chan"e occur as a result o: interactions .etween e9istin" co"nitive structures and new e9perience- For e9a)ple0 a child )ay think that a plant "ets its nourish)ent :ro) the "round throu"h its roots- Classroo) e9peri)ents0 however0 will show that the plant )akes its :ood in its leaves throu"h photosynthesisAnother :or) o: learnin" occurs throu"h co"nitive con:lict0 when childrenJs views are opposed .y those o: others- This leads to dise+uili.riu) or desta.ili/ation o: e9istin" constructsP learners )ust there:ore search :or new constructs0 which can synthesi/e the di::erent viewpoints and restore e+uili.riu)- This process occurs internally and is later )ani:ested e9ternally .y talk and actions- @t has .een called an Oinside-outJ theory <Garton '44H=Accordin" to Pia"et0 children )ust "o throu"h the process o: recon:i"uration o: their own )ental sche)a :or the)selves- Teachers )ust not inter:ere with this process .y i)posin" their ready-)ade solutions .ecause children will accept their authority without )akin" the knowled"e their own <Pia"et 37C'=- These views led to the Odiscovery learnin"J school )ove)ent o: the 37&4s in which children were encoura"ed to discover the principles o: su.Rects such as )athe)atics and science throu"h processes o: e9plorationAlthou"h Pia"etJs theory has .een critici/ed :or its e)phasis on the individual at the e9pense o: social or cultural learnin"0 his contri.ution to develop)ental and educational theory has .een si"ni:icant-
Bruner Accordin" to the A)erican psycholo"ist Jero)e $runer0 learnin" is "oal-directed and driven .y curiosity- $runer adopted Pia"etJs ideas a.out active learnin" to :or) the .asis o: his principles o: instruction and discovery learnin" <$runer 37&4=- Over his
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lon" career0 $runer )oved :ro) a co"nitivist investi"ation o: the principles underlyin" concept-:or)ation <$runer et al- 37B&= to a )ore sophisticated constructivist position in The ulture of Education <$runer 377&=0 which e9a)ines the social i)portance o: lan"ua"e and culture in )eanin"-)akin"$runer .elieved that learnin" involves three processes*
Q Q
knowled"e ac+uisition0 in which the learner asks0 O;oes this con:ir) or re:ine )y previous knowled"eKJ or O;oes this challen"e )y previous knowled"eKJP knowled"e trans:or)ation0 in which the learner asks0 OGhat other thin"s can this knowled"e now doKJP knowled"e review0 in which the learner asks0 O@s the knowled"e relevantKJ and O@s this knowled"e ade+uate :or the Ro. in handKJ
e also considered that0 to .eco)e )ature thinkers0 people )ust ac+uire three )aRor intellectual skills :or representin" the world <$runer 37&&=- @n children0 these usually appear in the se+uence shown in Ta.le H-'Ta le 4.2 $runerJs representational )odes
5o%e !nactive @conic
)epresentation This is direct knowled"e o: how to do so)ethin"?nowled"e is represented .y internal i)a"es that stand :or an idea-
.!a&ple A child sees hersel: in a )irrorAn older child <B to C years= )ay draw a )irror includin" a re:lectionAn adolescent )ay descri.e the physics o: re:lection :or a plane )irror-
Sy).olic
More a.stract and :le9i.le thou"ht occurs- %an"ua"e is the )ain tool :or re:lective thinkin"-
$runer <37&&= proposed a theory o: instruction0 which is .ased on structurin" and se+uencin" )aterial in accordance with co"nitivist ideas o: )ental processin"e also developed a curriculu) )odel0 which is .ased on a spiral in which topics are revisited at increasin"ly advanced levels0 with each new iteration .uildin" on previous ones- This )odel is co"nitivist inso:ar as it draws on top-down and .otto)-up processes descri.ed in OChapter A0 Co"nitivis)J .ut it also incorporates constructivist thinkin" in its e)phasis on new )aterial .ein" acco))odated within old to :or) new understandin"@n his later work0 $runer <377&= reco"ni/ed that individual )eanin"-)akin" occurs within a .roader conte9t and culture- Culture provides a :ra)ework and an environ)ent0 ena.lin" learners to )ake predictions a.out what will happen in the :uture- This leads to the clai) that knowled"e is socially constructed-
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4ocial constructivis&
Trivial constructivis) assu)es that the ac+uisition o: knowled"e is an individual process with individual outco)es0 which depends on personal )ental :ra)eworks and processes- $ut0 althou"h constructivis) )ay e)phasi/e individual di::erence0 our e9perience in everyday li:e is not o: di::erence .ut o: si)ilarity- Ge participate in the construction o: a shared world- There:ore0 social constructivis) e)phasi/es the role played .y society and culture in learnin"- @n this cate"ory o: constructivist thou"ht0 culture and social co))unities shape the )anner in which individuals perceive0 interpret and attach )eanin"s to their e9periencesP society :or)s how and what people think- ?nowled"e is constructed in the conte9t o: the environ)ent in which it is encountered- @n particular0 social constructivists ar"ue that knowled"e is the result o: social interaction and lan"ua"e useAs a result0 social constructivis) )aintains that it is possi.le :or people to have shared )eanin"s and understandin"s that are ne"otiated throu"h discussion- At the sa)e ti)e0 it acknowled"es that no two people will have e9actly the sa)e discussions with e9actly the sa)e people- To this e9tent it allows that )ultiple realities e9ist0 and it has this view in co))on with von Glasers:eldJs radical constructivis)Social constructivis) is )ost closely associated with the work o: %ev Iy"otsky and Al.ert $andura-
"$gotsk$ The #ussian psycholo"ist %ev Iy"otsky wrote in the 37A4s .ut his work was not consistent with Soviet ideolo"y0 so his theories only .e"an to receive wide reco"nition in the 37&4s and 37C4s- @n essence0 he e)phasi/ed social processes as the )eans .y which all reasonin" and understandin" arises- @n particular0 interactions with parents and other i)portant adults lead to the creation o: knowled"e0 which is internali/ed .y children- Unlike Pia"etJs Oinside-outJ approach0 Iy"otskyJs is an Ooutside-inJ theory <Garton '44H=For Iy"otsky0 hu)an activity is distin"uished .y the e9tensive use o: tools%an"ua"e is the )ost i)portant OtoolJ :or social interaction and knowled"e construction- Iy"otsky ar"ued that lan"ua"e is an e9ternal tool that children use :irst to co))unicate > :or e9a)ple0 with their parents > and ne9t to Othink out loudJ!ventually0 children .e"in to carry on discussions internally0 developin" concepts or Osel:-talkJ- @n this way0 lan"ua"e .eco)es a tool :or and o: sel:-re"ulation- This is what Iy"otsky <37C6= )eant when he ar"ued that all hi"her )ental :unctions are internali/ed social relations* OSchools are another cultural tool with a :unction o: providin" theoretical or scienti:ic knowled"e as opposed to the e)pirical and unstructured knowled"e that people ac+uire naturally- This scienti:ic knowled"e has .een :ashioned over centuries and does not have to .e reinvented .y every child unaidedJ <Iy"otsky 376&* 3C3=- Unlike Pia"et0 Iy"otsky a::ir)s the role o: teachers and e9perts in "uidin" learnin"As well as passin" on theoretical knowled"e0 teachers support learners in the learnin" process- The concept :or which Iy"otsky is .est known is the Vone o:
6"
Pro9i)al ;evelop)ent <VP;=- This is an intellectual space where learner and teacher interact- The teacher can "au"e intellectual develop)ent o: the learner and provide the appropriate support to advance the learnerJs thinkin"- Gith teacher support0 learners can achieve )ore than they would unaided- More knowled"ea.le peers can per:or) the sa)e :unction as teachers <Iy"otsky 37C6* 6&=Iy"otskyJs ideas were ahead o: their ti)e and have "enerated )uch later research into the way that e9perts support learners- $ar.ara #o"o::0 :or e9a)ple0 descri.es Oapprenticeship in thinkin"J in which novices0 under the "uidance o: e9perts0 en"a"e in )ore advanced thinkin" than they could per:or) on their ownShe su""ests that co"nitive develop)ent is a result o: Othe internali/ation .y the novice o: the shared co"nitive processes0 appropriatin" what was carried out in colla.oration to e9tend e9istin" knowled"e and skillsJ <#o"o:: 3774* 3H3=-
Bandura Ghereas Iy"otsky ar"ued that people learn .y )eans o: lan"ua"e > that is0 .y discussin" concepts > the Canadian psycholo"ist Al.ert $andura went :urther and proposed that i)itation o: others is a co"nitively e::icient )eans o: learnin"@n a series o: :a)ous e9peri)ents in the 37&4s $andura showed kinder"arten children a :il) o: a wo)an playin" with a $o.o doll > an in:lata.le clown wei"hted at the .otto) so that it ri"hted itsel: when knocked down- @n the :il)0 the wo)an punched and kicked the $o.o doll0 and struck it with a toy ha))er0 while shoutin" OsockarooWJ A:ter viewin" the :il)0 the children were allowed into a roo) containin" $o.o-dolls and toy ha))ers- The children proceeded to attack the dolls in precisely the sa)e way as the wo)an in the :il)0 even shoutin" OsockarooWJ $andura had co)e :ro) a .ehaviourist tradition0 which sees learnin" or trainin" as the product o: rewardin" appro9i)ations o: a tar"et .ehaviour- @n contrast0 the $o.o doll e9peri)ent de)onstrated what $andura called Oo.servational learnin"J or O)odellin"J <$andura et al- 37&3=- @n everyday li:e0 )odellin" is evident in the way children like to play with toy versions o: )achines and do)estic appliances that they see their parents usin"Modellin" involves i)itative rather than ori"inal .ehaviour0 .ut it can .e seen in a constructivist li"ht > that is0 people adapt )odelled .ehaviour as a )ental :ra)ework :or their own purposes- Fro) an educational point o: view0 it is clear that )uch learnin" occurs .y o.servation- Modellin" is part o: all learnin" > :or e9a)ple0 in )ost su.Rects teachers will present e9a)ples o: "ood work that they would like students to use-
Critical constructivis&
Critical constructivis)0 also known as Ocritical peda"o"yJ0 is particularly applica.le to the adult and co))unity education conte9t- This view o: learnin" "ives pri)ary i)portance to raisin" peopleJs consciousness o: the social and cultural conditions in which they :ind the)selves > particularly when their circu)stances are characteri/ed
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.y do)ination and dise)power)ent- @t e)phasi/es the i)portance o: people .ein" sel:-re:lective0 o: their .ein" a.le to challen"e do)inant social views and articulate counter viewsThe .ack"round to critical constructivis)Js concern with power relations )ay .e understood in relation to the thinkin" o: Michel Foucault- is analysis o: power relations in:or)s the work o: two i)portant critical constructivists considered here0 Paulo Freire and JXr"en a.er)as=oucault Accordin" to the French philosopher Michel Foucault0 knowled"e is ine9trica.ly linked with power- Foucault saw :ields o: knowled"e > that is0 disciplines > as types o: OdiscourseJ0 which consist o: theories0 practices0 attitudes and ha.its- People internali/e these discourses0 which )eans that they "enerally do not have to .e coerced into thinkin" and .ehavin" in socially accepta.le ways- @n the classic te9t 3iscipline and %unish <37CC=0 he shows how nineteenth-century discourses o: deviancy led to the creation o: speci:ic :or)s o: social control0 such as the OpanopticonJ0 a "eneral viewin" plat:or) :or the )ass surveillance o: prisoners- For Foucault0 the key :eature o: the panopticon was that prisoners could never know when they were .ein" watched0 so they were )ore likely to .ehave accordin" to the rules and then to internali/e those rules- e also ar"ued that psychiatry developed as a )eans o: contain)ent and control o: the )entally a.nor)al0 and that the nineteenth-century develop)ent o: statistics contri.uted to "overn)ental knowled"e and control o: populations- For Foucault0 social knowled"e is always politically char"ed0 a clai) with which Freire would have concurred=reire The )ost well-known proponent o: critical peda"o"y was Paulo Freire- e was a Christian socialist who worked with poor illiterate peasants in $ra/il in the late 37H4s0 when people had to .e literate to vote in presidential elections- is educational ideas were in:luenced .y li.eration theolo"y0 Mar9is) and anti-colonialis)- @n %edagog$ of the /ppressed <37C4=0 he stressed the need :or a new kind o: education :or oppressed peoples0 which would not .e )erely an i)position o: the coloni/erJs culture .ut which would allow people to see how their individual circu)stances were in :act a product o: that culture- This could lead to a :or) o: Opra9isJ0 in which peopleJs knowled"e o: their situation develops in tande) with their action within it and upon it0 as they seek to chan"e it < a)ilton '44'* 36=Freire was also opposed to what he re:erred to as the O.ankin"J )odel o: education > that is0 a )odel o: education in which teachers deposit knowled"e into studentsJ accounts- e disliked the way this )odel positions learners as passive0 .ecause this rein:orces do)inant ideolo"ies and social structures- Si)ilarly0 he o.Rected to the separation o: teacher and student roles0 which he :elt rein:orced conventional power relations0 and he ar"ued that the relationship should .e )ore de)ocratic and reciprocal- For this reason0 the teachers in his literacy sche)es were the peasants the)selves-
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)abermas JXr"en a.er)as clai)ed that reason and knowled"e are constructed throu"h the act o: co))unication .etween people <McGui"an '44'=- e calls this use o: reason Opra")aticJ .ecause it is practical and directed towards action- #eason is speci:ic to the conte9t in which it is usedP what counts as reasona.le in a particular case )ay need to .e revised in the li"ht o: use:ulness and e9perience < a.er)as 377'=a.er)as calls this construction o: reason and knowled"e .y )eans o: the social practice o: co))unication Oco))unicative rationalityJ <Cooke 377H=%ike other :or)s o: social action0 co))unication relies on a set o: rules- @t can proceed only on the .asis o: a"ree)ent on principles and on adherence to truth and honesty0 and disa"ree)ent can .e resolved only throu"h e9plicit and rational procedures- @n reasoned ar"u)ent0 speakers clai) that what they say is ri"ht0 true and honest0 and they o::er to Rusti:y these clai)s i: challen"ed- Ghen challen"ed0 speakers )ust .e a.le to o::er reasons that are accepta.le to .oth parties- @: not0 the co))unication is unaccepta.le .ecause it is irrationalOur i)plicit knowled"e o: the rules o: co))unication needs to .e translated into e9plicit knowled"e so all parties understand the)- Co))unication there:ore is an instru)ent throu"h which knowled"e is constructed and shared and throu"h which )oral values are e9pressed- The act o: )utual understandin" achieved throu"h co))unication is a .asis :or coordinatin" action- 1owhere is this )ore i)portant than in the social and political sphere0 where de)ocratic Oco))unicative rationalityJ or de.ate can relate sociolo"ical and other knowled"es to the pro.le)s o: society <Morrison '443* ''4=- @ndeed0 it is throu"h co))unication that people can .e"in to understand and +uestion their social and political circu)stances-
.%ucational i&plications o* constructivis&

$ecause constructivis) is principally a theory a.out how people learn0 we can draw )any educational i)plications :ro) the work o: the key constructivist theorists0 and those who have used constructivist principles- So)e constructivist practices in education include* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q the dia"nosis o: learnersJ individual learnin" stylesP the identi:ication o: learnersJ stren"ths or intelli"encesP curricular practices such as @ndividual %earnin" Plans <@%Ps=P attention to cultural inclusivityP innovative learnin" and teachin" strate"ies such as pro.le)-.ased learnin"P links .etween co))unity-.ased learnin" and :or)al educationP authentic assess)ent practices0 which incorporate learnersJ views-
Trivial constructivis&' +iaget an% e%ucation

As a scientist0 Pia"et was particularly interested in the develop)ent o: scienti:ic and )athe)atical thinkin"0 and these :ields have o:ten seen the application o: his
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theories- For e9a)ple0 the 1u::ield Mathe)atics ProRect o: the 37&4s encoura"ed children to discover the principles o: )athe)atics :or the)selves .y e9plorin" ideas and usin" )athe)atical "a)es and toys rather than .y si)ply learnin" conventional )ethods- This kind o: discovery learnin" is .ased on the idea that children learn e::ectively when "uided to discover principles or causes throu"h their own investi"ations- Su.se+uent research has shown that pri)ary school children le:t to work out their own )ethods o: addition :are no worse than those tau"ht the standard adult rules <%ittleton and Good '44&* '4'>H=An i)portant aspect o: discovery learnin" )ay .e peer interaction and talk a)on" children in the classroo)- ;iscussion with peers is likely to occur on )ore e+ual ter)s than discussion with a teacher0 so it can .e )ore e::ective in en"enderin" the socio-co"nitive con:lict i)portant in childrenJs reconsideration o: e9istin" ideas and :or)ulation o: new ones- This can .e seen in an i)portant e9peri)ent .y ;oise and Mu"ny in which &-year-old children were shown a )odel villa"e and asked to recreate how it would look i: rotated- To co)plete the task0 children were variously )atched with their class)ates0 so)e with peers per:or)in" at a level a.ove their own and so)e with the .est per:or)ers in the class- Ghen children were )atched with those at the ne9t level up0 they )ade pro"ress0 .ut when the weakest per:or)ers were )atched with the .est0 they did not- This su""ests that the introduction o: socio-co"nitive con:lict .etween the children ena.led the weaker per:or)ers to take on their peersJ points o: view and arrive at a solution- $ut i: the partners were too e9pert0 there was no discussion0 a solution was i)posed and the children did not advance <%ittleton and Good '44&* '4&>C=;espite Pia"etJs reservations a.out :or)al teachin" and learnin" activities0 his principles su""est that teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q nurture pupilsJ play:ulness and natural curiosity a.out the worldP use raw data and pri)ary sourcesP provide physical0 interactive and )anipulative )aterials :or pupils to work onP use co"nitive ter)inolo"y such as Oclassi:yJ0 OanalyseJ0 OpredictJ and OcreateJP encoura"e and accept learner autono)y and initiativeP create opportunities :or e9ploratory classroo) discussionP en"a"e pupils in e9periences likely to en"ender co"nitive con:lict-
Trivial constructivis&' 0runer an% e%ucation

For $runer0 the teacherJs task is to develop childrenJs skills at particular a"es0 in di::erent )odes o: representation- $runer clai)s that any su.Rect can .e tau"ht in so)e :or) to any.ody at any a"e <$runer 37&4=- The skill0 o: course0 is to present knowled"e in :or)s that are appropriate to the various a"es o: child learners- Thus0 $runer su""ests that the :ollowin" activities )ay .e appropriate to his three representational )odes*
64
5o%e Enacti.e #conic &$mbolic
Activit, children should handle thin"s0 actually or virtuallychildren should see and i)a"ine thin"schildren should per:or) sy).olic operations-
4ocial constructivis&' 8,gots#, an% e%ucation

Iy"otskian thinkers have developed his theories to include "uided learnin" and sca::oldin"Guided learning: &caffolding* Roint knowled"e construction aided .y skil:ul teacher-)ana"ed discussionsupports which help learners to construct new knowled"e-
Sca::oldin" )ay consist o: resources0 challen"in" activities and )entorin" provided .y teachers or )ore e9perienced peers- Sca::oldin" is a power:ul )etaphor as it su""ests supports that are "radually withdrawn when learners have constructed their understandin" and can act independentlyThe level o: sca::oldin" re+uired is also a::ected .y how :ar into the VP; learners have pro"ressed- Four sta"es have .een identi:ied in learnersJ pro"ression throu"h the VP;* 3 ' A H Sca::oldin" Sca::oldin" Sca::oldin" Sca::oldin" is provided .y othersis provided .y learners the)selves > :or e9a)ple0 .y sel:-talk.eco)es redundant as learners act auto)aticallyis re+uired a"ain i: there are chan"es in the task or conte9t<Tharp and Galli)ore 3766=
4ca**ol%ing strategies *or the classroo&

@n order to sca::old learnin"0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q provide ti)e :or pupils to construct relationships with each otherP allow pupilsJ responses to drive lessons0 deter)inin" the teachin" )ethodolo"y and contentP in+uire a.out pupilsJ understandin" o: concepts0 includin" :alse understandin"s0 .e:ore sharin" their own understandin" o: these conceptsP encoura"e pupils to en"a"e in dialo"ue with the teacher and with each otherP encoura"e in+uiry .y askin" open-ended +uestions and encoura"in" peer +uestionin"P seek ela.oration o: pupilsJ responses to +uestionsP wait :or a response a:ter askin" +uestionsP
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Q Q
create )etaphors and use di::erent teachin" styles to aid )ental representationP )odel the .ehaviour or the techni+ues to .e ac+uired-
Critical constructivis& an% e%ucation

The clai)s o: critical constructivis) that knowled"e is situated and conte9tual )ean that "enerali/ations :or practice are not appropriate- Critical constructivis) su""ests that educators need to .e aware o: the une+ual power relationships .etween educational providers0 teachers and pupils- This is especially true o: adult and co))unity education where the ownership o: knowled"e )ay .e contested or where learners )ay .e dise)powered throu"h a lack o: choice or autono)y-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q ?nowled"e is situated and constructed in social conte9tsThe learner is an active a"ent in the interpretation o: the worldConstructivis) :ocuses on )eanin"-)akin" and the understandin" o: knowled"e%earnin" involves the interpretation o: e9perience to construct )eanin"Mental constructs )ay .e )odi:ied as a result o: con:ir)ation or challen"eOther people are i)portant in the :or)ation and )odi:ication o: )ental constructs-
Conclusions
@n drawin" conclusions a.out constructivis)0 you )ay :ind it use:ul to assess the draw.acks as well as the .ene:its o: the theoryAlthou"h a constructivist approach to teachin"0 learnin" and curricula has .een reco))ended in schools since the 37&4s0 so)e critics ar"ue that it is still di::icult to see constructivist principles acted out in the classroo)- @ndeed0 we can identi:y several reasons why teachers )i"ht resist constructivist practicesQ Schools )ust "enerally :ollow i)posed curricula0 the ri"idity o: which o:ten )akes it di::icult :or teachers to respond to pupilsJ constructions o: knowled"eTeachers are inade+uately trained in constructivist teachin" and learnin"0 as well as sca::oldin" strate"iesClass si/e can )ake individual appraisals o: pupilsJ pro"ression throu"h the VP; di::icultTeachers )ay :eel or :ind that classroo) discussion is ine::icient in :acilitatin" learnin"Teachers atte)ptin" to apply constructivist principles )ay have concerns a.out classroo) control and pupil .ehaviour-
Q Q Q Q
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@t )ay .e di::icult to assess and evaluate the e9tent o: pupilsJ learnin" in a constructivist classroo)-
On the other hand0 it is clear that )any e::ective educational practices are directly in:luenced .y constructivis)0 so it should still .e o: interest and use to all educators .ecause it underpins )uch o: what they do0 even i: they are not aware o: it- For e9a)ple0 the current interest in "roup and proRect work at educational levels ran"in" :ro) the pri)ary school to university level su""ests that shared )eanin"-)akin" is i)portant :or reasons ran"in" :ro) increased )otivation to enhanced task per:or)ance-
)e*erences
$andura0 A-0 #oss0 ;- and #oss0 S-A- <37&3= Trans)ission o: a""ressions throu"h i)itation o: a""ressive )odels0 9ournal of Abnormal and &ocial %s$cholog$0 &A* BCB>6'$runer0 J- <37&4= The %rocess of Education- Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University Press$runer0 J- <37&&= Toward a Theor$ of #nstruction- Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University Press$runer0 J- <377&= The ulture of Education- Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University Press$runer0 J-0 Goodnow0 J- and Austin0 A- <37B&= A &tud$ of Thinking- 1ew 2ork* GileyCooke0 M- <377H= Language and Reason: A &tud$ of )abermas7s %ragmatics- Ca).rid"e MA* M@TFoucault0 M- <37CC= 3iscipline and %unish: The Birth of the %rison- %ondon* Pen"uin $ooks %tdFreire0 P- <37C4= %edagog$ of the /ppressed- 1ew 2ork* Continuu)Garton0 A-F- <'44H= Exploring O9:ord* $lackwell Pu.lishin"ogniti.e 3e.elopment: The hild as %roblem &ol.er-
a.er)as0 J- <377'= Further re:lections on the pu.lic sphere0 in C- Calhoun <ed-= )abermas and the %ublic &phere- Ca).rid"e0 MA* M@T0 H'3>&3a)ilton0 P- <'44'= Mappin" the :ield0 in P- a)ilton and ?- Tho)pson <eds= The *ses of &ociolog$- Milton ?eynes* The Open University and $lackwell Pu.lishin"0 3>H4%ittleton0 ?- and Good0 C- <'44&= Psycholo"y and education* understandin" teachin" and learnin"0 in C- Good0 ?- %ittleton and ?- Sheehy <eds= 3e.elopmental %s$cholog$ in Action- O9:ord* $lackwell Press and Open University Press0 37A>''7McGui"an0 J- <'44'= The pu.lic sphere0 in P- a)ilton and ?- Tho)pson <eds= The *ses of &ociolog$- Milton ?eynes* The Open University and $lackwell Pu.lishin"0 63>33H-
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Morrison0 ?- <'443= JXr"en a.er)as0 37'7>0 in J-A- Pal)er <ed-= =ift$ ;odern Thinkers on Education: =rom %iaget to the %resent- %ondon* #outled"ePia"et0 J- <37&7= ;echanisms of %erception <trans- G-1- Sea"ri)=- 1ew 2ork* $asic $ooksPia"et0 J- <37C'= To *nderstand #s To #n.ent- 1ew 2ork* The Iikin" Press#o"o::0 $- <3774= Apprenticeship in Thinking- 1ew 2ork* O9:ord University PressTharp0 #- and Galli)ore0 #- <3766= Rousing ;inds to Life: Teaching! Learning and &chooling in &ocial ontext- 1ew 2ork* Ca).rid"e University Pressvon Glasers:eld0 !- <'44C= An Exposition of onstructi.ism: >h$ &ome Like it Radical@taly* Associa/ione Oikos- http*FFwww-oikos-or"Fconstructivis)-ht) <accessed 'A Au"ust '44C=Iy"otsky0 %-S- <37C6= ;ind in &ociet$- M- Cole0 I- John-Steiner0 S- Scri.ner and !Sou.er)an <eds= Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University PressIy"otsky0 %-S- <376&= Thought and Language- Ca).rid"e0 MA* M@T Press-
Chapter 5
4ocial learning
(ntro%uction
One o: a )otherJs "reatest concerns when her child "oes to school :or the :irst ti)e is that the child will )ake :riends there- Children learn essential social skills .y interactin" with their class)ates and with adults- Althou"h learnin" is a personal process0 it usually occurs in a social settin"@n de:inin" what is )eant .y social learnin" we need to consider two aspects&ociological aspect: the learnin" o: the skills o: social interactions and social roles within a speci:ic society%s$chological aspect: the way that learnin" as a co"nitive activity is in:luenced .y social :actorsThis chapter looks at learnin" in the li"ht o: the sociolo"ical and psycholo"ical theories that co).ine to :or) the :ield o: social learnin"-
Theories o* social learning

ere we present theories and :indin"s that shape social learnin"- Ge :irst discuss the )ost i)portant sociolo"ical theories that in:luence learnin" and education- This is :ollowed .y an e9ploration o: psycholo"ical theories o: social identity and individuali/ation- The :inal part o: the chapter will discuss their educational i)plications-
4ociological theories
The )aRor sociolo"ical theorist to .e discussed is Y)ile ;urkhei)0 one o: the nineteenth-century :ounders o: the discipline o: sociolo"y- For ;urkhei)0 society is )ore i)portant than the individual <Alpert 37B7=- Society re"ulates all social li:e throu"h its institutions and syste)s- The totality o: .elie:s and senti)ents o: societyJs )e).ers :or)s the .asis o: the )oral and le"al codes that inte"rate society and the individual- This is o: "reat i)portance to education .ecause it su""ests that the .usiness o: education is to )ould children in accordance with the nor)s and needs o: societyThere are three ele)ents in ;urkhei)Js )odel o: any society* Q syste) > the totality o: or"ani/ations and "roups in societyP
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Q Q
structure > the links .etween these or"ani/ations and "roupsP :unction > the role o: these social .odies in reali/in" the values and e9pectations o: the society-
#ather than the )odern child-centred idea o: education which adapts itsel: to the varyin" needs and talents o: each student0 ;urkhei) .elieved that the :unction o: education is to )aintain and trans)it inte"rative social values throu"h the sociali/ation o: individuals <Mei"han and SiraR-$latch:ord '44A* 'BA=- @t is the child who needs to adapt to society- Accordin" to ;urkhei)* Q Q Q the curriculu) should re:lect the collective culture and ai)s o: the society rather than developin" individual talentsP teachers should ena.le pupils to .eco)e use:ul )e).ers o: society0 con:or)in" to social valuesP the pupil should .e receptive to the values o: school and society<;urkhei) 37B&=
4ocial institutions an% groups

%earnin" occurs within social spheres and conte9ts0 which in:or)0 develop0 deepen and in:luence individual identity0 thinkin"0 learnin" and )eanin"-)akin" processesO: particular interest here is the in:luence o: social "roups and institutions0 as well as class structure and ine+ualityThe US sociolo"ist Charles Cooley <3747= identi:ied three in:luential pri)ary "roups0 or social institutions > :a)ily0 peers and co))unity > that play a vital role in shapin" hu)an .ehaviour and :unctionin"0 includin" learnin"-
Fa&il,
!9periences and initial social relationships are :irst developed in the :a)ily- The values e9pressed in this social "roup are )ost i)portant in shapin" childrenJs early .ehaviour and thinkin" .ecause children )odel their .ehaviour and attitudes on :a)ily )e).ers@n the ei"hteenth century0 #ousseau saw parents as the natural educators o: their children- Fro) the .e"innin" o: the nineteenth century0 however0 education was increasin"ly taken over .y the state with an educational discourse that downplayed the role o: the :a)ilyMore recently0 this discourse has chan"ed a"ain .ecause o: perceived :ailures within :or)al syste)s o: education0 particularly :or socially disadvanta"ed "roupsFor e9a)ple0 ho)e schoolin" is popular with :a)ilies who wish to preserve their own particular values0 particularly i: they :eel that these values )ay .e under)ined .y )ainstrea) pu.lic schoolin"- Si)ilarly0 ho)e>school liaison pro"ra))es now seek to involve parents in the education o: their children and inter"enerational learnin" is
7"
pro)oted0 with the ai) o: inte"ratin" childrenJs ho)e and school e9periences <Conaty '44'=- @t is ironic that schools are now seekin" the help o: the :a)ily to solve pro.le)s created partly .y chan"es in :a)ily structures-
+eer groups
@n peer "roups0 individuals learn to interact0 .ehave and con:or) in socially accepta.le ways- They ac+uire social roles0 responsi.ilities and identities0 which are developed throu"h relationships and "roup participation- Group )e).ers develop stron" e)otional ties that unite the) in )eanin":ul and a::ective ways and learn e)otional control- @ndividuals who do not .elon" to0 or participate )eanin":ully in social "roups0 run a "reater risk o: developin" )ental and e)otional pro.le)s <Go::)an 37&3P %ain" and !asterson 37C4=- So)e types and characteristics o: peer "roup interactions are shown .elow-
&ocial pla$ The US psycholo"ist and philosopher Geor"e er.ert Mead hi"hli"hted the i)portance o: play in the social develop)ent o: the child- ;urin" play0 children rehearse and act out the social nor)s and .ehaviours they witness <Mead 373AP 37AHF37C4=-
=riendship and peer groups As shown in Fi"ure B-30 the in:luence o: peers .eco)es )ore i)portant than that o: the :a)ily "roup as children )ove into their teena"e years- Althou"h parental in:luence is still i)portant in career and )oney )atters0 the peer "roup is )ore i)portant in esta.lishin" social status and identity <Se.ald 376&=- At this sta"e o: develop)ent0 .elon"in" to the peer "roup )ay .e )ore i)portant than adoptin" educational values < ar"reaves 37&C=-
Figure 5.1 Peer "roup e::ects on children&ource: .ased on Sacker et al- <'44'=-
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Group allegiance Group sociali/ation )ay also lead to "roup stereotypin"- For e9a)ple0 the :a)ous $oysJ Ca)p e9peri)ents o: the 37B4s showed that "roup )e).ers ascri.e positive +ualities to the "roup to which they have an alle"iance > the Oin "roupJ > and ne"ative +ualities to other "roups > the Oout "roupsJ <Manhei) 37&4=Groupthink Group sociali/ation can also lead to O"roupthinkJ0 in which "roup consensus and con:or)ity override o.Rective analysis- @n "roupthink0 the i)portance o: "roup unity can so)eti)es prevent "roup )e).ers :ro) voicin" opinions or )is"ivin"s :or :ear o: .ein" disconnected :ro) the "roup- @ndividual o.Rections )ay even .e overridden in order to sustain "roup cohesion- !sser and %indoer:er clai) that OGroupthink was tra"ically evident in the decision process .y which 1ASA decided to launch the space shuttle hallenger in January 376&J <Myers '44B* A3&=-
Co&&unit, groups
Accordin" to Cooley <3747=0 the third pri)ary "roup is the co))unity- Althou"h not )utually e9clusive0 co))unity "roups )ay .e cate"ori/ed into di::erent types* Q Normati.e groups These include all varieties o: reli"ious and other .elie: "roups that )aintain codes o: conduct and social control throu"h shared world views and valuesP i.il groups These include political parties0 co))unity associations0 lo..y "roups such as environ)ental0 and charita.le or"ani/ations that sociali/e )e).ers into shared responsi.ilities0 ri"hts and o.li"ationsP #nterest groups These vary with the nature o: the cultural environ)ent- They ran"e :ro) pi"eon :anciers to )usic appreciation societies to $uddhist )editation "roups- These share and support cultural interestsP "ocational groups These include pro:essional .odies and trades unions whose purpose is to support )e).ers in the construction o: identity and in pro)otin" and protectin" their interests-
Co))unities such as the a.ove o::er )e).ers* Q Q Q Q shared history and valuesP a collective identityP reciprocal o.li"ations and ri"htsP a shared discourse<Mercer '444* 34&= There is )uch recent interest in co))unities o: learners and co))unities o: practice where learnin" is ac+uired throu"h social "roup interactions and participation- The
72
)ore e9perienced )e).ers e9ercise control and power- OSituated learnin"J occurs in these Oco))unities o: practiceJ- %earners pro"ress :ro) novice to e9pert throu"h a :or) o: co"nitive apprenticeship <%ave and Gen"er 3773=-
4ocial groups an% a%vantage

Since Mar9Js work on class stru""le and capitalis) in the )id-nineteenth century0 we have understood that there is a relationship .etween class and social advanta"eAlthou"h the e9tent and nature o: this relationship has .een hotly de.ated0 the issue o: class and class structure is central in sociolo"ical thinkin"0 and in:luences various strands o: social learnin" theoryAccordin" to Mar9ist theories0 the class in society which controls the )eans o: production also controls cultural li:e- This do)inant class disse)inates a particular set o: cultural and ideolo"ical values which serve to perpetrate the interests and advanta"es o: the do)inant class and has an i)pact on other classes- @n education0 the do)inant class invests its social and cultural capital in order to reproduce and )aintain its advanta"e- For e9a)ple0 Gilco9 <3766= :ound that children :ro) upper-class and )iddle-class .ack"rounds received nu)erous :or)s o: re)ediation when :aced with potential learnin" pro.le)s .ut children :ro) lower socio-econo)ic .ack"rounds received little or no re)ediation .ecause their pro.le)s were Oto .e e9pectedJ <Gilco9 3766* '7B=The work o: $ourdieu and $ernstein discussed in Chapter &0 OCultural learnin"J0 and Chapter 3A O%an"ua"e and learnin"J de)onstrates ways in which this class advanta"e operates- Any actions or e9pectations that privile"e or rein:orce the status o: one class over another )ay .e seen as :or)s o: Osy).olic violenceJ <$ourdieu and Passeron 37CC*B=- Several studies have revealed e9a)ples o: such sy).olic violence in the classroo)- #ist <37C4F'444= showed that teachers had preconceived notions a.out pupilsJ intellectual a.ility .ased on socio-econo)ic .ack"round0 social environ)ent and si.lin"<s= a.ilityThe A)erican educationalist Michael Apple challen"es the rhetoric clai)in" that schools o::er advanta"es to all irrespective o: social class- owever0 an e9a)ination o: the outco)es shows that success is hi"hly related to the class to which one .elon"s <Apple 3774=- !ducators need to consider the ways that their own class .ack"round in:luences their perceptions o: learners :ro) di::erent social class .ack"rounds and how their own practices and e9pectations )ay .e perpetuatin" inRusticeThe e9tent to which individuals are in char"e o: their educational destinies is addressed .y the :unda)ental dichoto)y o: structure versus a"ency <A.ercro).ie et al- '444* 7=&tructure* the or"ani/ation o: social li:e in accordance with societal structures@t su""ests that social structures co)pletely shape individuals-
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Agenc$*
the e9tent to which individuals have :reedo) to take control o: their actions@t su""ests that individuals have the power to shape social structures-
Many educational de.ates can .e conceptuali/ed in ter)s o: structure and a"encySociolo"ical theorists tend to hold that class is a )aRor deter)inant o: educational success- !ducational rhetoric however0 o:ten proclai)s the view that a learner can use education to overco)e class disadvanta"e-
+s,chological theories
This section deals with theories drawn :ro) social psycholo"y which e)phasi/e ways in which social interactions and e9periences a::ect individuals0 their sense o: identity and their sel:-estee)- @t e9plains how social "roups shape .ehaviours0 attitudes and sel:-estee)-
4ocial i%entit,
The social "roups to which we .elon" have pro:ound e::ects on how we act and on how we perceive ourselves- This is )ore than a sociali/ation processP it is also psycholo"ical .ecause it involves socio-co"nitive strate"ies such as perception- @n his work on inter-"roup relationships0 the psycholo"ist enri TaR:el :ound that "roups de:ine the)selves accordin" to )ini)al criteria- For e9a)ple0 it )ay .e enou"h to .e placed in a tea) or si)ply la.elled as a "roup- The )e).ers o: the "roup consider the)selves to .e the Oin "roupJ and other "roups to .e the Oout "roupsJ- @n the Oin "roupJ0 si)ilarities are enhanced0 as are the di::erences :ro) the Oout "roupsJ- For "roup )e).ers0 sel:-identity is also enhanced as is social status <TaR:el and Turner 376&=- This "roup stereotypin" is a socio-co"nitive perceptual strate"y- Co"nitively0 it si)pli:ies thinkin" <inside is "oodP outside is .ad= and socially it increases "roup solidarity and :acilitates a united response to outsidersSchools have lon" reali/ed the i)portance o: "roup )e).ership and .elon"in"@n the !n"lish school syste)0 :or e9a)ple0 there is lon" tradition o: OhouseJ "roupin"s to create a sense o: .elon"in" and to enhance per:or)ance .y "eneratin" co)petition > the houses o: Gry::indor0 u::lepu::0 #avenclaw and Slytherin in J-?- #owlin"Js )arr$ %otter .ooks e9e)pli:y this strate"y- The si)ple act o: se"re"atin" people .y )eans o: the Osortin" hatJ is su::icient to create the "roup and "enerate :eelin"s o: "roup a::iliation and ani)osity towards other "roupsAni)osity towards the Oout "roupJ can cause inter-"roup con:lict and discri)ination- @n a school settin"0 di::erences .etween "roups o: hi"h and low achievers will tend to .e accentuated as will di::erences .etween "roups :ro) di::erent ethnic or social .ack"rounds unless )easures are taken to reduce this potential con:lict- The classic .oyJs su))er ca)p studies conducted .y Sheri: in 37&& de)onstrated that inter-"roup co)petition encoura"es "roup con:lict- These studies also su""est that
74
"roup )e).ership is su::icient to instil Oin-"roupJ :avouritis) alon" with Rusti:yin" e9ploitation o: Oout "roupsJ- @n his studies0 Sheri: ar.itrarily divided previously unac+uainted .oys into two "roups which were separated :ro) each other :or a period o: a week- The studies showed that .y the )ere act o: dividin" the) into two "roups0 the .oys consistently :avoured and :or)ed alliances with )e).ers o: their own in "roup- Only when the .oys were reunited in co))on tasks did hostility levels drop-
)eciprocal %eter&inis&
@ndividuals0 their .ehaviours and their social environ)ent are dyna)ically .ound to"ether in a process o: Oreciprocal deter)inis)J <$andura 376&=-
#ndi.idual characteristics Q Q Q Q Sel:-identity > sel:-conception as distinctiveSel:-estee) > :eelin"s o: personal worthSel:-e::icacy > individual a.ility within particular areas!9pectancy > individual e9pectations o: attain)ent with respect to "oals-
/.ert beha.iour Q Q Actions > thin"s that an individual doesPer:or)ance > how well thin"s are done-
&ocial en.ironment Q Q Q Group identity > "roup conception as distinctiveSocial status > position in a "roup hierarchySocial interactions > activities .etween "roup )e).ers-
The dyna)ic relationship .etween these is illustrated in Fi"ure B-'- Sel:-identity is created .oth .y actions in the world and our interactions with "roups- Overt .ehaviour is deter)ined .y our identity and our "roup status- Our "roup identity is deter)ined .y our overt .ehaviour and our individual identityFor e9a)ple0 the identity a pupil in the lowest strea) o: a school is :or)ed .y past and present acade)ic per:or)ance and the "roup with who) they )ost closely interact- The relationship is a dyna)ic one- @: a pupil .e"ins to identi:y with other "roups o: peers who are per:or)in" at a hi"her level0 then sel:-identity will chan"e and create e9pectancies that will a::ect overt .ehaviour in the classroo) <harder work=- This in turn will have an e::ect on the relationship .etween that student and the class "roup-
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Figure 5.2 #eciprocal deter)inis)&ource: $andura <376&*'H=-
.%ucational i&plications o* social learning theor,

Social learnin" theory proposes that social li:e and psycholo"ical li:e interact as part o: learnin"0 so that learnin" cannot .e considered a purely individual activity- #ather0 it is situated in social institutions0 social "roups and social class- Personality0 co"nitive and social :actors interact dyna)ically to create identity0 e9pectancy0 sel:-estee)0 e::icacy and ulti)ately0 per:or)ance- This section o: the chapter will consider the educational i)plications o: social learnin" under its sociolo"ical and psycholo"ical aspects-
4ociological aspects
Q @denti:y societal nor)s .y* Z lookin" :or e9a)ples in literature0 art and history that e).ody Z Z Q nor)sP e9plainin" the role o: social institutionsP devisin" a curriculu) to re:lect knowled"e valued .y societyP
Trans)it societal nor)s .y* Z e).eddin" civil values in the curriculu)P Z raisin" consciousness to ener"y savin" and environ)ental issuesP Z )odellin" respect:ul and co))itted .ehaviourP Z "roundin" discussion on )utual social valuesP Z assi"nin" social responsi.ilities to learnersP #eco"ni/e learnersJ social and co))unity action such as* Z service in the co))unityP
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Z Z Q
research on local issuesP participation in political actionP
Cele.rate social nor)s .y* Z presentin" historical and conte)porary e9e)plars as role )odelsP Z cele.ratin" social and civic rituals as part o: the curriculu)-
Teachers can enhance the learnin" e9perience i: they are )ind:ul o: the ways in which :a)ily0 peers0 co))unity and class a::ect learnin"The famil$ @n order to pro)ote the role o: :a)ilies as partners in education0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q esta.lish co))unication links with :a)iliesP appoint school liaison personnel to visit ho)esP )ake parents welco)e in schoolP "ive parents an active role in the runnin" o: the schoolP consult parents and involve the) in school li:eP e9plain the ter)s o: educational discourse to parentsP ask parents :or help and adviceP involve parents as educators and role )odelsP pro)ote inter"enerational :a)ily learnin"P train parents to help their child to learn <e-"- paired readin" techni+ue=P set ho)ework proRects that re+uire :a)ily help <e-"- "enealo"y or history=-
%eer groups Peer "roups protect a"ainst social isolation- %earners who are )eanin":ully inte"rated with their peers are increasin"ly protected a"ainst early drop-out and .ullyin" <%u.ell and Ietter '44&=- Also0 peer "roups en"a"ed in learnin" tasks achieve a wider ran"e o: in:or)ation and deeper )eanin"-)akin" than individuals can achieve on their own <Ga.riel and Montecinos '443=- Peer "roups can challen"e individual views .y providin" alternative perspectives0 and they can also "enerate the drive to resolve di::erences so that social relationships are )aintained- The in:luence o: peer "roups can .e ne"ative i: the values o: the "roup run counter to those o: education > :or e9a)ple0 where .elon"in" to the "roup is )ore hi"hly valued than acade)ic achieve)ent@n order to pro)ote peer "roup inte"ration and cohesion0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q use s)all-"roup learnin" that encoura"es shy pupils to participateP develop strate"ies to en"ender healthy "roup co)petition in learnin"P vary the co)position o: "roups in ter)s o: :riendship0 "ender orFand a.ilityP assi"n speci:ic roles to "roup )e).ersP or"ani/e :ield trips and visits to :oster "roup cohesionP
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Q Q Q Q
arran"e e9tra-curricular activities that increase social cohesionP encoura"e students to Roin social clu.s and societiesP e)ploy class de.ates to e9plore alternative perspectivesP create virtual "roups throu"h synchronous <electronic con:erencin"= and asynchronous <e)ail0 .ulletin .oards0 .lo""in"= )ethods-
The communit$ Ghile co))unities play a vital role in supportin" social cohesion0 learnin" co))unities have an intellectual :unction- Such co))unities create "roups o: learners who share a co))on intellectual or pro:essional interest- This is e9pressed throu"h their role in the creation0 interro"ation and sharin" o: knowled"e- This is undertaken in a :or) o: discourse that is inclusive in allowin" )e).ers to share ideas and e9clusive in keepin" others out- Co))unities o: knowled"e and o: practice )ay ran"e :ro) s)all study "roups within a school to co))unities o: researchers dispersed throu"hout the world@n order to develop co))unities o: learnin"0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q .ehave as partners rather than the sole possessors o: knowled"eP create a culture o: colla.orationP let e9pert learners share their knowled"eP share co))unity history0 traditions and ritualsP look :or colla.orative possi.ilities outside school <virtual links=P encoura"e in+uiry within the classroo)P create an at)osphere where ideas are challen"edP introduce novice )e).ers to the lan"ua"e and practices o: the co))unityP use )ore e9perienced learners to )entor novicesP en"a"e "roups in collective learnin" activityP pro)ote reasoned de.ateP e)phasi/e the ri"hts and responsi.ilities o: )e).ership-
E'uit$ and e'ualit$ !ducators need to .e aware that the achieve)ent o: e+uality involves )ore than increased access to educational opportunities- A:ter all0 students are acutely aware o: their social and intellectual status in class- %earners )ust .e supported in positive ways that allow the) to achieve e+uality o: outco)es@n order to pro)ote e+uity and e+uality0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q have hi"h e9pectations o: all learnersP handle strea)in" or .andin" with "reat care and sensitivityP show respect :or di::erences o: opinions0 .elie:s0 values and attitudesP provide additional support :or vulnera.le learners as an entitle)entP vary the social and intellectual co)position o: "roups in learnin" proRectsP cele.rate learnersJ stren"ths and )ultiple intelli"encesP .e aware o: di::erences o: lan"ua"e codes :ro) di::erent social "roupsP
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Q Q
encoura"e ela.orated lan"ua"e <see pa"e 36C=P reco"ni/e e::ort as well as achieve)ent-
+s,chological aspects
#dentit$ The individual identity o: learners is :or)ed .y their perception o: the "roups with which they identi:y and the way they the)selves are perceived .y the "roup- @n order to pro)ote positive sel:-identity in a learnin" conte9t0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q encoura"e di::erent types o: "roup :or)ation .ased on :riendship0 tea) activity or interestP use )i9ed a.ility "roupin"s to prevent strati:icationP vary the co)position o: "roups so that learners can esta.lish the)selves within di::erent "roupsP encoura"e "roup loyaltyP per)it :riendly co)petition .etween "roupsP encoura"e people to take up roles within a "roup to pro)ote sel:-estee)P encoura"e "roups to reco"ni/e )e).ersJ contri.utionsP look out :or isolated learners and inte"rateP .e alert to .ullyin" and stereotypin"-
&elf(esteem Althou"h $anduraJs theory o: reciprocal deter)inis) su""ests that sel:-estee) is in:luenced .y past and present action and the learnerJs social environ)ent0 the teacher can play a si"ni:icant part in enhancin" or )aintainin" the sel:-estee) o: learners- %earners o:ten identi:y "ood teachers as those who .oost sel:-estee) and .ad ones those who di)inish it- @n order to )aintain or i)prove learnersJ sel:-estee)0 the teacher should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q relate to learners as people rather than )erely learnersP re:er to learners .y na)eP .e particularly conscious o: adult learnersJ sensitivity and sel:-estee)P protect learners :ro) pu.lic :ailureP "ive learners an opportunity to act as teachersP .uild "uaranteed success into learnin" activitiesP reco"ni/e e::ort as well as achieve)entP cele.rate individual successP praise learnersJ contri.utions to classroo) activitiesP treat )istakes as opportunities to learnP provide re"ular and constructive :eed.ackP avoid sarcas)0 ridicule and criticis)P avoid co)parisons or criticis)P praise in pu.lic0 critici/e in private-
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-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q %earnin" does not occur in isolationP it is socially constructed%earnin" has .oth sociolo"ical and psycholo"ical i)plicationsSociety re"ulates social li:e throu"h institutions and syste)sAccordin" to ;urkhei) the .usiness o: education is to )ould children in accordance with societal needs%earnin" is a process o: sociali/ation )ediated throu"h )e).ership o: various "roups!ducation reproduces class and structural ine+ualities in society <$andura=@ntra- and inter-"roup processes are i)portant in :or)in" individual identityThere is a dyna)ic relationship .etween individual sel:-estee)0 the social environ)ent and the learnerJs actionThere is a tension .etween structure <the e9tent to which societal structures shapes individuals= and agenc$ <the e9tent to which individuals deter)ine their own destiny=-
Conclusions
For .ehaviourists0 learnin" is a conditioned individual response to sti)uliP :or co"nitivists0 it is the individual application o: )ental processesP :or constructivists0 it revolves around the construction o: )eanin"- For social learnin" theorists however0 learnin" is the product o: shared e9periences in a ran"e o: social settin"sThis chapter outlines so)e aspects o: social learnin"- ;rawin" on the work o: ;urkhei) and his successors0 it e9plores learnin" as a process o: sociali/ation and the way societal structures and class in:luence learnin"- The chapter also shows how social processes are involved in esta.lishin" learner sel:-estee)- @t shows that social in:luences on individual psycholo"y are not si)ply in one directionP there is a dyna)ic and reciprocal relationship in which social environ)ent0 action and individual interact- @t re)inds the educator that learnin" is not Rust an individual activityP it is e).edded in the social :a.ric o: society and .oth re:lects and in:luences social processesowever0 it also invites re:lection on the li)itations o: the educatorJs in:luence over learnin"- The teacher and the classroo) :or) only )inor parts o: the learnerJs world- There a tension .etween structure and a"ency .oth :or the learner and the teacher- The learnerJs own a"ency in en"a"in" in learnin" is constrained .y class and social structures- Si)ilarly0 the teacherJs own a"ency in teachin" is constrained .y the educational syste) and an ina.ility to chan"e )any :eatures o: the learnerJs e9perience1evertheless0 :or )any oppressed or socially disadvanta"ed people0 education is a )aRor tool :or co).atin" oppression and disadvanta"e and o::ers an avenue :or advance)ent and social pro"ress-
8"
)e*erences
A.ercro).ie0 1-0 ill0 S- and Turner0 $-S- <'444= The %enguin 3ictionar$ of &ociolog$0 <Hth edn=- %ondon* Pen"uin $ooksAlpert0 - <37B7= Y)ile ;urkhei)* a perspective and appreciation0 American &ociologi( cal Re.iew0 'H<H=* H&'>BApple0 M-G- <3774= #deolog$ and urriculum <'nd edn=- 1ew 2ork* #outled"eogniti.e Theor$-
$andura0 A- <376&= &ocial =oundations of Thought and Action: &ocial Upper Sadle #iver0 1J* Pearson !ducation-
$ourdieu0 P- and Passeron0 J-P- <37CC= Reproduction in Education! &ociet$ and ulture%ondon* Sa"eConaty0 C- <'44'= #ncluding All: )ome! &chool and ommunit$ *nited in Education;u.lin* IeritasCooley0 C- - <3747= &ocial /rganisation: A &tud$ of the Larger ;ind- 1ew 2ork* Charles Scri.nerJs Sons;urkhei)0 !- <37B&= Education and &ociolog$- 1ew 2ork* Free PressGa.riel0 A-J- and Montecinos0 C- <'443= Colla.oratin" with a skilled peer* the in:luence o: achieve)ent "oals and perceptions o: partnerJs co)petence on the participation and learnin" o: low-achievin" students0 The 9ournal of Experimental Education0 &7<'=* 3B'>C7Go::)an0 !- <37&3= As$lums: Essa$s on the &ocial &ituation of ;ental %atients and /ther #nmates- 1ew 2ork* ;ou.leday and Coar"reaves0 ;- <37&C= &ocial Relations in a &econdar$ &chool- %ondon* #outled"e and ?e"an PaulJordan0 A- and Carlile0 O- <'44B= %earnin" Societies* Glo.al Trends towards 1ational (uali:ication Fra)eworks! #nternational hinese onference on the 3e.elopment ;odels of the ;oderni:ation %rocess in the Eastern and >estern ountries + hina and the >orld%iu/hou0 Guan9i- China%ain"0 #-;- and !asterson0 A- <37C4= &anit$! ;adness and the =amil$- %ondon* Pen"uin $ooks%ave0 J- and Gen"er0 !- <3773= &ituated Learning: Legitimate %eripheral %articipationCa).rid"e* Ca).rid"e University Press%u.ell0 ?- and Ietter0 J- <'44&= Suicide and 2outh Iiolence prevention* The pro)ise o: an inte"rated approach0 Aggression and "iolent Beha.iour! 33<'=*3&C>CBManhei)0 -%- <37&4= @nter"roup interaction as related to status and leadership di::erences .etween "roups0 &ociometr$0 'A<H=* H3B>'CMead0 G- - <37AHF37C4= ;ind! &elf! and &ociet$ from the &tandpoint of a &ocial Beha.iorist <3Cth edn=- C-G- Morris <ed-= Chica"o and %ondon* The University o: Chica"o Press-
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Mead0 G- - <373A= The social sel:0 9ournal of %hilosoph$0 34* ACH>64Mei"han0 #- and SiraR-$latch:ord0 #- <'44A= A &ociolog$ of Education <Hth edn-=- 1ew 2ork* Continuu)Mercer0 1- <'444= >ords and ;inds- %ondon* #outled"eMyers0 ;-G- <'44B= &ocial %s$cholog$ <6th edn=- 1ew 2ork* McGraw- ill#ist0 #- <37C4F'444= Student social class and teacher e9pectations* the sel:-:ul:illin" prophecy in "hetto education0 )ar.ard Educational Re.iew0 C4<A=* 'BC>A43Sacker0 A-0 Schoon0 @- and $artley0 M- <'44'= Social ine+uality in educational achieve)ent and psychosocial adRust)ent throu"hout childhood* )a"nitude and )echanis)s0 &ocial &cience and ;edicine! BB<B=* 6&A>64Se.ald0 - <376&= AdolescentJs shi:tin" orientation toward parents and peers* a curvilinear trend over recent decades0 9ournal of ;arriage and the =amil$! H6<3=* B>3ASheri:0 M- <37&&= Group onflict and o(operation: Their &ocial %s$cholog$- %ondon*
#outled"e and ?e"an PaulTaR:el0 - and Turner0 J- <376&= The social identity o: inter"roup .ehaviour0 in S-
Gorchel and G-G- Austin <eds= %s$cholog$ of #ntergroup Relations- Chica"o* 1elsonallGilco90 ?- <3766= ;i::erential socialisation in the classroo)* i)plications :or e+ual opportunity0 in G- Spindler <ed-= 3oing the Ethnograph$ of &chooling- Prospect ei"hts0 @%* Gaveland Press-
Chapter 6
Cultural learning
(ntro%uction
@n )any countries and periods o: history0 the education o: "irls has di::ered :ro) that o: .oys- Cultural nor)s have o:ten dictated that wo)en are desi"ned and destined :or di::erent activities :ro) )en0 and should .e educated accordin"ly- This is Rust one e9a)ple o: the in:luence o: culture on learnin"- This chapter will e9plore other such cultural in:luences and i)plications0 .earin" in )ind that Ocultural learnin"J can )ean Olearnin" about a cultureJ and also Olearnin" within a cultureJ- As authors0 we co)e :ro) a speci:ic western cultural perspective and we are aware o: the dan"ers o: co))entin" on other cultures- @t is i)possi.le to stand outside our own cultural :ra)ework .ut we will nevertheless atte)pt to .e sel:-aware and sel:-re:le9ive in our analysesAccordin" to $ron:en.renner <37C7=0 hu)an develop)ent occurs in an environ)ent consistin" o: :our interrelated and nested structures* Q Q Q Q settin"s where the person is present > ho)e0 school0 workplaceP places where these settin"s interconnect > interaction .etween ho)e and schoolP settin"s where the person is not present > "overn)ent0 .usiness0 technolo"yP the overarchin" cultural conte9t > econo)ic0 social and intellectual cli)ate-
!very hu)an structure and )eanin" > :ro) race0 nationality0 ethnic "roupin"0 reli"ion0 social class and "ender to the :a)ily0 school and workplace > is culturally deter)ined- %earnin" occurs within culture .ecause culture enco)passes every aspect o: hu)an e9perience- $ut culture is also the content o: learnin"0 inso:ar as all learnin" is induction into a culture <$runer 377&=- The word OcultureJ co)es :ro) the %atin OcolereJ0 )eanin" Oto cultivateJ or Oto care :orJ- Culture is so)ethin" cultivatedTo learn is to .e introduced into* Q Q Q the values0 .elie:s and nor)s o: a cultureP the e9periences and products valued .y a cultureP the ways o: thinkin" and actin" that are prevalent in that culture-
This chapter outlines theories o: how hu)an )eanin"-)akin" is culturally deter)ined0 and considers the i)plications :or peda"o"y0 co"nitive style and learnin"- @t su""ests a ran"e o: practical ways that teachers can respond to0 and )ake the )ost o:0 culturally diverse classroo)s-
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+rinciples o* cultural stu%ies an% learning theor,

Culture can .e de:ined as Oa :u//y set o: attitudes0 .elie:s0 .ehavioural nor)s0 and .asic assu)ptions and values that are shared .y a "roup o: people0 and that in:luence each )e).erJs .ehaviour and hisFher interpretations o: the OO)eanin"JJ o: other peopleJs .ehaviourJ <Spencer-Oatey '444* H=- A popular )etaphor :or culture is the ice.er" with o.serva.le .ehaviours a.ove the waterline- $elow lie several layers usually outside conscious awareness .ut nevertheless deter)inin" hu)an .ehaviourFi"ure &-3 illustrates this )etaphor0 usin" the culture o: the :a)ily as an e9a)ple-
Figure 6.1
Culture as ice.er"-
%ike education0 cultural studies draws its theory :ro) a variety o: disciplines in the social sciences0 the hu)anities and the arts- Sources include psycholo"y0 philosophy0 history0 literary criticis)0 anthropolo"y0 lin"uistics and se)iotics- Also like educational research0 the study o: culture cannot .e said to have a )ethodolo"y o: its own .ut draws its )ethodolo"y :ro) a wide variety o: :ields- @n the past0 there was a tendency to view culture as lar"e scale and ho)o"enous- Modern perspectives display a "rowin" awareness o: "reater varieties o: culture0 o: su.cultures within cultures0 and o: the co)ple9ity o: cultural identities- Cultural studies there:ore enco)passes a very .road :ield- This chapter is :ocused on aspects that have an o.vious i)pact on education > :or e9a)ple0 diversityModern western perspectives reco"ni/e cultural diversity- People are .orn into a particular "ender0 ethnic "roup and race0 live in a particular re"ion in a particular country0 .elon" to a particular social class and have a particular reli"ious orientation or notModern educational practice tries to acco))odate the resultin" cultural diversity- @n the :ollowin" discussion0 we outline so)e o: the ideas that are o: i)portance
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to cultural learnin" theory and are likely to .e o: use to the educator atte)ptin" to nurture a culturally diverse and inclusive learnin" environ)ent* Q Q Q Q cultural di)ensionsP ha.itusP cultural reproductionP cultural capital-
9o*ste%e2s cultural %i&ensions

The ;utch or"ani/ational anthropolo"ist0 Geert o:stede0 developed the idea o: cultural di)ensions0 an inde9in" syste) that can .e used to descri.e0 cate"ori/e and co)pare cultures- o:stedeJs <37730 '443= cultural di)ensions are* %ower distance index @%3#A the e9tent to which people without power accept the une+ual distri.ution o: that power- China scores hi"hly on this inde90 :or e9a)ple0 .ecause su.ordinates accept the :or)al power o: others#ndi.idualism index <#3"= the e9tent to which the individual is )ore i)portant than the "roup- The USA scores very hi"hly here;asculinit$ index <;A&A the e9tent to which the roles o: )en and wo)en are distinct with little or no overlap- Strictly traditional @sla)ic countries score hi"hly here*ncertaint$ a.oidance <*A#= the e9tent to which people wish to reduce an9iety .y reducin" uncertainty- Such cultures like predicta.ility0 clear rules and sta.le structures- Japan scores hi"hest in this di)ensionLong(term orientation <LT/= the e9tent to which people attach i)portance to a lon"-ter) :uture rather than to tradition or the past or present- These cultures value thri:t0 perseverance and patience- For e9a)ple0 traditionally0 parents in 1orthern !uropean Protestant cultures i)pressed upon their children the i)portance o: delayed "rati:icationP chores had to .e co)pleted .e:ore play co))encedo:stedeJs syste) is e9tre)ely use:ul in lookin" at cultures on )any levels0 :ro) the culture o: an entire nation to that o: a particular educational institution or class-
9all2s cultural %i&ensions

Althou"h o:stedeJs is the )ost :a)ous theoretical construct desi"ned to understand cultural di)ensions0 there are others- !dward T- all <376H= considered culture to .e
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)ainly su.conscious unless challen"ed- e proposed an inde9 consistin" o: two di)ensions* hi"h-conte9t versus low-conte9t0 and )onochronic versus polychronic < all 37B7P 37&7=The hi"h-conte9t versus low-conte9t di)ension is concerned with the )anner in which in:or)ation is e9chan"ed- @t has two co)ponents* Q Q the conte9t o: the )essa"e <situation0 history0 people involved and so on=P the content o: the )essa"e <usually in the :or) o: spoken or written words=< all 37C&= )igh and low context i"h-conte9t cultures attach )ore i)portance to the trans)itters and the surroundin" conte9t than to the )essa"e- For e9a)ple0 the :act that a )essa"e is delivered .y so)eone in authority i)plies that it would .e disrespect:ul to challen"e it- Typical hi"h-conte9t cultures are Japan0 China and ?orea- %ow-conte9t cultures are )ore literalP in:or)ation is )ostly contained in the actual trans)itted )essa"e with less attention paid to the trans)itter or the conte9t- 1orth A)erica0 Scandinavia and Ger)any are e9a)plesSo)eone :ro) a hi"h-conte9t culture such as China )ay :eel that so)eone :ro) a low-conte9t culture such as the US is .ein" rude and literal0 whereas the person :ro) the low-conte9t culture )ay :eel that the hi"h-conte9t person is .ein" inscruta.leallJs ideas on hi"h and low conte9t cultures are use:ul to educators .ecause they e)phasi/e the su.conscious co))unicative aspects o: culture- !ducators )ay not .e aware o: the way their cultural .ack"rounds in:luences the way they trans)it in:or)ation0 nor o: the way learnersJ cultures in:luences its reception-
;(time and %(time Althou"h not )utually e9clusive0 the )onochronic <M-ti)e= versus polychronic <P-ti)e= di)ension descri.es tendencies to view ti)e di::erently- M-ti)e cultures view ti)e as linear0 partitioned0 scarce and not to .e wasted- Ti)eta.les0 schedules and deadlines are taken seriously- Ger)any is o:ten seen as havin" an M-ti)e cultureFor P-ti)e cultures0 however0 ti)e is less tan"i.le0 )ore holistic0 )ore :le9i.le and de:ined .y conte9t rather than clock- Ti)eta.les are aspirationalP people are )ore i)portant- Stereotypically0 tropical islanders are seen as Olaid .ackJ and con:or)in" to P-ti)e culturesConventionally0 :or)al educational settin"s re+uire an M-ti)e approach with ti)eta.les0 assess)ent dates and so on- This is .alanced .y the person-centred approach o: P-ti)e to allow :or :le9i.ility and co)passion- Ar"ua.ly0 constructivist0 child-centred education re:lects a P-ti)e approach and teacher-centred0 whole-class )ethods re:lect an M-ti)e approach-
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9a itus
Many )ani:estations o: cultural diversity are seen in daily practices and .ehaviours that O"o without sayin"J- This is o:ten re:erred to as Oha.itusJ and includes .odily ha.its0 styles o: )ovin"0 lin"uistic re"ister and accent0 tastes in :ood and clothin"0 and so on- @n the 37C4s0 French sociolo"ist Pierre $ourdieu ar"ued that Oha.itusJ should also include personal constructs0 .elie: syste)s and disposition- Ge are hardly conscious o: our Oha.itusJ until we visit a :orei"n country or enter a di::erent social )ilieu and are e9posed to a ha.itus very di::erent :ro) our own <$ourdieu 376&=For)al and in:or)al education so)eti)es intentionally addresses aspects o: the ha.itus > :or e9a)ple0 children are tau"ht O"ood )annersJ- More o:ten0 however0 ha.itus is ac+uired as a result o: the "eneral interactions durin" an educational career > :or e9a)ple0 the i)portance that :or)al schoolin" places on punctuality prepares learners :or the Oha.itusJ o: the workplace-
Cultural repro%uction an% e%ucation

$y passin" on Oha.itusJ0 education reproduces culture0 particularly those aspects o: it that are seen Oa.ove the waterlineJ in the ice.er" <Fi"ure &-3=- !ducation also has taken on the role o: reproducin" aspects o: culture :ro) .elow the waterlineCurricula include civics0 citi/enship and personal and health educationP reli"ious education and history also reproduce cultureFor e9a)ple0 in what has .eco)e known as the Ohistory warsJ0 the Australian :ederal "overn)ent :ro) 377& to '44C consistently reRected history that presented white coloni/ers as invaders who destroyed indi"enous culture- This thesis was decried as a O.lack ar).andJ view o: history0 and in '44C a new0 )ore OneutralJ and Oco)prehensiveJ curriculu) was )ooted in the lead-up to a :ederal election <Mc@ntyre and Clark '44HP Australian Govern)ent ;epart)ent o: !ducation0 Science and Technolo"y '44C=- This e9a)ple de)onstrates that no su.Rect is a.solutely culture :ree- !ven the decision to "rant a topic the status o: a su.Rect worthy o: study is itsel: a cultural state)ent-
Cultural capital
@: education reproduces culture0 it )ay also reproduce the cultural advanta"es enRoyed .y privile"ed classes- To e9plain how this occurs0 $ourdieu developed the idea o: Ocultural capitalJ as part o: his e9a)ination o: di::erences in educational outco)es in France in the 37&4s- e said that havin" certain cultural knowled"e "ives one an advanta"e- Just like :inancial capital0 cultural capital is possessed )ore .y so)e than .y others0 and with it co)es status and power- Those who have cultural capital pass it on to their children and so the advanta"e is perpetuated- For e9a)ple0 a child who is surrounded .y .ooks and lives in a household in which .oth parents have .ene:ited :ro) hi"her education enRoys a certain cultural capital that is not availa.le to those without these e9periences-
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Accordin" to $ourdieu <376&* HC=0 there are three types o: cultural capital* Embodied This is personal- @t includes accent0 tone and the way an individual )oves0 as well as the traditions and .elie:s passed on to that individual throu"h sociali/ation/b0ectified This type consists o: actual o.Rects such as .ooks and works o: art- These need to .e appreciated to .e Oconsu)edJ#nstitutionali:ed This type consists o: educational +uali:ications and acade)ic credentials reco"ni/ed o::icially .y institutionsThis cultural capital can .e converted into :inancial capital .y e)ploy)ent .ecause hi"her paid Ro.s o:ten re+uire hi"her acade)ic +uali:ications$ourdieuJs notion o: cultural capital that e)phasi/es access to literature0 art0 )useu)s and "alleries )i"ht see) outdated in the early twenty-:irst century0 when the @nternet )akes .ooks and art collections availa.le online- owever0 not everyone has access to technolo"yP students with .road.and in their ho)es have a cultural and educational advanta"e!ven )ore si"ni:icant however0 is the cultural capital that disposes people towards hi"h culture and educational develop)ent which leads to success in education and e)ploy)ent- @n addition0 education can reproduce social and cultural ine+ualities inso:ar as teachers have .een the success:ul recipients o: cultural capital and0 consciously or unconsciously0 reproduce do)inant values-
.%ucational i&plications o* cultural learning theories

Educators responds to culture in two wa$s: Educators ma$ find the following theoretical constructs useful: Practically in their culturally in:luenced peda"o"ical strate"iesTheoretically in their cultural perspectives0
Q Q Q Q Q Q
cultural awarenessP enculturationP culture and knowled"e0 lan"ua"e and co"nitive styleP culture and )otivationP cultural stereotypin"P )ulticultural education-
Cultural a$areness
Classroo)s create their own cultures within which )ay .e su.cultures o: social "roups or other nationalities- Fro) a constructivist perspective0 teachers )ust .e
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aware o: their studentsJ cultural .ack"rounds in order to understand how they construct knowled"e and )ake sense o: their worlds- This is i)portant0 re"ardless o: whether teachers are workin" in their own culture0 a :orei"n culture0 or a )i9ed cultural conte9t- Cultural di)ension indices0 such as those proposed .y o:stede0 can help teachers reach "reater understandin" o: the cultural diversity in their classroo)s <see Ta.le &-3=Ta le 6.1 Assessin" classroo) culture usin" o:stedeJs indices
9o*ste%e2s in%icies Power distance @ndividualis) Masculinity
)elate% 3uestion *or e%ucator Q Q Q Q Q ow does the teacher distri.ute power in the classroo)K ow do students respond to the distri.ution o: powerK ow :ar is the teachin" directed at individuals or "roupsK ow cohesive is the class "roupK ow does the teacher treat "ender relationsK
Q ow )uch does "ender in:luence learnin"K Uncertainty avoidance Q ow e9plicit are teachers a.out rules and proceduresK Q ow do students perceive the value o: rules and proceduresK %on"-ter) orientation Q ow do teachers e9plain ai)s and lon"-ter) "oalsK Q ow willin" are students to persevere towards lon"-ter) "oalsK
.nculturation
Accordin" to $runer <377&* HA=0 education is Oa co)ple9 pursuit o: :ittin" a culture to the needs o: its )e).ers and their ways o: knowin" to the needs o: the cultureJ- @n education syste)s0 conscious atte)pts are )ade to pass on national and cultural history and tradition- This can .e e9plicit in the case o: schools run .y reli"ious deno)inations0 or i)plicit in the content and delivery o: the "eneral curriculu)- The curriculu) includes everythin" that children e9perience at school > not Rust the su.Rects- Students are enculturated throu"h interactions with teachers and peers > learnin" a.out social or"ani/ation0 power and status > and they also learn what is considered knowled"e and what the culture considers worth learnin"- The culture )ay consider workplace skills )ore valua.le than classical lan"ua"es0 :or e9a)ple0 and re:lect this in the curriculu)-
Culture an% #no$le%ge

Meanin" and knowled"e are socially constructed and re:lect the assu)ptions and worldview o: the culture in which they have developed- Ghat is seen as knowled"e depends on cultural values- @n a pri)itive society0 knowled"e o: where to :ind :ood
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and water is :ar )ore i)portant than knowled"e o: +uantu) theory or Greek philosophy- Su.Rect choices )ade0 and educational paths chosen0 re:lect the particular values o: advanced societiesThe way that cultures create knowled"e has i)plications :or the distri.ution o: power within those cultures- Foucault <37CC= e9a)ined the cultural construction o: )ental illness0 ar"uin" that it was not until the nineteenth century that )adness was seen as a )edical condition- This new construction con:erred power on psychiatrySi)ilarly0 on the .asis o: their su.Rect e9pertise and their institutional power0 educators "ain the power to dia"nose educational :ailure or success0 with lon"-ter) conse+uences :or their students-
Culture an% language

%an"ua"e .oth reveals and trans)its culture- So)e cultural characteristics o: lan"ua"e include the :ollowin"* 3irectness For e9a)ple0 A)ericans avoid a).i"uity and use precise lan"ua"e0 whereas !ast Asian cultures use :ewer words and are )ore va"ue;aintenance of relationships So)e cultures :ocus on o.Rects and the relationships .etween the)- %an"ua"e is adapted to the status o: the person addressed- For e9a)ple0 Japanese people use di::erent "ra))atical structures :or talkin" to )en0 wo)en and people o: lower and hi"her status@n the U? e)otions are e9pressed o.li+uely and )odi:iers are used- @n ?orea there is )ore reserve and little de)onstration o: e)otionTalk A:rican cultures )ake proli:ic use o: prover.s0 and the Greeks "lori:y rhetorical techni+ues<Sa)ovar and Porter '44H* 3H&>B'= The way people think is in:luenced .y the words and concepts they possess- A well-known e9a)ple o: this is the Sa)i natives o: northern Sweden0 who have B44 words to descri.e snow <Sa)ovar and Porter '44H* 3H&=- This ena.les the) to )ake su.tle distinctions a.out an i)portant aspect o: their e9perience- An educational e9a)ple )i"ht .e literature teachers or students0 whose knowled"e o: technical ter)s such as irony0 pathos and pathetic :allacy per)it the) to en"a"e in deeper analysis0 understandin" and discussion- irst <37&B= points out that the curriculu) in :act consists o: learnin" a.out ways o: thinkin" in di::erent disciplines-
Emotion
Culture an% cognitive st,le

Culture a::ects the way that we perceive and process the world- Accordin" to Sa)ovar and Porter <'44H* 'H'>A=0 the e::ects o: culture can .e identi:ied in :our co"nitive styles*
9"
Q Q Q Q
:ield independence versus :ield sensitivityP cooperation versus co)petitionP trial and error versus Owatch then doJP tolerance versus intolerance o: a).i"uity-
=ield independence .ersus field sensiti.it$ =ield(independent learners tend to i"nore conte9t and treat a su.Rect directly- This is )ore typical o: western cultures- =ield(sensiti.e learners are )ore aware o: .roader conte9ts and o: social di)ensions- This )ay .e a characteristic o: Asian cultures0 which e)phasi/e relationships0 respect and the preservation o: O:aceJooperation .ersus competition The co"nitive styles o: so)e learner "roups are cooperative0 whereas others tend to .e co)petitive- For e9a)ple0 %atino parents teach their children to work cooperatively in "roups .ut 1orth A)erican parents teach their children to work on their own and to .e co)petitive <Gross)an 376H0 +uoted in Sa)ovar and Porter '44H=- The concept o: individuality and co)petition runs throu"h )any 1orth A)erican discourses o: educationTrial and error .ersus 6watch then do7 So)e people pre:er to atte)pt so)ethin"0 :ail and then try a"ain until they "et .etter at it- Others pre:er to o.serve :or a while .e:ore atte)ptin" a task- Cleary and Peacock <3776= ar"ue that native A)erican students pre:er to watch activities until they :eel co)petent enou"h to participate- @n so)e Asian cultures0 error is unaccepta.le and a cause o: sha)eTolerance .ersus intolerance of ambiguit$ 1orth A)erican culture dislikes a).i"uity and e)phasi/es clear ai)s and learnin" outco)es- At the sa)e ti)e0 it allows :or si"ni:icant :le9i.ility in teachin" )ethods!ast Asian cultures value a).i"uity in knowled"e0 .ut their classroo)s are hi"hly structured and teachin" )ethodolo"ies are restricted-
Culture an% &otivation

Culture has a si"ni:icant in:luence on what we value0 and what we value in turn in:luences the :actors that )otivate us to learn- The sources o: )otivation are either e9trinsic or intrinsic- 2ao <376C= descri.es how Asian children are o:ten )otivated e9trinsically > :or e9a)ple0 they want to please parents and i)press relatives- This )ay .e less the case with students :ro) western cultures that pri/e individual attain)ent and sel:-:ul:il)ent- These students )ay .e )otivated intrinsically .y their own desire to o.tain "ood +uali:ications and Ro.s-
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Si)ilarly0 cultural .ack"round )ay shape not only how students want to learn0 .ut also what they want to learn <Sa)ovar and Porter '44H* 'HC=- For e9a)ple0 Japanese culture de)ands that children accurately )e)ori/e historical dates and )athe)atical :or)ulae0 and children are also e9pected to learn a )usical instru)ent re"ardless o: aptitude- ispanic and native A)erican students0 on the other hand0 Opre:er to learn in:or)ation that is personally interestin" to the)J <Galker et al- 3767* &A=-
Cultural stereot,ping
Several o: the theoretical constructs we have discussed a.ove concern "eneral di::erences a)on" cultures0 and we have drawn attention to the) so that educators can .e aware o: the sources and types o: cultural diversity in the classroo)- At the sa)e ti)e0 educators )ust .e very care:ul not to )ake assu)ptions a.out learners0 learnin"0 and teachin" practices :ro) cultural .ack"rounds other than their ownFor e9a)ple0 on the .asis o: "enerally a"reed western peda"o"ical principles0 classroo)s in Con:ucian-herita"e cultures <C Cs= .reak all the rules- Classes are lar"e > H4 or )ore students would not .e unusual0 teachin" is o:ten in the :or) o: lectures0 rote learnin" is hi"hly valued0 the teacherJs authority is not challen"ed0 the :ocus is on per:or)ance in hi"hly co)petitive and stress:ul e9a)inations0 and educational :inancial resources and student support are )ini)al <$i""s 377&* H&>C=- @t would .e culturally na[ve :or western teachers to i"nore the su.tleties o: the relationships in C C classroo)s0 to decry their )ethods or to dis)iss their results- Students :ro) such classroo)s o:ten outper:or) western students <includin" creatively= so it appears to .e e::ective <$i""s 377&* HC=@ndeed0 conte)porary research <$i""s 377&P Tan" 377&P ?e).er '444P Gatkins and $i""s '443P Jarvis et al- '44A= de.unks stereotypes a.out C C learners0 learnin" styles and teachin" )ethods- For e9a)ple* Q Skill in drawin" can .e developed .y repeatedly copyin" a s)all nu).er o: e9a)ples very care:ully- This skill can then .e used creatively in ori"inal art work- This )eans that the western preconception that children should e9plore )aterials :irst and then develop skills can .e reversedC C students are o:ten said to .e reluctant to en"a"e with the teacher and other students in the western classroo)- owever0 they are hi"hly interactive outside the classroo)- For e9a)ple0 the nu).er o: students who seek one-to-one interaction a:ter class and interactions with other students is pro.a.ly hi"her than a)on" western students <Jarvis et al- '44A* 6C=C Cs attri.ute success and :ailure )ore to e::ort than to a.ility- As a result0 students spend )ore ti)e studyin" outside o: class and work harder than their western counterparts;iscussion is not co))on in C C classroo) settin"s <perhaps .ecause it is viewed as a waste o: valua.le teacher ti)e=0 .ut spontaneous student colla.oration occurs when C C students )eet un:a)iliar situations- Tan" <377&= descri.es how 6C per cent o: a student sa)ple in on" ?on" University worked colla.oratively without teacher insti"ation-
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!vidence does not support the idea that students :ro) C Cs Opre:er passive learnin" and resist teachin" innovationJ <?e).er '444* 334=- A study o: 74 action learnin" proRects in on" ?on" universities showed that when students are "iven the opportunity to adopt )ore active )ethods they do so0 .ut teachers )ust prepare the "round care:ully <Jarvis et al- '44A* 6C=-
!ducators )ust re)e).er that0 althou"h the .rain and co"nitive processes involved in learnin" )ay .e si)ilar :or hu)ans in "eneral0 peda"o"y cannot .e divorced :ro) its cultural and social conte9ts-
5ulticultural e%ucation
@n the )odern developed world0 "lo.ali/ation and )i"ration has )eant that the )ulticultural classroo) is .eco)in" the nor)0 .ut there is de.ate a.out whether )ulticultural education is "enuinely possi.le or desira.le- So)e call :or the reco"nition o: cultural diversity and e)phasi/e the value o: :osterin" itP others de)and that the values0 traditions and history o: the do)inant culture .e "iven pre-e)inence0 as in the A)erican custo) o: salutin" the :la" each )ornin" .e:ore school starts- @n so)e cases0 the )etaphor o: the O)eltin" potJ > in which all cultures co).ine > has "iven way to the )etaphor o: the Osalad .owlJ0 in which i))i"rant cultures and do)inant cultures co-e9ist- The trou.le arises when these cultures collide > :or e9a)ple0 on reli"ious issues such as the the wearin" o: the hiRa. at school <%ee '44A=!ven in )onocultural classroo)s0 students .rin" to learnin" a ran"e o: .ack"rounds and learnin" styles- @n the )ulticultural classroo) with :ewer shared cultural values0 diversity )ay .e )ore di::icult to acco))odate- @n the ne9t section0 we su""est how a constructivist approach )i"ht .e practically applied in these circu)stances-
+ractical a%vice to the teacher

A responsive peda"o"y :or cultural diversity can .e i)ple)ented .y )eans o: procedural clarity0 culturally sensitive )eanin"-)akin" and culturally diverse teachin"- @t is also i)portant to support the learnin" o: all students-
+roce%ural clarit,
Teachers should* Q Q Q .e a.solutely clear a.out nor)s and proceduresP )ake sure that instructions are understood .y o.tainin" :eed.ackP "uide students in class participation and discussion .y )akin" class rules e9plicitP
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Z Z
esta.lishin" clear rules :or class discussion <takin" turns0 listenin" to everyone0 contri.utin" and not interruptin"=P providin" alternatives :or those students who are less culturally inclined to participate in class discussion-
Culturall, sensitive &eaning6&a#ing

Constructivis) tells us that teachers should )ake e9plicit e::orts to help students en"a"e in )eanin"-)akin"- This needs to .e sensitive and relevant to studentsJ cultural values- To do this0 teachers should* Q )odel respect .y Z usin" inclusive lan"ua"e and inclusive e9a)plesP Z welco)in" alternative viewpointsP Z askin" students to produce proRects descri.in" particular cultural practices <:or e9a)ple0 :ood=P
e9a)ine values .y Z re:lectin" on the values i)plicit in the su.RectP Z re:lectin" on values that )ay .e challen"in" to so)e culturesP Z respect:ully e9plorin" di::erent value syste)s in relation to a topicP
cele.rate di::erence .y Z askin" students to provide e9a)ples o: teachin" topics relevant to their culturesP Z Z collectin" culturally diverse )aterials :or :uture useP elicitin" in:or)ation a.out preconceptions in the li"ht o: particular cultures-
Culturall, %iverse teaching

To )ake the )ost o: their classroo)sJ cultural diversity0 teachers should* Q learn as )uch as possi.le a.out studentsJ cultural .ack"rounds .y Z undertakin" class surveys a.out cultural .ack"roundsP Z researchin" cultural .ack"rounds usin" the @nternetP Z Q contactin" and "ettin" to know parentsP
teach tolerance .y Z usin" ice.reakers to introduce students to one anotherP Z cele.ratin" and reco"ni/in" a ran"e o: reli"ious :estivalsP Z usin" a ran"e o: culturally diverse sources-
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4upporting stu%ent learning

;isadvanta"ed students will need additional or particular support- To avoid reproducin" cultural and social disadvanta"e0 teachers can* Q support students with lan"ua"e di::iculties .y Z assessin" lan"ua"e co)petence .y )eans o: early :or)ative e9erZ Z cisesP teachin" su.Rect-speci:ic voca.ularyP teachin" the conventions o: writin" and speakin" acade)ic !n"lishP
use assess)ent sensitively .y Z usin" a variety o: assess)ent )ethodsP Z )akin" clear the criteria :or successP Z usin" :or)ative assess)ent and sel:-assess)ent in particularP Z helpin" students to set personal "oals-
-e, i%eas
Q u)an Z Z Z Z structures and )eanin" are culturally deter)inedCulture is )ani:ested in Oha.itusJ > the way thin"s are doneCulture deter)ines the way we interpret the .ehaviour o: othersCultures are diverse and contain )any su.cultures%an"ua"e reveals and trans)its culture-
Culture deter)ines what is considered worthy o: studyZ 1o su.Rect is a.solutely Oculture :reeJZ %earnin" involves learnin" a.out and within a cultureFor)al Z Z Z Z Z Z education reproduces culture!ducatorsJ cultural perspectives in:luence how they view their role!ducatorsJ cultural perspectives in:luence their peda"o"yThe classroo) itsel: has a cultureStudentsJ cultural perspectives in:luence how they construct knowled"eCultural .ack"round in:luences co"nitive style and )otivationStudents are enculturated throu"h interactions with teachers and peers-
Conclusions
This chapter e9plores cultural issues in education and raises the consciousness o: educators to cultural diversity in education and how it is )ani:ested in attitudes0
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.ehaviour0 interpersonal relations and lan"ua"e- @t contri.utes to a wider conte)porary de.ate a.out di::erentiation in learnin" and how it can .e achieved- @t also o::ers so)e strate"ies :or )ulticultural classroo)s and alerts educators to their own culture and the way they )ay i)pose itowever0 while cultural diversity should .e reco"ni/ed and cele.rated0 the reality o: )ultiple cultures in a classroo) )ay )ean that acco))odatin" one culture )ay .e disrespect:ul to another- There is also the opposite pro.le) o: cultural political correctness that atte)pts to avoid any cultural re:erences in classroo)s so that history and values are di)inished- One o: the :unctions o: school is to trans)it the culture o: the surroundin" societyP yet0 as )any societies :ro) Australia to Canada have :ound0 there is an inevita.le tension .etween the trans)ission o: a culture and the acco))odation o: di::erence@n one sense the world is .eco)in" )ore ho)o"enous culturally- ;i::erentiation in education )ay provide a )eans o: preservin" and cele.ratin" cultural identity0 history and traditions-
)e*erences
Australian Govern)ent ;epart)ent o: !ducation0 Science and Technolo"y <'44C= Teaching Australian )istor$- http*FFwww-dest-"ov-auFsectorsFschool\educationFpolicy \initiatives\reviewsFkey\issuesFaustralian\historyFde:ault-ht) <accessed 'H Octo.er '44C=$i""s0 J- <377&= Gestern )isperceptions o: the Con:ucian-herita"e learnin" culture0 in ;- Gatkins and J- $i""s <eds=0 The hinese Learner- on" ?on" and Mel.ourne* University o: on" ?on" Co)parative !ducation #esearch Centre E Australian Council :or !ducational #esearch0 HB>&C$ourdieu0 P- <376&= The :or)s o: capital0 in J- #ichardson <ed-= )andbook of Theor$ and Research for the &ociolog$ of Education- 1ew 2ork* Greenwood Press$ron:en.renner0 U- <37C7= The Ecolog$ of )uman 3e.elopment- Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University Press$runer0 J-S- <377&= The ulture of Education- Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University Press-
Cleary0 %-M- and Peacock0 T-;- <3776= ollected >isdom: American #ndian Education1eedha) ei"hts0 MA* Allyn and $aconFoucault0 M- <37CC= 3iscipline and %unish: The Birth of the %rison- %ondon* Pen"uin $ooks %tdall0 !-T- <37B7= The &ilent Language- 1ew 2ork* ;ou.ledayall0 !-T- <37&7= The )idden 3imension: ;an7s *se of &pace in %ublic and %ri.ate%ondon* $odley eadall0 !-T- <37C&= Be$ond ulture- Garden City0 1ew 2ork* Anchor Press-
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all0 !-T- <376H= The 3ance of Life: The /ther 3imension of Time- Garden City0 1ew 2ork* Anchor PressF;ou.ledayirst0 P- <37&B= %i.eral !ducation and the 1ature o: ?nowled"e0 in #-;- Archa).ault <ed-= %hilosophical Anal$sis and Education- %ondon* #outled"eo:stede0 G- - <3773= McGraw- illo:stede0 G- - <'443= ulture7s onse'uence: omparing "alues! Beha.iors! #nstitutions! ultures and /rgani:ations: &oftware of the ;ind- 1ew 2ork*
and /rgani:ations Across Nations <'nd edn=- Thousand Oaks0 CA* Sa"eJarvis0 P-0 ol:ord0 J- and Gri::in0 C- <'44A= The Theor$ and %ractice of Learning <'nd
edn=- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e?e).er0 ;- <'444= Misconceptions a.out the learnin" approaches0 )otivation and study practices o: Asian students0 )igher Education0 H4<3=* 77>3'3%ee0 J-J- <'44A= !9pulsions over veil intensi:y French de.ate on secularity ! #nternational )erald Tribune! 1B0 '3 Octo.erMc@ntyre0 S- and Clark0 A- <'44H= The )istor$ >ars <'nd edn=- Mel.ourne* Mel.ourne University Pu.lishin"Sa)ovar0 %-A- and Porter0 #-!- <'44H= $el)ont CA* GadsworthSpencer-Oatey0 - <'444= ulturall$ &peaking: ;anaging Rapport through Talk across ommunication Between ultures <Bth edn=-
ultures- %ondon* Continuu)Tan"0 C- <377&= Colla.orative learnin"* the latent di)ension in Chinese studentsJ learnin"0 in ;- Gatkins and J- $i""s <eds=0 The hinese Learner- on" ?on" and Mel.ourne* University o: on" ?on" Co)parative !ducation #esearch Centre and Australian Council :or !ducational #esearch0 36A>'4HGalker0 $-J-0 ;odd0 J- and $i"elow0 #- <3767= %earnin" pre:erences o: capa.le A)erican @ndians o: two tri.es0 9ournal of American #ndian Education0 ]special issue^* &A>C7Gatkins0 ;- and $i""s0 J- <'443= Teaching the hinese Learner: %s$chological and
%edagogical %erspecti.es- on" ?on"* University o: on" ?on" Co)parative !ducation #esearch Centre2ao0 !-%- <376C= Asian-i))i"rant students* uni+ue pro.le)s that ha)per learnin"0 NA&&% Bulletin0 C3<B4A=* 6'>6-
Chapter 7
(ntelligence
(ntro%uction
Ghen you say to so)eone0 OThat was not a very intelli"ent thin" to doJ0 what do you )ean .y Ointelli"entJK @: you open al)ost any psycholo"y te9t.ook and look up Ointelli"enceJ0 you will encounter adRectives such as Opro.le)aticJ0 Odi::icultJ0 OcontroversialJ or OdisputedJ- @t )ay see) stran"e that a concept so apparently i)portant to learnin" and education lacks a si)ple0 clear and a"reed de:inition-
9istor,
@n the nineteenth century0 the Ger)an e9peri)entalist Gilhel) Gundt investi"ated )ental activities such as perception0 discri)ination and re:le9 action0 )akin" an association .etween these re+uire)ents :or pro.le)-solvin" and what we now call Ointelli"enceJ- Another nineteenth-century e9peri)entalist0 Francis Galton0 used )easure)ent o: a.ilities in pitch0 colour and wei"ht discri)ination as indications o: intelli"enceGhereas Galton looked at low-level co"nitive :unctions0 the French psycholo"ist Al:red $inet0 in the early twentieth century0 pre:erred to look at hi"her-level :unctions <$inet and Si)on 373&=- e viewed intelli"ence as consistin" o: reasonin"0 co)prehension and0 in particular0 Rud"e)entThe idea o: Ointelli"enceJ .e"an to sur:ace in the early twentieth century0 when psycholo"y was esta.lishin" itsel: as a respecta.le .ranch o: science- @ntelli"ence was co-opted alon" with personality as one o: the o.Rects o: a new interest in testin" and psycho)etrics- ;espite $inetJs .road)inded understandin" o: intelli"ence0 the concept was conceived o: +uite narrowly in ter)s o: reasonin" and pro.le)-solvin"- As the century went on0 however0 the de:inition .roadened and returned to a position closer to $inetJs as is seen in Ta.le C-3-
98
Ta le 7.1
Twentieth-century de:initions o: intelli"ence
/ate 373& 37'C 37'A 37A6
Theorist $inetP Ter)an Spear)an $orin" Thurstone
/e*inition @ntelli"ence is )otivation and adaptation to the environ)entGeneral intelli"ence0 or O"J0 underlies speci:ic )ental a.ilities@ntelli"ence is whatever an intelli"ence test )easures@ntelli"ence consists o: seven :actors or pri)ary )ental a.ilities <spatial a.ility0 nu)erical a.ility0 ver.al :luency0 perceptual speed0 inductive reasonin"0 ver.al a.ility0 )eanin"=0 which correlate with each other-
37B6 Gechsler 37&A Cattell
@ntelli"ence is the a.ility to act rationally and purpose:ully0 and interact with the environ)ent@ntelli"ence includes the :ollowin" :actors* :luid intelli"ence > the a.ility to think lo"ically and relate concepts throu"h reasonin" crystalli/ed intelli"ence > the knowled"e or skills ac+uired as a result o: :luid intelli"ence-
376B Stern.er"
@ntelli"ence is )ental activity directed towards purposive adaptation to0 and selection and shapin" o:0 real-world environ)ents relevant to oneJs li:e-
376& Carroll
@ntelli"ence can .e thou"ht o: as a hierarchy* sin"le "eneral intelli"ence <like Spear)anJs O"J= "roup :actors <:or e9a)ple0 :le9i.le thinkin"= speci:ic a.ilities-
377A Gardner
@ntelli"ence is a collection o: potentialities or a.ilities that allow us to solve pro.le)s or :ashion products that are o: conse+uence in a particular cultural settin" or co))unity-
&ource: .ased on ;avey <'44H* B3B=This reveals several the)es in conte)porary understandin"s o: intelli"ence* Q Q Q Q O:actorJ theories <Spear)an0 Guild:ord0 Cattell0 Thurstone0 Carroll0 Gardner=P co"nitive processin" <$inet and Ter)an0 Gechsler0 Cattell0 Stern.er"=P adaptation to the environ)ent <$inet0 Gechsler0 Stern.er"0 Gardner=P relationship to culture <$inet0 Stern.er"0 Gardner=-
The sources o* intelligence' nature or nurture:

The de.ate .etween nature and nurture with respect to intelli"ence is one o: the )ost controversial in this :ield- To what e9tent are people O.ornJ intelli"entK Ghat is the relationship .etween intelli"ence and environ)entK
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;ature
Twins o::er a use:ul way o: studyin" the issue#dentical twins @mono:$goticA These co)e :ro) a sin"le :ertili/ed e"" that splits in twoThey have identical "enetic )akeup=raternal twins @di:$goticA These co)e :ro) two e""s :ertili/ed separatelyThese twins are only as alike as any two si.lin"s@: inherited characteristics are i)portant0 )ono/y"otic twins should .e )ore si)ilar in intelli"ence than di/y"otic twins- The de"ree o: si)ilarity is )easured statistically .y a calculation called the correlation coe::icient- Per:ect correlation <twins with e9actly the sa)e @(= would yield a correlation coe::icient o: Q3-44- A review o: B4 studies o: the in:luence o: "enetics on intelli"ence .y !rlen)eyer?i)lin" and Jarvik <37&A= revealed an avera"e correlation o: Q4-6C :or identical twins and Q4-BA :or :raternal twins- This indicates that twins are o: si)ilar intelli"ence .ut the de"ree o: si)ilarity is "reatest with identical twins > a :indin" which has .een e9plained .y hereditary :actorsThe @(s o: identical twins have .een shown to .e very close0 even when these twins are reared apart- Althou"h so)e dou.t has .een thrown on so)e o: the :i"ures used0 other studies still show a )ini)u) correlation coe::icient o: 4-&' <!ysenck 377H* 3B=Fraternal twins show no "reater closeness o: @( than .rothers and sisters in the sa)e :a)ily- The @(s o: adopted children are closer to those o: their natural than their adoptive parents- All o: this see)s to con:ir) the in:luence o: "enetics on intelli"ence-
;urture
;espite the i)portant o: "enetics0 there is evidence that so)e key environ)ental :actors have a si"ni:icant in:luence on the develop)ent o: intelli"ence%arenting Accordin" to )odern socio-cultural theory0 thinkin" is :or)ed as a conse+uence o: social relationships <Iy"otsky '44H=- Parents are the pri)ary sociali/ers and so have a )aRor role in the develop)ent o: childrenJs thinkin" skillsStudies have shown that :oster children "enerally have hi"her @(s than their .iolo"ical parents0 presu)a.ly .ecause the environ)ent provided .y :oster parents raises the childrenJs intelli"ence <!ysenck 377H* 3&=- For e9a)ple0 Scarr and Gein.er" <37C&= :ound that the )ean @( o: a "roup o: 77 .lack children adopted .y white0 )iddle-class parents was 334- This is 'B points hi"her than the avera"e @( :or .lack children in "eneral <!ysenck 377H* 37=Other ele)ents o: parentin" i)portant in the develop)ent o: intelli"ence include parentsJ roles in the construction o: identity throu"h the )odellin" o:
1"" APP#OAC !S TO %!A#1@1G* A GU@;! FO# T!AC !#S
.ehaviour and e9pectations they have o: children- For e9a)ple0 parents )i"ht )odel curious and critical ha.its o: )ind0 or interests in readin"- They can also provide a consistent nurturin" environ)ent allowin" :or the develop)ent o: routines and "ood ha.its associated with schoolwork and studyNutrition $rains are physical or"ans0 and it is not surprisin" that nutrition plays a vital role in their develop)ent and the related develop)ent o: intelli"ence- The diet o: pre)ature .a.ies )ade a si"ni:icant di::erence to @( ei"ht years later <;avey '44H* B'6=- Givin" vita)ins and )inerals to &-year-olds )ade a di::erence to @( <$enton and Cook <3773=&chooling @n a classic study0 #osenthal and Jaco.son told teachers that so)e o: their pupils had hi"h @(s and could .e e9pected to .loo)- @n reality0 the children had .een selected rando)ly- 1evertheless these children went on to show an increase in @(- The e9planation :or this was that the children received )ore attention :ro) teachers .ecause o: the teachersJ e9pectations <#osenthal and Jaco.son 37&6=Children who attend school re"ularly score hi"her on @( tests than those who attend only inter)ittently- owever0 )otivation has an in:luence on school attendance0 and people with low @(s )ay not like to "o to schoolP low @( could .e a cause rather than an e::ect o: poor attendance-
4eparating nature an% nurture

As the discussion a.ove su""ests0 it is di::icult to untan"le nature and nurture- avin" the ri"ht .iolo"ical parents is a "ood start0 .ut the environ)ent is critical in actuali/in" peopleJs potential- The Canadian psycholo"ist ;onald e.. clai)ed that Oaskin" whether intelli"ence is deter)ined )ore .y heredity or .y environ)ent is like askin" whether the area o: a :ield is deter)ined )ore .y its len"th or .y its width* .oth are a.solutely indispensa.leJ <+uoted in !ysenck 377H* 3A=1evertheless0 e.. <37&&= did )ake a distinction .etween two types o: intelli"ence* type A0 related to the "enotype0 and type $ related to the phenotypeType A Type $ Genot$pe: %henot$pe: the "enetic )akeup o: an or"anis) the o.serva.le0 physical characteristics o: the or"anis)
1either o: these intelli"ence types is directly )easura.le0 .ecause type A is )asked .y e9perience0 and only a tiny sa)ple o: the a.ilities associated with type $ is )easured .y standard intelli"ence tests- ;espite these di::iculties0 educators have a clear invest)ent in understandin" the e9tent to which the learnin" environ)ent can enhance inherited intelli"ence* this will .e discussed in )ore detail later in the chapter-
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(ntelligence testing
The 0inet64i&on test
At the end o: the nineteenth century in France0 authorities noted that children :ro) rural areas0 althou"h not )entally de:icient0 were doin" poorly in school co)pared to their ur.an peers- @n 374H0 the French "overn)ent asked La &ociCtC Libre pour l7Etude %s$chologi'ue de l7Enfant to appoint a co))ission to report and advise on the education o: such children0 as well as those with a "enuine )ental de:iciencyAs )e).ers o: the co))ission0 $inet and his collea"ue ThSodore Si)on developed the $inet-Si)on )ental scale :or identi:yin" children re+uirin" special education- The test was .ased on a ran"e o: tasks typical o: childrenJs a.ilities at various a"es <see Ta.le C-'=- This allowed childrenJs )ental a.ilities to .e assessed relative to their peers so that an individual childJs )ental a"e could .e esta.lishedFro) an educational point o: view0 this was seen as very use:ul .ecause children could then .e sorted into classes accordin" to their )ental a"esTa le 7.2 Sa)ple tasks :ro) $inet and Si)onJs tests
Tas#s A"e H 1a)e o.Rects <key0 kni:e0 penny=#epeat three :i"uresCo)pare the len"ths o: two linesA"e 6 Co)pare two o.Rects :ro) )e)oryCount down :ro) '4 to 4#epeat :ive nu).ersA"e 3' Produce )ore than &4 words in three )inutes;e:ine three a.stract wordsCo)prehend a Ru).led-up sentence&ource: ;avey <'44H* B3&=$inet was aware that the tests had a cultural di)ension- For e9a)ple0 analo"ies such as Ohat is to head as shoe is to _J re+uire cultural knowled"e- e reco))ended that the test should .e "iven to children o: si)ilar .ack"rounds and he strove to re)ove cultural .ias :ro) it- $ut despite his nuanced understandin" o: its li)itations0 $inetJs test was adapted in a less su.tle way when it .e"an to .e used in A)erica-
(ntelligence 3uotient
$e:ore the $inet-Si)on scale was adopted in A)erica0 it was re:ined in 373' .y the Ger)an psycholo"ist Gillia) Stern who :irst proposed the idea o: the intelli"ence +uotient <@(=- e su""ested that the )ental a"e o: a child .e divided .y the childJs chronolo"ical a"e and the result )ultiplied .y 344 to "ive a )easure)ent he called
1"2 APP#OAC !S TO %!A#1@1G* A GU@;! FO# T!AC !#S
the @(- @: the two a"es were the sa)e0 the @( would .e 344 and considered avera"e- @: a child had a )ental a"e o: 3' and a chronolo"ical a"e o: 340 the @( would .e 3'F34 9 344 ` 3'40 and a.ove avera"eCo)parison o: chronolo"ical and )ental a"e is not suita.le .eyond childhood0 so @( :or adults is calculated .y co)parison with the avera"e or the nor)al scores o: a lar"e nu).er o: people- This is called nor)-re:erencin"@t is assu)ed that @( scores are nor)ally distri.uted in a population- This )eans that )ost scores are clustered near the )ean or avera"e0 with :ewer very hi"h or very low scores- This produces the typical .ell curve o: what is known as the Onor)al distri.utionJ shown in Fi"ure C-3- The .ell curve shows us that there are )any people o: avera"e @( .ut very :ew whose @( is e9tre)ely hi"h or e9tre)ely low-
Figure 7.1
The .ell curve o: nor)al distri.ution-
The spread o: @( scores is )easured .y a statistic called the standard deviation <S;=@n a nor)al distri.ution0 &6 per cent o: scores lie within one standard deviation <3S;= o: the )ean- @ntelli"ence tests are desi"ned to produce a )ean o: 344 and an S; o: 3&- So havin" an @( o: 33& <the )ean plus 3S;= )eans that a person has a hi"her intelli"ence than B4 Q AH ` 6H per cent o: the population-
The 4tan*or%60inet test

Shortly a:ter the pu.lication o: the $inet-Si)on )ental scale and its re:ine)ent .y Stern0 %ouis Ter)an developed a version in !n"lish at Stan:ord University in the United States and standardi/ed it with respect to a lar"e A)erican sa)ple- Unlike $inet0 Ter)an and his collea"ues .elieved that intelli"ence was a :i9ed entity that could .e accurately deter)ined and could act as a .asis :or serious educational and vocational decisions- The Stan:ord-$inet test was "uided not only .y a .eni"n desire like $inetJs to help all children receive an education- The )anual acco)panyin" the
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test )ade the point that the test would result in Ocurtailin" reproduction o: :ee.le-)indedness and in eli)ination o: enor)ous a)ounts o: cri)e0 pauperis) and industrial ine::iciencyJ <Ter)an 373&* '&=-
Conte&porar, tests
&tanford(Binet The :ourth edition o: the Stan:ord-$inet test0 pu.lished in 376&0 )ade several advances over previous versions and allows the assess)ent o: children as youn" as two years o: a"e- @t has 3B tests divided into :our co"nitive areas* Q Q Q Q ver.al reasonin"P a.stract visual reasonin"P +uantitative reasonin"P and short-ter) )e)ory-
@t has a hi"h correlation with the Gechsler test <see .elow=0 with older versions o: the Stan:ord-$inet test and with acade)ic tests-
>echsler This is the )ost popular conte)porary @( test- @t includes three tests :or di::erent a"e ran"es0 all in the sa)e :or)at* pre-school children a"ed A to C0 school children a"ed & to 3&0 and adults a"ed 3& to CH- The Gechsler @ntelli"ence Scale :or Children <G@SC= consists o: 3A su.tests or"ani/ed into si9 ver.al tasks and seven per:or)ance tasks <see Ta.le C-A=Ta le 7.3 G@SC su.test
8er al 3 4nowledge* thin"s and events ' &imilarities* concept linka"e A Arithmetic* )ental calculation H "ocabular$* word de:inition B omprehension* pro.le)-solvin" & 3igit(span* di"it-strin" recall
+er*or&ance 3 ' A %icture completion* identi:y )issin" part oding* transcri.e codes +uickly %icture arrangement* se+uence drawin"s H Block design* copy coloured )osaics B /b0ect assembl$* co)plete Ri"saw pu//les & &$mbol search* locate tar"et shape C ;a:e* :ind path in '-; )a/e
&ource: $ased on Good et al- <'44&* '&=-
Conte&porar, theories o* intelligence

The statistician Charles Spear)an <37'C= noted that people who per:or)ed well on one o: the Stan:ord-$inet tests o: intellectual a.ility did well on other su.tests- is statistical techni+ue o: :actor analysis led hi) to attri.ute this correlation to an underlyin" "eneral intelli"ence <O"J=0 )ani:ested in the speci:ic intelli"ences related to particular tasks- General intelli"ence is )ore i)portant0 .ecause it can .e directed towards the i)prove)ent o: speciali/ed intelli"ences- $ecause O"J is the critical co)ponent0 it represents a unitary intelli"ence-
5ulti6*actorial &o%els
Ta.le C-H shows a ran"e o: )ulti-:actorial )odels o: intelli"ence0 in contrast to a unitary oneTa le 7.4 Factorial )odels o: intelli"ence
T,pe General O"J ;ichoto)ous
Theorist Spear)an <37'C= Cattell <37&A=
Factors <nitar,' one co))on :actor Flui%' speed o: )ental processin" o: new in:or)ation Cr,stalli=e%' use o: previously ac+uired knowled"e and skill Co&ponential' processin" internal co"nitive events Conte!tual' copin" with the environ)ent .!periential' .rid"in" internal and e9ternal worlds Top' "eneral intelli"ence 5i%%le' seven "roup :actor a.ilities <crystalli/ed0 visual0 auditory0 speed0 :luency0 )e)ory0 :luid a.ility= 0otto&' hi"hly speci:ic a.ilities <e-"- countin"= Several independent intelli"ences <lin"uistic0 lo"ical-)athe)atical0 spatial0 .odily kinaesthetic0 )usical0 interpersonal0 intrapersonal0 naturalistic=0 which can .e de:ined as collections o: potentialities or a.ilities o: value in a particular cultural settin"
Triarchic
Stern.er" <376B= Carroll <376&=
ierarchical triad
Multiple intelli"ences
Gardner <377A=
&ource: .ased on ;avey <'44H* B37>'4= and !ysenck <377H* 37>AB=The early theories stress co"nitive processin" as an isolated pheno)enon0 whereas later theories stress the i)portance o: values0 and the conte9t in which people use their intelli"ence-
5ultiple (ntelligences <5(=

GardnerJs )ultiple intelli"ences theory is the .est-known o: the )ulti-:actorial theories and is the one o: )ost relevance to classroo) teachers as shown .y his OProRect VeroJ workshops run annually in the US < arvard University '44C=-
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Gardner de:ines intelli"ence as a collection o: potentialities or a.ilities that per)its people to solve pro.le)s or )ake products which are o: value in a particular cultural settin"- For Gardner0 the a.ility to act intelli"ently is driven .y the "oals0 values and .elie:s o: that society <Gardner 3777=- e ar"ues that people do not have one intelli"ence0 as )easured .y standard @( testin"0 .ut several stren"ths or intelli"ences0 resultin" in a ORa""ed intelli"ence pro:ileJ- So)e o: the evidence he o::ers :or separate intelli"ences includes the way da)a"e to parts o: the .rain a::ects speci:ic a.ilities and the way savants with a low @( )ay have an e9ceptional a.ility in one areaThe ei"ht intelli"ences Gardner proposed are shown in Ta.le C-BTa le 7.5 GardnerJs )ultiple intelli"ences
(ntelligence Linguistic Logical( mathematical
/escription The capacity to use lan"ua"e e::ectively The a.ility to analyse and )anipulate a.stract relations
.!hi ite% , Poets0 writers0 politicians0 teachers Scientists0 )athe)aticians0 accountants0 pro"ra))ers Artists0 architects0 en"ineers0 desi"ners Athletes0 sur"eons0 dancers0 cra:tspeople Co)posers0 )usicians0 conductors0 critics salespeople0 counsellors Meditators0 actors0 poets0 re:lective practitioners Far)ers0 .otanists0 "eolo"ists0 e9plorers
&patial
The a.ility to perceive visual and spatial patterns and represent visual and spatial i)a"es The a.ility to use the .ody e9pressively or skil:ully The a.ility to create0 co))unicate and understand )usic
Bodil$( kinaesthetic ;usical #nterpersonal
The a.ility to interpret )oods0 )otivations and Parents0 teachers0 :eelin"s o: others0 and to act accordin"ly
#ntrapersonal
The a.ility to interpret personal :eelin"s and .uild accurate sel:-representations
Naturalistic
The a.ility to classi:y and use :eatures o: the environ)ent
&ource: .ased on Gardner <3777=There are other candidates :or consideration as separate intelli"ences- For e9a)ple0 Oe9istential intelli"enceJ0 which is an a.ility to consider +uestions o: ulti)ate values and )eanin" <Gardner 3777=- Gole)anJs popular theory o: e)otional intelli"ence has )uch in co))on with GardnerJs intrapersonal and interpersonal intelli"ences <Gole)an 377&=There are so)e di::iculties with M@ theory- @: all intelli"ences have e+ual rankin"0 the addition o: )ore intelli"ences dilutes the si"ni:icance o: all- There is also
the dan"er o: la.ellin"- M@ theory )ay result in people .ein" la.elled not only accordin" to traditional @( )easure)ents0 .ut to ei"ht other )easure)ents as well-
(ntelligence> gen%er an% race

There are di::erences in scores and test results achieved .y )en and wo)en and people :ro) di::erent racial .ack"rounds- !9planations :or these di::erences are contested .ecause o: their political and social i)plications <Vucker)an 3774=Gender Go)en achieve hi"her scores on ver.al reasonin" tests0 whereas )en achieve hi"her scores on )athe)atical and spatial reasonin" tests- MenJs )athe)atical superiority is "reater than wo)enJs ver.al superiority <$en.ow and Stanley 376A=- Go)enJs @(s tend to cluster around the )ean whereas e9tre)es o: intelli"ence are )ore co))on in )en as shown in Fi"ure C-'- Many controversies have arisen over the interpretations placed on these :indin"s-
Figure 7.2
@( variance o: )en and wo)en-
Ethnicit$ !thnic di::erences in @( have also .een the su.Rect o: :ierce de.ate- Scores have consistently shown that certain ethnic "roups per:or) poorly on intelli"ence tests0 and that such di::erences in intelli"ence have correspondin" disadvanta"eous li:e
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outco)es < errnstein and Murray 377H=- Such clai)s have .een attacked on the "rounds that it is too si)plistic to treat intelli"ence as a sin"le deter)inin" entity that predicts li:e chances and social outco)es-
.%ucational i&plications
The educational i)plications o: ideas a.out intelli"ence can .e cate"ori/ed into those associated with theories and those associated with @( testin"-
Theories
@: intelli"ence is co)pletely deter)ined .y inheritance there would .e little role :or develop)ent- @t is clear0 however0 that nature and nurture work to"ether- !ducators have always seen it as their role to provide an environ)ent that sti)ulates intelli"ence and learnin"- That environ)ent is structured .y the curriculu)urriculum and classroom strategies The co)ponents o: intelli"ence identi:ied .y theory can help:ully "uide curriculu) plannin" and classroo) strate"y@n the area o: curriculu) plannin"0 the identi:ication o: :luid and crystalli/ed intelli"ence can lead to a peda"o"y that addresses .oth co)ponents- For e9a)ple0 in )athe)atics0 the teachin" o: ele)entary )ental arith)etic enhances speed o: processin" associated with :luid intelli"ence- The rein:orce)ent o: )athe)atical knowled"e throu"h re"ular ho)ework and practice leads to the develop)ent o: crystalli/ed intelli"ence- Ta.le C-& shows the curricular i)plications o: a ran"e o: theories a.out intelli"ence0 whereas Ta.le C-C su""ests how the theories )i"ht translate into various classroo) strate"iesTa le 7.6 Curricular i)plications o: intelli"ence theories
Theor, Unitary
Curricular i&plications Q Standardi/ed curriculu)0 dia"nostic testin"0 scholastic attain)ent tests0 @( tests0 lar"e-scale national testin"0 nor)-re:erenced testin"
Fluid and crystalli/ed
Q Fluid* skills ac+uisition0 task novelty0 critical thinkin"0 pro.le)-.ased learnin" Q Crystalli/ed* spiral curriculu) that e).eds previous knowled"e0 task-.ased assess)ent0 teachin" :or recall Q !)phasis on addressin" co"nitive skills0 reasonin"0 plannin"0 evaluatin" Q Teachin" and assess)ent o: trans:era.le skills
Co)ponential
Theor, Conte9tual !9periential
Curricular i&plications Q Social constructivis)0 peer learnin"0 situated knowled"e0 su.Rect episte)olo"y0 values0 co))unities o: practice Q @ndividuali/ed curriculu)0 ran"e o: e9perience0 practical curriculu)0 work-.ased and pro.le)-.ased learnin"0 re:lective learnin"
Several independent intelli"ences Ta le 7.7
Q Multi-:aceted approaches0 constructivis)0 teacher as learnerFcurriculu) .roker0 variety o: assess)ent )ethods
@ntelli"ence theories and classroo) strate"ies
Theories Unitary
Classroo& strategies Q Su.Rect-centred0 whole-class teachin" and testin" Q Co)pliance with national standardi/ed )ethods and "uidelines <:or e9a)ple0 phonics as literacy )ethod=
Fluid and crystalli/ed
Q Fluid* :ocus on student techni+ue0 e9plicit "uidelines and )odellin"0 variety o: e9a)ples and tasks0 develop)ent o: e9pertise and speed Q Crystalli/ed* drawin" on previous knowled"e and e9perience0 repetition and revision0 link new knowled"e to old
Co)ponential
Q Teachin" critical thinkin"0 reasonin" strate"ies and )eta-co"nition Q Use o: learnin" style inventories0 pro)otion o: sel:-directed learnin" Q Provision o: tips0 :or)ulas and )ethods Q Sel:-evaluation and :or)ative assess)ent
Conte9tual
Q Teachin" :or )eanin" Q Teachin" su.Rect values in conte9t Q Su.Rect relevance0 :ield trips0 inte"ration with wider co))unity0 classroo) visitors
!9periential
Q ;iscovery learnin"0 proRect-.ased teachin"0 practical and la.oratory work Q #e:lective learnin"0 learnin" Rournals and port:olios Q @ndividuali/ed learnin" plans
Several independent intelli"ences
Q Student-centred teachin" Q Teachin" :or understandin" Q Teachin" to the di::erent intelli"ences and appealin" to learnersJ stren"ths Q ;ia"nostic sel:-testin"0 authentic assess)ent
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(? testing
%rediction @( testin" has .een used in the assess)ent o: educational potential and :or prediction o: educational achieve)ent- Althou"h @( tests cannot )easure all types o: intelli"ence0 they have .een shown to .e relia.le predictors o: acade)ic successP :or e9a)ple0 GechslerJs ver.al @( score correlates well with achieve)ent in ele)entary school <Jenson 3764=Traditionally0 the ad)inistrator o: an @( test o::ers no assistance to the testJs su.Rects0 and the )easure)ent provides a snapshot o: the learnerJs intelli"ence at that point in ti)e- 1ewer tests provide a co"nitive task to .e per:or)ed .y the learner- The novel aspect is that the tester o::ers assistance- OThe childJs a.ility to pro:it :ro) dyna)ic instruction is usually taken as the )easure o: the childJs latent learnin" potentialJ <Stern.er" 376&* '3=One o: the .ene:its o: @( testin" is that it can provide a de:ensi.le .asis :or a teacherJs e9pectations and )ay correct or con:ir) su.Rective perceptions- @t can act as a dia"nostic )easure0 si"nallin" low or hi"h @( scores0 which can .e a use:ul "uide in plannin" individual learnin" provided it does not act as a :or) o: la.ellin"0 such as the !n"lish 33Q e9a)ination which deter)ined childrenJs educational opportunities-
&election $inetJs ori"inal intention o: testin" as a )eans o: identi:yin" low-scorin" learners in order to provide the) with appropriate support is still evident in the dia"nosis o: learners o: lower intelli"ence- This testin" now :alls to educational psycholo"ists rather than teachers however- For reasons o: e+uality0 the use o: @( tests :or selection has declined- They have .een replaced .y standard assess)ent tests <SATs=0 which )easure lin"uistic and nu)erical achieve)ent and are si)ilar to standard @( testsTheir purpose is :or accounta.ility and :or )aintenance o: standards rather than selection-
3iagnosis @ntelli"ence tests are hi"hly use:ul in the identi:ication o: students with special needs0 indicatin" their likely di::iculties and possi.ilities :or pro"ress- For e9a)ple0 the Gechsler test <G@SC= assesses co"nitive a.ilities overall and can reveal conditions such as dysle9ia0 which )ani:ests itsel: in poor readin" and writin" skills on several o: the G@SC su.tests0 even when a child scores hi"hly in other areas-
Remediation #e)ediation "enerally involves interventions that ai) to i)prove areas o: weakness identi:ied .y intelli"ence su.tests- For )ost conditions0 early intervention is i)por-
11" APP#OAC !S TO %!A#1@1G* A GU@;! FO# T!AC !#S
tant- #esearch :indin"s su""est that school-.ased interventions )ade as a result o: intelli"ence tests need to .e hi"hly personali/ed0 structured0 intensive and consistent <Good et al- '44&* H'=-
-e, i%eas
There are several co)petin" e9planations o: intelli"ence- For e9a)ple0 intelli"ence is* Q Q Q "enetically deter)ined .y inheritanceP develops throu"h interaction with environ)entP a social and cultural construction-
@ntelli"ence includes the :ollowin" co)ponents0 which )ay .e in co)petition* Q Q Q Q Q :i9ed0 innate potentialP co"nitive processin"P +uickness o: )indP power o: discern)entP a.ilities related to practical survival <so it is learned and :le9i.le=-
@ntelli"ence )ay .e sin"ular or )ulti-:actorial- That is0 it )ay consist o:* Q Q Q a "eneral underlyin" intelli"ence0 known as O"JP a set o: potentialities or stren"thsP a hierarchy o: O"J0 pri)ary and speci:ic :actors-
@ntelli"ence testin" is characteri/ed .y a set o: assu)ptions* Q Q Q Q Traditionally0 intelli"ence is a :i9ed entity )easura.le .y @( testsP @( scores are assu)ed to .e nor)ally distri.utedP @ntelli"ence (uotient <@(= co)pares an individual to the avera"eP Modern intelli"ence tests assess a ran"e o: a.ilities-
@ntelli"ence tests are used :or* Q Q Q dia"nosis and identi:ication o: learners with special needsP co)parisons .etween social "roupsP acade)ic and vocational selection-
Conclusions
The twentieth century saw a ran"e o: atte)pts to )easure )any individual characteristics such as personality0 intelli"ence and creativity- Such atte)pts have )et with )any criticis)s- For e9a)ple0 @( testin" has .een critici/ed as .ein" narrow on the
@1T!%%@G!1C!
111
.asis o: the ran"e o: attri.utes it tests0 as .ein" culturally .iased0 and as havin" potential :or )isuse in the service o: political and social a"endas;espite the di::erent :or)s that @( tests have taken in the twentieth century and .eyond0 there appears to .e "eneral a"ree)ent that key indicators o: intelli"ence are speed and accuracy in co"nitive processin" and the i)portance o: Rud"e)ent and discern)ent- More latterly0 @( tests have also e)phasi/ed the i)portance o: conte9tual :actors and the idea o: intelli"ence as a )eans o: survival within an environ)entSo)e :uture directions o: @( testin" are likely to include* Q Q Q Q Q "reater ali"n)ent o: testin" and theoretical understandin"P application o: :indin"s o: co"nitive science aided .y .rain-i)a"in"P an e)phasis on practical intelli"enceP an interest in +ualities such as insi"ht and wisdo)P an interest in creativity-
@ndeed0 as co"nitive science pro"resses0 we can e9pect intelli"ence tests to have a shorter li:eti)e0 to apply new knowled"e and to use )ore dyna)ic :or)s o: testin"-
)e*erences
$en.ow0 P-C- and Stanley0 J-C- <376A= Se9 di::erences in )athe)atical reasonin" a.ility* )ore :acts0 &cience0 '''* 34'7>A3$enton0 ;- and Cook0 #- <3773= Iita)in and )ineral supple)ents i)prove the intelli"ence scores and concentration o: &-year-old children0 %ersonalit$ and #ndi.idual 3ifferences! 3'<33=* 33B3>6$inet0 A- and Si)on0 T- <373&F37CA= The 3e.elopment of #ntelligence in hildren- 1ew 2ork* Arno Press$orin"0 !-G- <37'A= @ntelli"ence as the tests test it0 New Republic! AB* AB>CCarroll0 J-$- <376&= Factor analytic investi"ations o: co"nitive a.ilities0 in S-!1ewstead0 S- - @rvine and P-%- ;an <eds=0 )uman Assessment: ognition and ;oti.ation;ordrecht* 1yho::Cattell0 #-$- <37&A= Theory o: :luid and crystalli/ed intelli"ence* a critical e9peri)ent0 9ournal of Educational %s$cholog$! BH* 3>'';avey0 G- <ed-= <'44H= omplete %s$cholog$- %ondon* odder0 Arnold-
!rlen)eyer-?i)lin"0 %- and Jarvik0 %-F- <37&A= Genetics and intelli"ence* a review0 &cience0 3H'* 3HCC>C7!ysenck0 M-G- <377H= #ndi.idual 3ifferences: Normal and Abnormal- ove* Psycholo"y PressGardner0 - <3777= #ntelligence Reframed: ;ultiple #ntelligences for the 51st entur$- 1ew 2ork* $asic $ooks-
Gole)an0 ;- <377&= Emotional #ntelligence: >h$ it an ;atter ;ore than #?- %ondon* $loo)s.ury Pu.lishin"arvard University <'44C= ProRect Vero- http*FFwww-p/-harvard-edu <accessed ;ece).er '44C=e..0 ;-O- <37&&= A Textbook of %s$cholog$ <'nd edn=- Philadelphia* G-$- Saunderserrnstein0 #-J- and Murray0 C- <377H= The Bell American Life- 1ew 2ork* The Free PressJenson0 A- <3764= Bias in ;ental Testing- 1ew 2ork* Free PressMcCall0 #-$- <37C7= The develop)ent o: intellectual :unctionin" in in:ancy and the prediction o: later @(0 in J-;- Oso:sky <ed-=0 The )andbook of #nfant 3e.elopment- 1ew 2ork* Giley0 C4C>H3#ie.er0 #- G- and #o.inson0 ;- ?- <eds= <'44H= The Essential "$gotsk$- 1ew 2ork* ?luwer Acade)icFPlenu) Pu.lishers#osenthal0 #- and Jaco.son0 %- <37&6= %$gmalion in the lassroom- 1ew 2ork* olt0 #inehart and GistonScarr0 S- and Gein.er"0 #-A- <37C&= @( test per:or)ance o: .lack children adopted .y white :a)ilies0 American %s$chologist0 A3* C'&>A7Spear)an0 C- <37'C= The Abilities of ;an- 1ew 2ork* MacMillanStern.er"0 #-J- <376B= Be$ond #?: A Triarchic Theor$ of )uman #ntelligence- Ca).rid"e* Ca).rid"e University PressStern.er"0 #-J- <376&= The :uture o: intelli"ence testin"0 Educational ;easurement: #ssues and %ractice0 B<B=* 37>''Ter)an0 %-M- <373&= The ;easurement of #ntelligence- $oston* ou"hton Mi::linThurstone0 %-%- <37A6= %rimar$ ;ental Abilities- Chica"o* University o: Chica"o PressGechsler0 ;- <37B6= The ;easurement and Appraisal of Adult #ntelligence <Ard edn=$alti)ore0 M;* Gillia)s and GilkinsGood0 C-0 Sheehy0 ?- and Passen"er0 T- <'44&= Understandin" speci:ic learnin" di::iculties0 in C- Good0 ?- %ittleton and ?- Sheehy <eds=0 3e.elopmental %s$cholog$ in Action- O9:ord* $lackwell Press and Open University PressVucker)an0 M- <3774= So)e du.ious pre)ises in research and theory on racial di::erences* scienti:ic0 social and ethical issues0 American %s$chologist! HB<3'=* 3'7C>A4Aur.e: #ntelligence and lass &tructure in
Chapter 8
Li*e course %evelop&ent
(ntro%uction
So)e older adults clai) that they cannot learn as )uch or as well as they would like .ecause their )e)ory is not as "ood as it used to .e- @s this clai) validK Ghat are the i)plications o: li:e course develop)ent :or learnin"K This chapter addresses such +uestions$y Oli:e courseJ0 we )ean the se+uence o: events and e9periences :ro) .irth to death0 and their related physical and psycholo"ical states <#unyan 37C6* BC4=- Ge .e"in with an overview o: li:e course develop)ent0 the )odels that have .een used to descri.e it and the processes that are associated with various sta"es in the li:e courseGe then e9a)ine a ran"e o: theories o: li:e course develop)ent0 contrastin" holistic psychosocial and )oral theories with the key co"nitive0 :unction-.ased theories )ost closely related to learnin"- The discussion hi"hli"hts the learnin" processes and discusses the educational i)plications that :low :ro) the)-
/evelop&ent
;evelop)ent is not the sa)e as chan"e- Chan"e is the di::erence .etween one state and another0 whereas develop)ent is chan"e that results :ro) )ove)ent towards a "oal- Iarious )odels > .iolo"ical0 co"nitive and socio-cultural > have .een proposed to descri.e develop)ent across the li:e course- @t is worth notin" that each )odel i)plies a di::erent view o: when and how learnin" takes placeThe )ost o.vious kind o: develop)ent we e9perience is .iolo"ical* we are .orn0 we "et older and we die- Thus0 a .iolo"ical or )aturational )odel o: develop)ent su""ests pro"ression towards a plateau in adulthood0 :ollowed .y decline0 as shown in Fi"ure 6-3- @n this )odel0 learnin" is usually associated with the earlier sta"es o: li:eOther )odels e9tend the potential :or develop)ent throu"hout the whole o: the li:e course- Thus0 a co"nitive )odel :ocuses on chan"es in )ental co)petence :ro) in:ancy to old a"e- For e9a)ple0 research evidence hi"hli"hts a decline in the a.ility to encode new in:or)ation in workin" )e)ory in older adults < edden and Ga.rieli '44H=- A socio-cultural )odel0 on the other hand0 looks at the roles and tasks that individuals assu)e :ro) .irth to death- These entail di::erent learnin" )otivations related to social identity at di::erent sta"es-
Figure 8.1 $iolo"icalF)aturational )odel o: develop)ent&ource: $ased on Su"ar)an <'443=-
+rocesses o* %evelop&ent
The chan"es associated with develop)ent )ay occur in an ordered se+uence0 concurrent with other chan"es0 or dyna)ically in relation to the environ)ent@n the past0 )any psycholo"ists applied an Oordered chan"eJ :ra)ework to childhood and a Osta.ility :ra)eworkJ to adulthood- For e9a)ple0 Freud identi:ies the )ain sta"es o: psychose9ual develop)ent as occurrin" within the :irst si9 years o: li:e and in:luencin" all later e9perience- Pia"et restricts his :our sta"es o: co"nitive develop)ent to childhood0 ter)inatin" at adolescence and the ac+uisition o: :or)al reasonin"- Such theories rein:orce a se+uential .iolo"ical )odelOn the other hand0 develop)ent )ay occur on di::erent :ronts at the sa)e ti)e- For e9a)ple0 Pia"et sees childrenJs co"nitive develop)ent as concurrent with the .iolo"ical develop)ent o: the nervous syste)- Adulthood )ay .e characteri/ed .y sta.ility in reasonin"0 which is paralleled .y sta.ility in socio-cultural roles typical o: the )iddle sta"es o: li:e- Old a"e is characteri/ed .y "reater re:lectivity0 which occurs at the sa)e ti)e as the psychosocial inte"ration o: e9perienceAnother view su""ests that individuals act on the environ)ent0 and the environ)ent in:luences individuals dyna)ically throu"h a variety o: econo)ic0 "eo"raphic0 historical0 social and political :actors- $ron:en.rennerJs <377A= Oecolo"icalJ )odel is an e9a)ple* it incorporates :our en:olded syste)s0 which i)pact on peopleJs overall develop)ent <see Fi"ure 6-'=!ach o: these perspectives on develop)ental processes can .e applied to the li:e course and related learnin"- For e9a)ple0 Pia"etJs ordered0 se+uential process :or the ac+uisition o: reasonin" is use:ul in decidin" on the appropriateness o: learnin" e9periences :or children o: di::erent a"es- The concurrent perspective re)inds educators that learnin" )ust .e linked to the de)ands o: a particular li:e sta"e- For e9a)ple0 adults are )ost interested in learnin" )aterial that is o: relevance to the) <?nowles 376H=- The dyna)ic perspective indicates that there are )any varia.les a::ectin" peopleJs learnin" > o.vious ones such as parental and :a)ily .ack"round0 and less o.vious ones such as social and cultural in:luences-
%@F! COU#S! ;!I!%OPM!1T
115
+erson
Figure 8.2 $ron:en.rennerJs ecolo"ical )odel o: develop)ent&ource: $ased on $ron:en.renner and Morris <3776=-
Age
The chan"es associated with develop)ent across the li:e course are to varyin" e9tents related to a"e0 and it is i)portant to note that develop)ental psycholo"ists distin"uish .etween di::erent concepts o: a"e-
hronological age This re:ers to the ti)e since .irth- This :or)s one criterion in all accounts o: chan"eFor e9a)ple0 people tend to reach pu.erty at a si)ilar a"e- Chan"es in a"e-related characteristics such as hei"ht or .ody )ass are )ost evident in childhood and in old a"e-
Biological age This re:ers to the .odyJs physical a"e0 which is a::ected .y chronolo"ical a"e0 "enetic :actors and personal and environ)ental :actors such as diet0 e9ercise and health- @n so)e deprived societies and social "roups0 people a"e very +uicklyP in others0 there are patterns o: lon"evity-
&ocial age This includes a personJs attitudes0 .ehaviour and interests- For e9a)ple0 it is nor)al :or children to "o to school at a particular a"e- Ge talk a.out people Oactin" their a"eJ0 which assu)es that there are ways o: actin" that are appropriate to di::erent a"es-
%s$chological age This re:ers to the way people cope with and adapt to li:e situations- The ter) is also used when talkin" a.out intelli"ence and pro.le)-solvin" <Good et al- '44'* A6=- For e9a)ple0 Al:red $inet deter)ined the co"nitive a.ilities o: Onor)alJ children at various a"es and produced typical pro:iles :or particular a"es- @ndividual children were then evaluated to o.tain their psycholo"ical or )ental a"e <see Chapter C0 O@ntelli"enceJ=-
=unctional age This is an inte"rated )easure o: per:or)ance on a ran"e o: scales that re:lect the various chronolo"ical0 .iolo"ical0 social and psycholo"ical aspects o: a"e discussed a.ove- @t tries to de:ine people in ter)s o: their actual a.ilities rather than the len"th o: ti)e they have .een alive <Good et al- '44'* A6=Cate"ori/ation o: people and processes accordin" to a"e is use:ul :or understandin" aspects o: daily li:e0 .ut it is si)plistic to see a"e as causin" chan"e or develop)ent- A"e nor)s are avera"es0 and )ost individuals deviate :ro) the) in so)e respect-
Theories o* li*e course %evelop&ent

The )ost i)portant theories relatin" to li:e course develop)ent can .e cate"ori/ed as psychosocial0 )oral and :unctional- !ach theory presents a particular construction o: develop)ent-
+s,chosocial %evelop&ent
One o: the )ost in:luential theories o: psychosocial develop)ent was proposed .y the Ger)an psychoanalyst !rik !rikson0 who drew :ro) the psychoanalytic tradition0 which e)phasi/es the resolution o: identity crises- !riksonJs theory .alances personal psycholo"ical develop)ent with the chan"in" de)ands o: society over the li:e course- @n this theory0 each sta"e o: a personJs li:e re+uires the achieve)ent o: a key psychosocial task0 which itsel: involves the resolution o: so)e crisis- For e9a)ple0 .a.ies )ust :or) understandin"s o: their world > is the world sa:e and dependa.le0 or is it dan"erous and inconsistentK Success:ul resolution o: this OcrisisJ develops hope and con:idence :or the :utureP :ailure leads to insecurity and avoidance!rikson identi:ies ei"ht crises throu"h the li:e course <see Ta.le 6-3=- To resolve these crises0 people )ust locate the)selves at so)e point .etween the positive and ne"ative poles o: a di)ension- People ac+uire Oe"o stren"thJ when they resolve a
117
particular crisis- This also involves personal learnin"0 and people use the e"o stren"ths they have ac+uired to tackle :uture crises- Failure to ac+uire e"o stren"ths results in increasin"ly inade+uate personal and social :unctionin"Ta le 8.1 !riksonJs ei"ht sta"es o: psychosocial develop)ent
4tage @n:ancy !arly childhood Play a"e School a"e Adolescence 2oun" adulthood Middle adulthood Old a"e
Crisis Trust versus )istrust Autono)y versus dou.t @nitiative versus "uilt @ndustry versus in:eriority @dentity versus role con:usion @nti)acy versus isolation Generativity versus sel:-a.sorption @nte"rity versus despair
Learne% strength ope Gill Purpose Co)petence Fidelity %ove Care Gisdo)
&ource: $ased on Su"ar)an <'443* 7A=-
!riksonJs theory can .e critici/ed on the "rounds that too )any o: the sta"es or identity crises he posits deal with the early years in the li:e course0 whereas old a"e0 which )i"ht enco)pass H4 years or )ore0 is allocated only one cate"ory- There:ore0 A)erican educationalist #o.ert Peck )odi:ied !riksonJs sta"es .y su.dividin" the last two sta"es and speci:yin" )ore identity crises to .e :aced- e also sees old a"e as havin" )ore positive characteristics than !rikson did <see Ta.les 6-' and 6-A=Ta le 8.2 PeckJs sta"es o: )iddle a"e
Crisis Gisdo) versus valuin" physical powers
Learne% strengths Co)in" to ter)s with loss o: physical stren"th or attractiveness .ut "ain o: in:or)ed Rud"e)ent
Sociali/in" versus se9uali/in" !)otional :le9i.ility versus e)otional i)poverish)ent Mental :le9i.ility versus ri"idity
Seein" individuals in ter)s o: their potential as :riends rather than as se9ual partners A.ility to shi:t e)otional attach)ents Possi.ility o: openness to new ideas
&ource: $ased on Peck <37&6=-
Ta le 8.3
PeckJs sta"es o: old a"e
Crisis !"o-di::erentiation versus work-role preoccupation $ody transcendence versus .ody preoccupation !"o transcendence versus e"o preoccupation Source* $ased on Peck <37&6=-
Learne% strengths #ede:inition o: sel: Transcendin" physical decline Co)in" to ter)s with oneJs own death
5oral %evelop&ent
Moral develop)ent is an i)portant construct in li:e develop)ent and its sta"es are parallel with the psychosocial ones- A concern with values and )oral develop)ent is an inte"ral part o: the education process- Sta"es o: )oral develop)ent can e9plain how children respond to societal nor)s and .ehaviours- A key theorist is the US psycholo"ist %awrence ?ohl.er"0 who sees )orality as a developin" process- The three sta"es in his theory o: )oral develop)ent shown in Ta.le 6-H are associated with childhood0 adolescence and adulthood .ut ?ohl.er" su""ests that )ost adults do not pro"ress .eyond the second sta"e <Col.y and ?ohl.er" 376H=Ta le 8.4 ?ohl.er"Js theory o: )oral develop)ent
4tage Pre-conventional Conventional Post-conventional
Characteristics Punish)ent or reward conse+uences "uide peopleJs actionsPeople are )otivated .y o.edience and respect :or rules and authorityPeople assu)e personal responsi.ility and can "enerali/e ethical principles-
&ource: $ased on Col.y and ?ohl.er" <376H=-
Functional theories
Functional theories speci:y what people are a.le to do or how they .ehave at particular sta"es- @n this theoretical view0 .ehaviour is seen as adaptive in evolutionary ter)s0 servin" physical0 )ental or social purposes- ere we consider the develop)ent o: peopleJs :unctionality at three distinct sta"es o: the li:e course > childhood0 adulthood and old a"e-
119
hildhood: %iaget
The .est-known :unctional theory o: childrenJs co"nitive develop)ent was proposed .y Jean Pia"et- Ta.le 6-B shows the sta"es in his theory o: co"nitive develop)entTa le 8.5 Pia"etJs theory o: co"nitive develop)ent
4tage Sensori-)otor 4>' yrs
Characteristic @n:ants* Q e9perience the world throu"h )ove)ent and senses Q learn that o.Rects continue to e9ist even when not in view Q .e"in to represent .ehaviours throu"h )ental i)a"ery or lan"ua"eChildren* Q .uild a )ental )odel o: the world Q are still e"ocentric0 only seein" world :ro) their own point o: view Q can per:or) )ental operations such as addition only when o.Rects are presentChildren* Q "enerate rules and principles .ased on their actions on the world Q are a.le to understand only rules o: which they have had direct e9perience Q cannot yet use rules to "enerali/e to situations not yet e9perienced Q develop an a.ility to see other points o: view2oun" people* Q are a.le to reason in a purely a.stract and scienti:ic way Q are a.le to "enerate hypotheses a.out the world Q are increasin"ly a.le to construct )odels that e9plain )ost e9perience-
Pre-operational '>& yrs
Concrete operational &>3' yrs
For)al operational 3'>
&ource: $ased on Good et al- <'44'* B'>A=For Pia"et0 these sta"es are predeter)ined0 and closely linked to the )aturation o: childrenJs nervous syste)s- %ike the sta"es o: .iolo"ical "rowth0 co"nitive develop)ent and its processes cannot .e directly acceleratedPia"et considers that the develop)ent o: internal )odels o: reality involves the :ollowin" internal processes* Q the develop)ent o: sche)a > a )ental representation o: knowled"e or action <:or e9a)ple0 the child has a sche)a o: a car with :our wheels and a steerin" wheel=P assi)ilation > the incorporation o: new in:or)ation into e9istin" sche)a <:or e9a)ple0 the child sees )ore types o: cars that :it the sche)a=P acco))odation > the adaptation o: an e9istin" sche)a in the li"ht o: new in:or)ation <:or e9a)ple0 the child .roadens the sche)a to include three-wheeled cars=P
Q Q
e+uili.ration > the .alancin" o: the processes o: assi)ilation and acco))odation <:or e9a)ple0 the child )aintains a sta.le concept o: a car despite variations=P dise+uili.ration > the ina.ility to )aintain the sche)a <:or e9a)ple0 the child discards e9istin" sche)a in the :ace o: teleportation=-
The power o: Pia"etJs theory lies in his clai) that childrenJs intelli"ence develops towards increasin" levels o: a.straction0 "enerality and sta.ility in the transitions :ro) the pre-operational to the :or)al operational sta"e- As part o: this process0 children also )ove :ro) the personal to the social0 takin" on other perspectives and developin" the a.ility to appreciate other points o: viewOn the other hand0 Pia"et has .een critici/ed :or his li)ited view o: intelli"ence0 which :ails to take account o: cultural values or kinds o: reasonin" other than the :or)al scienti:ic type* OGe are not si)ply victi)s o: "enetically deter)ined co"nitive predispositionsJ <?incheloe and Stein.er" 377A* A44=- Another criticis) is that Pia"et assu)es that :or)al reasonin" is reached in adolescence and :ails to develop :urther- Many researchers now reco"ni/e that adult thinkin" continues to develop and .eco)e )ore dialectical and tolerant o: a).i"uity <Su"ar)an '443* 347>AH=hildhood: "$gotsk$ The #ussian psycholo"ist %ev Iy"otsky a"reed with Pia"et that there are sta"es o: develop)ent .ut :elt that they are less .iolo"ically deter)ined- Iy"otsky0 whose ideas are discussed in Chapter H0 .elieved that parents0 teachers0 peers and wider culture develop childrenJs :unctional a.ilities0 includin" inner talk0 thou"ht and intelli"ence- So)e o: the ideas o: Iy"otsky and Pia"et are co)pared in Ta.le 6-&Ta le 8.6 Pia"etJs and Iy"otskyJs theories o: develop)ent* a co)parison
+iaget ChildrenJs intellectual potential develops throu"h interaction with the worldChildren )ove :ro) the personal to the socialSta"es o: intellectual develop)ent are predeter)ined like physical develop)entSocial develop)ent is a conse+uence o: intellectual develop)ent-
8,gots#, Social interaction is necessary :or intellectual develop)entChildren )ove :ro) the social to the personalSta"es o: intellectual develop)ent )ay .e accelerated .y social interaction and support@ntellectual develop)ent is a conse+uence o: social develop)ent-
A%ulthoo%
@n the past0 adulthood was considered lar"ely within .iolo"ical :ra)eworks and was seen as the peak o: develop)ent- Co"nitive develop)ent did not receive )uch
121
attention .eyond childhood- More recently0 theorists and researchers have co)e to see adulthood as a period that has its own su.-sta"es0 althou"h research has :ocused )ore on adult roles and responsi.ilities rather than on co"nitionSo)e o: the )ost i)portant work in this area has .een done .y the US educationalist Marcia $a9ter Ma"olda <377'=0 who outlines a view o: episte)olo"ical develop)ent derived :ro) research with cohorts o: university students- She clai)s that there are :our discrete and se+uential sta"es in the adult ac+uisition o: knowled"e0 each characteri/ed .y a particular view o: knowled"e-
3'AH-
Absolute stage ?nowled"e e9ists0 is certain and needs to .e ac+uiredTransitional stage ?nowled"e e9ists .ut is not so certain and needs to .e discovered#ndependent knowing ?nowled"e is relative0 personal0 contested and needs to .e de:endedontextual knowing ?nowled"e is socially constructed and needs to .e evaluated on the .asis o: accepta.le evidence-
$a9ter Ma"olda points out that students rarely achieve the :inal sta"e while at colle"e0 and it )ay .e that "reater e9perience o: the world is necessary <$a9ter Ma"olda 377'=The episte)olo"ical characteristics o: $a9ter Ma"oldaJs :inal sta"e are consistent with the clai) that adult reasonin" is o:ten contradictory and e).edded in conte9tAccordin" to other research <#ie"el 37CAP ?ra)er 3767=0 )ature adult thinkin" re+uires an a.ility to live with co)ple9ity and a).i"uityP and reasonin" needs to .e :le9i.le and open- @t is characteri/ed .y*
Q Q Q Q Q
an awareness that knowled"e is a::ected .y values and cannot .e neutralP a tolerance o: contradiction and a).i"uityP an acceptance o: di::erent perceptionsP an a.ility to inte"rate contradictions into a dialectical wholeP an intuitive understandin" .ased on e9perience-
1l% age
Old a"e is associated with co"nitive chan"es0 so)e o: which )ay .e seen as develop)ent rather than decline <see Ta.le 6-C=- Althou"h it is co))on to assu)e that peopleJs co"nitive :unctionality declines with a"e0 it is i)portant to )ake a distinction .etween :luid intelli"ence0 which is associated with the speed o: co"nitive processin"0 and crystalli/ed intelli"ence0 which relates to increased knowled"e- Thus0 older people "enerally think )ore slowly0 .ut this is .alanced .y an increase in what they know <Good et al- '44'* HH=-
Ta le 8.7
$iolo"ical and co"nitive aspects o: a"ein"
Change Bodil$ appearance %s$chomotor performance "ision and hearing Learning and memor$
.**ect Gain in wei"ht;ecrease in physical attractiveness;eclinin" speed in lar"e )ove)ents and reduced :ine control in s)all )ove)ents%on"er decision ti)es- More conscious )onitorin" o: per:or)ance;i)inishin" a.ility to discri)inate co)ponents o: visual displaySlower adaptation to li"ht chan"e- %oss in hearin"@)paired retrieval :ro) short-ter) )e)ory;ecreasin" a.ility to sustain attention-
&ource: $ased on Su"ar)an <376&* BA>&A==luid intelligence ;avid Gechsler <37C'=0 who devised the Gechsler Adult @ntelli"ence Scale <GA@S=0 proposed that O:luid intelli"enceJ0 as )easured .y @( tests0 declines with a"e as does physical a.ilityThe "reatest decline in co"nitive per:or)ance occurs in attention and )e)ory :unction0 particularly in Oin:or)ation retrievalJ- @ndeed0 .rain i)a"in" shows a decline o: activity in the hippoca)puses and :rontal lo.es o: older people0 areas i)plicated in )e)ory and in plannin"- Thus0 older people re)e).er past events .etter than recent ones- This is known as #i.otJs %aw- Older people are also less likely to or"ani/e new )aterial in ways that :acilitate e::ective learnin"- Such decline can .e di)inished i: )e)ory is e9ercised and relied on :or everyday activities such as shoppin"P an e9a)ple o: OsituatedJ0 conte9tual learnin"- ealth0 social and environ)ental conditions also play a part in haltin" the decline o: :luid intelli"ence- For e9a)ple0 per:or)ance on co"nitive )easures can .e i)proved i: an individual re"ularly en"a"es in aero.ic activities such as walkin"- Other strate"ies such as hei"htenin" e)otional states can help o::set )e)ory decline too- For e9a)ple0 older people who were tau"ht to learn scripts .y enactin" the e)otional states o: the characters showed a hi"her recall and reco"nition than those who si)ply learned the script <Good et al- '44'* HA>B=r$stalli:ed intelligence Older people do .etter than youn"er ones on tasks re+uirin" e9perience0 practical knowled"e and voca.ulary- The Rud"e)ents o: older people are also o:ten )ore sophisticated than those o: youn"er adults- Collectively0 these characteristics are known as Ocrystalli/ed intelli"enceJ- Greater crystalli/ed intelli"ence )eans that older people e9cel at the types o: social and cultural learnin" that are care:ully avoided .y standard @( tests0 althou"h Stern.er"Js <376B* HB= de:inition o: intelli"ence <see Chapter C0 O@ntelli"enceJ= does reco"ni/e the i)portance o: purposive understandin" in real-world environ)ents-
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Ghen considerin" the li:e course develop)ents associated with older a"e0 we also need to take into account the wisdo) o: older people and their a.ility to re:lect on0 and co)e to ter)s with0 e9perience and )ortality in ways that are di::icult at )ore active sta"es o: li:e- For )any older people0 li:e e9periences lead to an inte"rated philosophy o: li:e that )ake older a"e satis:yin" and )eanin":ul and that )ay .e passed on to others .y* Q Q Q Q )aintainin" social and cultural valuesP actin" as )entors to pass on what has .een learntP i)provin" society throu"h social activis)P e)phasi/in" so)e e9istential di)ensions o: li:e undervalued in conte)porary society<Jarvis '443* 346>7=
.%ucational i&plications o* li*e course %evelop&ent theories

;iverse educational i)plications arise :ro) li:e course theories- Takin" a chronolo"ical approach0 we will deal with i)plications :or the education o:* Q Q Q Q Q people throu"hout the li:e courseP childrenP youn"er adultsP adultsP older adults-
Throughout the li*e course

A review o: :or)al education throu"hout the world shows that it is directed at the youn"0 with chronolo"ical a"e as a key )arker o: intellectual level- This is consistent with the :ra)in" o: education in relation to .iolo"ical )odels o: develop)ent0 which see hu)an develop)ent as reachin" its peak in adulthood and then declinin"- On the other hand0 socio-cultural and co"nitive )odels o: develop)ent su""est that develop)ent continues throu"hout the li:e course0 leadin" directly to the view that people learn throu"hout their lives0 and )ay there:ore re+uire and seek educational opportunities and provision- Theories o: li:elon" learnin" discussed in Chapter 70 OAdult learnin"J0 .uild on this ideaLearning throughout the life course: Q Q Q Pro"ra))es should .e devised to cater :or all sta"es o: the li:e courseThe potential inclusion o: people at di::erent sta"es o: the li:e course should .e considered in the desi"n o: educational pro"ra))es@n:or)al and :or)al educational opportunities should .e availa.le throu"hout the li:e course-
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
Groups should .e supported in devisin" their own learnin" opportunities#esearch should to .e carried out into the learnin" styles and re+uire)ents o: di::erent a"e "roups@)plicit assu)ptions a.out a"e-related a.ility should .e e9a)ined and challen"edAccess policies should .e acco))odatin" to all "roups%earnin" outco)es should re:lect the e9pectations and needs o: students at di::erent sta"es in the li:e courseTeachersJ roles should vary accordin" to the a"e and nature o: studentsTeachin" )ethodolo"ies should address the di::erent learnin" styles o: adults and childrenAssess)ent practices should .e ne"otiated in the li"ht o: learnin" outco)es and learner needs-
Chil%ren
The i)plications o: Pia"etJs and Iy"otskyJs theories :or classroo) practice are discussed in Chapter H-
@ounger a%ults
The :our sta"es in $a9ter Ma"oldaJs theory o: episte)olo"ical develop)ent discussed a.ove have correspondin" i)plications :or learnin" and teachin" practice0 as shown in Ta.le 6-6Ta le 8.8 !ducational i)plications o: $a9ter Ma"oldaJs theory
-no$le%ge A.solute Transitional @ndependent knowin" Conte9tual knowin"
Teacher role @)part knowled"e Facilitate understandin" Support individual views Colla.orator
4tu%ent role A.sor. knowled"e Understand and apply ;e:end individual view Constructor o: situated knowled"e
Assess&ent test #ecall o: knowled"e Co)prehension and application Presentation o: ar"u)ent !valuation o: knowled"e clai)s
A%ults
%earnin" opportunities :or adults0 even in the )ost advanced societies0 are still poor in co)parison with the opportunities provided .y co)pulsory childhood educationThe nature o: adult learnin" and its associated peda"o"y is discussed in Chapter 70 OAdult learnin"J- ere it is i)portant to note how the educational i)plications o: the way adults think and reason can .e applied in practice <See Ta.le 6-7=-
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Ta le 8.9
!ducational i)plications o: adult thinkin"
A%ult thin#ing characteristics ?nowled"e is value-ladenAdults can tolerate contradiction and a).i"uityAdults can accept di::erent perceptionsAdults can inte"rate contradictions into a dialectical wholeAdults have intuitive understandin" .ased on e9perience-
.%ucational i&plications Make values e9plicit in curriculu) and in teachin"Model re:lective practice and re:le9ivityProvide opportunities :or airin" opposin" views !ncoura"e discussion0 de.ate and critical thinkin";raw on learnersJ personal e9perience and li:e histories-
1l%er a%ults
%earnin" itsel: reduces co"nitive decay- @n the US0 a lon"itudinal study was conducted :or )any years with a conte)plative order o: nuns- @t :ound that elderly nuns who e9ercised their )inds throu"h readin"0 doin" crosswords pu//les and )aintainin" a positive attitude lived lon"er and resisted a"e-related co"nitive decline <Snowdon '443=There are econo)ic and social .ene:its in providin" :or)al and in:or)al educational opportunities :or older people- ;oin" so )i"ht reduce the .urden o: care associated with diseases such as de)entia- Studies in Canada0 the US and the U? show that educational pro"ra))es :or older adults increase opti)is)0 )ental :le9i.ility and con:idence- This )ay act as a :or) o: e)power)ent0 with older people in care settin"s takin" )ore responsi.ility :or their lives- For e9a)ple0 a research study conducted in a nursin" ho)e in the US divided residents into two "roups- One "roup was "iven responsi.ility :or everyday decisionsP the others were passive recipients- Githin a short ti)e0 the e)powered "roup enRoyed hi"her levels o: )ental alertness and the death rate dropped .y 34 per cent <Jarvis '443* 3''>B=Iarious educational opportunities :or older people have e)er"ed since the 37&4s- For e9a)ple0 in the US0 the @nstitute :or %earnin" in #etire)ent was :ounded in the early 37&4s- @t su.se+uently .eca)e the !lderhostel @nstitute 1etwork0 which still provides su))er school and university education opportunities :or older peopleSi)ilarly0 the University o: the Third A"e <UAA= e)er"ed in France in the 37C4s to provide an in:or)al li.eral education :or older people- @t has spread to other countries and taken di::erent :or)s- @n the French )odel0 the local university takes responsi.ility :or the UAA- @n the U? )odel0 the UAA are voluntary sel:-initiated "roups with interchan"ea.le teacher and learner roles <Jarvis '443* '=!ducational sel:-help )ove)ents :or older people have spread to other countries with the support o: "overn)ents- The ne9t wave o: de)and :or access to :urther and hi"her education )ay co)e not :ro) ethnic "roups or the econo)ically disadvanta"ed0 .ut :ro) older learners-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q The li:e course has distinct sta"es%earnin" chan"es with li:e sta"es$iolo"ical develop)ent theories su""est a peak in adulthood0 :ollowed .y declineSocio-cultural )odels e9plore di::erence in roles and tasks rather than decline$iolo"ical )odels su""est se+uenced chan"eSocioco"nitive and cultural )odels su""est contin"ent0 concurrent develop)entAn ecolo"ical )odel su""ests a collection o: interactin" syste)s0 which a person inha.its at particular li:e sta"esConcepts o: a"e include the chronolo"ical0 .iolo"ical0 social0 psycholo"ical and :unctionalPsychosocial theories involve the resolution o: key con:licts particular to each sta"eSta"e develop)ental theories concentrate on childhoodSta"es o: )oral develop)ent parallel those o: co"nitive develop)entA"ein" involves .iolo"ical and co"nitive chan"e that a::ects learnin"Fluid intelli"ence <speed in co"nitive processin"= declines with a"eCrystalli/ed intelli"ence <knowled"e and wisdo)= does not decline-
Conclusions
This chapter shows how theories and )odels o: li:e course develop)ent )ove away :ro) a narrow .iolo"ical :ocus to an interest in socio-cultural e9perience and co"nitive :unctionin"- @t :ocuses the attention o: educators on the di::erent sta"es and de)ands o: the li:e course and su""ests so)e peda"o"ical strate"ies to respond to the)0 e)phasi/in" a holistic0 constructivist approach that sees )eanin":ul learnin" continuin" lon" a:ter childhoodowever0 the )any positive ideas discussed are not necessarily )atched .y :undin" support- Fro) a theoretical perspective0 the wide diversity o: approaches in li:e course develop)ent )ay threaten the :ieldJs coherence in )akin" its case- More research is needed0 as childhood studies do)inate the theoryJs evidence .ase1evertheless0 the theories do o::er the educator so)e counter ar"u)ents to preRudice and a"eis) and su""est so)e case to .e )ade :or the allocation o: )ore resources to adult learnin"- So)e o: the issues and understandin"s in relation to adult learnin" are :urther e9plored in the ne9t chapter-
)e*erences
$a9ter Ma"olda0 M- <377'= StudentsJ episte)olo"ies and acade)ic e9periences* i)plications :or peda"o"y0 Re.iew of )igher Education0 3B<A=* '&B>6C$ron:en.renner0 U- <377A= !colo"ical syste)s theory0 in #- Go/niak and ?- Fisher <eds= &pecific En.ironments: Thinking in ontext- illsdale0 1J* !rl.au)0 A>HH-
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$ron:en.renner0 U- and Morris0 P-A- <3776= The ecolo"y o: the develop)ental process0 in #- %earner <ed=- )andbook of hild %s$cholog$! "ol 1: Theoretical ;odels of )uman 3e.elopment- <Bth edn=- 1ew 2ork* Giley0 77A>34'6Col.y0 A- and ?ohl.er"0 %- <376H= @nvariance se+uences and internal consistency in )oral Rud"e)ent sta"es0 in G-M- ?ertines and J-%- Gewirt/ <eds= ;oralit$! ;oral Beha.iour and ;oral 3e.elopment- 1ew 2ork* John Gileyedden0 T- and Ga.rieli0 J-;-!- <'44H= @nsi"hts into the a"ein" )ind* a view :ro) co"nitive neuroscience0 Nature Re.iews Neuroscience0 B* 6C>7CJarvis0 P- <'443= Learning in Later Life: An #ntroduction for Educators and arers- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e?incheloe0 J-%- and Stein.er"0 S-#- <377A= A tentative description o: post-:or)al thinkin"* the critical con:rontation with co"nitive theory0 )ar.ard Educational Re.iew0 &A<A=* '7&>A'4?nowles0 M- <376H= Andragog$ in Action- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey-$ass?ra)er0 ;-A- <3767= ;evelop)ent o: an awareness o: contradiction across the li:e span and the +uestion o: post :or)al operations0 in M-%- Co))ons0 J-;- Sinnott0 F-A#ichards and C- Ar)on <eds= Adult 3e.elopment: omparisons and Applications of 3e.elopment ;odels- 1ew 2ork* Prae"erPeck0 #- <37&6= Psycholo"ical develop)ents in the second hal: o: li:e0 in $- 1eu"arten <ed-= ;iddle Age and Ageing- Chica"o* University o: Chica"o Press#ie"el0 ?-F- <37CA= ;ialectical operations* the :inal period o: co"nitive develop)ent0 )uman 3e.elopment0 3&* AH&>C4#unyan0 G-M- <37C6= The li:e course as a theoretical orientation* se+uences o: person-situation interaction0 9ournal of %ersonalit$0 H&<H=* B&7>7ASnowdon0 ;- <'443= A"in" Gith Grace* Ghat the 1un Study Teaches us a.out %eadin" %on"er0 ealthier and More Meanin":ul %ives- 1ew 2ork* $anta) $ooksStern.er"0 #-J- <376B= Be$ond #?: A Triarchic Theor$ of )uman #ntelligence- Ca).rid"e* Ca).rid"e University PressSu"ar)an0 %- <376&= Life(&pan 3e.elopment: oncepts! Theories and #nter.entions- %ondon* Methuen and CoSu"ar)an0 %- <'443= Life(&pan 3e.elopment: =rameworks! Accounts and &trategies <'nd edn=- ove* Psycholo"y PressGechsler0 ;- <37C'= O oldJ and OdonJt holdJ tests0 in S-1- Chown <ed-= )uman Aging1ew 2ork* Pen"uinGood0 C-0 %ittleton0 ?- and Oates0 J- <'44'= %i:espan develop)ent0 in T- Cooper and @#oth <eds= hallenging %s$chological #ssues- Milton ?eynes* Open University Press-
Chapter 9
A%ult learning
(ntro%uction
Ghen we think o: education0 we think o: children .ein" instructed .y adults;urkhei) de:ined education as Othe in:luence e9ercised .y adult "enerations on those who are not yet ready :or social li:eJ <37B&* C3=The chapter +uestions this position- @t .e"ins .y considerin" so)e key de:initions in adult education0 and "oes on to outline its e9tensive and venera.le historyAlthou"h adult education is a relatively new pheno)enon0 its antecedents are in early vocational education0 workin" peoplesJ institutes and co))unity action )ove)ents- Ge descri.e and evaluate )ore recent develop)ents0 includin" the e)er"ence o: andra"o"y and trans:or)ative thinkin"- The chapter also provides an overview o: i)portant areas o: concern in conte)porary adult learnin" theory and practice- Areas selected :or discussion include those concernin" adultsJ access to education0 power relationships0 and the rise o: instru)entalis) in education- Finally0 we outline the practical i)plications o: adult learnin" theory :or learnin" and teachin" practices-
/e*initions
Chan"es over ti)e in the ter)inolo"y o: adult education indicate shi:ts in the perspectives o: educationalists and policy )akers- The ter)inolo"y evolved :ro) Oadult educationJ0 which indicated the separate provision o: in:or)al education to adults0 to Orecurrent educationJ0 which i)plied an e9tension o: school educationO#ecurrent educationJ was replaced .y Ocontinuin" educationJ0 which pointed to a .roadenin" o: provision0 coverin" .oth in:or)al0 non-accredited learnin" and accredited educational provision- This ter) "radually su.su)ed the )ore traditional Oadult educationJ <Ti"ht '44' * A7>HA=A )aRor chan"e in e)phasis0 :ro) OeducationJ to Olearnin"J is si"nalled .y the e)er"ence o: the ter) Oli:espan learnin"J0 coined in the 37&4s .y the A)erican adult educationalist Cyril oule0 as a result o: his research into adultsJ sel:-directed learnin" < oule 37&H=- The currently accepted ter)inolo"y0 endorsed .y the Or"ani/ation :or !cono)ic and Cultural ;evelop)ent <O!C;= is Oli:elon" learnin"J <Ti"ht '44'* A7=As John Field points out0 Oli:elon" learnin"J incorporates learnin" :ro) every aspect o: our lives > social relationships0 environ)ent0 society and culture- For Field0 Owe cannot stop ourselves :ro) .ein" li:elon" learnersJ <'444* vii>viii=- Fi"ure 7-3 outlines the evolution o: this ter)inolo"y-
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Figure 9.1 !volvin" ter)inolo"y in adult education&ource: $ased on Jarvis et al- <'44A=-
1rigins o* a%ult e%ucation

Adult education ori"inated in historical initiatives and )ove)ents in $ritain0 Scandinavia and 1orth A)erica- These initiatives o:ten e)phasi/ed the use o: e9perience and "roup colla.oration0 key learnin" principles which survive to this day-
7or#ing6class e%ucation
Technical institutes were the :orerunners o: conte)porary adult education- They developed in the )id-nineteenth century in industriali/ed countries and centres0 teachin" technolo"ical su.Rects and cra:ts to :actory workers and apprentices0 and su.Rects such as .ook-keepin" to clerical workers- So)eti)es the workers the)selves set up institutes- Towards the end o: the nineteenth century in !n"land0 )any o: these technical institutes esta.lished the)selves as a Onew nicheJ in the :or)al educational sector0 .eco)in" technical colle"es and later polytechnics <Merricks '443* H=Another si"ni:icant develop)ent in !n"land was the :oundin" o: the GorkersJ !ducational Association <G!A= in 3676 .y Al.ert Mans.rid"e- The G!A o:ten attracted e)inent acade)ics to heavily industriali/ed towns in order to deliver lectures on politics or econo)ics to )ass workin"-class audiences- This had the ai) o: encoura"in" workersJ participation in li.eral education :or its own sake0 rather than to rise a.ove their e9istin" class and e)ploy)ent <Merricks '443* H=Ge see the e)er"ence o: a discourse o: adult education in the 37'4s throu"h the work o: $asil 2ea9lee- e .elieved that adults have a ri"ht to continuin" education0 not si)ply to co)pensate :or the :ailures o: :or)al schoolin"0 .ut as a
le"iti)ate pursuit- e advanced a student-centred approach to learnin"0 clai)in" that adults :or) a hetero"eneous learnin" "roup whose needs cannot .e )et .y :or)al classroo) teachin" )ethods- 2ea9lee also ar"ued that adult education should .e "rounded in practical and co))unity initiatives0 and that these settin"s provide the authentic conditions :or learnin" <2ea9lee 37'7=-
4can%inavian rural a%ult e%ucation

Study circles and :olk hi"h schools developed in the nineteenth century0 were the .e"innin"s o: sel:-or"ani/ed adult education in Scandinavia- Study circles ori"inated in rural settin"s0 as adults )et to develop practical skills in woodwork0 :ar)in"0 :ishin" and accountin"- @n this way the participants directed and :ul:illed their own learnin" needs- These study circles still survive in Sweden today0 althou"h depleted .y the disinte"ration o: rural co))unities and the in:luence o: )ass co))unicationsFolk hi"h schools .uilt on the idea o: study circles- They concentrated on the :urther develop)ent o: skills and practical knowled"e and there was no :or)al assess)entFolk hi"h schools )ade no social distinctions and provided education without any char"e )any0 years .e:ore the introduction o: :ree education in countries such as $ritain <$Rerkaker '44H* ''4>B=-
;orth A&erican %e&ocratic an% co&&unit, e%ucation

The philosopher and educationalist John ;ewey was writin" early in the twentieth century0 at a ti)e o: hu"e i))i"ration into the US- This shaped his .elie: that education ena.led individuals :ro) diverse ethnic .ack"rounds to participate :ully in civic li:e and decision-)akin"- !ducation there:ore ensured the sta.ility o: de)ocratic society- ;ewey also )aintained that education should not stop with the end o: :or)al schoolin"P adults have i)portant learnin" e9periences throu"hout their lives that contri.ute to their intellectual "rowth <;ewey 374'P 37&&=The A)erican educationalist !dward %inde)an0 workin" in the 37'4s0 viewed adult education as a )eans o: personal develop)ent- is work :ocused on re:or)in" e9istin" educational structures0 includin" the tradition o: the adult educational curriculu) to elevate su.Rects over learners- For %inde)an0 e9perience was Othe adult learnerJs livin" te9t .ookJ <%inde)an0 3767* C=- e .elieved that adult learners have a repertoire o: practical knowled"e0 skills and e9periential resources on which to drawe thou"ht s)all-"roup discussion essential to the adult learnin" process .ecause it allows e9periences to .e shared0 interpreted and placed in )eanin":ul conte9tsMoses Coady is associated with a )ore radical .ranch o: adult education- This priest0 educator and socialist was a leader o: the !astern Canadian Anti"onish )ove)ent0 which ori"inated in the 37'4s as a )eans o: e)powerin" i)poverished rural workers- This )ove)ent encoura"ed people to share their co))on e9periences and knowled"e on topics related to their workin" lives- @n ti)e0 courses were o::ered on a ran"e o: su.Rects o: interest to the co))unity <Coady 37A7=- This was an early
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:or) o: co))unity develop)ent0 underpinned .y the .elie: that the "oal o: education is to initiate social re:or) throu"h the raisin" o: consciousness and political actionA :inal :i"ure in this overview is Cyril oule0 who clai)ed that all individuals0 irrespective o: a"e or social status0 have a propensity towards learnin"- People have di::erent )otivations :or learnin"0 causin" the) to en"a"e in independent study proRects- oule shi:ted the :ocus in adult education towards peopleJs own reasons :or en"a"e)ent in learnin"0 si"nalled .y his ter) Oli:eplan learnin"J < oule 37&3* 3B>3&=-
)ecent %evelop&ents in a%ult learning

Since the 37C4s0 investi"ations have concentrated on the di::erences .etween childrenJs and adultsJ learnin"- This has led to an interest in the potential o: adult education to :acilitate personal develop)ent and critical re:lection on the social and political conditions o: peopleJs lives- The theories that underpin these develop)ents are those o: andra"o"y0 trans:or)ative learnin" and critical thinkin"-
An%ragog,
The work o: the US educationalist Malcol) ?nowles in the 37C4s and 3764s has had a pervasive in:luence on adult education- e is .est known :or developin" the theory o: Oandra"o"yJ > Othe art and science o: teachin" adultsJ > as opposed to that o: Opeda"o"yJ > Othe art and science o: teachin" childrenJ <?nowles 3764* HA=- e identi:ied :our ways in which adult learners are di::erent :ro) child learners* Osel:-conceptJ0 Oe9perienceJ0 Oreadiness to learnJ and Oorientation to learnin"J&elf(concept Adult learners are sel:-directin"0 independent and responsi.le :or their own learnin" needs- They undertake study pro"ra))es .ecause they want to learn what is )eanin":ul0 and relevant to their lives- Adults need to )atch su.Rect )atter to their own learnin" "oalsExperience Adults have a reservoir o: practical e9a)ples0 skills and knowled"e that can .e used and reused in new learnin" situations- ?nowles ar"ued that e9perience )ust .e central to the adult learnin" process in order :or learnin" to .e )eanin":ulA readiness to learn Adults are internally )otivated to seek out new learnin" )ethods and knowled"e- They participate actively in learnin" processes :or personal reasonsAn orientation to learning Adults are pro.le) rather than content-oriented- They work .est in environ)ents where they can apply reasonin" a.ilities0 and where they can draw on their sel:-concept0 e9perience and readiness to learnAndra"o"y is learner-centred and constructivist in nature .ecause it assu)es that the de:inin" :eature o: adult education is the )eanin" that individuals attach to their learnin"- The theory has .een i)portant in developin" a )ethodolo"y o: adult teachin" and learnin"- owever0 it can .e critici/ed on two "rounds- First0 it is de.atea.le whether all adults are as sel:-directed as ?nowlesJs 1orth A)erican
cultural assu)ptions would su""est- %earners in eastern parts o: the world respect authority and e9pect to :ollow the lead o: the teacher <Jarvis et al- '44A* 6C=- Second0 the clear division ?nowles proposes .etween adult and child learners )ay .e e9a""erated- %earner-centred education0 in which children are encoura"ed to take control o: their own learnin"0 and teachers to develop learner autono)y0 is a key tenet o: all constructivist practice-
Trans*or&ative learning
The A)erican educationalist Jack Me/irow developed the theory o: Otrans:or)ative learnin"J in the 37C4s- @t clai)s that when individuals en"a"e in critical re:lection they reach a deeper understandin" o: their personal e9periences0 assu)ptions0 or o: political and social structures- Ghen adults +uestion their e9istin" :ra)es o: re:erence they discover new perspectives0 which )ay result in a re:ra)in" or a trans:or)ation o: )eanin"- e thou"ht that such perspective trans:or)ations could also .e used .y co))unities o: adult learners where it could act as the .asis :or collective social action0 throu"h a challen"e to i)posed and distortin" )eanin" perspectives <Me/irow 3773=- The theory has .een in:luential :or its co).inin" o: personal and social "oals .ut can .e critici/ed :or the view that people can trans:or) their lives throu"h rationality0 discountin" e)otional0 su.conscious or cultural in:luences-
Critical thin#ing
Other theories o: critical thinkin" have .een developed- For the US educationalist Stephen $rook:ield0 critical thinkin" does not )ean opposin"0 .ut interro"atin" an e9istin" situation or piece o: in:or)ation- @t involves thinkin" a.out oneJs own thinkin" and takin" a deep approach to learnin"- e su""ests :our co)ponents o: critical thinkin"* Q Q Q Q reco"ni/in" and challen"in" assu)ptionsP identi:yin" the conte9t in which assu)ptions are )adeP .ein" willin" to e9plore alternative perspectivesP en"a"in" in thou"ht:ul scepticis)<$rook:ield 376C* C>7= $rook:ield <377B= also proposes ways in which teachers o: colle"e and adult students )ay use critical re:lection :or pro:essional and sel:-develop)ent- e sees teachin" as a political process0 with teachers needin" to e9a)ine and challen"e their own and other he"e)onic assu)ptions a.out the nature o: teachin"- e"e)onic assu)ptions are pro)oted .y power:ul interests to protect the status +uo0 and are internali/ed .y teachers- They include the assu)ptions that* Q teachin" is a vocation0 which o:ten leads to teacher O.urn-outJP
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Q Q
teachers need to .e rated as Oe9cellentJ in student evaluations <very )uch a 1orth A)erican concern=P "ood teachers will .e a.le to )eet all o: their studentsJ needs all o: the ti)e-
Ghen teachers en"a"e in critical re:lection on such assu)ptions0 it can* Q Q Q Q increase their a.ility to take Oin:or)ed actionJP develop a rationale :or their classroo) practicesP reduce a tendency to .la)e the)selves :or aspects o: student learnin" outside their controlP increase student trust .y )odellin" thou"ht:ul and responsi.le .ehaviour<$rook:ield 377B=
Conte&porar, concerns in a%ult learning theor, an% practice

Theori/in" a.out adult learnin" "ives rise to discussions a.out its capacity to help people analyse and challen"e social and political nor)s- So)e o: the )ost i)portant areas o: concern in conte)porary adult learnin" theory and practice relate to understandin" and dis)antlin" the .arriers that prevent adults :ro) takin" :ull advanta"e o: learnin" opportunities- These )ay .e su))ari/ed as concerns a.out* Q Q Q access and e+uityP power structures in adult educationP instru)entalis) in education-
Access an% participation

Since the 37&4s0 e+uity and e+uality in accessin" li:elon" learnin" opportunities has e)er"ed as a )aRor issue <Ti"ht '44'* 3H'>&=- !ven in the )ost advanced countries0 so)e people do not or cannot participate in education0 puttin" the)selves and their :a)ilies at risk o: social and econo)ic e9clusion- This has conse+uences :or .roader society with certain "roups alienated or disen"a"ed :ro) society- $arriers to participation vary > in so)e societies0 cultural nor)s e9clude wo)en or certain ethnic or reli"ious "roups :ro) education- @n others0 the )ain .arriers are psycholo"ical and social0 with so)e disadvanta"ed "roups seein" education as Onot :or the likes o: usJThe inclusion and ri"hts o: all citi/ens to access .asic0 :urther or hi"her education is now set as a policy tar"et .y "overn)ents in )ost advanced countriesThree )aRor o.Rectives have .een identi:ied internationally in relation to educational e+uity* Q Q ensurin" the ri"ht o: all citi/ens to participate in educationP developin" the concept o: the learnin" societyP
ensurin" that Rusti:ications0 principles and )easures taken .y policy-)akers and institutions are ade+uate to pro)ote li:elon" learnin"<Cooper '443* '=
The US )oral philosopher John #awls provides a co)pellin" Rusti:ication :or the :air distri.ution o: educational opportunities- e ar"ues that education is an a.solute "ood which0 i: all citi/ens are to attain0 re+uires not e+ual .ut e+uita.le > that is0 :air > opportunity and access <#awls 3777=- @t is not enou"h to "ive every.ody the sa)e access to educational opportunitiesP so)e "roups )ay re+uire )ore opportunities and support- For e9a)ple0 early Oaccess initiativesJ to encoura"e students :ro) disadvanta"ed .ack"rounds into hi"her education were not very success:ul .ecause they concentrated si)ply on entry :or such students0 .ut :ailed to support the) ade+uately when they were enrolled- Positive discri)ination and on"oin" support :or so)e disadvanta"ed "roups )i"ht .e necessary to ensure a ORustJ distri.utionAccess initiatives in di::erent countries have prioriti/ed di::erent "roups- @n $ritain0 :or e9a)ple0 one Oe+uityJ "roup is une)ployed )en who traditionally e9clude the)selves :ro) education and trainin"- #esearch has identi:ied :actors such as )istrust in :or)al education or poor school e9periences as contri.utory :actors <McGivney 3776=- Australian research on e+uity "roups shows that the nature o: disadvanta"e is co)ple9 and dyna)ic0 re+uirin" initiatives at local0 institutional and national levels <Ferrier and ea"ney '443* 6A=-
+o$er structures in a%ult e%ucation

#adical adult education thinkers such as Freire and a.er)as are dealt with in the constructivis) chapter- Ge deal here with radical perspectives :ro) wo)enJs viewpoints and co))unity education which are not covered elsewhere in this .ook-
Co&&unit, an% $o&en2s e%ucation

Concerns a.out ways in which power structures in adult education reproduce those o: .roader society are articulated .y the co))unity and wo)enJs education )ove)ents- These )ove)ents have tended to take a )ore social and structural approach to learnin" than advocated .y theorists co)in" :ro) individualistic 1orth A)erican traditions- The :e)inist writer 1ell ?eddie ar"ues that adult education )ust )ove .eyond individualis)0 which0 she clai)s0 encoura"es co)petitiveness0 endorses )iddle-class values and uni:or)ity- She asserts that adult education has lar"ely :ailed to Oidenti:y or identi:y with the needs o: those who reRect the pre)ises on which individualis) is .asedJ <?eddie 3764* &H=Jane Tho)pson0 the radical :e)inist adult educator sees a link .etween knowled"e and the status +uo0 clai)in" that se9is) and sel:-interest now per)eate adult education0 which has a.andoned its earlier concern with social chan"e <Tho)pson 376A=- For e9a)ple0 adult education in )any countries is )ana"ed .y
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)en0 althou"h wo)en :or) the )aRority o: adult education students- Si)ilarly0 co))unity-led initiatives in education have o:ten .een appropriated .y power:ul educational .odies0 displacin" the co))unity "roup whose interests are the pri)ary onesTho)pson ar"ues the role o: wo)enJs education is to raise political awareness so that the contri.utions wo)en )ake to Oreally use:ul knowled"eJ can lead to )ore direct roles in decision-)akin" <Tho)pson '44C* AB=Tho)pson clai)s that )uch educational discourse is :ra)ed within a de:icit )odel o: learnin" in which e9perts know what learners re+uire- Fe)inist and co))unity theorists raise issues such as the e9tent to which the key stakeholders in learnin" can "et their voices heard and the ownership o: their learnin" acknowled"edThe )ain disadvanta"e o: these discourses is their tendency to re)ain situated at a local level- Advocates are una.le to "et their voices heard at the level o: de)ocratic decision-)akin"-
(nstru&ental e%ucation
Govern)ents o:ten Rusti:y :undin" :or adult education on instru)ental "rounds0 such as the needs o: the knowled"e econo)y- On this view0 a hi"hly educated work:orce is an econo)ic resource that "ives the nation a co)petitive advanta"e%i:elon" learnin" can )ean li:elon" e)ploya.ility and an on"oin" capacity to contri.ute to this resource- @nternational and national .odies have issued policy state)ents on Oli:elon" learnin"J0 which has .eco)e part o: an accepted discourse on the purpose o: education- For e9a)ple0 Olearnin" :or li:eJ was adopted as a worldwide priority .y U1!SCO in the 3774s0 with an e)phasis on Oli:elon" retrainin"J <Ti"ht '44'* A7=- Accordin" to Field0 Oli:elon" learnin"J has .eco)e a convenient la.el :or )oderni/in" educational and vocational syste)s :or purposes o: econo)ic co)petitiveness <Field '443* 33=The .ene:it to learners and educational providers in such a :ocused view o: education lies in the econo)ic support provided .y "overn)ental and international a"encies to adults undertakin" vocational trainin" or retrainin"- Ali"nin" with "overn)ent rhetoric also provides increased resources to educational institutionsThe disadvanta"e in such a narrow view is that it i"nores the learnin" needs o: those outside the la.our )arket0 and leads to the downplayin" o: li.eral and nonvocational education- There is an increasin" concern a.out this direction as it a::ects curriculu) plannin"0 provision and the outco)es o: educationA )ore .eni"nly instru)ental Rusti:ication :or adult education appears in the "rowin" i)portance attached to continuin" pro:essional develop)ent <CP;=- CP; is .ased on the clai) that )e).ers o: pro:essions need to continue to learn throu"hout their workin" lives i: they are to )aintain personal and pro:essional co)petence- This "oes .eyond knowled"e o: pro:essional practiceP it involves a co))it)ent to holistic personal develop)ent alon" with the updatin" o: skills- Continuin" pro:essional develop)ent is encoura"ed and supported .y pro:essional associations and institutes
.ecause it is seen as )eetin" the needs o: the pro:ession- For the individual0 CP; )a9i)i/es potential and provides opportunities :or de)onstratin" continuin" co)petence <1icholls '443* 'A>B=These instru)ental approaches to adult and li:elon" learnin" can .e critici/ed on the "rounds that they treat people as econo)ic units and ne"lect the whole person and their culture- As Gelpi points out0 a )ore appropriate role :or li:elon" learnin" theory and practice is to e9press and i)ple)ent values o: de)ocracy0 e+uity and :airness <Gelpi 3764=-
.%ucational i&plications o* a%ult learning theor,

Practical learnin" and teachin" strate"ies associated with so)e o: the ideas a.ove are presented here-
1rigins o* a%ult e%ucation

The history o: adult education indicates :our recurrent e)phases* Q Q Q Q education education education education as as as as a a a a practical preparation :or career and workin" li:eP hu)anistic0 li:e-enhancin" activityP :or) o: de)ocratic activityP :or) o: social action-
To help learners prepare :or careers in trade and technical areas0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q draw on the learnersJ prior e9periences0 knowled"e and skillsP )odel the skills or .ehaviour to .e learnedP dia"nose learnersJ present knowled"e and skillsP "ive )any opportunities :or practiceP utili/e pro.le)-.ased learnin" scenariosP provide relevant and authentic learnin" e9periencesP use proRect work and case studiesP test )astery o: skills and knowled"e throu"h their practice-
To pro)ote hu)anistic education0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q acknowled"e and atte)pt to address the social0 .ehavioural0 e)otional0 )oral and spiritual aspects o: learnin"P acknowled"e that learnin" can .e in:or)alP pro)ote sel:-directed learnin"P .e student rather than su.Rect-centredP reco"ni/e )oral0 aesthetic and social valuesP )ake connections .etween di::erent su.RectsP "ive learners :reedo) to pursue individual interestsP encoura"e sharin"0 colla.oration0 discussion and de.ateP
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respect adultsJ e9perience and cultures-
To pro)ote education as a :or) o: de)ocratic activity0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q )odel tolerance and openness to di::erenceP encoura"e de.ate and respect:ul listenin"P encoura"e adult learners to share and voice their thou"hts and :eelin"sP encoura"e learners to +uestion their own and othersJ assu)ptionsP use case studies and pro.le)-solvin" )ethods to elucidate issuesP pro)ote social values and citi/enshipP provide reasonin" and lin"uistic tools to e9a)ine ar"u)entP look :or opportunities to pro)ote social and civic values-
@: learners are to participate in education as a :or) o: social action0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q show that knowled"e is value-ladenP identi:y the ownership o: knowled"eP .e e9plicit a.out their own valuesP work with learners to identi:y the learnersJ social and political circu)stancesP help learners to discover oppressive social structures a::ectin" their livesP di)inish the power distance .etween the)selves and their studentsP esta.lish a reciprocal relationship with learners0 sharin" teachin" and learnin"P i)ple)ent a curriculu) that raises consciousness o: social issuesP en"a"e in Roint social and political action to tackle inRustice-
An%ragog,
The theory o: andra"o"y clai)s that adults learn in a di::erent way to children and will use di::erent learnin" techni+ues that re+uire di::erent teachin" strate"ies- Ghen teachin" adults0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q create a cli)ate o: cooperationP help learners to identi:y their needs and set "oalsP Rusti:y the relevance o: what is tau"htP present learnin" as tasks to .e undertaken or pro.le)s to .e solvedP take account o: learnersJ .ack"rounds and e9perienceP provide opportunities :or sel:-directed learnin"P encoura"e learners to plan the curriculu) and evaluate their own learnin"P use the e9perience o: learners as a teachin" resourceP :acilitate students in identi:yin" their learnin" styles and stren"thsP show how the learnin" can .e o: i))ediate relevanceP use colla.orative "roup discussion0 case studies0 proRect work and study "roups-
Trans*or&ative learning
Since trans:or)ative learnin" results :ro) an interro"ation o: personal e9perience0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q encoura"e re:lective dialo"ue with peers to e9a)ine assu)ptionsP :ocus on learner e9periencesP reco"ni/e initial and on"oin" learner needsP pro)ote analysis o: learnersJ )otivationP en"a"e learners in e9a)inin" and resettin" "oalsP teach principles o: re:lective practiceP encoura"e learners to e9plore and discuss the )eanin"s they attach to e9perienceP use tools such as learnin" lo"s and Rournals to record e9perience and re:lectionP encoura"e the sel:-re"ulation o: learnin"-
Critical thin#ing
$rook:ield <377B= clai)s that to en"a"e in "enuinely critical thinkin" and re:lection0 learners and teachers need to "et outside their own perspectives and e9periences0 which can .e di::icult- e su""ests that teachers view their practice throu"h the :ollowin" :our OlensesJ0 which can reveal new ways o: seein" and understandin" the)selves* Q Q their personal histories as learners and teachers > :or e9a)ple0 usin" learnin" Rournals or re:lective port:oliosP their studentsJ perspectives > :or e9a)ple0 usin" student :eed.ack :ro) critical incident +uestionnaires <see $rook:ield 377B* 33B>3C=0 student per:or)ance0 in:or)al :eed.ack and :or)al evaluationsP their peersJ perspectives > :or e9a)ple0 usin" peer o.servation and reviewP theoretical :ra)eworks :ro) the literature-
Q Q
The .ene:its o: critical re:lection include* Q Q Q Q Q a deepened understandin" o: the ideolo"ical :oundations o: the curriculu)P protection :ro) .urnout :or teachersP an appreciation o: pro:essional develop)entP the a.ility to inte"rate connections .etween processes and learnersJ e9periencesP the discovery o: an authentic voice-
+o$er structures in a%ult e%ucation

Theories o: radical education su""est that the uncoverin" o: power structures0 and ena.lin" these to .e criti+ued is the :irst sta"e o: positive action to co).at oppression- Fe)inist and co))unity educators should*
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Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
state their personal positions on "ender and power issuesP uncover the :orces that contri.ute to the oppression o: individuals and co))unitiesP analyse the ways in which power is )ani:ested in the Ohidden curriculu)JP unite with others to co).at inRustice and oppressionP take coordinated action :or sel:-deter)inationP challen"e or su.vert oppressive syste)ic structuresP :ind ways o: pro)otin" their own a"endasP clai) control o: their do)ainP identi:y co))unity shared values and e9perience-
(nstru&ental approaches to a%ult e%ucation

Ge have already stated so)e criticis)s o: an instru)entalist view o: adult educationowever0 we are not unrealistic0 and reali/e that adult educators and teachers work in a cli)ate where the de)ands o: the knowled"e econo)y dictate the educational a"enda- @n order to pro)ote a li:elon" learnin" a"enda0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q keep up to date on vocational and econo)ic trendsP identi:y and teach key trans:era.le skillsP :or"e links .etween .usiness and educational sectorsP desi"n courses tar"eted to the needs o: the econo)yP devise ways o: accreditin" the prior e9periences o: learnersP pro)ote :or)al and in:or)al work-.ased learnin"P :acilitate on"oin" CP; with part-ti)e and :le9i.le pro"ra))esP encoura"e course evaluation .y e9ternal stakeholders-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q %earnin" needs to .e relevant and consistent with learnersJ educational "oals%earners are sel:-directin" in nature and can assu)e responsi.ility :or their own learnin"%earners have a hu"e reservoir o: e9perience to draw :ro) and there:ore learn .est when new in:or)ation is "rounded in real and practical e9a)plesCritical re:lection is a key :eature o: adult learnin"0 allowin" learners to assess i)plications o: decision-)akin" and sense-)akin" processesConte9tuali/in" new su.Rect )atter pro)otes )eanin"-)akin" processes%earners are autono)ous and sel:-re"ulatin"0 which i)plies that they .oth direct and dia"nose their own learnin" needs%earnin" is opti)i/ed and enhanced throu"h social0 colla.orative and discursive practices- Thus strate"ies such as "roup discussion0 proRect work0 case studies0 pro.le)-solvin" scenarios and situated learnin" e9periences all pro)ote adult learnin"-
Q Q Q Q
Conclusions
A survey o: the develop)ent o: adult education shows a )ove)ent :ro) the Oheroic a"eJ o: adult education in the early twentieth century0 when the education o: adults and co))unities was pursued with an al)ost )issionary /eal0 to a )ore recent concern :or :ul:illin" the trainin" re+uire)ents o: the econo)y and industry%i:elon" learnin" creates the discourse o: a Olearnin" societyJ0 in which the )aRority o: Ociti/ens have .eco)e per)anently learnin" su.RectsJ0 whose Oper:or)ance as adult learners is at least in part responsi.le :or deter)inin" their li:e chancesJ <Field '444* A6=- Althou"h it is presented as havin" a ran"e o: social outco)es0 li:elon" learnin" actually represents a turn away :ro) the socialist :ocus o: early adult education to a new :ocus on the individualThese two perspectives hi"hli"ht a :unda)ental dichoto)y in adult education .etween e)ancipation and sociali/ation- Can0 and should0 the ai) o: adult education .e to help people :ree the)selves :ro) those conditions that li)it their thinkin" and actin"K Or should it prepare the) to accept and con:or) to their eventual roles as workers and consu)ers in a capitalist societyK Ghen assessin" the various strands o: adult learnin" theory and practice0 it is help:ul :or teachers to .ear these +uestions in )ind-
)e*erences
$Rerkaker0 S- <'44H= The study circle :or learnin" and de)ocracy0 ?- $rosnan0 MGalker et al- in ;- Saunders <eds= Learning Transformations: hanging Learners! /rganisations and ommunities- %ondon* Foru) :or the Advance)ent o: Continuin" !ducation0 ''4>B$rook:ield0 S- <376C= 3e.eloping ritical Thinkers: hallenging Adults to Explore Alterna(
ti.e >a$s of Thinking and Acting- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey-$ass$rook:ield0 S- <377B= Becoming a riticall$ Reflecti.e Teacher- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey-$assCoady0 M-A- <37A7= ;asters of their own 3estin$: the &tor$ of the Antigonish ;o.ement of Adult Education through Economic ooperation- 1ew 2ork* arperCooper0 M- <'443= @ntroduction0 in %- Tho)as0 M- Cooper and J- (uinn <eds= Access to )igher Education: The *nfinished Business- Sta::ordshire* @nstitute :or Access Studies0 Sta::ordshire University and the !uropean Access 1etwork;ewey0 J- <374'= The hild and the urriculum- Chica"o University o: Chica"o Press-
;ewey0 J- <37&&= The ;ewey school0 in F-G- Gar:orth <ed-= 3ewe$7s Educational >ritings- %ondon* eine)ann;urkhei)0 Y- <37B&= Education and &ociolog$- 1ew 2ork* The Free PressFerrier0 F- and ea"ney0 M- <'443= ;isadvanta"e is co)ple9* tar"etin" special "roups is not enou"hW0 in %- Tho)as0 M- Cooper and J- (uinn <eds= Access to )igher Education:
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The *nfinished Business- Sta::ordshire* @nstitute :or Access Studies0 Sta::ordshire University and the !uropean Access 1etwork0 6A>7&Field0 J- <'444= Lifelong Learning and the New Educational /rder- Stoke-on-Trent* Trentha) $ooksField0 J- <'443= %i:elon" education0 #nternational 9ournal of Lifelong Education! '4 3>'* A>3BGelpi0 !- <3764= Politics and li:elon" education policies and practice0 in A-J- Cropley <ed-= Towards a &$stem of Lifelong Education- O9:ord* Per"a)onoule0 C-O- <37&3= The #n'uiring ;ind- Madison0 G@* University o: Gisconsin Pressoule0 C-O- <37&H= ontinuing Dour Education- 1ew 2ork* McGraw- illJarvis0 P-0 ol:ord0 J- and Gri::in0 C- <'44A= The Theor$ and %ractice of Learning <'nd
edn=- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e?eddie0 1- <3764= Adult education* an ideolo"y o: individualis)0 in J-%- Tho)pson <ed-= Adult Education for a hange- %ondon* utchinson?nowles0 M- <3764= The ;odern %ractice of Adult Education <revised edn=- !n"lewood Cli::s0 CA* Prentice all #e"ents-
%inde)an0 !- <3767= The ;eaning of Adult Education- Oklaho)a* Oklaho)a #esearch Centre :or Continuin"0 Pro:essional and i"her !ducation-
McGivney0 I- <3776= Excluded ;en- %eicester* 1@AC!Merricks0 %- <'443= The e)er"in" idea0 in P- Jarvis <edn=- The Age of Learning: Education and the 4nowledge &ociet$- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"eMe/irow0 J- <3773= Transformati.e 3imensions of Adult Learning- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey-$ass1icholls0 G- <'443= %rofessional 3e.elopment in )igher Education: New 3imensions and 3irections- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e#awls0 J- <3777= A Theor$ of 9ustice! Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University PressTho)pson0 J-%- <'44C= O#eally Use:ul ?nowled"eJ* linkin" theory and practice0 in $Connelly0 T- Fle)in"0 ;- McCor)ack and A- #yan <eds= Radical Learning for Liberation 5- Maynooth* MAC!Tho)pson0 J-%- <376A= Go)en and adult education in M- Ti"ht <ed-= Educational /pportunities for Adults! %ondon* Croo)hel) and the Open UniversityTi"ht0 M- <'44'= 4e$ oncepts in Adult Education and Training <'nd edn=- A.in"don* #outled"e2ea9lee0 $-A- <37'7= Lifelong Education: A &ketch of the Range and &ignificance of the Adult Education ;o.ement- %ondon* Cassells-
Chapter 1"
8alues
(ntro%uction
Ialues are hard to de:ine- Most synony)s o: the ter) relate to purposes0 "oals0 priorities0 ethics and Othe "oodJ- $ut the ter) can also include peopleJs desires and needs > what they consider to .e )ost i)portant in their lives- Ialues can .e nor)ative too0 settin" out what people or society should do or aspire to doin"- Thus the )eanin" o: OvaluesJ varies with conte9t@n the educational conte9t0 OvalueJ or OvaluesJ can re:er to the i)portant > even invalua.le > role that education has in achievin" :unda)ental )oral0 social or individual "oals- @t can also re:er to the speci:ic values held .y educators0 such as co))it)ents to Oeducation as a ri"htJ0 pluralis) or Oe+uality o: opportunityJ@t is i)portant :or teachers and scholars to consider the value o: education .ecause o: the unthinkin" i)portance we attach to it- This is re:lected in the :act that education has .eco)e one o: the lar"est ite)s o: "overn)ent spendin" in )any advanced countries- @n $ritain0 :or e9a)ple0 spendin" on education outstrips spendin" on de:ence < ol:ord and 1icholls '443* 3HB=- Many countries are now increasin" the percenta"e o: G;P that they devote to education <$ud"e et al- '44'* 7C=- Also worthy o: e9a)ination are the cultural and individual values that deter)ine the policies to which teachers are su.Rect and the practices that they use everyday- @t is necessary :or teachers to uncover their values so that they can evaluate and i)prove their practice@n this chapter0 we consider the value o: education :ro) )oral0 reli"ious0 political and social0 econo)ic and individual perspectives- Ge )ove on to the values held .y teachers0 particularly those that relate to educational policies and practicesTowards the end o: the chapter0 there is an overview o: the i)plications o: values in education0 with special attention to the in:luence o: social values and also to the relationship .etween values and the curriculu)-
The value o* e%ucation

So)e people look to the past :or the )eanin" and purposes > the value > o: education0 pro)otin"0 :or e9a)ple0 its )oral or reli"ious value- Others clai) it has an indispensa.le social and political value and re)ains an i)portant collective social activity- !)er"in" discourses position education as an ena.ler o: national and "lo.al econo)ies0 and also as :ul:illin" individual a).itions and enhancin" individualistic li:estyles- Ghere do these values o: education co)e :ro)K
IA%U!S 143
5oral value
One o: the oldest and )ost venera.le traditions o: thou"ht sees education and knowled"e as :or)s o: virtue- The Greek philosophers0 Plato and Aristotle0 alon" with later )edieval thinkers0 related education to the ac+uisition o: virtue and the Osu))u) .onu)J > the "ood li:e- The "ood li:e is de:ined not as a li:e o: pleasure0 .ut a li:e "iven over to a strivin" :or hi"her ideals0 truth and knowled"e > a li:e o: denial and sel:-sacri:ice0 o: sel:-awareness and re:lection- SocratesJ :a)ous aphoris) that Othe une9a)ined li:e is not worth livin"J <Plato0 Apolo"y A6a= )akes a clear link .etween knowled"e and value0 and also su""ests that the )ost i)portant thin" that people can do is evaluate what they consider to .e valua.le@ncreasin"ly0 )oral develop)ent has co)e to .e seen as the province o: the educational syste)- @n the past0 and in )any societies0 )oral values were seen as the responsi.ility o: the :a)ily and o: reli"ion- Gith the decline o: .oth institutions0 however0 there is a "rowin" social awareness that0 in )any cases0 the only opportunities that people have to develop their )oral thinkin" is throu"h :or)al educationClasses in citi/enship or values are atte)pts to provide what is now seen as an i)portant perspective on li:e- The view that education is .asically a )oral trainin" in how to live well or ri"htly is the .asis :or )any o: the clai)s discussed .elow-
)eligious value
The view that education inculcates eternal truths is the reli"ious version o: the philosophical clai) a.ove- Githin this view0 the value o: education can .e )easured .y the e9tent to which it prepares individuals and society :or lives lived in accordance with universal laws o: e9istence0 GodJs laws or speci:ic reli"ious edicts- For traditions such as the Con:ucian0 e.raic0 @sla)ic and Christian0 education .eco)es a prere+uisite or prelude to a spiritual li:e0 .oth here and herea:ter- The $ritish philosopher #-M- are re)arks* For )ysel:0 @ have :ound it i)possi.le to discuss education without .rin"in" in reli"ion- OneJs attitude to reli"ion will i)pin"e power:ully on oneJs approach to education- _ the irrational side o: our nature0 :ro) which none o: us can escape0 needs to .e educated and reli"ion0 interpreted .roadly to include hu)anistic .elie:s0 is the only way o: doin" this<+uoted in Cairns '443* BC= @n the past0 )onastic educational syste)s o:ten took on this spiritual or reli"ious responsi.ility0 particularly in ho)o"enous societies such as :ound in Christian !urope- The in:luence o: this tradition can still .e seen in the )andatory inclusion o: reli"ious education in the pri)ary and secondary school curricula o: )any countries$ut as societies have .eco)e )ore "lo.ali/ed and culturally diverse0 this speci:ic educative role has .een increasin"ly assi"ned to the :a)ily or :aith "roup- This has led to the pheno)enon o: O:aith schoolsJ in the U? and sectarian colle"es or universities0
especially in the US0 where there is a proli:eration o: privately :unded universitiesThe pro)otion o: Ointelli"ent desi"nJ theories and attacks on evolution in :aith-.ased schools and colle"es in the US and U? illustrates the pro.le)s that )ay arise when one set o: .asic values con:licts with another- A related pro.le) arises when reli"ious values are at odds with secular educational values0 as seen in France in '44A0 a:ter two Musli) sisters were e9pelled :ro) their school :or re:usin" to take o:: their veils <%ee '44A=-
+olitical an% social value

The idea o: education as a tool :or pro)otin" political0 social and cultural values is as lon"-standin" as the traditions o: )oral and reli"ious education- For e9a)ple0 this view o: education underpinned PlatoJs vision o: the ideal society in The RepublicSince the !nli"hten)ent0 education has taken on the role o: Ocreatin" and recreatin" the social orderJ <Skil.eck 3767* '4=0 as we see in the seventeenth-century !n"lish philosopher Tho)as o..esJ ar"u)ent that education teaches people o.edience to the Osoverei"n authorityJ o: the state* OPu.lic Ministers have the authority to teach or to ena.le others to teach the people their duty to the Soverei"n Power0 and instruct the) in the knowled"e o: what is ri"ht and wron"J < o..es 3&B3F3773* 3&C=;urkhei) and other nineteenth-century sociolo"ists )aintained the view that this was educationJs )ain value and :unction- For Mar90 however0 the value o: education lay in e)powerin" people to )ake class-.ased challen"es to do)inant ideolo"ies as part o: their stru""le a"ainst oppressionSince the nineteenth century0 education has increasin"ly .een seen as a .ureaucratic ar) o: the state as well as an econo)ic :orce- The "rowth o: the )odern state led to an interest in the education o: state :unctionaries0 which led in turn to the esta.lish)ent o: the )odern university as well as technical institutes such as the University o: $erlin :ounded in 3647- This Prussian )odel0 developed .y the nineteenth-century diplo)at Gilhel) von u).oldt0 e)phasi/ed practical and applied skills > in science and technolo"y0 )odern lan"ua"es and .usiness > and developed newer types o: awards such as the Ph;@n the early twentieth century0 John ;ewey saw education as an inte"ral ele)ent o: the de)ocratic process- e proposed that an educated population is a.le to e9ercise critical social and personal Rud"e)ent0 which pro)otes de)ocratic values that are .est suited to lar"e and culturally diverse societies- $ut it is i)portant to note0 as Pierre $ourdieu does0 that education can .e a source o: oppression0 inso:ar as access to educational opportunities represents a :or) o: Osocial capitalJ <see Chapter B0 OSocial learnin"J=0 which do)inant "roups in society can use and invest to reproduce and )aintain social ine+ualities and privile"es- JXr"en a.er)as nevertheless ar"ues that the value o: education )ay lie in the insi"ht it "ives people into their oppressed states0 as well as the lan"ua"e :or co))unicatin" and co).inin" with others < a.er)as 377'=- @ndeed0 a "reat deal o: critical thinkin" in the twentieth century0 includin" Mar9is)0 :e)inis) and post-structuralis)0 has )aintained that the chie: value o: education lies in the potential it "ives people to reco"ni/e and challen"e do)inant econo)ic and social power-
IA%U!S 145
.cono&ic value
@n the 37&4s0 the western discourse o: education spoke o: child-centredness0 pro"ressive peda"o"ies and )i9ed a.ility teachin"- $y the 3764s0 this discourse had shi:ted such that its chie: voca.ulary is now econo)ic* it re:ers to students as Oconsu)ersJ0 and re+uires o: education and educational institutions virtues such as e::iciency0 e::ectiveness and accounta.ility <Carr and artnett 377&=!ducation has .eco)e part o: the Oknowled"e econo)yJ0 and is now re"arded as a )arketa.le product under the Gorld Trade A"ree)ent- Private educational institutions are .ehavin" like corporations0 co)petin" :or custo)ers0 )arketin" their products and e)phasi/in" accounta.ility to shareholders <Jarvis and Preece '443* ''4>'=- And Rust as so)e educational institutions are .ehavin" like corporations0 )any corporations are .ehavin" like universities- @n 377B0 there were over 3444 corporate universities in the US <Jarvis and Tosey '443=- OFro) socio-cultural enclaves _ one o: whose )ain :unctions has .een the construction o: _ citi/ens with cultivated )inds and souls ]universities^ are .ein" )eta)orphosed into sites :or the production o: instru)ental knowled"e and the ac+uisition o: )arketa.le skillsJ <?a/a)ias '443* '=Schools are also .ehavin" like .usinesses in co)petin" :or student custo)ers0 .ut evidence :ro) Australia0 1ew Vealand and the U? shows that )arket )odels applied to school education rein:orce ine+uities and ine+ualities in education <$all 377A* 3H=- Un:ortunately0 in a co)petitive environ)ent0 there will .e .oth winners and losers- @n the .usiness world0 the weakest perish- @n contrast0 in education it is precisely the weakest > :or e9a)ple0 those who cannot a::ord the privile"es o: a private school education > who need to .e protected- Ge should re)e).er0 however0 that despite the encroach)ents o: these ine+uita.le values0 a pure )arket in education )ay .e unreali/a.le* in )ost countries0 the state still controls the supply o: and de)and :or education <Mace '443* CB=Ge should also re)e).er that every discourse produces a counter-discourseThere is now a "rowin" resistance to narrow econo)ic and vocational views o: education0 in :avour o: a )ore holistic approach and a concern :or the individual- For e9a)ple0 the U? ;earin" #eport pu.lished in the U? in 377C ar"ues that education is O:ounded on respect :or the ri"hts o: the individual and the responsi.ilities o: the individual to society as a wholeJ <+uoted in Merricks '443* 3'=-
(n%ivi%ual value
The view that the value o: education lies in the a.ility it "ives people to :ul:il the)selves is characteristic o: western cultures- The ac+uisition o: knowled"e is part o: what )akes us hu)an0 as is the pursuit o: individual well-.ein" and happinessThis way o: thinkin" a.out education can .e seen in the hedonistic utilitarian ar"u)ent that the purpose o: li:e is to )a9i)i/e pleasure and happiness and to avoid pain0 .oth :or the individual and :or society as a whole- Althou"h these ar"u)ents )ay appear to "ive too )uch priority to pleasure0 the idea o: education as a )eans o: sel:-:ul:il)ent is also associated with so)e very respecta.le thinkers- For e9a)ple0
Cardinal 1ew)an in the nineteenth century ar"ued that universities should o::er a li.eral education .ecause o: the i)portance o: :ully developin" the whole personThere are links here with so)e o: the )ost in:luential develop)ental theories o: the twentieth century0 includin" MaslowJs hierarchy o: needs <see Chapter 330 OMotivationJ=- ?ohl.er"Js hierarchy o: )oral develop)ent and $a9ter Ma"oldaJs typolo"y o: episte)olo"ical develop)ent <:or )ore on ?ohl.er" and $a9ter Ma"olda0 see Chapter 60 O%i:e course develop)entJ=- @n these theories0 :or)al and in:or)al learnin" has a role to play in the e)er"ence o: )aturity0 which is characteri/ed .y sel:-e)power)ent and an a.ility to locate personal values within the conte9t o: speci:ic knowled"eThe e9tent to which education :ul:ils the purposes discussed a.ove has .een )uch de.ated- !ducation is an Oessentially contested conceptJ0 the purpose o: which is continually rede:ined and challen"ed in the li"ht o: political and social priorities <Carr and artnett 377&* 37=-
The values o* teachers

@t is i)portant to consider not only the value o: education0 .ut also the values espoused0 either consciously or unconsciously .y teachers0 and .y the syste)s within which they work- These values are perhaps )ost evident in educational policies and practices-
+olicies an% values

The late twentieth-century )assi:ication o: education in advanced societies0 which has seen )any )ore youn" people "o on to so)e :or) o: hi"her education0 su""ests a re-orientation :ro) the )eritocratic and elite values > to which education su.scri.ed in the past > to de)ocratic ones- This shi:t has .een :ostered .y "overn)ent policies that delay the a"e at which youn" people enter the la.our )arket0 as well as a hi"her de)and :or +uali:ications0 which o:ten correlate with hi"h earnin" power and presti"e- The )ost i)portant i)plication o: these chan"es is that "reater participation in education is linked to social inclusion0 and non-participation to social e9clusion- Fro) this arises an i)portant +uestion* how do we ensure educational participation and social inclusionK Policies that pro)ote access to education :or socially e9cluded "roups have .een developed in )any countries since the 37&4s- They have their ori"ins in the US civil ri"hts ca)pai"ns and rely on the assu)ption that education is a :unda)ental ri"ht to which all are entitled- This is the thinkin" developed .y the A)erican )oral philosopher John #awls0 who clai)s that education0 to"ether with health and )ini)u) standards o: livin"0 are Oa.solute "oodsJ :or all citi/ens- !ducational provision and resources should not .e allocated on the .asis o: their return to the society or state0 .ut on their value in enrichin" the lives o: citi/ens who have an entitle)ent to the) as a )atter o: e+uity <#awls 3777=-
IA%U!S 147
At :irst "lance0 this see)s uncontroversial- $ut )any co))entators on discourses o: social inclusion point out the con:usion that arises .etween the ter)s Oe+uityJ and Oe+ualityJ- Accordin" to #awls0 e+uity i)plies a :air distri.ution o: resources- !+uality0 on the other hand0 i)plies an e+ual distri.ution o: resourcesConsider0 :or e9a)ple0 learners :ro) socially e9cluded .ack"rounds atte)ptin" to access hi"her education- The institution )ay de)onstrate a co))it)ent to e+uality o: opportunity in that )e).ers o: such .ack"rounds )ay receive assistance with :ees or enrol throu"h special selection and entrance procedures- This )ay still :all short o: e+uity0 however0 .ecause other students will already possess "reater socio-cultural advanta"es > :or e9a)ple0 they )i"ht .e )ore :a)iliar with education and +uali:ications throu"h parental role )odels0 ways o: speakin" and acade)ic know-howThere:ore0 it )i"ht .e )ore e+uita.le to )ake e9tra allowances :or disadvanta"ed "roups .y providin" additional acade)ic or social support in order to achieve not si)ply Oe+uality o: accessJ .ut Oe+uality o: outco)eJ <#awls 3777* A73=-
+ractices an% values

TeachersJ values shape the way teachers view the)selves and the way they view their students0 and one in:luences the other- This has i)plications :or how teachers approach their everyday practiceAlthou"h teachers can include a wide variety o: people > includin" parents > here we re:er to those who are paid pro:essionals with pro:essional values- The values or paradi")s o: teachers "enerally :all into one o: two cate"ories* Q Q teachin" as an art0 consistin" o: hu)an0 ethical and value-laden activityP teachin" as a cra:t0 consistin" o: a set o: skills0 which entail :ew values<S+uires 3777= The values associated with teachin" as an art are personal and intuitive0 characteri/ed .y +ualities such as a::ection :or .oth su.Rects and students <S+uires 3777=- Ghere teachers value teachin" as an art0 they )ay* Q .e )ore learner-centred in their classroo) teachin"0 showin" an Ounconditional positive re"ard :or learnersJ <#o"ers 37B7=- Accordin" to #o"ers0 Oteachers :acilitate the learnin" o: studentsP you cannot teach a person directlyJ <#o"ers 37B3=P adopt a traditional li.eral-hu)anist view o: the curriculu) as a set o: valued hi"h-status su.Rects0 each o: which represents a Ouni+ue way o: e9periencin" and understandin" the worldJ <Gol.y 3767* AB=- The teacherJs role is to initiate students into the O)ysteriesJ o: a knowled"e-.ased curriculu)-
The values and personalities o: such teachers )ay .e )ore i)portantant than their trainin"- For e9a)ple0 research in @reland indicates that teachin" inco)petence is :ounded on personal rather than technical :ailure0 and cannot there:ore .e re)edied
.y skills trainin"- The issues :or ad)inistrators )ay .e that o: entry to the pro:ession rather than that o: skills-.ased re)ediation <Carlile '444=On the other hand0 the values associated with the perception o: teachin" as a cra:t or applied science elevate strai"ht:orward0 e)pirically veri:ia.le principles and o.Rectives that can .e de:ined0 de)onstrated and )astered- Trainin" can provide the knowled"e and skills necessary to ac+uire these skillsMost e::ective teachers reco"ni/e that they need to incorporate .oth Paradi")s into their practice- The processes o: classroo) interaction need to .e respect:ul and person-centred0 while not losin" si"ht o: e::ective technical )ethods o: achievin" teachin" o.Rectives and :acilitatin" learners in achievin" learnin" outco)es-
+olic,> practice an% values' a case stu%,

Mar+uand <+uoted in %awton and Cowen '443* ''>H= "ives an e9a)ple o: the way that the values o: late twentieth-century !n"land have in:luenced educational policy and practice- e ar"ues that these values :all into two cate"ories0 which can .e e9pressed as .inaries* Q Q individualis) and :ree choice in education versus collectivis) and social en"ineerin"P sel:-:ul:il)ent versus responsi.ility and o.li"ations to society-
Mar+uand provides a chronolo"ical account o: con:licts and con:luences .etween the two cate"ories over the twentieth century0 showin" the way that di::erent decades have veered .etween collectivist and individualist principles0 as shown in Ta.le 34-31otice that collectivis) and individualis) recur in active and passive :or)sTa le 1".1 !ducational values and i)plications in twentieth-century !n"land
4tage 3* 37H4s>37B4s '* 37B4s>37C4s
8alues Active collectivis) Active collectivis)
.%ucational i&plications Opti)is) and i)ple)entation o: secondary education :or all Selection seen as socially divisive Ialue o: e+ual opportunity and pluralis) @)portance o: play in school Child-centred curricula Consu)eris) Parental choice Concern a.out educational standards Iocationalis) in education $ench)arks and educational e::iciency
Passive individualis) A* 37C4s>3764s Active individualis) Passive collectivis) H* )id-3764s>3774 Active individualis)
&ource: $ased on Mar+uand <377&* '3>H=-
IA%U!S 149
.%ucational i&plications o* values

One o: the )ost o.vious arenas in which the practical i)plications o: educational and teachersJ values are :elt is the curriculu)- @n this section0 we discuss the "rowin" role o: the curriculu) in trans)ittin" various values- This has co)e a.out partly .ecause the decline o: reli"ion as a )aRor )oral in:luence on peopleJs lives has de)anded other )eans .y which values > social responsi.ility0 o.edience to the law0 respect :or others > can .e instilled- There:ore0 a recent trend in values education is towards e9plicit instruction in su.Rects that inculcate values- The shapin" role o: values is seen not only in what is tau"ht in the curriculu)0 .ut in other curricular practices0 such as plannin"0 assess)ent and ad)inistration-
Citi=enship e%ucation
The teachin" o: citi/enship is a response to )ulticultural societies that can no lon"er "uarantee shared values and alle"iance to the state- The 3776 Crick #eport <Advisory Group :or Citi/enship and the Teachin" o: ;e)ocracy in Schools= in the U? had as its pri)ary ai) the pro)otion o: citi/enship- As a result0 curriculu) planners in $ritain are now re+uired to show how citi/enship and values can .e incorporated into every disciplinary area < ol:ord and 1icholls '443* 3HH=-
Co&&unit, e%ucation
The rise o: values education can also .e seen as a reaction to the decline in co))unity participation in )odern ur.an societies- This decline has had serious conse+uences > :or e9a)ple0 ;avid Putna) <'444= concludes that a lack o: co))unity involve)ent is a key :actor in risin" teena"e violence and cri)e0 e9e)pli:ied in the Colu).ine i"h School shootin"s in the US in 3777- There:ore0 educational initiatives that encoura"e service to the co))unity are .ein" developed- One such strate"y is to award acade)ic credits to students :or service undertaken in the co))unity0 Rust as students can "ain acade)ic credits :or work-.ased learnin"-
Curriculu& planning
Curriculu) plannin" is another area where e9plicit values are .eco)in" pro)inentThis was not always the case* in the )id-twentieth century0 :or e9a)ple0 value-:ree education was seen as a positive thin"- This position was associated to so)e e9tent with the .ehaviourist tradition0 :ro) which developed a technical-rational approach to curriculu) plannin" <Tyler 37H7=- The .ehaviourists had little interest in the overall ai)s or purposes o: education0 and were )ore concerned with veri:ied procedures and strate"ies o: learnin" and instruction to achieve )easura.le learner outco)es- This is why they e)phasi/ed the science and technolo"y o: instruction0 which is still :avoured .y instructional desi"n <@S;= )odels o: education- On the
other hand0 constructivist )odels o: learnin" clai) that individuals construct knowled"e and )eanin" .y synthesi/in" new in:or)ation with prior constructs0 which o: course include valuesA )ore recent )odel is a social interactivist one0 which is .ased on the idea that the ai)s and content o: the curriculu) should .e deter)ined .y key stakeholders0 who ensure that the curriculu) represents their particular values <Gol.y 3767=- For e9a)ple0 industry0 as a key stakeholder0 pro)otes the inclusion o: core trans:era.le skills to )eet its needs-
Curriculu& assess&ent
Ghat values are re:lected in decisions a.out assess)entK Gho is valued in the assess)ent processK Traditional nor)-.ased assess)ent co)pares candidates with respect to the avera"e per:or)ance o: the "roup- Since this :or) o: assess)ent allows students to .e co)pared and ranked0 it re:lects the values o: top per:or)ers and o: the selectors who wish to identi:y the) .y a si)ple )echanis)#ecent assess)ent strate"ies have reRected nor)-re:erencin" in :avour o: criterion-re:erencin"0 which )eans that peopleJs per:or)ance is )easured in relation to stated criteria- For e9a)ple0 to pass a drivin" test0 people )ust de)onstrate that they can do a three-point turn0 reverse park0 o.ey tra::ic si"nals and so onCriterion-re:erenced assess)ent places a value on personal achieve)ent rather than on utilitarian co)petitive rankin"-
Curriculu& a%&inistration
@n relation to the ad)inistration o: the curriculu)0 two )ain issues arise > ownership and transparencyGho owns the curriculu)K That is0 whose values are )ost i)portant in deter)inin" the :or) and content o: the curriculu)K %earner-centred values would su""est that the learner should decide what is to .e learned and how- For e9a)ple0 co))unity "roups o:ten co)e up with innovative curricular ideas and )ay even receive :undin" :or these- $ut their initiatives )ust .e channelled throu"h :or)al educational providers that :orce con:or)ity to :or)al0 institutional and .ureaucratic procedures- This leads to the dise)power)ent o: a )aRor stakeholder and an i)position o: the values o: the institution- For e9a)ple0 in co))unity education there is the view that no one should :ail and that :or)al assess)ent is unnecessaryFor the institution however0 )easure)ent and accreditation o: learnin" is a priorityThere is likely to .e a clash o: values .etween the institutionJs desire :or e::iciency in deliverin" +uali:ications and the co))unityJs desire to )eet ur"ent social needsThe curriculu) consists not only o: the su.Rects learners study0 .ut o: all the e9periences learners have in educational settin"s- The values that shape these e9periences are not necessarily transparent0 however- The concept o: the Ohidden curriculu)J re:ers to values that are not articulated .ut )ay still "uide the way the curriculu) is e9perienced- For e9a)ple0 the popularity o: closed-.ook e9a)inations
IA%U!S 151
as opposed to )ore authentic :or)s o: assess)ent )ay result :ro) a hidden curriculu) that values .ureaucratic convenience over peda"o"ical validity- Un:ortunately0 the victi)s o: the hidden curriculu) tend to .e learners0 whose learnin" e9perience is co)pro)ised-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q OIaluesJ can re:er to the role that education plays in achievin" hu)an "oalsOIaluesJ can re:er to the speci:ic values held .y teachers!ducation is closely associated with the )oral0 reli"ious0 social0 political0 econo)ic and individual values o: particular ti)es and societiesTeachin" )ay .e viewed as a value-laden artAlternatively0 teachin" )ay .e viewed as a value-:ree set o: technical skillsIalues are e9pressed at )any levels :ro) "overn)ent policy to classroo) practice in directin" what is considered worthy o: .ein" tau"ht and to who)The curriculu) is a )aRor tool in the trans)ission o: valuesThe curriculu) can .e seen to represent the values o: certain stakeholdersCurriculu) values need to .e articulated0 so that they )ay .e challen"ed0 a"reed or con:ir)ed-
Q Q Q
Conclusions
2ou )ay not a"ree with the values that currently shape policy and practice in your educational conte9t0 .ut it is worth re)e).erin"0 as this chapter has shown0 that education is never value-:ree- !ven the apparently value-neutral educational ideolo"ies espoused in the )id-twentieth century are invested with particular ideas and co))it)entsIalues-driven education has i)portant .ene:its- @t can encoura"e the develop)ent o: socially responsi.le attitudes and .ehaviours0 and :ill the "ap le:t .y the decline o: social institutions such as the church and the :a)ily- @t e)powers people to challen"e the ideolo"ies that underpin any oppression or ine+uality they e9perience and can provide e9e)plars o: values in actionOn the other hand0 the values in and o: education can entrench rather than counteract social privile"e and the )oral and political values o: certain social and political classes- @t can stren"then the hold o: certain discourses0 such as the Oknowled"e econo)yJ and contri.ute to the social e9clusion o: those who do not share its valuesFor these reasons0 it is critical that teachers0 students o: education0 and educational .ureaucrats e9a)ine and re:lect on the values that "uide their everyday work- Ialues need to .e )ade e9plicit in order that they )ay .e a::ir)ed0 challen"ed or reRected0 allowin" teachers to act in "ood :aith :or the ulti)ate .ene:it o: their students-
)e*erences
$all0 S- <377A= Market :orces in education0 Educational Re.iew0 C<3=* 6>33$ud"e0 @-0 o::er.ert0 #-0 ?e)an0 -0 Mc;onald0 M- and Pennin"s0 P- <'44'= Co)parative "overn)ent and de)ocracy* )odellin" party de)ocracy across 3& countries0 in - ?e)an <ed-= omparati.e 3emocratic %olitics: A Guide to ontemporar$ Theor$ and Research- %ondon* Sa"eCairns0 J- <'443= #eli"ious perspectives0 in J- Cairns0 ;- %awton and #- Gardner <eds= >orld Dearbook of Education: "alues! ulture and Education- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"eCarlile0 O- <'444= #ncompetent Teachers in #rish "oluntar$ &econdar$ &chools: %rincipals7 %erceptions! Attitudes and Reactions0 unpu.lished ;octoral Thesis0 University o: ullCarr0 G- and artnett0 A- <377&= Education and the &truggle for 3emocrac$: The %olitics of Educational #deas- $uckin"ha)* Open University PressGol.y0 M- <3767= Curriculu) traditions0 in $- Moon0 P- Murphy and J- #aynor <eds= %olicies for the urriculum- %ondon* odder and Stou"htona.er)as0 J- <377'= Further re:lections on the pu.lic sphere0 in C- Calhoun <ed-= )abermas and the %ublic &phere- Ca).rid"e0 MA* M@T0 H'3>&3o..es0 T- <3&B3F3773= Le.iathan! #- Tuck <ed-= 1ew 2ork* Ca).rid"e University Pressol:ord0 J- and 1icholls0 G- <'443= The school in the a"e o: learnin"0 in P- Jarvis <ed-= The Age of Learning: Education and the 4nowledge &ociet$- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"eJarvis0 P- and Preece0 J- <'443= Future directions :or the learnin" society0 in P- Jarvis <ed-= The Age of Learning: Education and the 4nowledge &ociet$- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"eJarvis0 P- and Tosey0 P- <'443= Corporations and pro:essions0 in P- Jarvis <ed-= The Age of Learning: Education and the 4nowledge &ociet$- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e?a/a)ias0 1- <'443= General introduction* "lo.ali/ation and educational cultures in later )odernity* the A"a)e)non syndro)e0 in J- Cairns0 ;- %awton and #- Gardner <eds= >orld Dearbook of Education: "alues! ulture and Education- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e%awton0 ;- and Cowen0 ;- <'443= Ialues0 culture and education* an overview0 in JCairns0 ;- %awton and #- Gardner <eds= >orld Dearbook of Education: "alues! ulture and Education- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e%ee0 J-J- <'44A= !9pulsions over veil intensi:y French de.ate on secularity0 #nternational )erald Tribune! 1B! '3 Octo.erMace0 J- <'443= !cono)ic perspectives on values0 culture and education* )arkets in education > a cautionary note0 in J- Cairns0 ;- %awton and #- Gardner <eds= >orld Dearbook of Education: "alues! ulture and Education- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"eMar+uand0 ;- <377&= Moralists and edonists0 in ;- Mar+uand and A- Sheldon <eds= The #deas that &haped %ost(war Britain- %ondon* Fontana-
IA%U!S 153
Merricks0 %- <'443= The e)er"in" idea0 in P- Jarvis <ed-= The Age of Learning: Education and the 4nowledge &ociet$- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"ePutna)0 ;- <'444= Bowling Alone: The 1ew 2ork* Si)on and Schuster#awls0 J- <3777= A Theor$ of 9ustice <revised edn=- Ca).rid"e0 MA* $elknap Press o: arvard University Press#o"ers0 C- <37B3= lient( entered Therap$: #ts urrent %ractice! #mplications! and Theor$! ollapse and Re.i.al of American ommunit$-
$oston0 MA* ou"hton Mi::lin#o"ers0 C- <37B7= Si"ni:icant learnin" in therapy and in education0 Educational Leadership <Ale9andria0 IA=0 3&* 'A'>H'Skil.eck0 M- <3767= A chan"in" social and educational conte9t0 in $- Moon0 PMurphy and J- #aynor <eds= %olicies for the urriculum- %ondon* odder and Stou"hton in association with the Open UniversityS+uires0 G- <3777= Teaching as a %rofessional 3iscipline- %ondon* Fal)er PressTyler0 #-G- <37H7= Basic %rinciples of urriculum and #nstruction- Chica"o* The University o: Chica"o Press-
Chapter 11
5otivation
(ntro%uction
Ghy is it that so)e individuals en"a"e in tasks that consu)e lar"e a)ounts o: their :ree ti)e and e::ortK Ghat drives athletes0 )usicians and artistsK Ghy do people persevere in di::icult tasks rather than si)ply "ivin" upK The answer is that they are )otivated- The word O)otivationJ co)es :ro) the %atin mo.ere > Oto )oveJ- @t re:ers to the set o: :actors that O)oveJ people so that they respondMotivation is an i)portant :actor in acade)ic success- Ghen students are )otivated to learn0 acade)ic achieve)ent is si"ni:icantly increased- A )otivation towards learnin" can ste) :ro) nu)erous sources > :or e9a)ple0 :ro) e9ternal sources such as assess)ent re+uire)ents or the e9pectations o: parents or teachersMotivation :or learnin" can also .e internal such as the enRoy)ent o: learnin" and pro.le)-solvin" in a particular su.Rect area- Another internal )otivator is the desire :or acade)ic reco"nition and statusThis chapter atte)pts to clari:y the nature o: )otivation and outlines the role o: )otivation theory in learnin"- @t e9plores the ways )otivation is related to acade)ic success- The chapter .e"ins with a .rie: account o: the evolution o: )otivation theory@t then looks at )otivation in ter)s o: content and process theories- Content theories concentrate on the e9trinsic and intrinsic needs0 :actors and orientations that )otivate individuals- Process theories concentrate on the co"nitive states e9perienced and strate"ies used in satis:yin" needs and achievin" "oalsFinally0 the chapter e9plores so)e educational strate"ies su""ested .y )otivation theory-
/evelop&ent
The evolution o: )otivation theory can .e traced throu"h the develop)ent o: other )aRor theories o: hu)an .ehaviour and learnin"0 includin" Cartesian dualis)0 ;arwinis)0 FreudJs drive theory and theories o: needs includin" MaslowJs hierarchyMore recent theories include hu)anistic and person-centred approaches-
(nspiration
Pri)itive societies .elieved that people were driven .y the "ods or their internal )ani:estations in the :or) o: the dae)on > a supernatural :orce which possessed and i)pelled the) to action without their consent-
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/ualis&
The Greek philosophers .elieved that hu)ans were )ade up o: two parts > a lower part concerned with the .ody and its appetites0 and a hi"her part associated with a rational pursuit o: ulti)ate well-.ein" and happiness- This pursuit involved the identi:ication o: ai)s and the )eans to achieve the)The seventeenth-century French philosopher #enS ;escartes proposed a :unda)ental duality o: )ind and .ody- Accordin" to the Cartesian view0 )otivation is an act that .e"ins in the )ind and "oes on to in:luence the )echanistic .ody which is co)pletely separate-
0iolog,
The nineteenth-century $ritish naturalist Charles ;arwin viewed ani)al )otivation and .ehaviour as lar"ely instinctive0 actin" as a )echanis) to )eet survival needsThe Austrian psychiatrist Si")und Freud proposed that there are su.conscious psychic and e)otional needs which i)pel .ehaviour!arly twentieth-century OdriveJ theories0 associated with .ehaviourist theories o: sti)ulus and response relationships0 also e)phasi/e the role o: )otivation in satis:yin" physiolo"ical needs in order to )aintain .odily ho)eostasis or e+uili.riu)-
Cognition
;rive theory does not take account o: the :act that peopleJs .ehaviour )ay not always .e a reaction in order to reduce drives- OGe eat when we are not hun"ry and seek shelter when we are not cold and0 althou"h we clearly like to .e in a state o: e+uili.riu)0 whether physically0 e)otionally or co"nitively0 there is )ore to hu)an )otivation than the reactive .ehaviours that achieve .alanceJ <$rown et al- 3776* &4=Co"nitive ele)ents also play a part- People have e9pectancies0 a).itions and "oals which )otivate the) to reali/e their :utures proactivelyModern theories o: )otivation display an awareness o: a co).ination o: .ehaviourist reaction to sti)uli and co"nitive processes in which people seek to deter)ine and control their environ)entsMotivational theories have developed :ro) a perception o: uncontrolled and uncontrolla.le e9ternal :orces to a nuanced understandin" o: personal a"ency in response to a )ultitude o: :actors-
Content theories o* &otivation

Content theories :ocus on the :actors that )otivate people- These :actors can .e physiolo"ical0 social or psycholo"ical <#eeve '44B* 34A=- The .est-known theory0 and
the )ost in:luential in showin" the relationship .etween di::erent types o: needs0 is that o: the A)erican psycholo"ist A.raha) Maslow-
9ierarch, o* nee%s
@n MaslowJs hierarchy <see Fi"ure 33-30 lower needs are associated with drives which )ust .e satis:ied or reduced in order to )ove on to the ne9t level0 althou"h so)e needs could .e satis:ied si)ultaneously- For e9a)ple0 ownership o: a ho)e )i"ht si)ultaneously )eet physiolo"ical0 sa:ety and sel:-estee) needsAlthou"h lower level needs are seen as drives which respond to de:iciencies0 hi"her level needs are )ore like aspirational "oals which )ay not .e :ully achieved-
Figure 11.1 MaslowJs hierarchy o: needs&ource: $ased on Child <377C* BB=The value o: MaslowJs theory to teachers is its appeal to co))on sense0 its incorporation o: a nu).er o: )otivation :actors within one )odel and its reco"nition that hi"her level )otivational :actors )ay depend on lower- For e9a)ple0 school initiatives related to healthy eatin" )ay i)prove )ental concentration and so pro)ote learnin" <Goteki and Filer 377B=@n spite o: its use:ulness to educators0 MaslowJs theory )ay .e critici/ed on a nu).er o: counts- Co)plicated constructs like Osel:-actuali/ationJ are hard to de:ine and )easure- @t also raises the +uestion whether the hei"ht o: hu)an achieve)ent is to .e :ound in sel: rather than in altruis)0 in co))unity and in dedication to a hi"her causeThere are other theories :ro) the sa)e period as Maslow that reco"ni/e a +ualitative di::erence .etween de:iciency needs and aspirational needs- These :ollow-
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9,giene *actors an% &otivators

The Polish-A)erican scholar Frederic er/.er" and his collea"ues held a two-:actor theory o: )otivation < er/.er" et al 37B7=- Correspondin" to MaslowJs de:iciency needs0 they re:er to Ohy"iene :actorsJ0 or )aintenance needs which do not sti)ulate )otivation .ut prevent dissatis:action- Their work-related research identi:ied hy"iene :actors such as pay and workin" conditions- #ecent co))entators on education have pointed out that classroo) hy"iene :actors such as heatin"0 li"htin" and seatin" can have a little-reco"ni/ed .ut adverse e::ect on student learnin" <$leakley 3776* 3C4>3=Once hy"iene :actors have .een satis:ied0 er/.er"Js theory re:ers to O)otivatorsJ such as achieve)ent0 reco"nition0 responsi.ility and pro)otion- Si)ilarly0 in a learnin" conte9t0 students are )otivated .y the su.Rect .ein" studied0 the achieve)ent o: learnin" o.Rectives0 the reco"nition o: that achieve)ent0 and .y the sense o: personal autono)y in learnin"-
.!trinsic an% intrinsic *actors

An analysis o: MaslowJs theory shows a division into e9trinsic and intrinsic )otivators* Extrinsic moti.ators: :actors e9ternal to the individuals that )otivate the) to respond0 e-"- hi"h "rades0 praise or )oneyP :actors internal to the individuals that are rewardin" in the)selves without the need :or incentives0 e-"- sel:estee)-
#ntrinsic moti.ators:
Typical e9trinsic )otivators in education include punish)ents such as reproo:0 low "rades or reRection0 and rewards such as hi"h "rades0 acceptance and praise- An e9peri)ent :ro) the 37'4s +uoted .y Child <377C= investi"ated the e::ect o: praise and reproo: on 34-year-olds undertakin" work in )athe)atics- They were divided into :our "roups* A praised group* A reproof group* An ignored group* A control group* consistently praised re"ardless o: per:or)anceP consistently critici/ed re"ardless o: per:or)anceP in the sa)e roo) .ut neither critici/ed nor praisedP undertakin" the sa)e tasks in a di::erent roo)-
The results showed that the OpraisedJ "roup did si"ni:icantly .etter than all the other "roups- The poorest per:or)in" "roup was the control "roup which received no :eed.ack :ro) teachers or others <Child 377C* B7>&4=-
Generally0 intrinsic )otivation is )ore e::ective and lastin" than e9trinsic )otivation <Ga"nS and Medsker 377&* 3&7=- @ntrinsic )otivation is )uch )ore likely to help learners to* Q Q Q en"a"e in tasks and pursuits on their own initiative0 resultin" in sel:directed and sel:-re"ulated learnin" strate"ies over lon" periods o: ti)eP involve the)selves in deep rather than sur:ace learnin"P e9perience increased levels o: sel:-satis:action0 sel:-e::icacy and co)petency-
5cAregor2s B an% @ theor,

The attitudes displayed in teacher praise and reproo: descri.ed a.ove is re:lected in two contrastin"0 stereotypical )ana"e)ent styles0 descri.ed .y the A)erican social psycholo"ist ;ou"las McGre"or <37&4=- D-type )ana"ers e9ercise ti"ht control0 assu)in" that workers re+uire e9trinsic )otivation in order to act- $y contrast0 2-type )ana"ers are )ore trustin" in their view that workers are intrinsically )otivated and should .e "iven opportunities and responsi.ilities <see Ta.le 33-3=Ta le 11.1 McGre"orJs D and 2 theory
B6t,pe &anagers thin# su or%inates are la/y and work-shy )ust .e coerced and controlled avoid responsi.ility &ource: $ased on McGre"or <37&4=-
@6t,pe &anagers thin# su or%inates :ind work natural and e)powerin" are sel:-directed and co))itted want to accept responsi.ility
@n the :ield o: education0 D-type teachers will ti"htly )ana"e all aspects o: the learnin" e9perience0 usin" traditional whole-class teachin" )ethods with e9tensive )onitorin" o: per:or)ance- Punish)ents and rewards will .e used to drive student .ehaviour- Ghile this )ay .e success:ul in the short ter)0 it is di::icult :or the teacher to )aintain0 and only works while the control is strictly )onitored2-type teachers encoura"e students to en"a"e with the tasks independently and .elieve that learner )otivation is "reatly increased when students set their own learnin" "oals- This in turns pro)otes learner responsi.ility and autono)y- This assu)es that students have the )aturity to think :or the)selves- @t )ay not suit all cultural types and it )ay not ensure that teachin" o.Rectives are achieved;eci and #yan <376C= have produced a )ore sophisticated )odel which identi:ies e9trinsic and intrinsic :actors as the ends o: a continuu)- %earners are )otivated .y :actors which can .e partly e9trinsic and partly intrinsic- They propose two inter)ediate points0 Oidenti:iedJ and OintroRectedJ which co).ine these :actors in varyin" a)ounts <see Ta.le 33-'=- ;eadlines are )ostly e9trinsic .ut )ay .e internali/ed- Personal deli"ht in solvin" a pro.le) is )ostly intrinsic- Choice o: su.Rect however0 is deter)ined partly .y an intrinsic likin" :or the su.Rect and partly .y e9trinsic course re+uire)ents- They also have a cate"ory called a)otivation which descri.es a state o: )otivational indi::erence <;eci and #yan 376B=-
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Ta le 11.2
!9a)ples o: )otivational orientations
(5 (ntrinsic Student studies a su.Rect :or sti)ulation
(/ (%enti*ie% Student enRoys the su.Rect .ut it is also a course re+uire)ent
(C (ntroDecte% Althou"h not likin" the su.Rect the student has to do it as a course re+uire)ent
.5 .!ternal Student has no interest in hi"her education .ut "oes to colle"e .ecause o: parental pressure
$rown et al- <3776* &&>C= reports a research study o: Gelsh under"raduates which descri.es how these )otivational orientations vary over the course o: an under"raduate pro"ra))e- Althou"h the students were consistently )otivated over ti)e0 the type o: )otivation varied dependin" on whether they were youn" or )ature students and on the sta"e o: the course and assess)ent schedules0 with e9trinsic )otivation hi"her at the end o: the :irst year0 presu)a.ly due to assess)entMature students scored consistently hi"her on internal )otivation-
4ocial or person6centre% nee%s

Maslow places social needs .etween the satis:action o: e9ternal drives and the attain)ent o: internal "oals- These social needs relate to peopleJs desire :or attention0 reco"nition and acceptanceThe A)erican sociolo"ist !lton Mayo <37AA= is .est known :or the awthorne studies which :ound that a "roup o: :actory workers increased their output when they were o.served- They worked harder0 not .ecause o: a concern to )aintain output .ut .ecause they thrived under the attention "iven to the)A study carried out in the Sunderland $usiness School in the U? showed that a lack o: individual attention to students resulted in their de)otivation <Tho)pson 3776* 3A4>3=- Teachers need to .e conscious o: student perception and the i)portance o: .ein" attentive to students0 thou"h this advice )ay .e unrealistic in an educational cli)ate o: lar"e nu).ers and increasin" teacher workloadsThe A)erican psycholo"ist Carl #o"ers points out to teachers the i)portance o: reco"nition and acceptance o: students- @n order to )otivate learners teachers should* Q Q Q Q e)pathi/e with learners and o::er Ounconditional positive re"ardJP :acilitate rather than dictate the learnin" e9perienceP .e authentic and honest in their interactions with learnersP help students identi:y and clari:y their own e9periences and values<Fein.er" and Fein.er" '443= #o"ersJ approach is suited to the e9posin" and sharin" o: learnersJ values .ut teachers also need to e9a)ine0 e9plore and evaluate the)- is individualistic stance is not always suita.le :or educational enterprises which stress the i)portance o: learnin" co))unities and peer interactions-
The theories discussed a.ove have identi:ied speci:ic e9trinsic and intrinsic )otivatin" :actors- The ne9t set o: theories relates to the co"nitive processes involved in the creation o: intrinsic "oals0 the reco"nition o: e9ternal :orces and the conse+uent .ehavioural decisions-
+rocess theories o* &otivation

Althou"h there is considera.le overlap with content theory0 process theories :ocus on the co"nitive0 dyna)ic and social processes that develop0 encoura"e and sustain )otivation in individuals-
.!pectanc, theor,
This su""ests three co"nitive :actors in relation to )otivationAnticipation* Expectation* #mportance* o: the "ain or reward o: achievin" this o: success to the learner<Cohen et al- '44H* 3C6= !9pectancy re:ers to peopleJs perceptions o:0 and Rud"e)ents a.out their own a.ilities- i"h e9pectancies .ased on previous success increase studentsJ chances o: acco)plishin" learnin" "oals- %earners with hi"h e9pectations are )ore likely to persist and co))it the)selves to achievin" desired results- A study .y Sears <37H4=0 reported .y Child0 divided a "roup o: children a"ed 34 to 3' into three "roups* a= .= c= those who had .een success:ul0 those who had .een unsuccess:ul0 and those who had .een di::erentially success:ul <success:ul in so)e su.Rects .ut not in others=-
The children were presented with tasks and asked to esti)ate how lon" it would take to co)plete the)- Their esti)ates were co)pared with the ti)e actually taken- The children with a .ack"round in success were realistic in their esti)ationsP those with a .ack"round o: :ailure under or over-esti)ated the ti)e and the di::erential "roup was realistic in the su.Rect in which they had a .ack"round o: success <Child 377C* &C=%earners who had .een success:ul in the past were a.le to esti)ate accurately the prospects o: :uture success- %earners who had previously .een unsuccess:ul0 however0 did not have the knowled"e .ack"round on which to .ase accurate predictionsP they did not know what they did not know-
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@t is i)portant to note that e9pectancy hin"es :ir)ly on peopleJs sel:-estee) and sel:-e::icacy&elf(esteem re:ers to peopleJs perceptions and evaluations o: their own worth > :or e9a)ple0 very shy people )ay :eel they have nothin" o: value or worth to "ive to a decision-)akin" processre:ers to peopleJs perception and evaluation o: their own abilit$ within speci:ic areas > :or e9a)ple0 learners with hi"h levels o: sel:-e::icacy in )athe)atics are )ore likely to enRoy challen"in" )athe)atical situations and pro.le)-solvin"-
&elf(efficac$
Accordin" to $andura <37CC=0 a learnerJs sel:-e::icacy is a::ected .y* Q Q Q Q past per:or)ancesP vicarious e9periences <seein" a role )odel a.le to do it=P persuasion .y teachers or peersP physiolo"ical and e)otional cues-
Sel:-estee) and sel:-e::icacy underpin e9pectancy inso:ar as people who .elieve they can acco)plish di::icult tasks persist :or lon"er and work harder to achieve desired outco)es <$andura 376'=-
Learne% helplessness
O%earned helplessness is the psycholo"ical state that results when an individual e9pects that li:eJs outco)es are uncontrolla.leJ <#eeve '44B* 'A6=- Ghen people dou.t their own a.ility0 they shun activities and their :eelin"s o: sel:-dou.t .eca)e )ore entrenched- Certain over-prescriptive teachin" )ethods0 where the teacher deter)ines all aspects o: the learnin" e9perience0 )ay contri.ute to student passivity and learned helplessness- @nstead0 teachers should :acilitate studentsJ active learnin" .y settin" achieva.le "oals and .y e)ployin" strate"ies such as sca::oldin"0 coachin" and )odellin"- Teachers should e)power learners .y o::erin" choices- The increased autono)y results in increased )otivation and a decrease in helplessness-
Attri ution theor,

This theory e9plains how people account :or their successes or :ailures- People "enerally attri.ute their successes to their own a.ilities and their :ailures to uncontrolla.le causes such as e9ternal circu)stances <Geiner 376&=- This )ay .e an evolutionary strate"y in that people need to :eel that their own actions can .rin" a.out chan"es in the world- The concept o: control is i)plicit in attri.ution theoryO%ocus o: controlJ re:ers to peopleJs .elie:s a.out the e9tent to which they have control over their own situations or destinies- %earners with a stron" internal locus o:
control are sel:-deter)inin"0 usually e9pectin" they have the power to chan"e events and circu)stances in their lives- They are )ore likely to .e proactive in their learnin"- Since they have an internal locus o: control0 they take )ore pride in their success and :eel "reater sha)e in :ailurePeople with an e9ternal locus o: control can avoid ulti)ate responsi.ility%earners0 :or e9a)ple0 )ay attri.ute their :ailure to e9ternal circu)stances or .ad luck rather than to their own lack o: e::ort- Teachers )ay challen"e this .elie: .y settin" attaina.le "oals and supportin" learners in the achieve)ent0 "radually withdrawin" support as con:idence is "ainedThe A#CS )odel o: )otivation was developed in order to inte"rate )otivational strate"ies into trainin" pro"ra))esA ) C 4 Attention #elevance Con:idence Satis:action
@n order to .e )otivated0 the learner needs to attend to the )aterial0 see its relevance0 .e con:ident that they can learn it and achieve satis:action :ro) the learnin" <?eller and ?opp 376C=-
Aoal setting
Goal settin" is the process o: de:inin" what needs to .e achieved and then speci:yin" o.Rectives that will aid and :acilitate achieve)ent- $ut the "oals people set are a::ected .y their "oal orientation- Goal orientation re:ers to the types o: achieve)ents to which individuals are attracted- ;weck <376&= distin"uishes .etween per:or)ance "oals and learnin" "oals-
%erformance goals These :ocus directly upon end results > :or e9a)ple0 to pass an e9a)ination in )ulti)edia studies- This )ay .e perceived .y the learner as a )easure)ent o: innate0 unchan"ea.le capa.ility- #esearch shows that learners with hi"h sel:-con:idence sustain their e::orts to achieve per:or)ance "oals .ut those with low sel:-con:idence tend to "ive up-
Learning goals These are concerned with learnin" > :or e9a)ple0 to .e a.le to incorporate video se+uences into )ulti)edia presentations- This )ay .e perceived .y the learner as a skill that can .e ac+uired and i)proved upon- #esearch shows that learners o: .oth hi"h and low sel:-con:idence sustain their e::orts <;weck 376&=-
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.%ucational i&plications o* &otivation theor,

So)e educational i)plications o: the theories discussed have already .een de)onstrated- MaslowsJ hierarchy o: needs can .e cate"ori/ed into three types* Q Q Q physiolo"ical needsP social needsP co"nitive and e9istential needs-
Ge now o::er so)e practical strate"ies under these three headin"s-
5eeting ph,siological nee%s

Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Make sure the roo) is ade+uately ventilatedMake sure the roo) te)perature is appropriate :or learnin"!nsure that students have access to a water :ountain or drinka.le water!ncoura"e healthy eatin" and physical e9ercise!sta.lish re"ular learnin" routinesProvide learners with rest periods and short .reaks .etween classes!nsure that learners take re"ular .reaks and receive :resh airAvoid len"thy periods o: passive listenin"Provide a ran"e o: physical and )ental activitiesSchedule di::icult co"nitive activities when ener"ies are hi"hestArran"e the seatin" to suit the teachin" )ethodolo"ies usedAcco))odate students with eyesi"ht or hearin" pro.le)sCreate a sa:e classroo) or la.oratory environ)entProvide e9trinsic rewards such as pri/es or privile"es in the early sta"es o: learnin"Use )i9ed teachin" )ethods and )ulti)edia to sti)ulate and )aintain learner interest$e consistent and aware o: the a)ount and type o: :eed.ack produced-
5eeting social nee%s

Q Use small group :or)ations :or proRect work and learnin" activitiesZ Allocate speci:ic roles to individuals workin" in "roupsZ Train "roups in the develop)ent and analysis o: "roup processesZ Z Z Pro)ote a::iliation and loyalty to the "roupUse role-play to teach di::icult interpersonal skills like con:lict resolutionPro)ote peer learnin" throu"h O:riendshipJ and rando)ly allocated "roups-
Use large group :or)ations to provide sociali/ation opportunitiesZ Pro)ote a culture o: openness and respect where .ullyin" is Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z unaccepta.le#espect di::erent viewpoints while allowin" the) to .e challen"edTeach social0 co))unication and colla.orative skillsPro)ote a sense o: classroo) co))unity <e-"- use OweJ in teacher talk=Allow O:riendshipJ "roups :or acade)ic support .ut vary their co)positionCreate a sense o: identity <school houses0 or acade)ic depart)ents=Use inter-"roup co)petition and cooperation!ncoura"e clu.s and societies!ncoura"e study "roups and ho)ework clu.s!n"a"e in whole class e9tra-curricular activitiesave whole school events in which all can participate-
5eeting in%ivi%ual nee%s

Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q ?now and use the na)es o: learners%isten0 acknowled"e and value all learner contri.utions > even when incorrect;o not )ake co)parisons .etween learnersP do not put people downUse hu)our positively > not at the studentsJ e9penseTeach assertiveness techni+uesArran"e :or learners to have a de"ree o: autono)y0 control and responsi.ilityPlan :or attaina.le "oals and learnin" outco)esProvide additional help or re)ediation where necessary$uild success into activitiesProvide encoura"in"0 constructive and positive :eed.ack-
5eeting cognitive nee%s

?ellerJs A#CS )otivational )odel will .e used as an or"ani/in" principle in the :ollowin" su""estions :or the teacher* Attention Q Q Q Arouse the interest or curiosity .y presentin" challen"in" or intri"uin" )aterialPresent )aterials in )ore than one :or) to appeal to the di::erent styles o: learnersIary activities and sti)uli to )aintain interest-
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Rele.ance Q Q Q #elate new )aterial to previous learnin" and show how it can .e used%ink teachin" to the achieve)ent o: e9ternal lon"-ter) "oals such as "ainin" e)ploy)ent@denti:y and cater :or learnersJ personal needs such as a::iliation or sel:-estee)-
onfidence Q Q Q Create clear achieva.le "oals and criteria :or successChallen"e the learners with tasks that are neither too di::icult nor too easy and o::er support until they achieve )asteryProvide constructive and ti)ely :eed.ack interpretin" di::iculty or :ailure as a need to chan"e learnin" strate"y rather than an indication o: a.ility-
&atisfaction Q Q Q Arran"e opportunities to try out learnin" and e9perience success or :ailureGive students the opportunity to enRoy the satis:action o: applyin" their learnin" in an i))ediate and authentic wayMake assess)ent :air and transparent so that learners perceive it as e+uita.le<Ga"nS and Medsker 377&* 3CH>7=
5eeting e!istential nee%s

Sel:-actuali/ation is an autono)ous sta"e o: learnin" in which the learners take control o: their own learnin" "oals0 choice o: )ethods and evaluation- Sel:-actuali/ed learners are likely to .e )ature learners who will have developed autono)y and hi"h e9pectations and so will not need )otivational encoura"e)ent :ro) the teacher%earners the)selves will decide i: assess)ent is appropriate or necessary and0 i: so0 whether they intend to su.)it to it- They )ay also have ac+uired a co)plete )astery o: a su.Rect area- SchTn pointed out that a possi.le strate"y is to ask such learners to re:lect on their )astery so that their tacit internali/ed knowled"e and intrinsic )otivations are )ade e9plicit so that they can .e shared with other learners <SchTn 376C=-
+raise> punish&ents an% sanctions as &otivators

Punish)ent was used in the past as a )ethod o: discipline in education- owever0 )odern theories show that punish)ent is not as e::ective a )otivator as praisePunish)ent indicates only the )isde)eanour > not the desired .ehaviour- @t is less
predicta.le in its e::ects- For instance so)e pupils )ay enRoy the attention- They )ay see it as an ar.itrary i)position .y the teacher and it )ay support their :eelin"s o: learned helplessnessAlthou"h not as e::ective as praise0 sanctions are superior to punish)entSanctions are conse+uences o: .ehaviour a"reed .y .oth teacher and student so there is shared responsi.ility- The student there:ore has so)e control and so)e incentive to chan"e$ehaviour )odi:ication pro"ra))es to chan"e disruptive and anti-social .ehaviour in school children )ake use o: reward and sanction0 .ased on .ehaviourist principlesPraise is the )ost natural and :re+uently used )otivational )ethod .y teachersPraise should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q .e si)ple0 direct and una).i"uous and e9pressed naturallyP speci:y the .ehaviour .ein" praisedP .e "iven :or e::ort0 care and persistenceP include ver.al and non-ver.al responsesP .e o::ered appropriately so that learners are not isolatedP .e :or learnin" rather than co)plianceP not .e overdone so as to su""est a lowerin" o: standards<$rophy 3763* B>A'=
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Motivation is concerned with the identi:ication o: needs0 the esta.lish)ent o: "oals0 and the deter)ination o: actionMotivation theory developed :ro) philosophical0 .iolo"ical and psycholo"ical roots!9trinsic and intrinsic needs can .e ran"ed hierarchically%earners )ay .e )otivated .y varyin" a)ounts o: e9trinsic and intrinsic )otivational :actors as well as .y social in:luencesMotivation is a::ected .y co"nitive states such as sel:-estee)0 sel:-e::icacy0 e9pectancies and their attri.utions o: the cause o: success and :ailureMotivation is a::ected .y the nature o: the "oal pursuedTeachers )ay hold stereotypical attitudes a.out the )otivation o: their students-
Conclusions
@t could .e ar"ued that )ost )otivational theory e)anates :ro) a western )ale0 white0 )iddle-class0 individualistic perspective and )ay need to .e .roadened or )ediated to take account o: "ender0 social class and non-western cultural :actors-
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Sel:-actuali/ation )ay not .e the pinnacle o: hu)an achieve)ent- Me).ers o: non-western cultures )ay .elieve that con:or)ity to the nor)s o: reli"ion0 society or :a)ily take precedenceMotivation theory shows that there are so)e varia.les a.out which the teacher can do very little- !9pectations o: success or :ailure in learnin" are :or)ed .y the childJs ho)e and cultural .ack"round and teachers )ay .e una.le to )otivate an adolescent .oy whose peer "roup is anta"onistic and alienated :ro) learnin"owever0 )otivation theory "ives teachers an appreciation o: the )ultiplicity o: :actors a::ectin" student )otivation and learnin" and o::ers a ran"e o: )odels to understand it and so)e strate"ies that )ay .e used to increase )otivation- Classroo) activities have an i)pact on learnersJ sel:-estee) and identity over and a.ove the instruction received and knowled"e ac+uiredMotivation theories e)phasi/e the i)portance o: learners as people with :eelin"s and identities that teachers need to respect-
)e*erences
$andura0 A- <37CC= Sel:-e::icacy* towards a uni:yin" theory o: .ehavioral chan"e0 %s$chological Re.iew! 6H* 373>'3B$andura0 A- <376'= The sel: and )echanis)s o: a"ency0 in J- Suls <ed-= %s$chological %erspecti.es on the &elf- 1ew Jersey* %awrence !rl.au) Associates$leakley0 %- <3776= %earnin" as an aesthetic practice* )otivation throu"h .eauty in hi"her education0 in S- $rown0 S- Ar)stron" and G- Tho)pson <eds= ;oti.ating &tudents- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e in association with the Sta:: and !ducational ;evelop)ent Association <S!;A=0 3&B>3C'$rophy0 J- <3763= Teacher praise* a :unctional analysis0 Re.iew of Educational Research! B3* B>A'$rown0 S-0 Ar)stron"0 S- and Tho)pson0 G- <eds= <3776= ;oti.ating &tudents- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e in association with the Sta:: and !ducational ;evelop)ent Association <S!;A=Child0 ;- <377C= %s$cholog$ and the Teacher <&th edn=- %ondon* CassellCohen0 %-0 Manion0 %- and Morrison0 ?- <'44H= A Guide to Teaching %ractice <Bth edn=%ondon* #outled"e Fal)er;eci0 !- and #yan0 #- <376B= #ntrinsic ;oti.ation and &elf(determination in )uman Beha.ior- 1ew 2ork* Plenu);eci0 !- and #yan0 #- <376C= The support o: autono)y and the control o: .ehavior0 9ournal of %ersonalit$ and &ocial %s$cholog$! BA<&=* 34'H>AC;weck0 C-S- <376&= Motivational processes a::ectin" learnin"0 American %s$chologist! H3* 34H4>6-
Fein.er" !- and Fein.er"0 G- <'443= Carl #o"ers0 374'>6C0 in J-A- Pal)er <ed-= =ift$ ;odern Thinkers on Education: =rom %iaget to the %resent- A.in"don* #outled"e0 H7>BAGa"nS0 #-M- and Medsker0 ?-%- <377&= The onditions of Learning: Training Applications-
Fort Gorth* arcourt $race Colle"e Pu.lisherser/.er"0 F-0 Mausner0 $- and Snyder)an0 $-$- <37B7= The ;oti.ation to >ork <'nd edn=- 1ew Jersey* John Giley?eller0 J-M- and ?opp0 T-G- <376C= An application o: the A#CS )odel o: )otivational desi"n0 in C-M- #ei"eluth <ed-= #nstructional Theories in Action- 1ew Jersey* !rl.au)McGre"or0 ;- <37&4= The )uman &ide of Enterprise <'Bth Anniversary Printin"=%ondon* McGraw- illMayo0 !- <37AA= The )uman %roblems of an #ndustrial lan#eeve0 J- <'44B= *nderstanding ;oti.ation and Emotion0 <Hth edn=- 1ew Jersey* John GileySchTn0 ;- <376C= Educating the Reflecti.e %ractitioner: Toward a New 3esign for Teaching and Learning in the %rofession- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey-$assTho)pson0 G- <3776= The e::ect o: stressors on student )otivation* a report o: work in pro"ress at Sunderland $usiness School0 in S- $rown0 S- Ar)stron" and GTho)pson <eds= ;oti.ating &tudents- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e in association with the Sta:: and !ducational ;evelop)ent Association <S!;A=0 3'A>A'Geiner0 $- <376&= An Attributional Theor$ of ;oti.ation and Emotion- 1ew 2ork* Sprin"er-Ierla"Goteki0 C-!- and Filer0 %-J- <377B= Child health0 nutrition and physical activity0 in 3ietar$ #ssues and the Nutritional &tatus of American hildren- @llinois* The u)an ?inetics Pu.lishin" Co)panyi.ilisation- 1ew 2ork* MacMil-
Chapter 12
The learning o%,
(ntro%uction
Many pri)ary schools now ti)eta.le short periods o: physical e9ercise .e:ore pupils attend )athe)atics classes- Provided it is not so strenuous as to lead to e9haustion0 such e9ercise has .een :ound to pro)ote alertness- $ut how does the physical e9perience o: .ein" Owide awakeJ contri.ute to the )ental activity o: learnin" to do :ractionsK One answer is that e9ercise increases .lood :low and o9y"en to speci:ic areas o: the cere.ral corte90 which encoura"es neuronal activity and in turn :acilitates the :ast processin" o: in:or)ation- To put it )ore si)ply0 physical activity sti)ulates the .rain- This shows that the .ody has a part to play in co"nition and learnin"0 once considered purely )ind-.ased activities- This chapter will e9plore the role o: the .ody in learnin" .y e9a)inin" relevant theories arisin" :ro) neuroscience0 co"nitive and social psycholo"y and philosophy- These theories have a ran"e o: educational i)plications0 which we will outline towards the end o: the chapter-
The o%, in e%ucational tra%itions

The ancient Greeks considered that the .ody and its develop)ent were i)portantThe e)phasis on .odily prowess was shown throu"h )aRor pu.lic events like the Oly)pic Ga)es- Ge inherit the word O"y)nasiu)J0 which is .oth a place o: e9ercise and a place o: learnin"0 :ro) the Greek O"u)nasionJ where youths e9ercised nakedPower:ully in:luenced .y Cartesian dualis)0 traditions o: :or)al education over the last three hundred years0 especially in Gestern !urope0 have laid )ore e)phasis on the intellect than on the .odyowever #ousseau0 in his :a)ous te9t ,mile pu.lished in 3C&'0 reco))ends the inclusion o: physical e9ercises in the education o: childrenTo learn to think we )ust there:ore e9ercise our li).s0 our senses0 and our .odily or"ans0 which are the tools o: the intellectP and to "et the .est use out o: these tools0 the .ody which supplies us with the) )ust .e stron" and healthy- 1ot only is it +uite a )istake that true reason is developed apart :ro) the .ody0 .ut it is a "ood .odily constitution which )akes the workin"s o: the )ind easy and correct<#ousseau 3C&'F'44C* 77= @n nineteenth-century !n"land0 education :or the upper classes .e"an to e)phasi/e the i)portance o: physical activity :or .oys0 )akin" e9plicit connections .etween
education0 physical prowess and !n"landJs place in the world > as shown in the :a)ous +uotation attri.uted to Gellin"ton that OThe .attle o: Gaterloo was won on the playin" :ields o: !tonJ <Cha).ers 377C=@n this period0 the OMuscular ChristianityJ )ove)ent in !n"lish pu.lic schools reverted to Greek ideals o: physical per:ection0 with the .elie: that tea) sports .uild character and leadership +ualities- A parallel )ove)ent0 the 2oun" MenJs Christian Association <2MCA= was :ounded in the 36H4s in %ondon to serve the )ind0 spirit and .odies o: youn" workin" )en- @t soon spread to the United States where )e).ers co))issioned .uildin"s with "y)nasia and swi))in" pools and set up e9ercise drills <2MCA '44C=Ger)any and the Scandinavian countries have lon" reco"ni/ed the i)portance o: physical e9ercise and e9posure to :resh air as part o: a healthy li:estyle- Physical education pro"ra))es0 includin" so)e :or "irls0 were developed in the 36H4s .y Adol: Spiess0 the :ounder o: school "y)nastics in Prussian schools <!ich.er" 376&* 77=@n spite o: these develop)ents0 physical education has not .een seen as a priority in )ainstrea) western education- owever0 a recent health concern a.out sedentary li:estyles and poor diets has created a renewed interest in the physical education curriculu) and the develop)ent o: the .ody as well as the )ind-
/e*initions o* the o%,

The .ody is )ore than a physiolo"ical o.Rect- @t is involved in every aspect o: our lives > in our thinkin" and :eelin"0 our identity0 our sel:-awareness and sel:understandin"- @t is the )ediu) throu"h which we e9perience and interpret the world- Shillin" <377A= ar"ues that the .ody is an un:inished .iolo"ical and social proRect and the )ore we know a.out our .odies0 the )ore we are a.le to control0 intervene and alter the)- The .ody there:ore needs to .e de:ined in .iolo"ical0 psycholo"ical0 sociolo"ical and philosophical ter)s-
0iological constructs
The .ody is a set o: physiolo"ical syste)s > respiratory0 di"estive0 nervous0 reproductive0 ly)phatic and endocrine > workin" to"ether to achieve ho)eostasis and e+uili.riu) without )uch conscious control or )onitorin"- $ut0 i: teachers li)it their understandin" o: learnin" to a reductionist set o: .iolo"ical responses0 it will result in a )echanistic .ehaviourist approach where all learners are e9pected to respond in the sa)e way to a "iven set o: sti)uli-
+ersonal constructs
The attitudes and .elie:s we hold a.out our .odies are re:lected in i)a"es we construct o: ourselves > in how we present ourselves- The .ody is a )eans o:
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sel:-representationP accordin" to the $ritish sociolo"ist Anthony Giddens0 the .ody is central to the :or)ation o: personal identity and the pursuit o: li:estyles <Giddens 3773=- A :eature o: )odernity is the undertakin" o: on"oin" O.ody proRectsJ throu"h the use o: personal trainers0 dietary and e9ercise re"i)es and cos)etic sur"ery- @n educational settin"s students )ay represent the)selves and construct their identities throu"h .odily proRects like dra)a0 dance0 "y)nastics and sport > as in the case o: adolescent ru".y players who take :ood supple)ents to increase in si/e and wei"ht-
4ociological constructs
The .ody is also the )eans .y which we relate to others- $ourdieu ar"ues that our "estures0 our use o: space and the physical distance we keep :ro) other people are also physical and :or) our Oha.itusJ0 a concept discussed in Chapter &0 OCultural learnin"J ;ietin"0 hairstyle0 .ody-.uildin"0 .ody-piercin" and tattooin" can .e seen as social practices that esta.lish "roup identity- School authorities o:ten try to esta.lish a cohesive "roup identity throu"h the re"ulation o: .odily appearance .y )eans o: dress codes and prohi.itions on e9cessive .odily decoration-
+o$er constructs
The .ody is also an o.Rect upon which power is e9erted- The French philosopher Michel Foucault clai)s that power involves the re"ulation and control o: the hu)an .ody- @n 3iscipline and %unish <37CC= he traces the "enealo"y o: punish)ent :or deviancy as an evolution :ro) pu.lic0 "rueso)e torture and e9ecution to private0 physical con:ine)ent in Rail0 internali/ed0 personal sel:-re"ulation- There has .een a parallel evolution in the Otechnolo"yJ o: punish)ent :ro) instru)ents o: torture and e9ecution to prisons0 health :ar)s and e9pensive dru" reha.ilitation centres- The history o: school discipline shows a si)ilar "enealo"y0 )ovin" :ro) e9ternally i)posed physical punish)ent0 to con:ine)ent and detention0 to the internal re"ulation o: ho)ework and sel:-study-
+heno&enological constructs
A pheno)enolo"ical view o: the .ody provides rich OinsiderJ accounts o: what e9perience O:eelsJ like- The .ody is not only an o.Rect > it is su.Rectively e9periencedThe .ody is not ORust so)e .ody0 so)e particular physiolo"ical entity0 .ut )y <or your= .ody as @ <or you= e9perience itJ <Merleau-Ponty 37&H* 3&&=- Our .odiliness )ay e9tend .eyond the li)its o: our .ody > :or e9a)ple0 towards so)ethin" at which we are pointin"- Constructivist views o: learnin" also see the learner as en"a"ed in a process o: )eanin"-)akin" which )ust include the )eanin" o: the .ody-
5etaphorical constructs
Many o: the )etaphors we use to descri.e our )ental states or our e9periences o: .ein" in the world are sensory* O)y .lood :ro/eJP O)y heart leapedJP Othe hair stood on the .ack o: )y headJ- Accordin" to Geor"e %ako:: <377A=0 )etaphors show that co"nition has its roots in .odily e9perience- OThe )ind is inherently e).odiedJ <%ako:: and Johnson '444* 3=- The A)erican evolutionary psycholo"ist Steven Pinker disa"rees in part0 ar"uin" that )etaphors are not su::icient in the)selves to per)it thinkin"P there are underlyin" rules o: thou"ht that allow the) to .e used <Pinker '44C* 'B7=- !ducators too have their .odily )etaphors* courses are OrunJ0 ar"u)ents are Owei"hedJ and students Ostru""leJ with ideas until they O"raspJ the)- The word Ore)e).erin"J itsel: contains an echo o: physical )e).ers and calls to )ind a child countin" the :in"ers o: one hand-
(&pe%i&entar, constructs
There is a lon" tradition o: the .ody as an i)pedi)ent0 holdin" .ack )ental activityMany philosophical and reli"ious traditions stress the renunciation o: the .ody- The .ody is represented as a tireso)e .undle o: de)ands which )ust .e satis:ied in order that the real .usiness o: thinkin" and learnin" can proceed- School .reaks and holidays involve a te)porary discontinuity when the real .usiness o: education is interrupted .y the needs o: the .ody-
5in%E o%, relationships

The constructs a.ove show that althou"h the .ody is a centre o: physiolo"ical activity0 it is )uch )ore than this- Si)ilarly0 the )ind is )uch )ore than a centre o: psycholo"ical activity- The relationship .etween .rain and )ind is hu"ely co)ple9 and the su.Rect o: :ierce de.ate- So)e would co)pletely dis)iss O)indJ as an irrelevant concept0 seein" consciousness as an accidental .y-product o: intense neuronal activity- !volutionary psycholo"ists however0 hold that consciousness0 like lan"ua"e0 is an adaptive advanta"e0 developed throu"h processes o: ;arwinian selection <#ose '44B* 3A6>7=Ghen we talk o: O)indJ we re:er to the hu)an )ental states o: sel:-awareness0 intentionality0 a"ency and e)pathy that do not at :irst "lance appear to have anythin" to do with the .ody- On the other hand0 it is o.vious that the .rain0 a physical or"an0 is involved in all )ental activity > as the A)erican 1o.el pri/ewinner in physiolo"y !ric ?andel0 clai)s0 OO: course0 the )ind is a product o: the .rainJ <;o..s '44C* AH=- Ge su.scri.e to the view o: the )ind and .rain0 not as separate entities0 .ut as di::erent constructions o: the sa)e set o: events- !ducators can view readin" as a deli.erate conscious co"nitive activity as well as a response to neurons :irin" in the visual corte9- Pro.le)s with readin" such as dysle9ia can .e
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interpreted either as a result o: poor readin" strate"ies or as a conse+uence o: neural disor"ani/ation in the le:t he)isphere o: the corte9 > an area responsi.le :or lan"ua"e :unction <#osen/wei" et al- '44B* B7H=-
The rain architecture

The adult hu)an .rain is a "reyish-pink "elatinous )ass wei"hin" a.out 3-H k" or A l.- @t contains a.out 344 .illion .rain cells or neurons with one )illion .illion connections .etween the)0 all .athed in cere.ro-spinal :luid which acts as a shock a.sor.er and carries nutrients and other che)icals <$lake)ore and Frith '44B* 33=-
Figure 12.1
The .rain-
Iiewed e9ternally the .rain has three parts* the cere.ru)0 the cere.ellu) and the .rain ste) <see Fi"ure 3'-3=The cere.ru) is the lar"est part o: the .rain accountin" :or 6B per cent o: its wei"ht and consistin" o: two lar"e he)ispheres with a hi"hly :olded e9terior called the cere.ral corte9- The le:t and ri"ht he)ispheres o: the cere.ru) are separated .y a deep lon"itudinal :issure- They are connected .y .undles o: nerve :i.res > the lar"est o: which is called the corpus callosu)- There are :ive lo.es o: the cere.ru) detailed in Ta.le 3'-3-
0rain *unction
@t has .een clai)ed that the .rain operates as a series o: )odules per:or)in" di::erent co"nitive :unctions such as :ace reco"nition0 speech0 or e)otion re"ulation <#ose '44B* 343=- $rain a.nor)alities o::er evidence :or discrete )odules in the .rain
<#osen/wei" et al- '44B* &4A=- For instance0 people .orn with Gillia)s Syndro)e are pro:icient in lan"ua"e and social interaction .ut @( tests show the) to .e )entally de:icient- Certain areas have .een shown to have a )aRor responsi.ility :or speci:ic co"nitive :unctions as shown in Ta.le 3'-3Ta le 12.1 $rain lo.es and related responsi.ilities
Lo e =rontal %arietal Temporal /ccipital #nsula
4o&e relate% responsi ilities Plannin"0 selectin" and inhi.itin" responses0 decision-)akin" Arith)etical calculations0 knowin" where thin"s are spatially %an"ua"e processin" Iisual reco"nition #e"ulation o: e)otional reactions and cravin"s
Left(hemisphere and right(hemisphere speciali:ation There have .een so)e cases where drastic treat)ent :or epilepsy involvin" the cuttin" o: the corpus callosu)0 produced a Osplit .rainJ with little interaction .etween le:t and ri"ht he)ispheres- This reveals a speciali/ation o: :unction in each he)isphere that is )asked .y interconnection and inte"ration in nor)al .rains <#o/en/wei"0 et al- '44B* B7C=- The co"nitive )odes in which each he)isphere speciali/es is shown in Ta.le 3'-'Ta le 12.2 %e:t and ri"ht he)isphere co"nitive )ode speciali/ation
Le*t he&isphere Phonetic Se+uential Analytical Propositional ;iscrete te)poral analysis %an"ua"e &ource: #osen/wei" et al- <'44B* &4A=-
)ight he&isphere 1on-lin"uistic olistic Synthetic Gestalt For) perception Spatial
@n the past0 researchers assu)ed that the le:t he)isphere was usually do)inant .ut )odern research has )oved away :ro) this notion to su""est co-:unctionin"0 with speciali/ation o: :unction <#osen/wei" et al- '44B* B7C=- These ideas have i)plications :or educational practice which will .e e9plored in the latter part o: the chapterBrain plasticit$ ;espite the speciali/ation descri.ed a.ove0 research shows a certain a)ount o: .rain plasticity where .rain re"ions can vary their usual :unction- This can happen in two
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ways > .y co)pensation or .y develop)ent- ;a)a"e to certain .rain areas or deprivation o: sensation can lead to neurons adaptin" to a new role to co)pensateFor e9a)ple0 when researchers .lind:olded si"hted adults continuously0 a:ter only :ive days the visual corte90 deprived o: visual sti)ulation0 took over so)e o: :unctions o: hearin" and :eelin"- The visual corte9 was activated when they :elt $raille dots- OThe seein" .rain was now hearin" and :eelin"J <$e"ley '44C* 33H>3B=$rain plasticity is also evident in the develop)ent o: the child and adolescentThe in:ant .rain has )ultiple neural connections .etween )any parts o: the .rain with the potential to take on )any di::erent :unctions- For e9a)ple0 i: li:ethreatenin" conditions re+uire a toddler to lose the le:t he)isphere which controls lan"ua"e0 the :unctions o: learnin" to talk0 read and write can all .e taken over .y the ri"ht he)isphere <$e"ley '44C* C&=Teena"e .rains also continue to develop new neurons0 especially in the :rontal lo.es which control hi"h-level :unctions o: plannin"0 Rud"e)ent and e)otional re"ulation- 1eurolo"ical prunin" also takes place at this ti)e so that unused neural pathways die out to i)prove e::iciency- @t is only at the a"e o: a.out 'B that this "rowin" and prunin" di)inishes and the .rain looks adult <$e"ley '44C* 33A=- @: a su.Rect studied in pri)ary school is not continued0 then it will .e lost- Teachers have always known the i)portance o: revision and continuous use- OUse it or lose itJ is a well-worn clichS!ven when adults learn > ac+uirin" new knowled"e or )asterin" a new skill > the .rain chan"es in a physical way- 1euroscientists have :ound that skilled per:or)ers have )ore than an avera"e nu).er o: neural connections .etween the areas o: the .rain relatin" to that skill- OCells that :ire to"ether0 wire to"etherJ <#o.ertson 3777* H7=- For e9a)ple0 re"ular piano practice results in an e9pansion o: the .asal "an"lia0 cere.ellu) and the )otor corte9 related to :in"er )ove)entApparently0 :or a skilled pianist0 Rust thinkin" a.out playin" the piano leads to )easura.le chan"es in the )otor corte9 <$e"ley '44C* 3B3=- %ondon ta9i drivers develop an enlar"ed area o: the hippoca)pus responsi.le :or spatial )e)ory as a result o: needin" and usin" a detailed knowled"e o: the city <#osen/wei" et al- '44B* BH6=-
+h,sical %evelop&ent
The develop)ent o: the .rain is inte"rated with develop)ent o: the rest o: the .ody over the li:e course and each sta"e has i)plications :or learnin"Q %re(birth The develop)ent o: co"nition re+uires a particular set o: environ)ental conditions- Proper develop)ent re+uires ade+uate )aternal nutrition and li:estyle- 1utritional deprivation in the wo). leads to i)paired "rowth0 intelli"ence and responses to learnin" a:ter .irth#nfanc$ and childhood $ody i)a"e is :or)ed :ro) the reactions o: parents and teachers and perceived physical co)parisons to others- Children learn as a result o: their physical actions on )aterials in the world0 and the process o: )akin" sense o: these-
Teenage $ears $ody i)a"e is very i)portant0 :or e9a)ple in ter)s o: attractiveness to the opposite se9- Adolescents also e9tend their cate"ori/ation o: the)selves and others to include personality traits- @ntellectual and e)otional learnin" is intense with social learnin" o:ten takin" priorityAdulthood Gith )aturity0 identity is "rounded )ore on roles and responsi.ilities than on .ody i)a"e- The :rontal lo.e area o: the .rain )atures leadin" to )ore control and less i)pulsivity and risk-takin"- %earnin" is related to social roles/ld age $ody i)a"e is not so i)portant- The .ody slows up0 and the .rain also slows up with a decline in :luid intelli"ence as shown in Chapter 6 <p- 3''=- The i)portance o: re:lection on li:e events su""ests that learnin" has .eco)e )ore inte"rated0 hence the attri.ution o: wisdo) to older people-
Learning ph,sical s#ills

Much o: what we learn is physical- For e9a)ple0 we learn to walk0 dance0 drive0 hold a pencil0 write and speak- All these re+uire the .ody and )uscles to learn certain routines- People "radually learn to per:or) well-rehearsed physical actions auto)atically- Thinkin" a.out such auto)atic skills )ay even inter:ere with their per:or)ance- owever0 teachin" a skill and passin" on a skill )ay re+uire conscious awareness and an e9plicit state)ent o: how the skill is carried out :or the purposes o: sharin" <SchTn 376C* 'H>B=People usually ac+uire a physical skill in sta"es- $enRa)in $loo)0 whose co"nitive ta9ono)y was discussed in Chapter '0 also identi:ied the sta"es o: skills ac+uisition which he ter)ed Opsycho)otorJ- These sta"es ran"e :ro) knowin" the se+uence o: physical operations to internali/ed per:or)ance as shown in Ta.le 3'-ATa le 12.3 Sta"es o: psycho)otor develop)ent
4tage o* %evelop&ent 4tarting a stationar, car *nconscious master$ onscious control oordinated performance %artial performance A.le to start car without thinkin" a.out it A.le to per:or) co)plete se+uence o: action while thinkin" a.out it A.le to use clutch and "ear stick-shi:t to"ether A.le to depress the clutch
%rocedural task knowledge ?nowin" how to start a car &ource: $ased on $loo) and ?rathwohl <37B&=The :irst sta"e o: $loo)Js psycho)otor ta9ono)y can .e learned .y o.servin" and enactin" the e9pert .ehaviour o: others- This is known as )odellin"0 and re+uires physical enact)ent- $andura0 whose work is reviewed in Chapter H0 descri.es how we o.serve and )odel the .ehaviour o: )ore e9pert per:or)ers0 thus tryin" out new skills <$runin" et al- '44H=-
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Che)ical .alance in the .ody and hor)onal syste)s also in:luence learnin"These are too co)ple9 to .e discussed here- owever0 teachers need to .e aware o: the i)portance o: such syste)s and the need to )aintain appropriate hydration and .lood su"ar levels- The issue o: nutrition and che)ical enhance)ent o: learnin" is discussed later in the chapter-
.%ucational i&plications o* the learning o%,

As we have seen0 the .ody is central to the individual and social e9periences o: everyone and this )ust .e taken into account in :or)al education- !ducationalists need to take a holistic view o: education0 incorporatin" all ele)ents o: personhood0 reco"ni/in" the i)portance o: physical e9pression and pro)otin" social interaction!verythin" we learn > knowled"e0 practical skills or cultural values > has a physical di)ension0 o: which teachers should .e aware- %earnin" is )ost e::ective when the learnin" activity* Q Q is connected directly to physical e9perience0 and includes the physical presence o: others-
Connecting to ph,sical e!perience

Teachers should* Q Q Q Q provide spaces :or individual and "roup learnin"* .reak-out spaces0 alcoves0 ta.les to :acilitate social learnin"P provide educational settin"s that take account o: the needs o: the .ody* drinkin" :ountains0 toilets0 ventilation0 er"ono)ic :urnitureP create rich sti)ulatin" sensory environ)ents :or learners* water0 plants0 ani)als0 )usical instru)entsP start sessions with youn"er learners with so)e :or) o: physical e9ercise to increase the .lood supply to the .rain* stretchin"0 yawnin"0 action son"s0 action "a)esP include physical education as an i)portant su.Rect at all levels* use "y)nastics0 sportin" activities0 "a)esP value physical education in assess)ent and accreditationP encoura"e :re+uent chan"es o: the environ)ent to sti)ulate di::erent aspects o: .rain or physical develop)ent* Z have :re+uent .reaks .etween sessions o: teacher talkP Z encoura"e )ove)ent .etween classroo)sP Z Q arran"e :ield trips0 use la.oratory workP encoura"e )ove)ent .etween learnin" sessions and classes* have a variety o: learnin" locationsP where possi.le0 let roo)s .e .ases :or teachers so that students )oveP
consider physical and real-world activities appropriate to su.Rect and learner* environ)ental surveys <e-"- soil sa)plin"0 tra::ic surveys=0 school tripsP include physical activities as part o: assess)ent strate"ies* use authentic assess)ent o: psycho)otor skillsP e-"- li:e-savin" and First Aid e9a)inations0 practical la.oratory work-
+h,sical presence o* others

Other people are i)portant in learnin"0 .oth as physical presences and as o.serva.le proo: that desired or desira.le "oals can .e achieved- Teachers are )ore than )ere trans)itters o: knowled"e- They are0 as $runer says0 Ohu)an events0 who create a social world which connects to the social world o: the learnerJ <$runer 376&* 3'&=Teachers should* Q .uild relationships .etween the)selves0 their students0 and the su.Rect )atter* Z use student na)es and relate to the) as individualsP Z Z Q keep in touch with students in:or)ally in corridors and play"roundsP share personal :eelin"s a.out their su.RectsP
.e aware o: .ody lan"ua"eP Z consider :urniture place)ent and teacher locationP Z take account o: the .ody lan"ua"e co))unication o: learnersP .e aware that0 as teachers0 they e).ody the values o: their su.Rect and pro:ession* Z )aintain an appropriate physical and psycholo"ical distanceP Z Z consider the i)portance o: personal appearance0 "roo)in" and dressP .e aware o: the propensity o: personal )anneris)s to annoyP
Q Q Q
allow learners appropriate personal space* take account o: "ender and cultural di::erencesP )ove around the classroo)0 e9cept when "ivin" instructionsP .e aware o: learnin" as a social activity* Z .e sensitive to possi.le social isolation or .ullyin"P Z Z Z Z encoura"e "roup work and pro.le)-.ased learnin"P set up school ho..y clu.s and societiesP encoura"e peer colla.oration and challen"eP sta"e school plays and encoura"e "roup )usic-)akin"-
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.& o%ie% an% %istance e%ucation

!).odi)ent can so)eti)es .e an i)pedi)ent to learnin"- The necessity to .e to"ether in the sa)e place at the sa)e ti)e0 can .e a serious .arrier to learners0 especially adults with )any co))it)ents- Online learnin" allows the possi.ility o: transcendin" space and ti)e li)itations0 and per)its vicarious e9perience and the e::icient0 enhanced trans:er o: in:or)ationowever0 the lack o: physical presence leads to other pro.le)s- @n order to take account o: the physical aspect o: learnin" at a distance teachers should* Q incorporate so)e :or) o: physicality into their pro"ra))es* Z use photo"raphs and .io"raphical details o: the instructional desi"ners and authorsP Z )ake use o: we.-ca) and audio linkin"0 video-con:erencin" and other co))unicative technolo"iesP Z use the social networkin" capa.ilities o: the we. to create learnin" co))unitiesP consider the )ulti-sensorial capa.ilities o: technolo"y* Z use sound0 vision0 touch0 ani)ations0 interactivityP Z e9pand physical capa.ility in e9plorin" virtual environ)entsP :acilitate rapid co))unication and :eed.ack* Z set up online tutorials usin" we.-ca) and Ioice Over @nternet Z Z Protocol <IO@P=P use we.-con:erencin"P )ake use o: a ran"e o: input devices to capture )any aspects o: e).odi)ent-
Althou"h new technolo"ies have "one so)e way towards reproducin" physical presence in a virtual environ)ent0 there re)ains )uch physical learnin" which re+uires the practice o: physical skills in a real environ)ent-
The i&portance o* practice

#ecent educational research and practice has :ocused on the conditions necessary :or skilled per:or)ance or )astery o: a su.Rect areaTo :acilitate skilled psycho)otor per:or)ance0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q .reak a skill down into s)aller units or su.-tasksP .e e9plicit a.out the se+uence o: actions re+uiredP )odel correct per:or)anceP allow learners to learn .y trial and errorP "radually co).ine su.-skills to inte"rate se+uencesP insist on constant practice so that neural pathways are esta.lishedP
link learnin" to physical places and routines-
Learning enhance&ent
Since learnin" is a physical activity0 it can .e enhanced .y physical )eans- ;iet0 e9ercise and arti:icial supple)ents can enhance learnin"- Gater0 e9ercise and a diet hi"h in O)e"a A and & :ish oils have .een identi:ied as pro)otin" )ore e::ective )ental activity and the develop)ent o: neural pathways <?ie:er '44C* B6>&A=- ;ru"s such as #italin are now widely used .y psycholo"ists to control attention de:icit hyperactive disorder <A; ;= in children- The Gorld ealth Or"ani/ation <G O= clai)s that #italin is now .ein" widely used as a learnin" enhancer .y nor)al students <#ose '44B* '&4=Popular psycholo"y has interpreted the concept o: le:t-.rain ri"ht-.rain speciali/ation to i)ply that one side o: the .rain )ay .e do)inant over the other0 :or e9a)ple0 that le:t-.rain lo"ical thinkin" is do)inant over the ri"ht-.rain creative or e)otional thinkin"- @nventories o: le:t-.rain ri"ht-.rain attri.utes such as that shown in Ta.le 3'-H are so)eti)es used in education in association with learnin" style inventoriesTa le 12.4 %e:t and ri"ht .rain thinkin"
Le*t rain thin#ing %o"ic Calculation #eco"nition ;etail and patternin" Caution ;etach)ent
)ight rain thin#ing @ntuition Creativity Spatial awareness olistic overview #isk-takin" !)otion
Althou"h it )ay have so)e use as a )etaphor0 research does not support such a si)ple dichoto)y > :or e9a)ple0 lan"ua"e in le:t-handed people is housed in .oth he)ispheres- Accordin" to the neuroscientist Sarah $lake)ore0 it is +uestiona.le whether le:t- and ri"ht-.rain cate"ori/ation should .e applied in education0 and it )ay even act as a .arrier to learnin" <$lake)ore and Frith '44B* &4=-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q For)al western education has laid )ore e)phasis on intellect than .odyThere has .een so)e interest in physical education historicallyThe .ody is )ore than a physiolo"ical o.RectThe .ody is a set o: physiolo"ical syste)sThe .ody is a set o: personal constructs used to :or)ulate identityThe .ody is the )eans .y which we relate to others-
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Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
The .ody is an o.Rect upon which power is e9ertedThe .ody is su.Rectively e9perienced!).odi)ent is co))on in )etaphorThe .ody has .een seen as an i)pedi)ent holdin" .ack )ental activityThe )ind and .rain are di::erent constructions o: )ental events;i::erent .rain parts have )aRor responsi.ilities :or di::erent :unctionsThe .rain operates as a series o: :unctional )odulesThe le:t and ri"ht he)ispheres work to"ether .ut speciali/e in di::erent co"nitive )odes$rain re"ions can vary their usual :unction throu"h develop)ent or to co)pensate :or da)a"e@n learnin"0 the .rain chan"es in a physical way$rain per:or)ance can .e enhanced naturally and arti:icially$rain develop)ent is inte"rated with the develop)ent o: the rest o: the .ody over the li:e courseMuch learnin" involves the ac+uisition o: physical skillsSkills develop .y increasin" the inte"ration o: su.-tasks until they .eco)e auto)atic throu"h practiceO.servin" e9perts )odellin" per:or)ance "ives learners an overview o: a skill to .e ac+uired-
Conclusions
This chapter e)phasi/es the i)portance o: the .ody and e).odi)ent and seeks to redress the traditional view o: education as a purely )ental activity- The chapter draws attention to aspects o: learnin" such as the physical environ)ent and to the physiolo"ical needs o: learners?nowled"e o: neural processes has .een :ound to .e i)portant in understandin" and tacklin" learnin" disorders such as dysle9ia and A; ;- A knowled"e o: neural processes could .e use:ul in the :uture to enhance the learnin" o: the "eneral populationMany learnin" disa.ilities are spectru) disorders ran"in" :ro) )ild to severe0 so an e9ploration o: the neurolo"ical su.strates o: such disorders and re)edial strate"ies )ay help a variety o: learners%ikewise0 che)ical and nutritional enhance)ent o: learnin" need not .e con:ined to re)ediation- Just as the )edical use o: dru"s enhances and prolon"s physical li:e0 so their educational use )ay enhance and prolon" intellectual li:eowever0 this chapter does not si)ply concentrate on the .rain and the .ody as .iolo"ical entities- There is a dan"er in presentin" a reductive view o: learnin" .ased on o.serva.le neuronal pheno)ena0 i"norin" the personal0 social0 su.Rective and )etaphorical constructs o: e).odi)ent and their in:luence on learnin"%earnin" co).ines )ind and .ody- @t is a holistic e9perience0 seekin" as the %atin )otto proclai)s0 OMens sana in corpora sanaJ > a healthy )ind in a healthy .ody-
)e*erences
$e"ley0 S- <'44C= Train Dour ;ind! hange Dour Brain: )ow a New &cience Re.eals /ur Extraordinar$ %otential To Transform /ursel.es- 1ew 2ork* $allantine $ooks$lake)ore0 S- and Frith0 U- <'44B= The Learning Brain: Lessons for Education- O9:ord* $lackwell Pu.lishin"$loo)0 $- and ?rathwohl0 ;- <37B&= Taxonom$ of Educational /b0ecti.es: )andbooks 1 to 2: The ogniti.e! Affecti.e and %s$chomotor 3omain- %ondon* %on")ans Green$runer0 J-S- <376&= Actual ;inds: %ossible >orlds- Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University Press$runin"0 #- -0 Schraw0 G-J-0 1or.y0 M- and #onnin"0 #-#- <'44H= and #nstruction <Hth edn=- 1ew Jersey* Pearson0 Merrill Prentice ogniti.e %s$cholog$ all-
Cha).ers <377C= hambers Biographical 3ictionar$ <ed M-Perry=- %ondon* Cha).ers;o..s0 ;- <'44C= !ric ?andel* :ro) )ind to .rain and .ack a"ain0 in &cientific American ;ind! OctF1ov!ich.er"0 - <376&= The enclosure o: the .ody > on the historical relativity o: OhealthJ0
OnatureJ0 and the environ)ent o: sport0 The 9ournal of ontemporar$ )istor$! '3<3=* 77>3'3Foucault0 M- <37CC= 3iscipline and %unish: The Birth of the %rison- %ondon* Pen"uinGiddens0 A- <3773= ;odernit$ and &elf(identit$: &elf and &ociet$ in the Late ;odern AgeCa).rid"e* Polity Press?ie:er0 @- <'44C= $rain Food0 &cientific American ;ind! 36<B=* OctF1ov%ako::0 G- <377A= The conte)porary theory o: )etaphor0 in A- Ortony <ed-= ;etaphor and Thought0 <'nd edn=- 1ew 2ork* Ca).rid"e University Press%ako::0 G- and Johnson0 M- <'444= %hilosoph$ in the =lesh- Ca).rid"e0 MA- M@T PressMerleau-Ponty0 M- <37&H= &igns <trans- #ichard C- McCleary=- !vanston0 @%* 1orthwestern University PressPinker0 S- <'44C= The &tuff of Thought- 1ew 2ork* Iikin" Pen"uin#o.ertson0 @- <3777= ;ind &culpture: *nleashing $our Brain7s %otential- %ondon* $anta) Press#ose0 S- <'44B= The 51st entur$ Brain: Explaining! ;ending and ;anipulating the ;ind%ondon* Jonathan Cape#osen/wei"0 M-#-0 $reedlove0 S-M- and Gatson0 1-I- <'44B= Biological %s$cholog$: An #ntroduction to Beha.ioral and ogniti.e Neuroscience @Hth edn=- Sunderland0 MA* Sinauer Associates0 @nc#ousseau0 J-J- <3C&'F'44C= ,mile! or /n Education- Siou9 Falls* 1uIision Pu.lications-
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SchTn0 ;-A- <376C= Educating the Reflecti.e %ractitioner: Towards a New 3esign for Teaching and Learning in the %rofession- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey-$assShillin"0 C- <377A= The Bod$ and &ocial Theor$- %ondon* Sa"e Pu.lications2MCA <'44C= istory o: the 2MCA- http*FFwww-y)ca-netF <accessed 1ov- '44C=-
Chapter 13
Language an% learning
(ntro%uction
As you pass a classroo) or lecture theatre you are likely to hear people talkin"* teachers i)partin" in:or)ation or askin" +uestions0 and learners respondin" and askin" their own +uestions- @n )ost educational settin"s lan"ua"e is the )ediu) o: learnin" and teachin"- This chapter e9plores lan"ua"e and its relationship to learnin"- @t does not address the scienti:ic ele)ents o: philolo"y and lan"ua"e usa"e0 .ut concentrates on topics o: practical use to the teacher-
The i&portance o* language

$y lan"ua"e we )ean the socially shared conventions that "overn co))unication usin" words0 sy).ols or "estures- $ecause co))unication and lan"ua"e are central to all :or)s and levels o: education0 they deserve special consideration in a .ook on educational theory- %earnin" a lan"ua"e is the )ain intellectual e9ercise undertaken .y a youn" child- %an"ua"e is a prere+uisite :or en"a"in" in :or)al education and has .oth a social and co"nitive role- Ta.les 3A-3 and 3A-' illustrate so)e o: the socio-cultural and co"nitive roles o: lan"ua"e in relation to curriculu) and classroo) activitiesTa le 13.1 Socio-cultural roles o: lan"ua"e in relation to the curriculu)
Co&&unication Teacher an% stu%ents Articulatin" and sharin" curricular values Co))unicatin" and sharin" curricular o.Rectives Trans)ittin" and receivin" curricular content Givin" and receivin" :eed.ack
Transaction Teacher an% stu%ents A"reein" curricular values 1e"otiatin" "roup learnin" contracts 1e"otiatin" content and processes o: learnin" 1e"otiatin" success criteria
.naction Teacher Adaptin"0 )ediatin" and clari:yin" values @nductin" students %ayin" down procedures and "round rules ;eliverin" written or spoken Rud"e)ents
%A1GUAG! A1; %!A#1@1G
185
Ta le 13.2
Co"nitive roles o: lan"ua"e in relation to classroo) activities
Teaching Callin" :or attention Statin" ai)s and learnin" outco)es #e)indin" learners a.out previous classroo) activities Su""estin" learnin" )ethodolo"y and activities Presentin" )aterial in ver.al or written :or) @nitiatin" and provokin" class discussion challen"e Testin"0 usin" written or ver.al :or)s
Learning %istenin" ;evelopin" e9pectations #espondin" to +uestions
Thin#ing Focusin" attention Guidin" perception ;rawin" on )e)ory
Plannin" o: learnin" process Guidin" perception and )eta-co"nition %istenin"0 readin"0 writin"0 psycho)otor skills Talkin"0 de.atin"0 challen"in"0 con:ir)in" e9cusin"0 +ueryin" Answerin" in ver.al or written :or)s Usin" )e)ory :or encodin" and recall o: in:or)ation0 pro)otin" thinkin" #ein:orcin" or recon:i"urin" )ental constructs Supportin" or chan"in" )ental constructs #ecallin" :ro) )e)ory and re-en:orcin" e9istin" knowled"e
O::erin" encoura"e)ent or Acceptin"0 Rusti:yin"0
4ocio6cultural *unctions o* language

Language as a social activit,
!tienne Gen"er ar"ues that learnin" is inherently a social activity as learners participate in co))unities o: practice0 in which novices are inducted into speci:ic ways o: thinkin" and talkin" a.out the world <%ave and Gen"er 3773=- Such co))unities o::er their own OdiscoursesJ or :or)s o: lan"ua"e usa"e so that )e).ers can share co))on interests0 identi:y each other0 and distin"uish their co))unity :ro) othersA :a)ily is the )ost i))ediate learnin" co))unity encountered .y the child0 and within which it learns lan"ua"e alon" with social roles and codes o: .ehaviour1e9t is the school where concept :or)ation and sy).olic representation :or) a shared lin"uistic process0 situated in a learnin" co))unity where teachers and children Rointly construct )eanin"%an"ua"e :acilitates the construction o: personal )eanin" and social identity@ndividuals develop a sense o: sel: and e9plore their identities .y what they say to the)selves0 and .y what others say to the)- @ndividuals and "roups tell stories a.out the)selves0 which encapsulate their histories0 values and a).itions- %an"ua"e does not re:lect reality0 it constructs it-
Language as a sociocognitive activit,

The #ussian constructivist psycholo"ist Iy"otsky clai)ed that thinkin" develops and )eanin" is constructed throu"h lan"ua"e > a cultural tool developed over centuriesOne reason that lan"ua"e is such an e::ective tool is that it does not have to .e reinvented .y every speaker0 .ut can .e appropriated i))ediately <%eontJev 3763=An individualJs ideas are shared with others throu"h lan"ua"e and this Roint participation in lan"ua"e .eco)es internali/ed as individual thou"ht- Social co))unication there:ore develops into internali/ed thinkin" <Iy"otsky 37&'=As the child ac+uires su.Rect knowled"e0 lan"ua"e :or thinkin" is si)ultaneously OappropriatedJ- A childJs e9perience is )ediated :irstly throu"h social interaction and lan"ua"e as the child learns to talk and )ake co)plete sentences- This social speech is then used to "uide and direct action as the child en"a"es in Oprivate speechJ with the)selves- This Oprivate speechJ o:ten consists o: a..reviated sentences or phrases spoken aloud as the child en"a"es in a di::icult task- This is the .e"innin" o: Over.al thou"htJ and with it0 the develop)ent o: the sel:-re"ulation o: thinkin" <$odrova and %eon" '44A* 3&3=%earners co)e to an educational settin" with a certain a)ount o: co"nitive a.ility and knowled"eP the teacher .rin"s a )ore sophisticated co"nitive a.ility and a "reater level o: knowled"e- Throu"h the )ediu) o: lan"ua"e0 teacher and learner interact- The teacher encoura"es0 "ives e9a)ples0 supports and a::ir)s ideas0 o::ers analo"ies and )etaphors and challen"es e9istin" ideas in order to assist thinkin" in a process ter)ed Osca::oldin"J <Good et al- 37C&* 67>74=- This interaction .eco)es internali/ed as co"nitive chan"e in the learner- Iy"otsky called the intellectual space in which these interactions occur the O/one o: Pro9i)al ;evelop)entJ <VP;=Throu"h the processes o: social interaction0 the learner can learn )ore than they could achieve alone <Iy"otsky 37&'=For Iy"otsky0 schoolin" develops :or)al thinkin" skills and theoretical knowled"e- For e9a)ple0 learnin" to read leads to :ar-reachin" chan"es in the nature o: childrenJs knowled"e and use o: lan"ua"e0 which leads in turn to )ore analytical ways o: thinkin"- Children ac+uire sel:-re"ulation throu"h lan"ua"e0 learnin" to take on di::erent perspectives and :eed.ack- owever0 lan"ua"e usa"e itsel: )ay .e di::erent :or di::erent "roups0 as shown .y research on cultural lan"ua"e codes-
Cultural language co%es

Gritin" in the 37C4s0 the !n"lish sociolo"ist $asil $ernstein attri.uted childrenJs varia.le educational per:or)ance to the :or)s o: lan"ua"e used .y the di::erent social classes- e sin"led out )iddle-class and workin"-class lan"ua"e re"isters <$ernstein0 37CC=- Co)pare these e9chan"es .etween a parent and child* ;iddle(class parent* Gould you )ind )ovin" those .ooks o:: the chair so that @ can sit downK Get those o:: there-
>orking(class parent*
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The )iddle-class parent uses an ela.orated code o: lan"ua"e where all the co))unication is contained within the state)ent- This o::ers the possi.ility o: a.straction and co)ple9ity- The ela.orated lan"ua"e code con:ers an advanta"e in the :or)al educational settin" where lan"ua"e )astery is so i)portant- The restricted lan"ua"e code used .y the workin"-class parent re+uires physical presence and "estures to convey )eanin"- There is little a.straction- @t li)its lan"ua"e to the present ti)e and present place- This restricted lan"ua"e code is an i)pedi)ent to educational and vocational pro"ress- For $ernstein lan"ua"e codes are part o: a vicious circle rein:orcin" econo)ic and social divisions in society- They lead to diver"ent aspirations :or children :ro) di::erent social classes0 and to di::erent teacher and learner e9pectations o: school per:or)anceThe US eadstart ProRect o: the 37&4s ai)ed to enhance the lin"uistic a.ilities o: youn" A:rican-A)erican children on the assu)ption that it would lead to i)proved educational and vocational opportunities- President Johnson clai)ed that Ochildren who have never spoken0 learned to talkJ <Good 3766* 74=- !)pirical studies o: the ti)e showed that such children o:ten used a sin"le word :or a sentence0 :or e9a)ple0 Ohe.i"dawJ :or O eJs a .i" do"J <Good 3766* 73=- This e9pression is now not re"arded as evidence o: lin"uistic deprivation .ut as an e9a)ple o: a distinctive i)a"inative lan"ua"e known as !.onic or A:rican-A)erican speech- This si)pli:ies consonants <OdawJ :or Odo"J= and uses the ver. Oto .eJ to indicate continuous action <Ohe .e "oneJ :or Ohe is :re+uently "oneJ=P <Sa)ovar and Porter '44H* 3BH>B=$ernsteinJs work :ailed to take into account the co)ple9ities o: di::erent cultural and social lin"uistic :or)s- The idea that lan"ua"e and social class are clearly correlated has revived however0 with concepts o: cultural and social capital and the OreproductionJ and Otrans)issionJ o: do)inant social class values in education <$ourdieu 37CC=- Teachers )ay have hi"her e9pectations o: children with who) they share a co))on lan"ua"e0 )akin" co))unication easier than with other children <Good 3766* 33A=-
4ocio6political uses o* language

;i::erent :ields o: knowled"e have an associated lan"ua"e that deter)ines what is perceived0 valued and le"iti)i/ed- The French sociolo"ist Foucault clai)s that knowled"e is e).edded in OdiscoursesJ > all the lan"ua"e and practices associated with a :ield o: knowled"e- Those who control the discourse0 control access to the knowled"e0 its )eanin" and its lan"ua"e <Peters '443* 3C4>H=- The discourse o: education reveals that the le"iti)acy o: the knowled"e possessed .y teachers lends le"iti)acy to the power that they wield- For e9a)ple0 )any educational ter)s have undertones o: power0 as well as their sur:ace )eanin"- Teachers are OauthoritiesJ > they ha.e authority in their classroo)s and they are authorities in their su.Rect areaSi)ilarly OdisciplineJ re:ers .oth to the su.Rect .ein" studied and the control that the teacher e9ercises over classroo) events < oskin 3774* A4=- The discourse o: assess)ent in education > its use o: O"radesJ and Opassin"J or O:ailin"J has .een shown to .e threatenin" to the sel:-identity and sel:-estee) o: adult learners <Murphy and Fle)in" '444=-
Paulo Freire0 the South A)erican educationalist0 worked with peasants and landless workers on literacy proRects- e saw literacy ac+uisition as hi"hly political0 involvin" a critical scrutiny and assi)ilation o: the words which are culturally and politically relevant to an oppressed "roup- Throu"h readin"0 these peasants can learn how the do)inant discourse contri.utes to their oppression > Oreadin" the wordJ .eca)e Oreadin" the worldJ- %an"ua"e can there:ore act as a source o: e)power)ent0 ena.lin" oppressed people to develop counter-discourses that challen"e current political realities <Freire 376'=This idea is developed .y JXr"en a.er)as0 the Ger)an philosopher0 in his theory o: Oco))unicative rationalityJ <Morrison '443* '3B>'A=- $y this he clai)s that li.eration :ro) )isleadin" social or .ureaucratic :orces can :low :ro) a "roupJs co))it)ent to* Q Q Q a shared construction o: reasonP the principles o: )utual understandin"P a critical evaluation o: the clai)s put :orward in ar"u)ent-
Althou"h the concept o: Oco))unicative rationalityJ appears +uite a.stract0 it is used as the .asis :or a nu).er o: innovative educational pro"ra))es in peer-talkin" in !n"lish schools discussed in the later part o: this chapter-
+olitical correctness in language

@t is no lon"er accepta.le to descri.e learners as O)entally de:icientJ0 or to use OheJ to re:er to people in "eneral- Fe)inists clai) that se9ist lan"ua"e rein:orces se9ist thinkin"- Teachers now encoura"e inclusive lan"ua"e that avoids the la.ellin" o: people and challen"es preRudice and stereotypical thinkin"- Concepts o: political correctness are .ased on the Sapir-Ghar: hypothesis <SG = that lan"ua"e does not si)ply reproduce0 .ut in:luences the thou"hts and cate"ori/ations that speakers )ake <Ghor: 37B&=-
Cognitive *unctions o* language

There is sound e)pirical evidence :or a link .etween lan"ua"e and thinkin"- For e9a)ple0 the voca.ulary spurt in children .e:ore their second .irthday coincides with an increased a.ility to cate"ori/e0 thou"h it is di::icult to say whether the words or the concepts co)e :irst <(uinn and Oates '44H* BH>&=- A ran"e o: hypotheses have .een proposed to e9plain the relationship .etween lan"ua"e and thou"ht as Ta.le 3A-A shows-
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Ta le 13.3
#elationship .etween lan"ua"e and thinkin"
9,potheses %an"ua"e is thinkin"%an"ua"e a::ects the way people thinkThinkin" develops :ro) actin" on the world .ut talk with others :acilitates this processThou"ht and lan"ua"e have di::erent roots .ut "radually inte"rateThere is a )ove)ent :ro) action to visuali/ation to sy).olic representation as lan"ua"e&ource: $ased on Child <377C* ''H=-
Theorist Gatson* 37'4s Ghor:* 37B& Pia"et* 37&C Iy"otsky* 37&' $runer* 37&H
4tages o* chil%ren2s linguistic %evelop&ent

Pia"et is the )aRor theorist on the co"nitive develop)ent o: children .ut0 unlike Iy"otsky0 he does not accord lan"ua"e a hi"h place- For Pia"et0 children construct knowled"e .y developin" increasin"ly sophisticated hypotheses drawn :ro) their actions on the world <Pia"et and @nhelder 37&7=- This co"nitive develop)ent leads to lan"ua"e develop)ent0 as illustrated in Ta.le 3A-HTa le 13.4 Pia"etJs develop)ental sta"es* co"nitive and lin"uistic develop)ent
4tage Sensory-)otor A"e 4>' Pre-operational A"e '>&
Action on the $orl% Children interact with o.Rects in :ront o: the) Children play with and act on o.Rects They en"a"e in i)a"inative play
Cognitive %evelop&ent !arly cate"ori/ation and co)prehension @ncrease in cate"ori/ation !le)entary lo"ical thinkin" <e-"- :aulty theories o: conservation o: li+uids= !"ocentricity Appreciate )ultiple
Language %evelop&ent $a..lin"0 sin"le-word speech Ioca.ulary spurt Use o: OthisJ and OthatJ as re:erents Facility to ac+uire a second or third lan"ua"e without accent
Concrete operational A"e &>3'
Children e9peri)ent
Ghen not understood0 children re-:or)ulate and clari:y their lan"ua"e May ac+uire a second or third lan"ua"e without accent <contd=
with )aterials and perspectives :or) hypotheses !n"a"e in correct a.out the o.serva.le lo"ical reasonin" world a.out o.served o.Rects
4tage For)al operations A"e 3'
Action on the $orl% @ndividuals discover rules and principles socially and intellectually For)al education :osters lan"ua"e and thinkin"
Cognitive %evelop&ent ;evelop independent thinkin" #eason with a.stract0 hypothetical0 and contrary-to-:act in:or)ation
Language %evelop&ent Further develop)ent o: a.straction in lan"ua"e More di::iculty in ac+uirin" other lan"ua"es without accent
For Pia"et0 intellectual develop)ent is a predeter)ined develop)ental process which cannot .e accelerated0 so teachin" is relatively uni)portant- @nstruction could i)pose the teacherJs lan"ua"e or solutions on children without their havin" "one throu"h the necessary processes o: understandin"- owever0 there is a role :or lan"ua"e- @t can .e used to ask +uestions that unsettle childrenJs current thinkin" so that they consider new hypotheses- For e9a)ple0 i: children think :eathers :all )ore slowly than stones0 the teacher could ask what would happen i: the :eather and stone were dropped on the )oon where there is no air- Peers are )ore e::ective than teachers in provokin" such co"nitive dissonance since they have less power than teachers to i)pose )eanin" or OcorrectJ solutions <Good et al- '44&* '4B=-
Language ac3uisition
#mitation A co))on-sense view o: lan"ua"e ac+uisition is that a child learns lan"ua"e :ro) hearin" it spoken <Skinner 37BC=- 2oun" children learn "ra))ar .y repeatin" what they hear and then "enerali/in" the rules > :or e9a)ple0 addin" OsJ to plurals and OedJ to past tenses- owever0 childrenJs :acility in "eneratin" sentences they have never heard .e:ore cannot si)ply .e e9plained .y i)itation#nnate language The structural lin"uist 1oa) Cho)sky clai)s that lan"ua"e learnin" cannot .e reduced to responses to sti)uli- For Cho)sky0 lan"ua"e involves the knowled"e o: a set o: innate or inherent lan"ua"e rules that ena.le a speaker to say so)ethin" never spoken .e:ore0 and a listener to hear and understand it- Children are .orn knowin" the deep structure o: lan"ua"e0 :or e9a)ple the di::erence .etween ver.s and nounsAccordin" to Cho)sky0 this capacity :or lan"ua"e re:lects the uni+ueness o: the hu)an )ind0 di::erentiatin" hu)ans as a species :ro) others <Cho)sky 37C'=Language and e.olution The A)erican evolutionary psycholo"ist Stephen Pinker clai)s that lan"ua"e was a key :actor in hu)an evolution0 caused .y a si"ni:icant )utation in the vocal tract0
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which led to the production o: an e9pressive variety o: sounds0 and ulti)ately to speech <Pinker 377H=- %an"ua"e has pro.a.ly e9isted :or over a )illion years and every one o: )ore than B444 hu)an cultures has developed lan"ua"e <$runin" et al'44H* 'HH=- %an"ua"e and the .rain )ay have co-evolved0 with lan"ua"e evolvin" to )atch .rain processes that cate"ori/e the world in di::erent ways- This in turn shaped the structure o: the .rain to :it lan"ua"eJs increasin" de)ands on it <#ose '44B* 3AA=The innate potential o: youn" children :or lan"ua"e learnin" allied to their .rain plasticity and develop)ental sta"e )ay account :or their :acility in lan"ua"e learnin" and )ay have so)ethin" to contri.ute to decisions a.out :orei"n lan"ua"e teachin" in pri)ary and secondary schoolThe chapter has shown that lan"ua"e has socio-cultural and co"nitive di)ensions- Since these are the central concerns o: teachers0 the ne9t section draws out so)e o: the educational i)plications-
.%ucational i&plications
Ge discuss here so)e peda"o"ical i)plications o: lan"ua"e in relation to the educational e9periences o: youn" learners0 since lan"ua"e and literacy skills are "enerally ac+uired in childhood-
Language in the ho&e

The ho)e is i)portant in providin" a rich lin"uistic environ)ent that pro)otes the develop)ent o: speech- OMothereseJ > the e9a""erated and repetitive lan"ua"e in which )others speak to .a.ies > has an i)portant role in directin" the childJs attention and in concept :or)ation <Snow and Fer"uson 37CC=- The :re+uency with which parents speak to children up to the a"e o: ' has )aRor conse+uences :or their lan"ua"e use throu"hout li:e- Children understand )ore than they can say0 so adults should not con:ine their lan"ua"e to structures or voca.ulary that children are a.le to use in response- Children can appropriate lan"ua"e as a tool even when they have not ac+uired the co"nitive )aturity to utili/e it :ully- Parents can :oster this anticipation o: adult social li:e .y e9plicitness in e9plainin" and de)onstratin" the social roles that children take on in play <$odrova and %eon" '44A* 3B&>CB=Parents can also in:luence their childrenJs co))unicative strate"ies .y usin" an e9panded lan"ua"e code that helps the child appreciate the listenerJs point o: view and co))unicate )ore a.stract concepts@n order to help lan"ua"e develop)ent0 parents should* Q Q Q Q talk and read to in:ants :ro) the earliest a"eP have .ooks at ho)e and .rin" children with the) to li.raries and .ookshopsP choose stories and rhy)es to encoura"e repetition and reco"nitionP use )ove)ent in conRunction with stories and rhy)eP
Q Q Q
"ive a :ull e9planation o: their actions and encoura"e children to do the sa)eP restrict childrenJs passive TI watchin"P provide opportunities :or di::erent types o: play activity-
The language o* the classroo&

@: the purpose o: instruction is to trans)it pre-e9istin" knowled"e0 then classroo) lan"ua"e will .e concerned with su.Rect content and assess)ent will re+uire the production o: Ori"htJ answers throu"h talk or written lan"ua"e- @: the purpose o: instruction is )eanin" construction0 then co))unication will .e )ore interactive and e9ploratory0 and assess)ent less concerned with ri"ht answers <$arnes 37C3* 'C>A6=- owever0 even when teachers advocate a )ore constructivist role0 they still e)phasi/e correct answers <!dwards and Mercer 376C=- The practical constraints o: lar"e classes and crowded curricula )ake the Iy"otskian classroo) o: social interaction0 sca::oldin" and shared construction o: )eanin"0 an aspiration rather than a reality in )any cases <$liss et al- 377&* AC>&=Classroo) spoken lan"ua"e can .e e9plored under si9 headin"s* Q Q Q Q Q Q e9position0 where the teacher descri.es0 in:or)s or e9plainsP +uestion and answer e9chan"esP discussion and peer talk involvin" the whole class or s)all "roupsP listenin" where pupils listen to the teacher or to each otherP readin"P writin"<Cohen et al- '44H* 'AA>H&=
Exposition @n typical classroo) situations0 two-thirds o: the ti)e is spent talkin"0 the )aRority o: which is carried out .y the teacher <Flanders 37C4=- So)e purposes o: e9position are* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q introducin" lessonsP outlinin" the outco)es :or the sessionP "ivin" learners new in:or)ationP usin" technical lan"ua"e and su.Rect discourseP linkin" new )aterial to previous knowled"eP usin" )etaphors or analo"ies to present conceptsP layin" out a se+uence o: activitiesP indicatin" assess)ent procedures<Cohen et al- '44H* 'AA=
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?uestion and answer exchanges Much interest has :ocused on OteachereseJ or the way in which teachers talk to pupils in school- These e9chan"es are do)inated .y a )odel known as @#!* ( ) . @nitiate #espond !valuate - the teacher initiates the +uestionin" - the pupil responds - the teacher evaluates the response <$runin" et al- '44H* 'AA>H&= Ghen this type o: +uestionin" seeks a OcorrectJ response it )ay produce "uessin"0 rather than an e9planation o: pupilsJ thinkin"@n order to use +uestionin" e::ectively0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q .e clear a.out the purpose o: +uestionin" and the type o: answer sou"htP ask open-ended +uestions that invite ela.orated answersP state the na)e o: the desired respondent i))ediately a:ter the +uestionP invite responses :ro) s)all "roups as well as individualsP use .u//-"roups :or whole "roup +uestionin"* the class is divided into "roups0 "eneratin" answersP acknowled"e occasionally what pupils sayP without :urther +uestionin"P acknowled"e what pupils say0 and repeat or write their words as validationP encoura"e and reward pupils who answer .y providin" :eed.ack on answersP
Gith incorrect answers0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q not si)ply say that answers are wron"P seek other responses to avoid loss o: the pupilJs sel:-estee)P ask pupils to e9plain their reasonin"P o::er clues to re-:ocus thinkin"P
@n "eneral0 teachers should avoid* Q Q Q leadin" +uestions that contain the answerP +uestion that re+uire O"uessin" what teacher wants to hearJP askin" so )any +uestions that learners disen"a"e-
3iscussion and peer talk ogniti.e collaboration ChildrenJs talk a.out tasks can :oster the Roint construction o: )eanin" throu"h a"ree)ent- More knowled"ea.le or a.le peers can0 throu"h the VP;0 support their less knowled"ea.le peers .y providin" e9planations that lead to chan"es in reasonin"0 or o::er sca::oldin" or support in the develop)ent o: theories
<Iy"otsky 37C6* 74=- Moreover0 colla.oration can encoura"e pro.le)-solvin" as :riends or children in "roups support each otherJs thinkin" as a :or) o: social interactionogniti.e conflict @n a di::erent way to Iy"otsky0 Pia"et identi:ied peer talk as i)portant in helpin" children pro"ress in the active construction o: understandin" <Pia"et 37'&=- A teacherJs view is naturally do)inant0 .ut disa"ree)ents .etween peers can su""est alternatives to the childJs own viewpoint that can .e considered on )ore e+ual ter)s- The con:licts have to .e resolved in order to )aintain their social relationships so they seek solutions that take account o: .oth viewsThree types o: talk have .een identi:ied in pupilJs discourse in classroo)s* Q Q Q disputational talk > disa"ree)ents and individual decision-)akin"P cumulati.e talk > uncritical co))ent0 repetition0 a"ree)ent and ela.oration o: ori"inal pointsP explorator$ talk > constructive criticis) o: other peopleJs ideas0 with Rusti:ications :or challen"es and the proposal o: solutions or new ideas-
O: these0 e9ploratory talk should .e encoura"ed )ost .ecause it )akes thinkin" visi.le in talk <Mercer 377B=Listening to the teacher and each other @: it is to .e an e::ective learnin" tool0 classroo) discussion needs to .e structuredThe role o: the teacher is to* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q a"ree with pupils the nor)s and "uidelines :or participatin" in discussion )ake tolerance a rule o: discussion > not interruptin" wei"hin" up opposin" views de)onstrate the di::erence .etween personal opinions0 .elie:s0 and clai)s )ade on the .asis o: evidence show what type o: evidence counts in the evaluation o: a clai) set or ne"otiate an a"enda :or discussion state the desired outco)es o: the discussion link content and skill-.ased knowled"e re+uire pupils to re:lect on the learnin" process and what they have achieved ask pupils to re:lect on speci:ic areas o: success and di::iculty o::er other perspectives and insi"hts to co)plete the picture<$runin" et al- '44H* '4H>&= Reading There is an on"oin" de.ate whether readin" should .e tau"ht .y a phonic )ethod which identi:ies and co).ines sounds0 or .y a whole-word )ethod which ar"ues that they should learn whole words or sentences in conte9t- Ta.le 3A-B presents so)e o: the ar"u)ents involved-
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Ta le 13.5
Phonic and whole-word )ethod o: readin"
+honics &etho% $ehaviourist and co"nitive Pupils decode words and )eanin" .y sound Ad.antages* There is a clear )ethodical approach avin" )astered the .asics0 pupils have a strate"y :or tacklin" new words and can read a wide variety o: te9ts 3isad.antages* Phonics can .e technical and uninterestin" at :irst There are )any e9ceptions to phonic rules Pupils )ay sound out words without understandin" the);i::erin" dialects have di::erent pronunciations
7hole6$or% &etho% Constructivist The )eanin" o: te9ts is e)phasi/ed over the sounds o: letters Ad.antages* @t draws on the pupilsJ prior knowled"e o: words and on their lin"uistic and "eneral e9perience @t )oves :ro) the known <e9periences and thin"s= to the unknown <words=
3isad.antages* %ack o: a clear structure and )ethodolo"y #eliance on havin" encountered the word .e:ore 1ecessity to learn each word anew without a strate"y #eliance on the teacher :or every new word
The phonics )ethod is now .ein" pre:erred in )any countries0 over the whole-word and lan"ua"e approach previously popular in the U? and the US- @n addition to the phonics )ethod0 whole lan"ua"e )eanin":ul approaches )ay still have a role in attractin" the interest o: so)e reluctant readers .y re:lectin" their particular interests and culture-
>riting #eadin" and writin" are tools o: thinkin"0 since they encoura"e sel:-re"ulation0 re:lection and the drawin" on )e)ory and past e9perience- Gritin" is a )ore advanced tool that allows learners to distance the)selves even :urther :ro) i))ediate e9perience- Gritin" also re+uires the adoption and consideration o: other perspectives in order to satis:y the co))unicative de)ands o: readers@n order to i)prove writin" skills0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q ensure that pupils write :re+uently and :or di::erent purposesP create a supportive at)osphere :or writin"P e)phasi/e pre-writin" strate"ies like .rainstor)in"0 visuali/ation or storytellin"P e)phasi/e the sta"es o: writin"0 e-"- .rainstor)in"0 structurin" ideas0 editin" ideasP stress Oknowled"e trans:or)in"J0 not Oknowled"e-tellin"JP
take advanta"e o: co)puters :or structurin" )aterials<$runin" et al- '44H* A4C>34=
4econ% language learning

Up to the a"e o: 3'0 children de)onstrate an a.ility to ac+uire a second or even third lan"ua"e0 especially i: they are i))ersed in these lan"ua"e environ)ents- On the whole0 children never achieve the sa)e level o: :luency in a second and third lan"ua"e- OGe develop our :irst lan"ua"e and we learn othersJ <Ginston '44A* 377=Methods o: second lan"ua"e teachin" have chan"edP :ro) instruction in syntactical and :or)al "ra))atical structures to the recorded presentation o: ele)ents o: co))unication which re+uires a response- More recently0 the trend in second lan"ua"e teachin" is towards e9plicit instruction0 coupled with a )ore naturalistic Oi))ersionJ throu"h ti)e spent with native speakers0 or in the country o: the second lan"ua"e-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q %an"ua"e shapes understandin" and )eanin"%an"ua"e has a relationship to powerThere is a dyna)ic relationship .etween lan"ua"e and reasonin"%an"ua"e is not learnt .y i)itation .ut is an in.uilt inherited hu)an characteristic%an"ua"e con:ers an educational advanta"e on so)e social "roupsThe purposes and procedures o: classroo) co))unication can .e )ade e9plicit-
Conclusions
@t is clear :ro) this chapter0 that lan"ua"e plays an i)portant role in :or)al and in:or)al education- As well as its role in structurin" thinkin"0 lan"ua"e has social i)plications > :or e9a)ple0 codes o: lan"ua"e )ay operate to the advanta"e o: so)e "roups o: learners and can act as a )echanis) to indicate )e).ership o: di::erent learnin" co))unitiesTeachers )ay :ind a knowled"e o: constructivist and socio-cultural i)plications o: lan"ua"e use:ul in considerin" how they or other pupils )ay develop learnin" .y supportin" concept ac+uisition or .y provokin" dise+uili.riu)Althou"h the natureFnurture and evolutionary de.ates a.out lan"ua"e are interestin"0 they are hi"hly co)ple90 and their i)plications :or education are di::icult to "au"e- O: )ost practical relevance to teachers is the conclusion that ela.orated0 e9plicit and co)prehensive lan"ua"e usa"e )odelled .y parents and teachers is i)portant in supportin" e::ective learnin"-
%A1GUAG! A1; %!A#1@1G
197
)e*erences
$arnes0 ;- <37C3= %an"ua"e and learnin" in the classroo)0 9ournal of urriculum &tudies0 A<3=* 'C>A6$ernstein0 $- <37CC= Class and peda"o"ies > visi.le and invisi.le0 in $- $ernstein odes and ontrol0 Iol- A- %ondon* #outled"e and ?e"an Paullass
$liss0 J-0 Askew0 M- and Macrae0 S- <377&= !::ective teachin" and learnin"* sca::oldin" revisited0 /xford Re.iew of Education0 ''* AC>&3$odrova0 !- and %eon"0 ;-J- <'44A= %earnin" and develop)ent o: preschool children :ro) the Iy"otskian perspective0 in A- ?o/ulin0 $- Gindis0 I-S- A"eyev0 S-M- Miller <eds= "$gotsk$7s Educational Theor$ in ultural ontext- Ca).rid"e* Ca).rid"e University Press0 3B&>CH$ourdieu0 P- <37CC= Cultural reproduction and educational reproduction0 in J- ?ara.el and A- - alsey <eds= %ower and #deolog$ in Education- %ondon* O9:ord University Press0 H6C>B33$runin"0 #- - Schraw0 G-J-0 1or.y0 M-M- and #onnin"0 #-#- <'44H= and #nstruction <Hth end-=- 1ew Jersey* Pearson Prentice allogniti.e %s$cholog$
Child0 ;- <377C= %s$cholog$ and the Teacher <&th edn=- %ondon* Cassell !ducationCho)sky0 1- <37C'= Language and ;ind- 1ew 2ork* arcourt $raceCohen0 %- Manion0 %- and Morrison0 ?- <'44H=- A Guide to Teaching %ractice <Bth edn=%ondon* #outled"e Fal)er!dwards0 ;- and Mercer0 1- <376C= ommon 4nowledge: The 3e.elopment of *nderstand( ing in lassrooms- %ondon* MethuenFlanders0 1-A- <37C4= Anal$sing Teacher Beha.iour- #eadin"0 MA* Addison-GesleyFreire0 P- <376'= %edagog$ of the /ppressed- ar)ondsworth* Pen"uinoskin0 ?- <3774= Foucault under e9a)ination* the crypto-educationalist un)asked0 in S-J- $all <ed-= =oucault and Education! 3isciplines and 4nowledge- %ondon* #outled"e0 '7>BA%ave0 J- and Gen"er0 !- <3773= &ituated Learning: Legitimate %eripheral %articipationCa).rid"e* Ca).rid"e University PressMercer0 1- <377B= The Guided Mattersonstruction of 4nowledge- Clevedon* Multilin"ual
Morrison0 ?- <'443= JXr"en a.er)as 37'70 in J-A- Pal)er =ift$ ;odern Thinkers on Education Fro) Pra"et to the Present- %ondon* #outled"e0 '3B>'AMurphy0 M- and Fle)in"0 T- <'444= $etween co))on and colle"e knowled"e* e9plorin" the .oundaries .etween adult and hi"her education0 &tudies in ontinuing Education! ''<3=* CC>7A-
Peters0 M- <'443= Michel Foucault 37'&>6H0 in J-A- Pal)er =ift$ ;odern Thinkers on Education: =rom %iaget to the %resent- %ondon* #outled"e0 3C4>HPia"et0 J- <37'& = The Language and Thought of the hild- %ondon* #outled"ePia"et0 J- and @nhelder0 $- <37&7= The %s$cholog$ of the ?e"an PaulPinker0 S- <377H= The Language #nstinct- 1ew 2ork* arperCollinshild- %ondon* #outled"e and
(uinn0 P-C- and Oates0 J- <'44H= !arly cate"ory representations and concepts0 in JOates and A- Grayson0 ogniti.e and Language 3e.elopment in hildren- Milton ?eynes* OUF$lackwell Pu.lishin"#ose0 S- < '44B= The 51st entur$ Brain : Explaining! ;ending and ;anipulating the ;ind%ondon* Jonathan CapeSa)ovar0 %-A- and Porter0 #-!- <'44H= ommunication Between ultures <Bth edn=-
$el)ont0 CA* Gadsworth-Tho)son %earnin"Skinner0 $-S- <37BC= "erbal Beha.ior- 1ew 2ork* Appleton Century Cro:tsSnow0 C- and Fer"uson0 C- <eds= <37CC= Talking to hildren: Language #nput and
Ac'uisition- Ca).rid"e* Ca).rid"e University PressIy"otsky0 %-S- <37&'= Thought and Language <trans- !- au:)ann and C- Iakar=Ca).rid"e0 MA* M@T PressIy"otsky0 %-S- <37C6= ;ind in &ociet$: The 3e.elopment of )igher %s$chological %rocessesCa).rid"e0 MA* arvard University PressGinston0 #- <'44A= The )uman ;ind and )ow to ;ake the ;ost of #t- %ondon* $anta) PressGhor:0 $-%- <37B&= Science and lin"uistics0 in J-$- Carroll <ed-= Language Thought and Realit$: &elected >ritings of Ben0amin Lee >horf- Ca).rid"e0 MA* M@T PressGood0 ;- <3766= )ow hildren Think and Learn: The &ocial 3e.elopment- O9:ord* $lackwell Pu.lishersGood0 ;-0 $runer0 J- and #oss0 G- <37C&= The role o: tutorin" in pro.le) solvin"0 The 9ournal of hild %s$cholog$ and %s$chiatr$! 3C* 67>344Good0 C-0 %ittleton0 ?- and Sheehy0 ?- <'44&= 3e.elopmental %s$cholog$ in ActionMilton ?eynes* Open UniversityF$lackwell Pu.lishin"ontexts of ogniti.e
Chapter 14 .!periential an% co&petenc,6 ase% learning
(ntro%uction
@: e9periential learnin" is the .est :or) o: learnin"0 readers should put this .ook down and instead e9perience reality- The +uestion however then :ollows > OGhat will .e learnt :ro) that e9perienceKJ @n this chapter we e9a)ine the theories o: e9periential learnin" and the associated skills and co)petencies and their i)plications :or education0 since theory is a synthesis o: the e9perience o: others-
.!periential learning
.!perience
O!9perience is a weasel word- @ts slipperiness is evident in an inconsistency characteristic o: )any thinkersJ <;ewey 37'B* 3=- For e9a)ple Oe9periential learnin"J is not the sa)e as Oe9perience o: learnin"J- The :or)er relates to e9perience and the latter to learnin"- !9perience is di::icult to de:ine .ecause it co).ines* Q Q Q an e9ternal or internal event or actionP the associated sensation and perceptionP the resultin" interpretation-
!9ternal events are :irst e9perienced throu"h the senses .ut e9perience cannot .e li)ited to sensation- Consciously e9periencin" an event allows interpretation- Fro) a constructivist perspective0 it is clear that )eanin"-)akin" is involved- An event is e9perienced in the li"ht o: previous events and in ter)s o: e9istin" )ental constructsTake0 :or e9a)ple0 a :oot.all )atch* supporters o: di::erent tea)s e9perience that )atch in very di::erent waysAction and interpretation are linked- @nterpretation does not happen only a:ter the event is co)pletedP interpretation happens durin" the event and actions depend on that interpretation- For e9a)ple0 a teacher constantly interprets studentsJ responses and acts accordin"ly- The studentsJ .ehaviour is in:luenced in turn- !9perience is an Oactive en"a"e)ent with the environ)ent0 o: which the learner is an i)portant partJ <$oud et al- 377C* &=-
2"" APP#OAC !S TO %!A#1@1G* A GU@;! FO# T!AC !#S
Learning
%earnin" occurs as a result o: e9perience- The e9perience )ay .e our prior e9perience or the e9perience o: others0 and it )ay .e structured or unstructured0 :or)al or in:or)al0 inside or outside a classroo)- Ghen student teachers construct lesson plans0 they )ay learn in the classroo) that the plans need to .e adapted- Ta.le 3H-3 shows how several conte)porary de:initions o: learnin" "ive a central place to e9perienceTa le 14.1 The i)portance o: e9perience in de:initions o: learnin"
Theorist ?ol. <376H* A6=
/e*inition o* learning The process where.y knowled"e is created throu"h the trans:or)ation o: e9perience-
Me/irow <'444* B= The process o: usin" a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation o: the )eanin" o: oneJs e9perience as a "uide :or :uture actionGilson <'44B* C= A relatively per)anent chan"e o: knowled"e0 attitude or .ehaviour occurrin" as a result o: :or)al education or trainin"0 or as a result o: in:or)al e9perience$eard and Gilson <'44&* 37= The sense-)akin" process o: active en"a"e)ent .etween the inner world o: the person and the outer world o: the environ)ent-
&ource: $ased on $eard and Gilson <'44&* 37=$oud0 Cohen and Galker <377C* 6>3&= o::er :ive propositions on the nature o: learnin" and e9perience3 ' A H B !9perience is the :oundation o:0 and the sti)ulus :or0 learnin"%earners actively construct their e9perience%earnin" is a holistic process%earnin" is socially and culturally constructed%earnin" is in:luenced .y the socio-e)otional conte9t in which it occurs-
These propositions stron"ly support the idea that e9perience and learnin" are insepara.le* perhaps the e9pression Oe9periential learnin"J )ay even .e tautolo"ical <$eard and Gilson '44&* 37=-
Theories o* e!periential learning

Many well-known educational theorists have touched on the relationship .etween e9perience and learnin" althou"h that relationship has not necessarily .een their central concern- Ta.le 3H-' shows the way e9perience appears in their theories-
!DP!#@!1T@A% A1; COMP!T!1C2-$AS!; %!A#1@1G
2"1
Ta le 14.2
Theorists and e9periential ele)ents
Theorist Iy"otsky <37&'= Pia"et <37&7= %ave and Gen"er <3773= $runer <377&= $andura <37CC=
.!periential ele&ent Social and cultural e9perience !9perience o: action on the world !9perience o: co))unity Co"nitive0 social and cultural e9perience Iicarious e9perience
@n this chapter0 we are interested in theorists who have considered e9perience :ro) an educational perspective0 analysin" the way in which people interact with e9perience so as to learn :ro) it- @n this interaction0 re:lection is one o: the )ost i)portant activities- #e:lection can .e de:ined as the activity o: critically analysin" our actions and ideas with the "oal o: i)provin" per:or)ance- ere we will .e considerin" the ideas o: ;ewey0 SchTn0 ?ol. and Me/irow > all o: who) have treated re:lection as a tool :or trans:or)in" e9perience into learnin"-
)ational e!periential learning

John ;ewey clai)ed that re:lection is a rational process that .e"ins with the e9perience o: a pro.le)0 which is then "iven serious and syste)atic consideration Oin the li"ht o: the "rounds that support it and the :urther conclusions to which it tendsJ <;ewey 37AA* A0 7=- ;ewey e)phasi/es conscious re:lection as an i)portant part o: e9periential learnin"- is insi"hts are li)ited0 however0 .y his :ailure to reco"ni/e that0 in reality0 )any e9periences do not lead to or include pro.le)s and )ay not .e a)ena.le to syste)atic scienti:ic analysis- @ndeed0 Oe9periences and responses are o:ten OO)essyJJ0 unpredicta.le and inchoateJ <Carlile and Jordan '44C* '&=-
)e*lective e!periential learning

Accordin" to ;onald SchTn0 a leadin" )odern thinker on re:lection0 pro:essionals are characteri/ed .y their a.ility to respond to unpredicta.le e9perience with artistry and intelli"ence0 usin" it as the .asis :or what he calls a Oworld-)akin" activityJ <376C* A&=SchTn points out that the knowled"e possessed .y pro:essionals and e9perts is o:ten tacit > that is0 the e9pertJs skills and knowled"e are sea)lessly inte"rated into the per:or)ance o: their e9pert action- SchTn su""ests that re:lection is critical to uncoverin" this tacit knowled"e and proposes a )ethodolo"y :or doin" so- e divides re:lection into two types* Q Reflection(in+action* occurs at the sa)e ti)e as action0 )akin" tacit assu)ptions e9plicit so that they are de)ysti:ied- The learnin" that occurs :ro) this re:lection > that is0 the reco"nition o: previously i)plicit skills and knowled"e > can .e passed on to the novices in the :ield-
Reflection(on(action* involves a retrospective e9a)ination o: events- The e9pert can use this re:lection to clari:y and learn :ro) the e9perience :or :uture i)prove)ent-
C,clical e!periential learning

;avid ?ol.Js well-known Olearnin" cycleJ <?ol. 376HP ?ol. and Fry 37CB= represents a )ethod :or re:lectin" on e9perience that is non-linear and can .e"in at any point in the cycle <see Fi"ure 3H-3=- !9periential learnin" can take Oconcrete e9perienceJ as an e::ective startin" point- This is o.served in a re:lective )anner0 which leads the :or)ulation o: a.stract concepts and "eneral rules :or :uture e9perience0 which are then tested .y )eans o: e9peri)entation- This leads to )odi:ications o: the ne9t e9periential cycle-
Concrete experience
*ctive experimentation
Reflective observation
*bstract conceptuali0ation Figure 14.1 ?ol.Js learnin" cycle-
&ource: ?ol. <376H=SchTn and ?ol. present re:lection as an i)portant )eans o: i)provin" :uture practice- O#e:lection there:ore can .e on practice0 in practice and for practiceJ <Carlile and Jordan '44C* A4=-
Trans*or&ative e!periential learning

The A)erican educationalist Jack Me/irow :ocuses on the re:lective processes that occur when adults chan"e their O)eanin" sche)esJ- Meanin" sche)es are )ade up o: sets o: .elie:s0 attitudes and e)otional reactions which co)prise e9perience <Taylor 3776=- For Me/irow0 e9perience is interpreted in a constructivist way on the .asis o: previous e9perience and Oclusters o: )eanin" sche)esJ <Me/irow '444* 36=- Ghen the
2"3
)eanin" sche)es are chan"ed and new perspectives attained0 then trans:or)ative learnin" has occurred <Jarvis et al- '44A* H4=-
Co&petence6 ase% learning

!9periential learnin" occurs when certain activities are carried out and a ran"e o: skills and co)petencies are :urther developed- A discourse o: education and trainin" uses ter)s such as OskillJ0 Oco)petencyJ and Oco)petenceJ- Althou"h these ter)s are o:ten used loosely and interchan"ea.ly0 the :ollowin" is an atte)pt to di::erentiate .etween the)&kill is the a.ility to carry out a particular activity consistently- This a.ility )ay depend on physical or )ental co)petence or attitude- A teacher )i"ht possess a skill in +uestionin"0 :or e9a)pleompetenc$ is the a.ility to carry out a co)ple9 task that re+uires the inte"ration o: knowled"e0 skills and attitudes > :or e9a)ple0 i: a teacher has su.Rect knowled"e0 the skill o: +uestionin" and knows when and to who) it is appropriate to ask +uestions0 then the teacher has a co)petency in elicitin" student responses- Co)petencies ena.le people to per:or) e::ectively in a particular environ)entompetence is the a.ility to per:or) a role e::ectively within a conte9t- @t re+uires a ran"e o: co)petencies- For e9a)ple0 teachin" co)petence re+uires co)petencies in curriculu) plannin"0 classroo) )ana"e)ent and the assess)ent o: learners- O@nco)petenceJ is the state o: not .ein" co)petent within a role-
Fi"ure 3H-' shows how sets o: consistent skills co).ine to .eco)e co)ple9 co)petencies necessary :or co)petence in a conte9tual role-
Figure 14.2
Skill0 co)petence and co)petency-
The develop)ent o: co)petence in a role is not a si)ple accretion o: skills and co)petencies0 however- Attitudes and values are very i)portant in a teacher- For instance0 an inco)petent science teacher )ay have very "ood su.Rect knowled"e and la.oratory skills and even possess co)petency in curricular plannin" .ut )ay lack a vital personal +uality so that there is an ethical :ailure where students are not valued and respected- Althou"h it )ay )ani:est itsel: in technical :ailure such as discipline .reakdown0 personal :ailure )ay .e at the root o: teacher inco)petence <Carlile '44B* 3H=Co)petence in a teachin" role re+uires a co)ple9 coordination and inte"ration o: knowled"e0 skills0 co)petencies and values- This is illustrated in Fi"ure 3H-A- Skill involves the per:or)ance o: a particular action- The coordination o: a set o: skills with knowled"e produces a particular co)petency which is necessary to per:or) a particular task- The inte"ration o: a set o: re+uired co)petencies with attitudes and values in conte9t leads to co)petence in the per:or)ance o: a role-
Figure 14.3
#ole co)petence )odel-
Learning %o&ains
Another way o: lookin" at how co)petence develops can .e :ound in the ta9ono)ies o: learnin" proposed .y $loo) and his collea"ues in 37B& and discussed in Chapter A$loo)0 who has produced the .est-known )odel o: the psycho)otor do)ain0 cate"ori/es learnin" into three di::erent do)ains arran"ed in increasin" order o: co)ple9ity :ro) lower to hi"her levels as shown in Ta.le 3H-A-
2"5
Ta le 14.3
$loo)Js ta9ono)ies o: learnin"
Cognitive Synthesis and evaluation Analysis Application Co)prehension ?nowled"e
+s,cho&otor Mastery Conscious control Coordinated per:or)ance Partial per:or)ance Procedural task knowled"e
A**ective Generali/ation Ialue syste) Ialue #esponse Attention
#ntegration of competence model and domain model The co)petence )odel shown in Fi"ure 3H-A can .e inte"rated with the ta9ono)ic )odel in Ta.le 3H-A to e9plain how co)petence develops- %earners possess a certain potential which is reali/ed and developed throu"h learnin" in the co"nitive0 psycho)otor and a::ective do)ains- This produces a .ody o: knowled"e and a set o: co"nitive0 psycho)otor and a::ective skills that coordinate to produce task co)petencies- At the sa)e ti)e a set o: attitudes and values develops :ro) the interaction o: e9perience and inherent personality :actors- The inte"ration and coordination o: these co)ponents > skills0 co)petencies0 knowled"e and attitudes > leads throu"h a process o: e9periential learnin" to co)petence in a roleA trainee teacher .e"ins with a certain potential3'AHB&@n the co"nitive do)ain she learns su.Rect and theoretical knowled"e@n the psycho)otor do)ain she learns presentation skills@n the a::ective do)ain she ac+uires pro:essional teachin" and su.Rect valuesShe then possesses a ran"e o: teachin" skills that she can per:or) consistentlyThese skills are then coordinated so that they .eco)e co)petencies that can .e per:or)ed si)ultaneously in a task such as the delivery o: a lessonFinally0 throu"h the practice o: teachin"0 the skills and co)petencies are inte"rated with pro:essional and personal values to ena.le her to carry out the role o: a teacher-
This is illustrated in Fi"ure 3H-H-
.%ucational i&plications o* e!periential learning

!9periential learnin" is typical o: the shi:t :ro) su.Rect-centred curricula and teacher-centred instruction to student-centred e9perience and how it can .e activated as part o: learnin"- The teacher needs to create the conditions that provide learnin" e9periences- The i)plications :or the teacher can .e deduced :ro) the two parts o: the e9pression Oe9periential learnin"J-
Figure 14.4 Experiential: Learning:
Fro) potential to role co)petenceteachers need to provide e9periences :or studentsteachers need to help students to process that e9perience-
+rovi%ing e!perience
%rimar$ experience @n this the learner has direct )ulti-sensorial0 :ully conte9tuali/ed0 actual e9perience!9periences can .e provided that en"a"e the senses and i)prove perceptual skills0 discri)ination0 reco"nition and cate"ori/ation while providin" a rich e9perience o: how thin"s present the)selves and an opportunity to react to the)@n order to provide pri)ary e9perience0 teachers should* Q Q Q Q Q Q en"a"e the senses throu"h the provision o: rich environ)ents and e9periencesP increase awareness o: perception0 e-"- throu"h sensory deprivation such as .lind:oldin"P provide a ran"e o: aesthetic and e)otional e9periences throu"h dra)a0 )usic and artP arran"e social learnin" e9periences throu"h pro.le)-.ased learnin"P o::er practical )eanin":ul activities such as work e9perience or co))unity serviceP or"ani/e challen"in" lived e9periences such as e9peditions and outdoor activities-
2"7
&econdar$ experience This involves the )ediation o: an actual e9perience throu"h an intervenin" e9perience that o::ers a version that can convey so)e o: the characteristics o: the eventistorically0 storytellers have .een )ediators o: e9perience0 and teachers are well aware o: the interest that an anecdote or story can elicit :ro) an audience- The written word too is a power:ul )ediator o: e9perience and re)ains one o: the principal )eans o: teachin"- Ghile storytellin" and .ooks de)and a response in the i)a"ination o: listeners or readers0 technolo"ical advances )ean that )ore :eatures o: e9perience can .e presented- This can ran"e :ro) si)ple audio and video )aterials to co)puter si)ulation and virtual reality with practically :ull i))ersion throu"h a ran"e o: headsets with A-; "o""les and )otion-sensors- Iirtual reality has the intri"uin" potential to "o .eyond the replication o: real e9perience and per)it learners0 :or e9a)ple0 to see0 hear and :eel what it is like to :ly or to travel in )iniature :or) throu"h the interior o: a plant or to e9perience0 at least partially0 what it is like to .e a .at-
+rocessing e!perience
Fro) the point o: view o: the teacher0 providin" students with various e9periences as descri.ed a.ove is only the :irst step- The student )ay or )ay not learn anythin" :ro) the e9perience- The steps that can .e taken to ensure that learnin" takes place will vary with the a"e and sta"e o: develop)ent o: the learner- The teacher should pro)ote co"nitively-provokin" e9periences that cause the child to think and adapt ideas- The desired learnin" )ay so)eti)es .e the en"a"e)ent with the e9perience and will not need to .e re:lected upon- The desire to have students re:lect on e9perience can .e seen as a .elie: that thinkin" is superior to actin" and that ideas are superior to thin"s-
#n'uir$(based learning An e9a)ple o: a )ethodolo"y that includes e9perience and associated learnin" in its desi"n is in+uiry-.ased learnin" in which* Q Q Q Q learnin" is driven .y the need to solve a pro.le) or )ake sense o: a situationP a pro.le) is presented alon" with the in:or)ation and tools to solve itP learners are re+uired to draw on past e9perienceP learners need en"a"e in new e9periences0 such as research-
For e9a)ple0 pri)ary school pupils )ay .e "iven in:or)ation a.out the way their school is heated and .e re+uired to use the Gorld Gide Ge. and their own e9perience o: the school environ)ent to su""est environ)entally-:riendly0 ener"ysavin" ways to approach the issue-
%roblem(Based Learning Pro.le)-$ased %earnin" <P$%= is a )ore advanced and syste)atic :or) o: in+uiry.ased learnin"- The P$% process )akes students responsi.le :or e9plorin" the pro.le)0 identi:yin" learnin" issues0 researchin" )aterials0 and presentin" solutionsThe :ollowin" se+uence is typicalQ Q Q The teacher considers the course desi"n and its learnin" outco)esThe teacher desi"ns co)ple9 and realistic pro.le)s .ased on learnin" outco)esStudents work in "roups to consider the pro.le) .y* Z .rainstor)in" ideas and sharin" prior knowled"eP Z identi:yin" knowled"e "apsP Z Z Q Q Q Q considerin" research and learnin" needed to .rid"e "apsP a"reein" roles and sharin" tasks-
Group )e).ers undertake research and other tasksThey )eet to discuss pro"ress and :or)ulate solutionsThey present their solution and discuss its )eritsThey discuss the learnin" that has taken place-
Althou"h students )ay initially :eel a.andoned0 this is not the case- An i)portant :eature o: P$% is that the teacher )onitors all o: these phases and0 i: necessary0 steps in with supple)entary pro.le)s or adaptations o: the pro.le) to ensure that the desired learnin" outco)es are achieved-
Reflection on experience #e:lection is a way o: processin" e9perience in order to learn :ro) it and i)prove :uture action- Particularly in hi"her education0 it is i)portant that learners en"a"e in a process o: re:lection- Theorists such as ;ewey0 SchTn0 ?ol. and Me/irow0 discussed earlier in this chapter0 o::er so)e avenues :or the teacher- ;ewey encoura"es the teacher to present pro.le)s to en"a"e learner re:lection- SchTn asks that practice .e )ade e9plicit so that it can .e analysed0 re:lected upon and sharedP ?ol. encoura"es an on"oin" cycle o: e9peri)entation and re:lectionP and Me/irow asks learners to consider the trans:or)ation that is occurrin"owever0 the teacher needs to su""est practical )ethods :or carryin" out the advice o: these theorists- A particularly use:ul tool is re:lective writin"- The act o: writin" encoura"es the e9a)ination and or"ani/ation o: unstructured thou"hts and ideas a.out e9perience@n order to encoura"e students to re:lect0 teachers need to* Q Q e9plain the i)portance and use:ulness o: re:lection to learners as a )eans o: .ene:itin" and learnin" :ro) e9perienceP e9plore the theory underlyin" re:lective practice as proposed .y ;ewey0 SchTn0 ?ol.0 Me/irow and othersP
2"9
Q Q
encoura"e students to overco)e re:lectorsJ .lock .y su""estin" particular topics such as* Z e9pectations0 :ears and hopes :or learnin" .ein" undertakenP Z a critical incident or learnin" )o)entP Z an unresolved issue or pro.le)P o::er techni+ues :or re:lective writin" such as those descri.ed in Fi"ure 3H-BP e9plain how re:lective writin" can .e deepened and conte9tuali/ed .y )eans o: description0 personal view0 alternative perspective0 .roader conte9tP .uild in assess)ent with clear criteria as descri.ed in Ta.le 3H-H-
Ta le 14.4 Criteria :or assessin" re:lective writin"
+ro%uct (uantity %en"th Presentation #e"ularity (uality (uality o: e9pression Clarity Thorou"hness #elevance Understandin" Application to course #elationship to purpose !vidence o: pro"ress
+rocess ;epth Critical thinkin" onesty Co"nitive skill Generali/in" e9perience Synthesis0 analysis0 evaluation
&ource: Carlile and Jordan <'44C* AB=-
.%ucational i&plications o* co&petenc,6 ase% learning

Co)petency-.ased )ethods o: trainin" in industry were very success:ul in the US a:ter the Second Gorld Gar- Gorkers developed co)petencies in the per:or)ance o: speci:ic )easura.le tasks- This co)petency-.ased approach was then applied to education- @t .eca)e popular in the United States in the 37C4s and su.se+uently spread to !urope and other parts o: the world- @t is associated with0 or has in:luenced0 a nu).er o: educational develop)ents* Q Q Q Q the learnin" outco)es )ove)entP the standardi/ation o: educationP initiatives in the vocational and .usiness sectorsP the e)er"ence o: the concept o: Otrans:era.le skillsJ-
The learning outco&es &ove&ent

This is a )ove)ent in education that developed in tande) with the co)petency.ased )ove)ent- @t had its "enesis in*
Describe the actual event as if you were a video camera Then comment on your personal behaviour. Comment on your feelings. Comment on your reaction. Comment on the context. Comment on )hat you think other people felt and thought. !uggest evidence for your mind reading.
!eed in additional information $ther things you 1kno)2. -revious experience. 3istory of the situation. 3unches or intuitions you may have. 4e) things you have discovered. Ethical considerations. !ocial factors. ormal theory.
"eflect Relate the events to other events and to theory. Reinterpret from different vie)points. Link theory and practice. Theori0e yourself. 5ear different theoretical spectacles. Consider the possibility that you may be )rong.
"ethin# everything again in the light of later e$%erience Revise ideas% or confirm them. 3o) have your vie)s changed6 3o) right )ere you first time6
So what&
Did you learn something6 3ave you discovered anything6 Is more reflection necessary6 3ave you framed a ne) 7uestion6 Figure 14.5 ow to re:lect&ource: $ased on #oyce <37C4=-
Q Q Q Q
the unsatis:actory and va"ue use o: ai)s and o.Rectives in curriculu) desi"nP the popularity o: the trainin" and co)petency )ethods in industryP the rise in i)portance o: the learner and the response to their needsP custo)i/ation o: education as a )arketa.le co))odity re+uirin" product description-
Double back as far and as fre7uently as you )ish and recycle.
211
Learning outcome statements A learnin" outco)e is an e9plicit state)ent o: co)petency- %earnin" outco)e state)ents speci:y* 3 ' A a precise .ehavioural ver. descri.in" per:or)ance o: a taskP the conte9t and conditions o: per:or)anceP the threshold o: accepta.le per:or)ance-
For e9a)ple* /n successful completion of this programme! participants will be able to produce a correctl$ proportioned life drawing from a model under studio conditions using a range of media %earnin" outco)es are the startin" point :or course and curriculu) desi"n- They can .e used to select learnin" and teachin" activities that are appropriate to the develop)ent o: particular skills and co)petencies0 and to develop select :or)s o: assess)ent to )easure their achieve)ent-
Recognition of prior learning <R%L= %earnin" outco)es are not dependent upon the )ethod .y which they are achievedAll that is i)portant is the co)petencies that they descri.e- !ducational institutions are increasin"ly settin" up syste)s and procedures that reco"ni/e prior e9periential learnin"- @: an applicant can de)onstrate that they have already )et at least hal: the learnin" outco)es :or a particular )odule0 then credits0 e9e)ptions or advanced standin" can .e o.tained <Ghitaker 3767=-
onstructi.e alignment Constructive ali"n)ent0 a popular approach to course and curriculu) develop)ent particularly in hi"her education0 is underpinned .y the use o: learnin" outco)esOConstructive ali"n)entJ has two aspects* The OconstructiveJ aspect re:ers to the idea that students construct meaning throu"h relevant learnin" activities- The Oali"n)entJ aspect re:ers to what the teacher does0 which is to set up a learnin" environ)ent that supports the learnin" activities appropriate to achievin" the desired learnin" outco)es- The key is that the co)ponents in the teachin" syste)0 especially the teachin" )ethods used and the assess)ent tasks0 are ali"ned with the learnin" activities assu)ed in the intended outco)esFor e9a)ple0 i: a learnin" outco)e in a science course no)inates co)petence in carryin" out a particular e9peri)ental procedure0 the learnin" activities should involve practical la.oratory work0 and the assess)ent should re+uire the student to carry out that scienti:ic procedure accordin" to criteria that speci:y levels o: per:or)ance- Ta.le 3H-B considers a"ain the e9a)ple o: learnin" to drive- @t shows so)e o: the co)petencies re+uired :or drivin" and the way that constructive ali"n)ent would relate learnin" outco)es0 assess)ent tasks and learnin" and teachin" activities-
Ta le 14.5 A constructively ali"ned approach to learnin" to drive
Learning outco&es /n successful completion of the module! the learner will be able to: Answer a ran"e o: +uestions on the Code i"hway
Assess&ent
Teaching &etho%
Multiple choice test Iiva
Guided readin" O.servation Iideo presentation Co)puter si)ulation @nstructed drivin" lessons
;e)onstrate sa:e drivin" practices ;rive a car on the open road respondin" to a variety o: circu)stances
;rivin" test <:or)ative or su))ative= ;rivin" test <:or)ative or su))ative=
@nstructed drivin" lessons
8ocational e%ucation an% usiness sectors

Many countries have co)petency-.ased +uali:ication syste)s- Such syste)s are attractive to the vocational and .usiness sectors .ecause they are0 or can .e* Q Q Q Q personali/ed > they can provide uni+ue descriptions o: personal achieve)entP accounta.le > co)petencies can .e associated with particular peopleP transparent > they can provide clear descriptions o: what is involved in carryin" out a taskP )easura.le > .ecause they are clearly descri.ed0 they o::er clear )etrics-
Govern)ents use co)petencies as a tool :or creatin" a co)petitive work:orce and0 in industry0 the ease o: )easure)ent o::ered .y co)petency-.ased syste)s :acilitates )ana"e)ent )onitorin" in line with the )a9i)* O@: you can )easure it then you can )ana"e itJCo)petency-.ased syste)s are particularly use:ul when the skills involved are psycho)otor and easily )easured- The trans:er to co)ple9 and inte"rated co)petence is )ore pro.le)atic-
Trans*era le s#ills
O: particular interest to the .usiness sector is the idea o: trans:era.le skills- @n :or)al educational conte9ts0 students ac+uire not only su.Rect-.ased knowled"e .ut also a ran"e o: skills and co)petencies that can .e trans:erred to other conte9ts0 such as the workplace- Students will continue to use these trans:era.le skills and co)petencies in
213
work and in li:elon" learnin"- These skills or co)petences can .e cate"ori/ed as personal <so:t= and pro:essional <hard=0 as shown in Ta.le 3H-&Ta le 14.6 ard and so:t trans:era.le skills
+ersonal <4o*t= Career co&petencies @nterview skills Sel:-presentation 4el* Stress )ana"e)ent Motivation Ti)e )ana"e)ent !)otional intelli"ence
+ro*essional <9ar%= 7or# ;ecision)akin" Tea) work Chan"e adaptation ProRect )ana"e)ent Pro.le)solvin" %eadership Co&&unication #eport writin" Presentations %istenin" Understandin" o: diversity Con:lict )ana"e)ent Meetin" skills Learning co&petencies Multi-taskin" #esearch skills #e:lective learnin" Me)ory skills Speed readin" %earnin" skills co&petencies co&petencies co&petencies
-e, i%eas
.!perience
Q Q Q Q !9perience cannot .e li)ited to sensation!9perience co).ines the e9ternal or internal event0 the associated perception and the resultin" interpretationThe interpretation o: e9perience is in:luenced .y previous e9perience!9perience )ay .e pri)ary <:irst-hand= or secondary <)ediated=-
Learning
Q Q %earnin" involves a trans:or)ation o: e9perience%earnin" can .e cate"ori/ed into co"nitive0 a::ective and psycho)otor do)ains-
4#ills> co&petenc, an% co&petence

Q Q Q Skill is the a.ility to carry out an activity consistentlyCo)petency is the a.ility to carry out a task e::ectivelyCo)petence is the a.ility to per:or) a role e::ectively-
Conclusions
!9periential learnin" is part o: a student-centred )ove)ent0 and stresses the direct e9perience o: the student- This o::ers the teacher a ran"e o: strate"ies :or en"a"in" students in the learnin" process and provides a ran"e o: techni+ues such as pro.le)-.ased learnin" that de)ands active involve)ent in learnin"owever0 i: not done very well0 e9periential learnin" )ay .e an ine::icient way o: proceedin"- The knowled"e .uilt up over centuries can .e appropriated .y learners without the need :or reinvention <%eontJev 3763=- The teacher is still very i)portant in "uidin" students and helpin" the) to appropriate the tools o: thinkin" and techni+ues o: the various educational disciplines- !9periential learnin" )ust not :ocus on learnin" to the ne"lect o: teachin"Co)petence-.ased learnin" :ocuses attention on what students will .e a.le to do on co)pletion o: a particular class or pro"ra))e- %earnin" outco)es speci:y precisely what is to .e achieved and re)ove the a).i"uity and the lack o: clarity o: old curricular desi"n syste)sAlthou"h learnin" outco)es o::er clarity on what learners are e9pected to .e a.le to do as a result o: learnin"0 they are )ore suited to the learnin" o: skills- They are less suited to the hi"her levels o: the co"nitive do)ain and to superior students who )ay produce creative work that learnin" outco)es have not speci:ied@t is i)portant there:ore that any approach to e9periential and co)petence.ased learnin" allows roo) :or the roles o: .oth teacher and student in any :ield o: knowled"e to en"a"e in a shared and creative e9ploration o: )eanin"-
)e*erences
$andura0 A- <37CC= &ocial Learning Theor$- 1ew 2ork* General %earnin" Press$eard0 C- and Gilson0 P- <'44&= Experiential Learning: A Best %ractice )andbook for Educators and Trainers <'nd edn=- %ondon and Philadelphia* ?o"an Pa"e$i""s0 J- <'44A= Aligning Teaching for onstructing Learning- 2ork* The i"her !ducation
Acade)y- http*FFwww-heacade)y-ac-ukFassetsF2orkFdocu)entsFresourcesFresource data.aseFidHCC\ali"nin"\teachin"\:or\constructin"\learnin"-pd: <accessed Septe).er '44&=$oud0 ;-0 Cohen0 #- and Galker0 ;- <377C= *sing Experience for Learning- $uckin"ha)* Society :or #esearch into i"her !ducation and Open University Press$runer0 J- <377&= The ulture of Education- Ca).rid"e0 MA* arvard University PressCarlile0 O- <'44B= The weakest links* de:inin" and descri.in" teacher inco)petence0 in M- Mis/tal and M- Trawinski <eds= &tudies in Teacher Education: %s$chopedagog$?rakow* Gydownictwo 1aukowa Acade)ii0 7>3BCarlile0 O- and Jordan0 A- <'44C= #e:lective writin"* principles and practice0 in COJFarrell <ed-= Teaching %ortfolio %ractice in #reland: A )andbook- ;u.lin* All @reland Society :or i"her !ducation0 'H>AC-
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;ewey0 J- <37'B= Experience and Nature- Chica"o* Open Court Pu.lishin" Co)pany;ewey0 J- <37AA= )ow >e Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflecti.e Thinking in the Education %rocess- 1ew 2ork* ;-C- eathJarvis0 P-0 ol:ord0 J- and Gri::in0 C- <'44A= The Theor$ and %ractice of Learning <'nd
edn=- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"eJordan0 A- and Carlile0 O- <'44B= %earnin" societies* "lo.al trends towards national +uali:ication :ra)eworks0 omparisons of ;oderni:ation 3e.elopment in the East and >est: A ollection of %apers in #nternational &$mposium- %iu/hu0 Guan9i0 China0 '6'>7H?ol.0 ;- <376H= Experiential Learning- !n"lewood Cli::s0 1J* Prentice all-
?ol.0 ;- and Fry0 #- <37CB= Towards an applied theory o: e9periential learnin"0 in CCooper <ed-= Theories of Group %rocesses- %ondon* John Giley and Sons%ave0 J- and Gen"er0 !- <3773= &ituated Learning: Legitimate %eripheral %articipationCa).rid"e* Ca).rid"e University Press%eontJev A-1- <3763= %roblems in the 3e.elopment of ;ind- Moscow* Pro"ressMe/irow0 J- <'444= %earnin" to think like an adult0 in J- Me/irow and associates <eds= Learning as Transformation- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey $ass0 A>AAPia"et0 J- <37&7= ;echanisms of %erception <trans- G-1- Sea"ri)=- 1ew 2ork* $asic $ooksSchTn0 ;- <376C= Educating the Reflecti.e %ractitioner- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey $assTaylor0 !-G- <3776= The Theor$ and %ractice of Transformati.e Learning: A ritical Re.iew#nformation &eries no- 2EF- Colu).us* !#@C Clearin"house on Adult0 Career0 and Iocational !ducation0 Center on !ducation and Trainin" :or !)ploy)ent0 Colle"e o: !ducation* Ohio State UniversityIy"otsky0 %-S- <37&'= Thought and Language <trans !- au:)ann and C- Iakar=Ca).rid"e0 MA* M@T PressGhitaker0 U- <3767= Assessing Learning: &tandards! %rinciples and %rocedures- Pennsylvania* Council :or Adult and !9periential %earnin"Gilson0 J-P- <ed-= <'44B= )uman Resource 3e.elopment: Learning and Training for #ndi.iduals and /rganisations- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e-
Chapter 15
(nclusivit,
(ntro%uction
Ge are )ore si)ilar to each other than we are di::erent- 1evertheless0 we have a ran"e o: characteristics that distin"uish us- Physically0 we di::er in hei"ht0 wei"ht0 shape0 si/e0 skin0 hair0 eye colour- Psycholo"ically0 we have di::erent personality characteristics and traits0 alon" with varyin" attitudes and ways o: perceivin" and interpretin" events and e9periences- Ge also di::er in our learnin" and intellectual a.ilitiesThis chapter is :ra)ed around a discourse o: inclusivity in education- This )eans that teachers need to acknowled"e and acco))odate individual di::erences to ensure that all individuals can reach their potential0 leadin" to their :ull participation in a de)ocratic society <;yson '444* A&>BA=- There are )any reasons why so)e )e).ers o: society do not participate in education > :or e9a)ple disa::ection0 li:estyle0 a"e or other .arriers- owever this chapter will con:ine itsel: to disa.ility0 which we will approach :ro) the point o: view o: education- Fro) this perspective0 disa.ilities can .e cate"ori/ed either as physical0 co"nitive or a co).ination o: .oth <see Ta.le 3B-3=Ta le 15.1 Si)pli:ied typolo"y o: disa.ilities
Physical
earin"0 vision and speech disorders Psycho)otor and )otor-skill de:icits Chronic )edical conditions Attention-de:icit disorders Perceptual disorders Me)ory and encodin" disorders !)otional and conduct disorders %ow @(
Co"nitive
Co).ination
Genetic disorders Con"enital conditions ;evelop)ental disorders
9istorical constructs o* %isa ilit,

Perceptions o: disa.ility have varied throu"hout history- @n the Middle A"es0 disa.ility was viewed as a re:lection o: GodJs will or as punish)ent :or sin- The disa.led were hidden away0 used as o.Rect lessons0 )ocked0 or occasionally set apart as Oholy
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:oolsJ- Their lives were ones o: poverty and deprivation- Persons with a disa.ility were "enerally dependent on the care o: others > o:ten )e).ers o: reli"ious co))unities@n the nineteenth century0 the O)edicali/ationJ o: )any )ental and physical conditions led to the pro:essional view that persons with a disa.ility re+uired special treat)ent <Foucault 37&A=- Ghere education was considered appropriate0 it "enerally )eant se"re"ated provision- The educational se"re"ation o: children and adults with severe :or)s o: disa.ility persists to the present ti)eModern views a.out the treat)ent o: people with disa.ilities are now )ore political0 with disa.ility perceived as a hu)an ri"hts issue- ;isa.ility "roups and their advocates hi"hli"ht )any discri)inatory practices in the treat)ent o: disa.led people- These include a lack o: educational and e)ploy)ent opportunities0 and the denial o: personal ri"hts leadin" to a lack o: autono)y and to social isolation-
La elling an% language

O%a.ellin" theoryJ clai)s that the consistent la.ellin" o: individuals who are di::erent in .ehaviour or appearance leads to their ne"ative cate"ori/ation0 which is then used to Rusti:y and le"iti)i/e their une+ual treat)ent- %a.ellin" theory is )ost o:ten used to e9plain perceptions o: deviancy <$ecker 37&A=0 .ut is also relevant to cate"ori/ations o: disa.ility <Gustavsson '444* 7H=- !9pressions such as OidiotJ or O:ee.le)indedJ to re:er to those with an intellectual disa.ility0 or OcrippleJ to re:er to those who have a physical disa.ility0 leads to their stereotypin" and to discri)inatory treat)entowever0 as the societal view o: individuals with disa.ilities has chan"ed0 so has the lan"ua"e- ;ero"atory or dis)issive epithets such as OinsaneJ or O)oronJ are no lon"er accepta.le- Chan"es in lan"ua"e re:lect chan"in" discourses and )odels o: disa.ility- The two )aRor discourses re:lect de:icit and inclusivity )odels-
/iscourses o* %isa ilit,' %e*icit &o%el

The Ode:icitJ or O)edical )odelJ represents a do)inant discourse o: disa.ility- This )odel considers disa.ility as a Ode:icitJ or OlackJ o: so)e intellectual or physical +uality that re+uires re)ediation- ;ia"noses o: de:iciencies are )ade .y )edical pro:essionals and o::icials with the power to de:ine the de:icit and prescri.e its treat)ent <Green et al- '44B=- The disa.led are perceived as vulnera.le0 dependent and in need o: special protection- The de:icit )odel ascri.es their low social and econo)ic status to their de:iciencies0 rather than to the .arriers that society constructsowever0 our understandin"s o: disa.ility are socially constructed- Pro:essionals hold power:ul positions in relation to people with disa.ilities0 .ut )ay not always act Rustly- For e9a)ple0 a disproportionate nu).er o: ethnic )inority learners in the US were cate"ori/ed as havin" an intellectual disa.ility .ecause o: un:air )ethods o: identi:ication and cultural .iases in assessin" intelli"ence <;unn 37&6=-
A conse+uence o: the de:icit )odel is the need :or re)ediation- @n education0 this has led to Ospecial educationJ-
4pecial e%ucational provision

The de:icit )odel :ra)es the education o: learners with severe disa.ilities0 leadin" to se"re"ated provision- @n )ost advanced societies0 there are schools and sheltered workshops :or the dea:0 the .lind0 the intellectually i)paired and those with )ultiple disa.ilities- Advocates o: special educational provision clai) that its )aRor .ene:it is in protectin" and shelterin" vulnera.le learners and "ivin" the) the education or trainin" .est suited to their disa.ilities- The Ca)phill Schools provide such a non-threatenin" environ)ent :or severely disa.led learners0 usin" #udol: SteinerJs principles o: holistic teachin" and learnin" <$ock '44H=Ad.antages Se"re"ated provision is clai)ed to .e e::ective :or a nu).er o: reasons- Se"re"ation o:ten results in s)aller class si/es0 so that learners receive additional support and one-to-one tuition- The pitch and pace o: the lessons can re:lect the learnin" needs o: the "roup0 and the curriculu) can .e tailored to the individualJs learnin" needs- For e9a)ple0 in a school :or the dea:0 teachers can use si"n lan"ua"e consistently and develop hi"h levels o: Osi"nin"J skills in learnersSe"re"ation )ay also .e less threatenin" to learners with speciali/ed needs .ecause they do not have to co)pare their acade)ic a.ility0 pace o: learnin" and attain)ent to that o: students without such needs <Gatson et al- 3777P Jenkinson 377C=- The social needs o: such individuals )ay also .e .etter addressed .ecause se"re"ated settin"s prevent isolation and ridicule- There:ore the settin"s )ay .e )ore supportive o: individual di::erences than )ainstrea) schools where the class teacher is e9pected to )eet the diverse needs o: all learnersFro) an institutional viewpoint0 se"re"ated provision concentrates the resources where they are )ost needed0 and )akes econo)ic sense- Schools :or the .lind possess speciali/ed resources and use assistive technolo"ies such as te9t-reco"nition devices that would .e di::icult to Rusti:y in a )ainstrea) school- Se"re"ated education o::ers the possi.ility o: specially trained teachers and ade+uate support sta::3isad.antages Se"re"ated education can .e critici/ed on several "rounds- !ducation reproduces the ine+ualities o: society <$ourdieu and Passeron 37C4= and se"re"ated education )ay )ar"inali/e those it clai)s to help0 while increasin" the advanta"e o: hi"her status "roups- Se"re"ation acts to preserve the resources and acade)ic standards o: the )ainstrea) schools- The se"re"ation o: children with attention de:icit disorders )ay .e as )uch :or the .ene:it o: their class)ates as it is :or the)selvesOSpecial educationJ also provides )echanis)s that advanta"ed :a)ilies can utili/e on .ehal: o: their children- ;ia"noses o: Oaccepta.leJ conditions like dysle9ia
@1C%US@I@T2
219
can .e procured0 "ainin" :or such children )ore teacher attention0 co)puters and e9tra ti)e allocations in e9a)inations <;yson '444* A7>H4=- A special school :or those with disa.ilities in the US is popular with parents o: non-disa.led children0 not only :or the lessons in e+uality it o::ers0 .ut .ecause the teacher>student ratio is 3*' <%oh '44H=Se"re"ated educational provision can also Rusti:y the la.ellin" o: people with disa.ilities as Oa.nor)al0J i"norin" societyJs part in the construction o: a.nor)ality%a.ellin" re)oves any i)perative :or chan"es in social structures <;yson '444* A7>H3=- %earners and teachers )ay also en"a"e in such la.ellin"- %earners )ay la.el the)selves in ter)s o: their disa.ilities0 and teachers )ay la.el learners with disa.ilities as low achieversSe"re"ation is not always e::ective in advancin" the learnin" o: everyone who possesses a disa.ility <Galloway and Goodwin 376C=- A U? study :ound that curriculu) choices in se"re"ated schools are li)ited- Pupils cannot access a .road ran"e o: su.Rects0 nor can they develop the skills needed :or success:ul social inte"ration and e)ploy)ent in such arti:icial conditions- Ghen individuals :ro) se"re"ated educational settin"s eventually leave school they are disadvanta"ed in havin" to learn social and li:e skills :ro) scratch <$ur"ess '44A=- Se"re"ation also creates arti:icial .arriers that persist in later li:e0 since opportunities :or )i9in" with others is li)ited- Moreover0 peopleJs lack o: :a)iliarity with disa.ility rein:orces ne"ative social perceptions-
/iscourses o* %isa ilit,' inclusion

1owadays0 people with a disa.ility do not wish to .e la.elled or cate"ori/ed in ter)s o: their condition* they are not Oi)pairedJ .ut Ohave a disa.ilityJ or are Odi::erentlya.ledJ- ;ea: people would rather .e cate"ori/ed as Odea:J or Ohard o: hearin"J than Ohearin"-i)paired-J The ter) Ospecial educational needsJ has .een replaced .y re:erences to O.arriers to learnin" and participationJ in a recent docu)ent on inclusive education distri.uted to all !n"lish schools <$arton '44A* 33=- These chan"es in ter)inolo"y illustrate a "rowin" reRection o: the lan"ua"e o: e9clusion and a desire :or inclusion .y this "roup-
(nclusion
Althou"h the central tenet o: inclusion that everyone should .e included in every aspect o: social and civil li:e is si)ple0 the ar"u)ents :or it are )ore co)ple9- These include* Q Q human rights arguments which stress the entitle)ent o: all citi/ens to participate :ully in societyP and e'uit$ arguments which stress the o.li"ations o: the state to ensure Rustice :or everyone in the distri.ution o: social "oods like education or e)ploy)ent-
#i"hts and Rustice ar"u)ents co).ine to :or) a discourse o: inclusivity- This can provide a :ra)ework throu"h which disa.led people can analyse their e9periences0 identi:yin" instances o: Odiscri)inationJ and Oine+ualityJ as oppressive or unRustChallen"es to vested interests can .e )ade which "o .eyond clai)s :or the re)oval o: discri)ination to reco))end positive discri)inatory )easures which can allow participation in civil society on e+ual ter)s with other citi/ensThe de)and .y disa.led "roups :or e+ual participation in society :ollows the sa)e traRectory as other e+ual ri"hts )ove)ents- @t includes* Q Q Q Q a si)ilar stru""le :or access to social institutions as those o: the early twentieth-century :e)inist and civil ri"hts )ove)entsP an identi:ication o: the causes o: oppressionP theori/in" and counter-ar"u)ents as Rusti:ications :or e+ualityP inte"ration and societal acco))odation-
The disa.ility )ove)ent is still in the :irst phase o: its ca)pai"n :or )e).ers to have access to a :ull ran"e o: educational opportunities-
(nclusive e%ucation
@nclusive education is concerned with the rationale0 practicalities and conse+uences o: educatin" all learners to"ether <$arton '44A* 34=- @t has .een the su.Rect o: )any policy declarations such as the United 1ationJs Rules on the E'uali:ation of /pportuni( ties for %ersons with 3isabilities0 which contains the :ollowin" state)entGe .elieve and proclai) that* Q Q Q every child has a :unda)ental ri"ht to education and )ust .e "iven an opportunity to achieve and )aintain an accepta.le level o: learnin"P every child has uni+ue characteristics0 interests0 a.ilities and learnin" needsP educational syste)s should .e desi"ned0 and educational pro"ra))es i)ple)ented0 to take into account the wide diversity o: these characteristics and needsP those with special educational needs )ust have access to re"ular schools which should acco))odate the) within a child-centred peda"o"y capa.le o: )eetin" these needsP re"ular schools with this inclusive orientation are the )ost e::ective )eans o: co).atin" discri)inatory attitudes0 creatin" welco)in" co))unities0 .uildin" an inclusive society0 and achievin" education :or allP )oreover0 they provide an e::ective education to the )aRority o: children0 and i)prove the e::iciency and0 ulti)ately0 the cost e::ectiveness o: the entire educational syste)<U1!SCO 377H par- '=
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Govern)ents and advocates o: disa.ility ri"hts :ace the challen"e o: i)ple)entin" these principles- @nclusive education is not si)ply a.out placin" learners with a disa.ility within a )ainstrea) institution0 .ut in ena.lin" :ull participation-
(nclusive e%ucational provision

Advocates o: inclusive education point out that inte"ratin" learners with disa.ilities into )ainstrea) schools is not the sa)e as includin" the) <$arton '44A* 7=#ntegration sees the learner as O.rou"ht inJ :ro) outsideassu)es that the learner will need to adapt to a pre-e9istin" syste)#nclusion sees the learner as a co))unity )e).er with ri"hts and e9pectationsassu)es that the co))unity should satis:y the learnerJs needsAd.antages of inclusi.e education The )ain advanta"e o: inclusive education is that it acknowled"es the desire and the ri"hts o: those who are disa.led to .e educated in the sa)e way as everyone else@nclusion in )ainstrea) education prevents )ar"inali/ation0 counteractin" the la.ellin" or cate"ori/ation o: people with disa.ilities as Oa.nor)alJ or OspecialJ- The curriculu) will .e .roader than in the special school0 and there will .e )ore choices availa.le- $y undertakin" the sa)e school curriculu) as their peers0 pupils with a disa.ility are )ore likely to have the sa)e type o: e9periences and "ain si)ilar skills$ecause o: their interactions with the "eneral school population0 they are )ore prepared :or li:e a:ter school- These pupils also have the opportunity to co)pare the)selves with the "eneral school population0 and develop a realistic view o: their a.ilities and potential@ncludin" pupils with disa.ilities )ay also .ene:it their class)ates0 teachers and the school as a whole- Class)ates are )ore likely to .e tolerant and acceptin" o: disa.ility0 and to understand it- Teachers can develop additional skills and sensitivities and the institution is .etter e+uipped to cope with diversity as a result o: )ore inclusive policies0 practices and supports3isad.antages owever0 the rhetoric o: policy declarations as stated in the U1 ;eclaration :re+uently di::ers :ro) the practice- So)e types o: )ultiple or severe disa.ility re+uire such intensive care that pupils re+uire the :ully-supported environ)ent o: the special school- There is a dan"er within the )ainstrea) school that inclusion )ay .e construed )erely as Oplace)ent0J where pupils with a disa.ility have to adapt to the standard school or"ani/ation <$arton '44A* 34=- Pupils with a disa.ility )ay still .e e9cluded :ro) the :ull ran"e o: activities .ecause physical access to locations is di::icult or all activities are intended :or the a.le-.odied- owever0 pupils with a physical disa.ility are )ore easily acco))odated in )ainstrea) education than
those with co"nitive disa.ilities- Physical disa.ility )ay only re+uire adRust)ents to the environ)ent and attention to the curriculu)0 .ut co"nitive disa.ilities such as A; ; )ay .e too disruptive :or teachers and other pupils- @: teachers and class)ates are unaware or unacceptin" o: co"nitive disa.ility0 :or e9a)ple0 then pupils with such disa.ility )ay su::er a loss o: sel:-estee)- They )ay also .e in dan"er o: isolation or ridicule i: their disa.ility is not reco"ni/ed#esearch shows that )any teachers are still uncertain a.out the .ene:its o: inclusion- They do not :eel con:ident a.out )ana"in" pupils with a disa.ility in the )ainstrea) classroo)0 and are concerned that the +uality o: support to all pupils )ay .e under)ined- They are also worried a.out li)ited access to suita.le curricular )aterials and inade+uate trainin" <Ta) et al- '44&=ompromise positions Many countries have adopted co)pro)ise positions .etween speciali/ed provision and :ull )ainstrea) inclusion- A Japanese solution is :or less severely disa.led children to .e educated in se)i-se"re"ated units within a )ainstrea) school <%eTendre and Shi)i/u '444* 337=- The advanta"e is that these children still )aintain re"ular contact with their peers and participate in )any whole-school activities@n Sin"apore in '44B new education policies re+uire 34 per cent o: teachers in ele)entary schoold to under"o trainin" in special needs provision <Ta) et al- '44&* '=- @n !n"land in the 3774s there was a )ove)ent away :ro) special provision towards )ainstrea) inclusion- Ta.le 3B-' shows the :or)s that this )ove)ent tookTa le 15.2 Movin" to inclusion* :or) o: or"ani/ation and reor"ani/ation
#e-place)ent Movin" the school Providin" resourced schools Providin" a support service Providin" an inclusion service
Movin" individual children to the )ainstrea) with varyin" de"rees o: support Movin" the special school > with its pupils and sta:: > into the )ainstrea) That is0 schools which are especially resourced to take a "roup o: :or)er special school pupils Co)prisin" support teachers and learnin" support assistants0 usually :ro) :or)er special schools That is0 convertin" a special school to a service0 where.y e9-special school sta:: re-structure and work in nei"h.ourhood schools
&ource: $ased on Tho)as and ;avis <'44C* &7=-
Threats to inclusion One issue that arises in )any western schools is that o: co)petin" a"endas in education- For e9a)ple0 the practice o: tar"et settin" and an e)phasis on standards in education raises the +uestion o: whether a school can do Rustice to all learners0
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.oth in raisin" "eneral standards and in producin" "ood outco)es :or those with a disa.ility0 especially i: that disa.ility is a co"nitive one- An inclusivity a"enda is )ore di::icult in view o: "lo.al educational :orces such as* Q Q Q Q increased co)petition .etween schoolsP education as a )arketa.le co))odityP an increased e)phasis on vocational trainin"P accounta.ility and e::iciency a"endas in schools<$arton '44A* 3A=-
.%ucational i&plications o* inclusivit,

@n order to pro)ote inclusivity policies0 practices and awareness0 teachers and ad)inistrators should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q provide trainin" in inclusivity principles and practices :or )ana"ers0 teachers and ad)inistrative sta::P ali"n school policies with international and national declarations on disa.ility and inclusivityP consult with disa.ility e9perts concernin" .uildin" contracts and procure)entsP devise a )ission state)ent and policy :or inclusiveness in the schoolP appoint a )e).er o: sta:: with special responsi.ility :or inclusivity practicesP consider inclusivity re+uire)ents in relation to workshops and la.oratory spacesP consider access policies and health and sa:ety re+uire)entsP liaise closely with all relevant a"enciesP consult with parents and children a.out .arriers to inclusivityP consider whether inclusion is possi.le and in the .est interest o: the learnerP ensure that resources are ade+uate to cope with pupils with a disa.ilityP esta.lish ho)e liaisons and assess)ent proceduresP set up care tea)s-
Curriculu) desi"ners need to consider the i)plications o: inclusivity in su.Rect sylla.i and e9tra-curricular activities0 includin" the hidden curriculu)0 which e9cludes particular cohorts o: pupils- Curriculu) desi"ners should ensure that* Q Q Q Q the values o: stakeholders in the curriculu) are )ade e9plicit and that the value o: inclusivity is also stressedP inclusivity education is incorporated in the curriculu)P the curriculu) content does not e9clude particular pupilsP assess)ent practices are ali"ned to ensure that testin" practices are suita.le :or all pupils-
Teachers should use strate"ies that can support learnin" inclusivity- These include* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q providin" one-to-one or s)all "roup tuitionP usin" or providin" assistive technolo"ies where availa.leP askin" :or specialist help in solvin" classroo) pro.le)sP rewardin" e::ort as well as achieve)entP helpin" pupils to identi:y their own strate"iesP consultin" pupils a.out their needsP e9pectin" as )uch :ro) pupils with disa.ilities as :ro) othersP not allowin" pupils to use their disa.ility to set li)its to their achieve)entP )odellin" tolerance and respect :or all pupils and providin" e9plicit rulesP )akin" availa.le additional teachin" resources such as audio C;s0 literacy .ooks and so :orthP pro)otin" peer-to-peer tutorin" and peer learnin" scenariosP allocatin" e9tra ti)e :or class practical e9ercisesP analysin" the layout o: the classroo) in ter)s o: its suita.ilityP devisin" inclusive activities in which everyone participatesP avoidin" patronisin" pupils with disa.ilitiesP )odellin" appropriate lan"ua"e and .ehaviour to all pupilsP consultin" pupils with a disa.ility on how they would like to .e treated-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q @nclusivity is concerned with ena.lin" all individuals to reach their potential@nclusivity reco"ni/es the uni+ue characteristics0 interests0 a.ilities and learnin" needs o: all learnersThe traditional discourse o: inclusivity viewed disa.ility as so)e sort o: de:ect or i)pair)ent@nclusivity considers special education as a )eans o: reco"ni/in" disa.ility and lookin" at .est practices in acco))odatin" the individualJs needs@nclusivity calls :or all learners to .e educated in )ainstrea) education > this has the potential o: .reakin" down .arriers and cur.in" ne"ative stereotypin" a)on" all individuals@nclusivity places responsi.ility on the co))unity to support all learner needs-
Conclusions
The theories in this chapter show that0 like other radical e+uality )ove)ents0 the inclusivity a"enda with re"ard to disa.ility will continue to .e pursued0 in spite o: con:licts with other do)inant national and international a"endasowever0 it is necessary to di::erentiate OinclusivityJ in education :ro) Oassi)ilationJ0 Ointe"rationJ0 and Oplace)entJ- @n ter)s o: policies0 it is i)portant that inclusivity in education is not si)ply presented as a reconstituted .ranch o: Ospecial
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educationJ <$arton '44A* 7=- The construct o: inclusivity has )ore dyna)ic and political connotations0 re+uirin" a trans:or)ation o: structural .arriers and chan"ed curricular and classroo) values which reco"ni/e the ri"hts and de)ands o: the )aRor stakeholder in disa.ility0 the disa.led person- owever0 the e).odied and :elt e9periences o: disa.ility o: one individual cannot .e those o: another so that to consider disa.ility as a ho)o"enous concept re+uirin" a ho)o"enous response is not possi.leFor e9a)ple0 physical disa.ilities are increasin"ly addressed .y advances in technolo"y- @n relation to co"nitive disa.ilities0 )ore sophisticated )ethods o: .rain i)a"in" have identi:ied )ore neurolo"ical disa.ilities0 thou"h o:ten o: a )inor nature- More learners will see that they are to so)e e9tent disa.led .ut that it does not )atter too )uchowever0 it is also i)portant to .e realistic and :or educationalists to de:end their own positions on the e9tent to which de)ands :or inclusion can .e acco))odated- The co)pro)ise solution presented earlier )ay o::er su""estions a.out the e9tent to which co-location can pro)ote inclusion and e+uality- The )odern shoppin" )all has an identity o: its own0 yet )ana"es to incorporate shops o: di::erent types and :unctions- Perhaps the )odern educational institution can act in the sa)e way0 e).odyin" a distinctive identity and values .ut incorporatin" parallel0 even se)i-autono)ous strea)s o: provision o: "eneric and speciali/ed services0 so that no one is e9cluded :ro) the services o::ered-
)e*erences
$arton0 %- <'44A= #nclusi.e Education and Teacher Education! <Pro:essorial %ecture A July '44A=- %ondon* @nstitute :or !ducation$ecker0 -S- <37&A= /utsiders: &tudies in the &ociolog$ of 3e.iance- Glencoe* Free Press$ock0 F- <ed-= <'44H= The Builders of amphill + Li.es and 3estinies of the =ounders!din.ur"h* Floris $ooks$ourdieu0 P- and Passeron0 J-C- <37C4= Reproduction in Education! &ociet$ and ulture%ondon* Sa"e$ur"ess0 !- <'44A= Are we Nearl$ There Det: 3o Teenage >heelchair *sers Think #ntegration has been Achie.ed in &econdar$ &chools in the *4G Cardi::* Ghi//-?id/ 1o %i)its Millenniu) Award;unn0 %-M- <37&6= Special education :or the )ildly )entally retarded* is )uch o: it Rusti:ia.leK Exceptional hildren! 'A* B>'3;yson0 A- <'444= @nclusion and inclusionsP theories and discourses in inclusive education0 in - ;aniels and P- Garner <eds= #nclusi.e Education: &upporting #nclusion in Education &$stems- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e0 A&>BAFoucault0 M- <37&A= The Birth of the linic- %ondon* Tavistock-
Galloway0 ;- and Goodwin0 C- <376C= The Education of 3isturbing Learning and Ad0ustment 3ifficulties- %ondon* %on")an-
hildren: %upils with
Green0 S-0 ;avis0 C-0 ?arsh)er0 !-0 Marsh0 P- and Strai"ht0 $- <'44B= %ivin" sti")a* the i)pact o: la.elin"0 stereotypin"0 separation0 status loss0 and discri)ination in the lives o: individuals with disa.ilities and their :a)ilies0 &ociological En'uir$! CB<'=* 37C>'3BGustavsson0 A- <'444= @nte"ration in the chan"in" Scandinavian wel:are states0 in ;aniels and P- Garner <eds= #nclusi.e Education: &upporting #nclusion in Education &$stems- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"eJenkinson0 J- <377C= ;ainstream or &pecial: Educating &tudents with 3isabilities- %ondon* #outled"e%eTendre0 G- and Shi)i/u0 - <'444= Towards a healin" society* perspectives :ro) -
Japanese special education0 in - ;aniels and P- Garner <eds= #nclusi.e Education: &upporting #nclusion in Education &$stems- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e%oh0 %- <'44H= At a city school :or the disa.led0 youn" children without disa.ilities learn li:e lessons too0 a winnin" inclusion :or)ula0 The Baltimore &un0 A ;ece).erTa)0 ?-$-0 Seevers0 #-0 Gardner @@@0 #- and en"0 M- <'44&= Pri)ary school teachersJ concerns a.out the inte"ration o: students with special needs in Sin"apore0 in TEA )#NG Exceptional hildren %lus0 A-<'= Article A- http*FFescholarship-.c-eduF educationFtecplusFvolAFiss'FartA <accessed 1ove).er '44C=Tho)as0 G- and ;avies0 J-;- <'44C= !n"land and Gales* co)petition and control > or stakeholdin" and inclusion0 in - ;aniels and P- Garner <eds= #nclusi.e Education: &upporting #nclusion in Education &$stems- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"eUnited 1ations !ducational0 Scienti:ic and Cultural Or"ani/ation <U1!SCO= <377H= The &alamanca &tatement and =ramework for Action on &pecial Needs Education! Adopted b$ the >orld onference on &pecial Needs Education: Access and ?ualit$! Sala)anca0 Spain0 C>34 June- U1!SCO Ministry o: !ducation and Science0 SpainGatson0 1-0 Shakespeare0 T-0 Cunnin"ha)-$urley0 S-0 $arnes0 C-0 Corker0 M-0 ;avis0 Jand Priestley0 M- <3777= Life as a 3isabled hild: A ?ualitati.e &tud$ of Doung %eople7s Experiences and %erspecti.es: =inal Report- Universities o: !din.ur"h and %eeds-
Chapter 16
0len%e% learning
(ntro%uction
Teachers use a ran"e o: peda"o"ies > :ro) si)ple e9position to co)puter-.ased )ethods- They also appropriate whatever tools are availa.le > :ro) .lack.oards to $luetooth devices- Teachers have always .lended )ethodolo"ies and technolo"iesThe e9pression O.lended learnin"J is used to descri.e a .lend o:* Q Q Q Q a ran"e o: delivery )ediaP :ace-to-:ace class-.ased )ethods <synchronous=P distance-learnin" )ethods <.oth synchronous and asynchronous=P sel:-directed learnin"-
@t )i"ht .etter .e called .lended teachin" and learnin" )ethodolo"ies-
1rigins
Towards the end o: the twentieth century0 advances in di"ital technolo"ies led to )any chan"es in .usiness practices includin" the develop)ent o: e-co))erce and e-.usiness in a conte9t o: "lo.al co)petitiveness- The e9pansion o: possi.ilities created .y the @nternet led lar"e )ultinational co)panies to reali/e that e-learnin" as a )ethodolo"y could* Q Q Q deliver trainin" to widely distri.uted sta:: anywhere in the worldP train people without the necessity to leave their workplaceP ensure the standardi/ation o: trainin" pro"ra))es and delivery-
So)e co)panies have even set up corporate universities as vehicles :or O]_^ disse)inatin" an or"ani/ationJs culture and :osterin" the develop)ent o: not only Ro. skills0 .ut also such core workplace skills as learnin"-to-learn0 leadership0 creative thinkin"0 and pro.le) solvin"J <Meister 3776* A6=Followin" its inception in the world o: trainin"0 e-learnin" soon spread to other areas o: education- Teachers were +uick to reali/e that it could .e a way o: caterin" :or the de)ands o: a wide variety o: students > especially potential students who would :ind standard class-.ased learnin" inconvenient or unavaila.le@n the :irst phase o: e-learnin"0 teachers co).ined e-learnin" :ro) the .usiness world and distance education :ro) the educational world- Traditional correspondence courses and the Open University syste)s had showed it was possi.le to provide educational pro"ra))es to learners at a distance- owever0 the develop)ent o:
)aterials that could .e e::ective without any teacher support was enor)ously co)ple9 and very e9pensive- !ven i: that pro.le) could .e overco)e0 the lack o: e).odi)ent and the a.sence o: the teacher re)ained a weakness$lended learnin" represents a co)pro)ise0 co).inin" a :ace-to-:ace co)ponent with co)puter-.ased distance learnin" where teacher and learner interact dyna)ically <Gilson and S)ilanich '44B=- The co)puter now operates as a co))unication device rather than as a teachin" )achine- This co)pro)ise addresses the pro.le)s o: e).odi)ent and )aterials- The :ace-to-:ace co)ponent provides e).odi)ent and the interaction re)oves the necessity :or all-enco)passin" and hi"hly prescriptive )aterials-
Approaches to len%e% learning

Four possi.le approaches have .een identi:ied* &elf(regulated approach %earners interact autono)ously with a ran"e o: technolo"ies such as we.-.ased audio or video clips0 si)ulations and virtual learnin" environ)ents to achieve a particular learnin" outco)e%edagogical approach The teacher selects suita.le peda"o"ical approaches0 which )ay or )ay not involve instructional technolo"y0 in order to achieve a particular learnin" outco)e;ixed approach Face-to-:ace delivery is co).ined with any type o: instructional technolo"y in a :le9i.le wayLearning outcome(based approach The learnin" outco)es deter)ine the :or)s o: delivery0 and the technolo"y and )ethodolo"y are care:ully ali"ned with the)<$ased on ;riscoll 3776=
A%vantages o* len%e% learning

So)e advanta"es o: .lended learnin" are* >ider audience $lended learnin" can .e adapted to )eet the needs0 styles and interests o: a wide variety o: learners4nowledge construction %earners are actively en"a"ed in the learnin" process as they interact with a ran"e o: )aterials and technolo"iesollaboration Co))unication and colla.oration with peers and teachers or e9perts enhance and develop learnin" and knowled"e-
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229
Audio(.isual en.ironment
$lended learnin" supports a wide variety o: )ultiple)edia ele)ents0 per)ittin" )ulti-)odal learnin"%earners interact with technolo"y and are )otivated to direct their own learnin"-
#nteracti.it$
Reflection
!)ail0 .ulletin .oards and .lo"s :ocus learnersJ attention and encoura"e the) to re:lect on what they write-
The class-.ased and independent learnin" co)ponents o: .lended learnin" are e9plored elsewhere in this .ook0 so this chapter will :ocus on the co)puter-.ased ele)entTeachers have always appropriated technolo"y :or their purposes- owever0 so)eti)es technolo"y has .een )erely another presentation )ethod that has led to students learnin" from technolo"y0 as in watchin" a :il)-clip0 whereas they need to learn with technolo"y0 usin" it )ore as a tool :or learnin" <Jonassen et al- '44A* 34>3'=- @n order to appropriate the technolo"ical tools0 the teacher needs to understand the process0 so the :ollowin" section descri.es co)puter-.ased learnin" and the instructional desi"n process-
Co&puter6 ase% learning

Co)puter-.ased learnin" <C$%= )akes use o: co)puters to :acilitate learnin"- This )ay ran"e :ro) independent learnin" undertaken on a personal co)puter0 to e9tensive network and we.-.ased learnin" )ana"e)ent syste)s- Such syste)s o::er students and their teachers online access to notes and e)ail0 .ulletin .oards and we. con:erences0 as well as actin" as ad)inistrative0 )onitorin" and assess)ent tools <C!#@ '44B=Co)puter-.ased learnin" i)plies the use o: co)puter technolo"y not si)ply as a )eans o: presentin" )aterial0 .ut as the principal )ode o: learnin"0 without intervention :ro) an e9pert or teacherCo)puter-.ased learnin" is directed .y the learners who* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q decide when and where to interact and learnP select content related to their learnin" "oalsP deter)ine the pitch o: the lessonP interact at their own paceP select content accordin" to learnin" pre:erencesP re"ulate and assess their own learnin" throu"h :eed.ackP take responsi.ility :or their own learnin"-
(nstructional %esign <(/=

Althou"h teachers desi"n and plan )any di::erent instructional events0 the ter) Oinstructional desi"nJ re:ers to the desi"nin" o: co)puter-.ased instruction- @:
co)puter-.ased instruction is to lead to C$%0 it re+uires a care:ul instructional desi"n that co).ines technical know-how with peda"o"ical knowled"e- #ather than Rust conveyin" in:or)ation0 the co)puter can .e used .y the learner as a O)ind toolJGood instructional desi"n results in co)puter learnin" environ)ents that provide Oappropriate co).inations o: challen"e and "uidance0 e)power)ent and support0 sel:-direction and structureJ <#ei"eluth 3777* '3=@n order :or this to occur the learnin" )aterial needs to .e* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q desi"ned to )eet a speci:ic audience with speci:ic learnin" needsP adapta.le to di::erent learnin" stylesP .roken down into discrete )odular co)ponentsP OchunkedJ into discrete su.-sections to suit short-ter) )e)oryP structured and or"ani/ed to )eet speci:ic learnin" outco)esP enriched with hyper)edia <sound and pictures= to assist dual codin"P hyperlinked e9tensively to allow sel:-directed e9ploratory learnin"P se+uenced appropriatelyP supported .y :or)ative assess)ent :or :eed.ack and :or sel:-re"ulated learnin"-
The use o: .lended learnin" approaches is related to the technolo"ical develop)ents that )ake it possi.le and the instructional desi"n principles that )ake it e::ective-
Technological %evelop&ent
9ar%$are
Technolo"ical develop)ents in co)putin" in:luenced the e9tent to which teachers were a.le to use C$% and .lend it with other )ethods- @n the late 37B4s and early 37&4s0 co)puters .e"an to replace the early )echanical teachin" )achines- $ecause o: the li)itations in screen technolo"y0 these were )ainly li)ited to the presentation o: s)all .locks o: te9t0 care:ully se+uenced to "uide learnin"- So)e technolo"ical advances allowed "raphics and interactivity in co)puter pro"ra)s .ut they were not applied to education <Pa"liaro 376A=The introduction o: the )icro-co)puter near the end o: the 37C4s .rou"ht a.out the rapid spread o: co)putin" in .usiness and )ade possi.le its use in education and ho)e entertain)ent- Co)puter-.ased arcade "a)es .eca)e popular and showed how interactivity en"a"ed attention- Co)putin" technolo"y continued to develop0 with the addition o: '; and A; "raphics and audio and video capa.ilitiesModern co)puters are power:ul )ulti)edia devices that can o::er )ultiple )odes o: e9perience and interactivity to hold learnersJ attention and suit a variety o: learnin" styles- The co)puter key.oard0 althou"h still i)portant0 has .een supple)ented .y an ever-increasin" array o: input devices that can reco"ni/e speech0 detect )ove)ent
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and react to a ran"e o: hu)an and other varia.les and the si)ple co)puter screen has .een supple)ented .y headsets and other :or)s o: technolo"y that deliver a rich )ulti-sensorial virtual e9perienceThe develop)ent o: the @nternet and Gorld Gide Ge. has had an o.vious i)pact on education and is one o: the )ain )eans o: deliverin" the C$% ele)ent in a .lended learnin" strate"y- The possi.ility o: Ostrea)in"J audio and video )eans that live radio and television can .e viewed over the @nternet0 and the resultin" live co))unication and con:erencin" supports social and colla.orative learnin" at a distance- The Open University in the U? uses .lended learnin" and C$% to :acilitate what it calls Osupported open learnin"J <Open University '44C=-
4o*t$are
At a ti)e o: crisis in the co)puter so:tware industry when pro"ra))in" did not appear to .e )eetin" the needs o: users0 Ginston #oyce descri.ed a Owater:all )odelJ o: so:tware develop)ent which involves a se+uence o: set events where one :lows into the ne9t- This is illustrated in Fi"ure 3&-3- The .ehaviourist ideas o: Skinner and $loo) were popular at the ti)e0 and there was a natural alliance .etween co)puter pro"ra))in" and instructional desi"n in their syste)atic step-wise approach- #oyce critici/ed this si)ple )odel and proposed that it could .e i)proved .y :eed.ack and iteration <#oyce 37C4=- This process would ensure that needs were esta.lished .e:ore the ne9t phase o: develop)ent which would .uild on the)- @n this way0 irrelevant desi"n could .e avoided-
Figure 16.1 Gater:all )odel o: so:tware develop)ent&ource: $ased on Ian Iliet <'444=
A &o%el *or instructional %esign

$ased on constructivist learnin" principles0 the instructional desi"n )odel o: Passerini and Gran"er is se+uential like the water:all )odel0 .ut each phase is constantly revised and )odi:ied accordin" to :eed.ack "enerated :ro) :or)ative evaluations throu"hout the process- The :le9i.le approach :acilitates strate"ies that per)it user
interactivity and navi"ation <Passerini and Gran"er '444* 6=- The )odel is illustrated in Fi"ure 3&-'- There :ollows a discussion o: each o: the phases and their associated su.-tasks-
1 'nalysis
Profile audience
*ge% gender% culture% experience Define learning needs and goals (rite learning outcomes 2 Design
Content design
3 Develo%ment
!elect learning model !elect content
Interface design
3CI considerations
Navigation & Interaction Design

Linear% non-linear% hierarchical% composite
Production of lesson material

4 )valuation
Instructional ob(ects Learner control options +hypertext% hypermedia% virtual reality,
Formative evaluation
-re-testing Conducted throughout development
Summative evaluation
5 Delivery
!tep-by-step development Revisions at each step Evaluate learning ob(ectives
Technical considerations
-rovide support for learners
Figure 16.2 y.rid @; )odel&ource: $ased on Passerini and Gran"er <'444=
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+hase 1' Anal,sis

This is the )ost critical phase in Passerini and Gran"erJs )odel- @t has two i)portant su.-tasks* developin" a pro:ile o: the tar"et audience and writin" learnin" outco)es-
+ro*ile target au%ience

;esi"ners need to esta.lish the characteristics o: the audience that will have an e::ect on the level o: content and how it will .e presented- The audience pro:ile will include a"e0 "ender0 socio-econo)ic .ack"round0 culture0 e9perience0 physiolo"ical needs0 socio-colla.orative needs and learnin" style needs as well as their learnin" "oals@n:or)ation-"atherin" techni+ues )i"ht include +uestionnaires0 interviews0 surveys0 :ocus "roups and o.servation- This research0 co).ined with the overall ai)s o: other stakeholders0 will lead to the "oals or ai)s o: the pro"ra))e-
7rite learning outco&es

The ai)s relate to the teachin" "oals .ut the learnin" outco)es relate to what the learner will .e a.le to do as a result o: interaction with the )aterial- The learnin" outco)es can draw on $loo)sJ ta9ono)y as descri.ed in Chapter ' on .ehaviouris)As part o: the process0 desi"ners should consider the :ollowin" +uestions* Q Q Q Ghat do you want the learners to know or to .e a.le to doK ow can you "et the) to do itK ow can success .e )easuredK
+hase 2' /esign

@n this phase0 dra:t paper desi"ns such as :lowchartin" and story.oardin" are used to "enerate ideas :or the phaseJs three su.-tasks* content desi"n0 inter:ace desi"n0 and navi"ation and interactive desi"n- The ai)s and outco)es o: the pro"ra))e are .roken down into s)aller0 )ore )ana"ea.le chunks o:ten re:erred to as )odules-
Content %esign
The ne9t sta"e is the selection o: actual content :or the learnin" pro"ra))e- The selection and arran"e)ent o: content )ay .e in:luenced .y a ran"e o: learnin" theoriesBeha.iourist influences The "enesis o: co)puter-.ased instruction was in .ehaviourist teachin" )achines and .ehaviourist principles are still relevant- %earnin" pro"ra)s ali"ned with .ehaviourist learnin" theory should*
Q Q Q Q Q Q
take learners throu"h a se+uence o: pro"ressive instructional stepsP contain a nu).er o: levels o: increasin" di::icultyP allow learners to select a particular levelP reward success with pro"ression to a hi"her levelP proceed :ro) si)ple to )ore co)ple9 tasksP o::er positive and ne"ative learnin" pro)pts to rein:orce learnin"-
onstructi.ist influences Constructivist learnin" theory stresses the learnerJs active construction o: )eanin" in a social conte9t0 so the content needs to .e realistic and en"a"in" :or the learner%earnin" pro"ra))es ali"ned with constructivist learnin" theory should* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q encoura"e users to link in:or)ation :ro) one conte9t to anotherP e)phasi/e active participation usin" si)ulationP contain conte9t-rich )aterial with hyper)ediaP support learner )eanin"-)akin"P re+uire the learner to e9plore and interpret )aterial usin" hyperlinksP incorporate a social di)ension to learnin"P challen"e the )ental constructs o: the learnerP adapt to a ran"e o: learner stylesP include realistic pro.le)sP incorporate authentic assess)ent that includes the learnerJs views-
Since constructivis) stresses the shared social construction o: )eanin"-)akin"0 co)puter-.ased learnin" )ana"e)ent syste)s support a ran"e o: social interactions in synchronous and asynchronous :or)s as shown in Ta.le 3&-3- Asynchronous co))unication is )ore learner-:ocused0 as it encoura"es re:lective practice .y allowin" learners ti)e to conte)plate their answers prior to sendin"- Asynchronous co))unication also li)its di"ression since responses are usually :ocused on a particular pro.le) <Gan" and Gearhart '44&=Ta le 16.1 Synchronous and asynchronous co))unication tools
4,nchronous Q Iideo-con:erencin" syste)s Q Co)puter-con:erencin" syste)s Q %earnin" )ana"e)ent syste)s which support )any-to-)any .ased interactions Q Online chat :acilities
As,nchronous Q !)ail Q $ulletin .oards Q $lo""in" Q Ge. spaces such as 2ouTu.e and social networkin" sites Q %earnin" )ana"e)ent syste)s which support the postin" o: online resources and notes
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ogniti.ist influences Co"nitive learnin" theory su""ests that )aterial should .e arran"ed to assist co"nition- Clark and Mayer <'44A* A>B= su""est that learnin" pro"ra)s ali"ned with co"nitive learnin" theory should* Q Q Q Q Q use )ulti)edia to sti)ulate the sensesP structure related )aterials near to each other to assist perception and encodin"P not over.urden the visual processin" channel <do not co).ine video clips and te9t=P use separate processin" channels such as visual and auditory <co).ine video clips and narration=P e)phasi/e links .etween )aterials instead o: repeatin" the) separately-
(nter*ace %esign
@t needs to .e .orne in )ind that the inter:ace .etween hu)an and )achine is crucial- Gonder:ul learnin" )aterial will .e o: little use i: the learner cannot access it or use it with ease- @nter:ace desi"ners need to take account o: their tar"et audiencei9 and artson <377A= o::er so)e inter:ace desi"n "uidelines* Q Q Q audience > conduct an analysis o: user needs and levels o: co)puter e9perienceP memor$ > take account o: hu)an )e)ory li)itations0 :or e9a)ple0 prevent co"nitive overload .y respectin" the principles outlined earlierP consistenc$ > ensure consistency o: colours0 :onts0 layout and place)ent o: screen icons0 :or e9a)ple0 O:orwardJ and O.ackwardJ iconsF.uttons should )aintain the sa)e position on all screensP simple > avoid too )uch clutter on screen- A "ood rule-o:-thu). is* onethird OairJ to two-thirds Oart and copyJ > one-third :ree space to two-thirds contentP errors > anticipate hu)an error with appropriate sa:e"uards- For e9a)ple0 a dialo"ue .o9 should .e auto)atically displayed prior to deletin" contentP feedback > users need receive :eed.ack on actions- For e9a)ple0 i: a user clicks on a hyperlink > the Oe"" ti)erJ icon indicates that the co)puter is takin" action-
Q Q
;avigation an% interactive %esign

This re:ers to the way a learner is per)itted to )ove throu"h a learnin" pro"ra)- The navi"ation desi"n )ay .e* linear0 non-linear0 hierarchical or co)posite-
Linear na.igation This re:ers to a se+uential structure where one thin" :ollows the ne9t0 and learners can only )ove .ackwards or :orwards one step at a ti)e <see Fi"ure 3&-A=- This kind o: structure is clearly .ehaviourist and is used to present new concepts0 principles or key ideas- @t is also use:ul :or developin" practical or psycho)otor skills0 or :or drill-andpractice scenarios
Figure 16.3 %inear navi"ationNon(linear na.igation This is characteri/ed .y e9tre)e levels o: :le9i.ility and rando)ness where users interact with content to varyin" de"rees each ti)e <see Fi"ure 3&-H=- The nonse+uential access to content can support an e9tre)ely diversi:ied audience o: varyin" learnin" needs0 and is clearly constructivist in its "rantin" o: autono)y to learners to e9plore the )aterial in their own way- owever0 it does not o::er )uch sca::oldin" to "uide )ove)ent0 so learners need to .e e9tre)ely :ocused and sel:-directin" or they run the risk o: "ettin" lost in the )aterial-
Figure 16.4 1on-linear navi"ation)ierarchical na.igation This has an initial )ain pa"e <re:erred to as a ho)e pa"e= .ranchin" out into the )ain su.-sections- People are :a)iliar with this :ro) we.site desi"n <see Fi"ure 3&-B=The deeper levels contain )ore in-depth and detailed content- @n constructivist :ashion the learner deter)ines the level o: detail re+uired- owever0 since si)ilar in:or)ation is strea)ed to"ether0 it or"ani/es the e9ploration to :acilitate )eanin")akin" processesomposite na.igation This co).ines linear and hierarchical structures- @t is typical o: the structure used in stand-alone C$% pro"ra))es <see Fi"ure 3&-&=- The initial part o: the desi"n <the linear structure= provides learners with key concepts and ideas a.out the topic- Once they have )astered the :unda)ental principles > perhaps .y co)pletin" a :or)ative +ui/ > they advance into the )ain su.Rect )atter- @: learners :eel co)petent in the
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Figure 16.5
ierarchical navi"ation-
:unda)ental principles o: the topic0 they )ay "o directly to the ho)e pa"e at the top o: the hierarchical section- This structure has the potential to support all types o: learners0 :ro) novices to the )ore e9perienced-
Figure 16.6 Co)posite navi"ation#nteracti.it$ All o: the a.ove navi"ation )ethods relate to the way the learner interacts with the )aterial- @nteractivity is an i)portant desi"n su.-task .ecause it* Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q pro)otes sel:-paced learnin" as learners interact at their own paceP allows sel:-directed learnin" as learners control navi"ationP increases )otivation as learners :eel e)powered and involvedP aids retention as learners receive )ore sensory inputs :ro) )ulti)ediaP adapts to individual interests as learners can select contentP adapts to individual learnin" style pre:erences as learners can select )ediaP supports less con:ident learners as it allows learners to revisit )aterialP encoura"es creativity as learners can )ake novel connections and )anipulate o.Rects to create their own realitiesP :acilitates ORust in ti)e learnin"J as learners can access in:or)ation they need when they need it-
+hase 3' /evelop&ent

This phase is concerned with physically .uildin" each o: the learnin" o.Rects and .indin" the) to"ether into a co)plete0 e::ective and or"ani/ed whole- As part o: the
develop)ent phase o: any C$% pro"ra))e0 su.-syste) co)ponents are )odelled or prototyped- This )eans .uildin" a s)all representation o: part o: the :inal syste)Prototypin" ena.les users to visuali/e how the :inal syste) will look and how the inter:ace will work-
(nstructional o Dects
%earnin" o.Rects represent co)plete instructional events desi"ned to :ul:il a particular learnin" "oal or outco)e- They are Osel:-contained0 reusa.le0 hi"h +uality learnin" chunks that can .e co).ined and reco).ined in courses0 learnin" activities and e9periences0 and assess)ents that )eet a learnerJs i))ediate needsJ <Chitwood et al'444* 3=- %earnin" o.Rects are developed in accordance with sound instructional strate"ies and are presented in a variety o: di::erent )ulti)edia :or)ats0 :or e9a)ple0 as a si)ulation0 a video clip0 a piece o: ani)ation or as lar"er application such as a help toolModern learnin" syste)s )ake e9tensive use o: )ulti)edia-enriched learnin" instruction and learnin" o.Rects0 :ro) still i)a"es and illustrations0 to )ore co)ple9 :or)s such as pieces o: ani)ation0 si)ulation and video o:ten co).ined with narration0 audio clips or voice-over-
Learner control options

Multi)edia-enriched learnin" o.Rects and :or)ats support user navi"ation and interactivity0 encoura"in" constructivist learnin" approaches- %earner control options can ran"e :ro) si)ple navi"ation icons and hyperte9t to )ore co)ple9 hyper)edia syste)s and virtual or si)ulated environ)ents)$pertext: )$permedia: words that take the learner to a new screen when clicked"raphics0 i)a"es and video-links that lead the learner to other in:or)ationAdapti.e h$permedia: these store in:or)ation a.out the learnerJs pre:erences so that when accessed at a later date the pro"ra) dyna)ically custo)i/es content to )eet needs and pre:erences"irtual or simulated en.ironment: these allow users to interact with authentic learnin" scenarios and to )anipulate the)- Si)ulations are particularly use:ul in physics or che)istry applications where students can work sa:ely with ha/ardous su.stances in a virtual )ode-
+hase 4' .valuation

This involves testin" the syste) .y i)ple)entin" part o: or all o: the syste) and collectin" learner :eed.ack- $y interactin" with the syste)0 learners reveal syste) de:ects and .rin" to li"ht )isunderstandin"s .etween learners and developers-
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For&ative evaluation
Throu"hout the entire develop)ent process0 users are involved in providin" desi"ners with essential :eed.ack- !valuation occurs at the end o: each phase- For e9a)ple0 once the ori"inal speci:ication is co)pleted at the end o: the analysis phase0 learners are asked to read throu"h it to )ake sure that the "oals o: the pro"ra) are correct and suited to their needs- Si)ilarly0 at the end o: the desi"n phase0 when paper prototypes are co)pleted0 users are re+uested to assess the) :or potential errors- At the prototype sta"e0 learners are asked to test the syste) :or usa.ility-
4u&&ative evaluation
The :inal testin" occurs when the co)pleted C$% is placed into a live environ)entUsers interact with all parts o: the syste) and last )inute adRust)ents are )ade-
+hase 5' /eliver,

This phase concerns itsel: with provision o: technical support- On"oin" )aintenance is an essential part o: syste)s delivery and provides in:or)ation to "uide :uture up"radin"-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q $lended learnin" co).ines a ran"e o: delivery )edia0 class-.ased0 distance and sel:-directed learnin"@t )i"ht .e .etter ter)ed O.lended teachin" and learnin"J$lended learnin" evolved :ro) .usiness e-learnin" and distance learnin"$lended learnin" approaches )ay .e sel:-re"ulated0 peda"o"ical0 )i9ed0 or learnin" outco)e .asedAdvanta"es include* wider audience0 knowled"e construction0 colla.oration0 variety o: environ)ents0 interactivity and re:lection%earners need to learn with technolo"y rather than from it!ducators need to understand the C$% and instructional desi"n processes0 in order to appropriate the)The instructional desi"n process has :ive phases* analysis0 desi"n0 develop)ent0 evaluation and delivery-
Conclusions
This chapter has e9plored .lended learnin" :ro) its ori"ins in the e-learnin" ori"inally used in the .usiness and trainin" world0 and has shown how it co).ined
distance0 :ace-to-:ace and independent learnin"- The chapter stresses the i)portance o: e).odi)ent and the need :or :ace-to-:ace interaction$lended learnin" )ay .e seen as a technolo"ical solution to the pro.le)s o: learnersJ access to education- The disadvanta"es o: this approach relate )ore to values and purposes than to )ethodolo"ies- @: the purpose o: education is to pro)ote the Rust society0 then .lended learnin" )ay not .e the answer0 since access is con:ined to the advanta"ed > those in possession o: the technolo"ical resourcesThe hu)an ele)ent in .lended learnin" needs to .e preserved- !ven as technolo"ical advances )ake enhanced virtual e9perience possi.le0 it is i)portant that e).odi)ent re)ains central- Iirtual reality is not reality- !).odi)ent is i)portantP teachers are i)portant-
)e*erences
C!#@ <Centre :or !ducational #esearch and @nnovation= <'44B= E(learning in Tertiar$ Education: >here do we &tandG Paris* O!C; Pu.lChitwood0 ?-0 May0 C-0 $unnow0 ;-0 and %an"an0 T- <'444= $attle stories :ro) the :ield* Gisconsin online resource center learnin" o.Rects proRect0 in ;-A- Giley <ed-= The #nstructional *se of Learning /b0ects: /nline "ersion- http*FFreusa.ility-or"FreadF chaptersFchitwood-doc <accessed 1ove).er '44C=Clark0 #- and Mayer0 #- <'44A= E(Learning and the &cience of #nstruction: %ro.en Guidelines for > P:ei::eronsumers and 3esigners of ;ultimedia Learning- San Francisco0 CA* Giley
;riscoll0 M- <3776= >eb(based Training: *sing Technolog$ to 3esign Adult Learning Experiences- San Francisco0 CA* Jossey-$assFP:ei::erGlaser0 #- <37&A= @nstructional technolo"y and the )easure)ent o: learnin" outco)es* so)e +uestions0 American %s$chologist0 36<6=* B37>'3i90 ;- and artson0 - <377A= 3e.eloping *ser #nterfaces: Ensuring *sabilit$ Through %roduct H %rocess- 1ew 2ork* Giley and SonsJonassen0 ;- - <3766= @nte"ratin" learnin" strate"ies into courseware to :acilitate deeper processin"0 in ;- - Jonassen <ed-= #nstructional 3esign for ;icrocomputer ourseware- illsdale0 1J0 %awrence !rl.au)0 3B3>63Jonassen0 ;- -0 owland0 J-0 Moore0 J- and Marra0 #-M- <'44'= Learning to &ol.e %roblems with Technolog$: A onstructi.ist %erspecti.e <'nd edn=- !n"lewood Cli::s0 1J* Prentice- allMcGillen0 J- <'44&= )ow /nline Learning can Enhance H Reinforce =(5(= #nstruction! Ghite Paper :or @T!C 6&4- http*FFitec-s:su-eduFwpF6&4wpFF4&\6&4\)c"illen\ rein:orce\:':-pd: <accessed 3H Fe.- '446=Meister0 J- <3776= Ten steps to creatin" a corporate university0 Training and 3e.elop( ment0 B'<3=* A6>HA-
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Open University <'44C= http*FFwww-open-ac-ukFnewFdistance-learnin"-sht)l <accessed 1ove).er '44C=Pa"liaro0 %-A- <376A= The history and develop)ent o: CA@* 37'&>37630 an overview0 Alberta 9ournal of Educational Research! '7<3=* CB>6HPasserini0 ?- and Gran"er0 M- J- <'444= A develop)ental )odel :or distance learnin" usin" the @nternet0 omputers and Education0 AH<3=* 3>3B-
#ei"eluth0 C-M- <3777= Ghat is instructional desi"n theory and how is it chan"in"KJ in C-M- #ei"eluth <ed-= #nstructional 3esign Theories and ;odels: A New %aradigm of #nstructional ;aterial- illsdale0 1J* %awrence !rl.au) Associates0 B>'7#oyce0 G- <37C4= ;anaging the 3e.elopment of Large &oftware &$stems! Proceedin"s o: @!!!0 G!SCO10 '& Au"ust* 3>7Gan"0 - and Gearhart0 ;- <'44&= 3esigning and 3e.eloping >eb(based #nstruction!n"lewood Cli::s0 1J* Prentice- allGilson0 ;- and S)ilanich0 !- <'44B= The /ther Blended Learning: A lassroom(centered Approach- San Francisco0 CA* P:ei::erFJohn Giley and Sons-
Chapter 17
The *uture
(ntro%uction
@n the 37C4s0 the talk was o: the leisure society and the way that the decline o: work would leave people ai)less and dissatis:ied- !ducation would need to )ove :ro) a concentration on the develop)ent o: workplace skills to those o: leisure and voluntary pasti)es <Jenkins and Sher)an 37C7=- That discourse has .een replaced .y a discourse o: postponed retire)ent- @t is always dan"erous to )ake predictionsowever0 present social chan"es have i)plications :or :uture educational policy and practices0 and the :uture depends on decisions )ade now- The :uture is not deter)ined- An e9ploration o: so)e o: the issues raised .y chan"e can reveal trends which0 once e9posed0 can .e interro"ated and challen"ed-
The nature o* change

Throu"hout history0 events have swun" one way and then there has .een a re.alancin"0 as in the swin"s .etween classical and ro)antic periods in the ei"hteenth and nineteenth centuries0 or those towards collectivis) and away :ro) individualis) in the latter part o: the nineteenth century- $ut this is too si)ple > one )ove)ent always undercuts and interpenetrates another- For e9a)ple0 since the 3764s there has .een a de:inite swin" in education towards instru)entalis) and the knowled"e econo)y0 .ut this is startin" to .e countered .y a re-e)er"ence o: li.eral values in education <Jarvis and Preece '443* '''>A=owever0 pro:ound trans:or)ations have occurred as a result o: the interactions .etween three e)er"in" social pheno)enaP those o: Oindividuali/ationJ0 OnetworksJ and O"lo.ali/ationJ- @ndividuals )ay now have their )ost )eanin":ul e9periences in cy.erspace0 within which they can construct new :or)s o: individual identity .y )eans o: OavatarsJ <on-screen representations o: the)selves=0 en"a"e in cy.er relationships with others0 and alter the OnatureJ o: hu)an relationships <Ahlstro) '44C=Accordin" to the social "eo"rapher Mi"uel Castells0 .ody .io-rhyth)s0 physical activity0 seasonal chan"e and "lo.al location .eco)e irrelevant .ecause they are not necessary to the network- A culture is created o: Oreal virtualityJ <Castells 377&F3777=@ndividuali/ation0 networks and "lo.ali/ation are interconnected in a dyna)ic relationship0 each :or)in" and .ein" :or)ed .y the other- Ge e9plore the nature o: these pheno)ena and0 althou"h certainty is i)possi.le0 their :uture has educational i)plications-
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(n%ivi%uali=ation
Accordin" to the $ritish sociolo"ist0 Antony Giddens0 the @ndustrial #evolution in the ei"hteenth century helped develop individualis) throu"h the separation o: work :ro) private li:e- 1ew institutional structures such as the workplace and schools developed outside the ho)e0 leavin" it as a )ore private space- Githin this space0 private su.Rective :eelin" .eca)e possi.le and developed- This last phase o: )odernity has :urthered the develop)ent o: individualis)0 as the decline o: traditional social values has created a social dise).eddedness- There is now a co)pellin" need :or people to construct their own identities and :ind new )eans :or its e9pression0 rather than .ein" thrown .ack on types o: cate"ori/ations that no lon"er :it@ndividuals also re+uire the skill o: re:le9ivity0 which entails a reappraisal o: the past0 sel:-awareness in the present0 and proRects :or the :uture in order to "ive the)selves a stron" sense o: sel:-identity <Giddens 3773=-
(n%ivi%uali=ation an% e%ucation

Traditionally0 education was seen to have a sociali/in" :unction0 inductin" individuals into the roles e9pected o: the) .y society <;urkhei) 37B&=- $ut as society is no lon"er ho)o"eneous0 this su""ests a di::erent :ocus :or education > that o: the reco"nition and cele.ration o: individualis) as part o: the stren"thenin" o: identityThere are )any indications o: the pro)otion o: individuali/ation as a )odern ai) o: education- These include* Q Q Q Q Q Q an e)phasis on sel:-e9pression in learnerJs writin" and literatureP the pro)otion o: personal proRects in educationP an e)phasis on the learnerJs individual psycholo"yP an e)phasis on the individual learnerJs stren"ths and stylesP a concern :or the develop)ent o: sel:-estee) in learnersP a pro)otion o: learner re:lection and re:le9ivity and the develop)ent o: re:le9ive tools-
1ot all o: these e)phases on individualis) arise :ro) responses to social :ra")entation- The reco"nition and cele.ration o: learner di::erence )ay also arise :ro) e+uality and diversity a"endas in a pluralist society-
The net$or# societ,

The OnetworkJ represents a new :or) o: social or"ani/ation that has e)er"ed since the )id-3764s- There are )any reasons :or the "rowth o: networks0 a)on" the) a decline in state power0 the spread o: capitalis) and the "rowth o: di"ital co))unication syste)s- Ge talk co))only a.out co)puter0 :a)ily0 social0 political0 terrorist or )edia networks <?elly 3776* A>B=- Such networks operate across distance0 their structures are not o.vious0 and they have the power to )ake connections in any
nu).er o: di::erent ways0 as hyperlinks do- One :eature o: networks is that they are inclusive in the way that in:or)ation :lows .etween )e).ers0 and e9clusive in ensurin" that in:or)ation and knowled"e stays within the network- @t is not surprisin" to :ind that the )etaphor o: the network is used as a :or) o: knowled"e representation in a nu).er o: disciplines0 replacin" an older co)puter hardware )odel- @n co"nitive science0 connectionist networks are widely used to represent and e9plain co"nitive activity <$runin" et al- '44H* &4=The network society is underpinned .y the revolution in in:or)ation co))unication technolo"y- This .e"an with the rise o: the personal co)puter and continued throu"h the develop)ent o: the @nternet0 the Gorld Gide Ge. and increasin"ly sophisticated so:tware applications :or co))unication and in:or)ation e9chan"eThe :uture is likely to include the e9periences o: )ultiple realities0 sentient ro.ots or co)puters0 and the translation o: vicarious into i))ediate e9perience-
;et$or#s an% e%ucation

!ducational networks have always e9isted0 connectin" "roups o: scholars who co))unicate to"ether in scholarly activity and pu.lication across institutions and countries- Such scholarly "roups )ay share their research and e9pert knowled"e without the necessity :or physical contactModern ideas o: educational networks are shown in Oco))unities o: practiceJ in which practitioners can actively create and share knowled"e- @n co))unities o: practice0 knowled"e is always OsituatedJ0 not necessarily within a speci:ic location0 .ut always within a culture and a .ack"round- ?nowled"e is not pre-e9istin"0 .ut constructed :ro) the practices o: the "roup- The co))unity con:ers identity on its )e).ersP to .e e9cluded :ro) the co))unity is to .e e9cluded :ro) the knowled"e the network constructs0 and to possess no co))unity identity- Power is dispersed or shared .etween the "roup )e).ers0 rather than in a hierarchical or top-down :ashion <Gen"er 3776* H=There are )any i)plications o: seein" education as co)prisin" co))unities o: practice0 not least :or the traditional power o: the teacherAn un:oreseen type o: educational networkin" is shown .y @nternet sites such as O#ate )y teacherJ which are constructed .y school children and students to provide their own evaluations o: schools and teachin"- Such sites0 which have sprun" up in )any countries0 are al)ost i)possi.le to control and show the e::ective ways in which networks can operate to su.vert :or)al syste)s in the interests o: the )e).ersThe value o: networks lies in their power to* Q Q Q Q Q connect "roups o: learners and practitioners separated .y distanceP disse)inate power throu"hout the network to create )ore e+ual relationships .etween learners and teachersP con:er identities on learnersP create instantaneous co))unication-:lowsP actively construct and disse)inate knowled"e-
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The dan"ers o: educational networkin" lie in* Q Q Q Q the a.ility o: the network to e9clude outsiders :ro) knowled"eP the possi.ilities o: illusion and deception created .y virtualityP the di::iculty o: )onitorin" and re"ulatin" networksP privacy issues in relation to )e).ership o: networks-
Alo ali=ation
The other )aRor and )ost o.vious social pheno)enon is that o: "lo.ali/ation- The "lo.al econo)y0 which acts as another :or) o: network0 this ti)e at a )acro-level0 is sel:-e9pandin"0 unre"ulated and uncontrolla.le- @t .e"an as an econo)ic network re:lectin" a :or) o: advanced capitalis)0 .ut now stretches .eyond econo)ics to a::ect all aspects o: social li:e <Giddens 3776* A4>3=- As in other networks0 power is dispersed .etween co)petin" )arkets0 o:ten in the :or) o: )ultinational corporations that operate "lo.ally0 and now have )ore power than nation states <$eck '444=-
Alo ali=ation an% e%ucation

The in:lu9 o: )arket :orces and the coloni/ation o: education .y .usiness practices are shown in )any ways- !ducational institutions are .e"innin" to act )ore like corporations as they adopt the discourse o: Ocusto)ersJ0 O)arketsJ and Oe::iciencyJConversely0 corporations are the)selves .e"innin" to take over educational enterprises- For e9a)ple0 lar"e )ultinational co)panies like Motorola are now creatin" their own universities which can .e used to disse)inate precisely the trainin" and knowled"e that the corporation re+uires <Jarvis and Preece '443* ''4>3=- @n '446 the Mac;onalds :ast-:ood chain "ained $ritish "overn)ent approval to o::er its e)ployees awards e+uivalent to an A level or advanced diplo)a level <$$C '446=The characteristics o: the corporate educational institution are that it* Q identi:ies internal and e9ternal )arkets* Z internal markets: units or acade)ic depart)entsP Z external markets: learners0 parents0 co))unities0 "overn)ent a"enciesP packa"es knowled"e0 educational pro"ra))es and services as co))oditiesP distri.utes resources co)petitivelyP )easures educational e::ectiveness .y the achieve)ent o: tar"etsP operates .ureaucratic top-down rather than colle"ial )ana"e)ent syste)sP sells a share o: the educational enterprise to e9ternal investors-
Q Q Q Q Q
The educational corporation* Q )ay operate virtually0 on a "lo.al .asis0 with no physical locationP
Q Q Q Q Q Q
co).ines work-.ased0 pro:essional trainin" with educationP cooperates with educational institutions on e+ual ter)sP devises its own curricula and pro"ra))es o: studyP )ay ad)it e9ternal learners as custo)ersP awards certi:ication and credits to its learnersP .lurs the .oundaries .etween education and .usiness-
@n the :uture there is likely to .e a :urther )er"in" o: corporations and educational institutions as the co))odi:ication o: education continues and spreads to all sectors o: education- The use o: online and .lended learnin" processes will :acilitate this processThe other aspect o: "lo.ali/ation which has already had a )arked e::ect on education is that o: the discourse o: li:elon" learnin"- Accordin" to this discource0 workers will need to upskill on a continuous .asis0 as knowled"e is trans:or)ed0 in order that co)panies0 re"ions and states can )aintain their co)petitive advanta"e%i:elon" learnin" is not si)ply concerned with the workplace and workplace trainin" > it a::ects all educational providers and all types o: provision <?o"an '444* AH3>B7=0 thou"h the e9tent to which it acts as a catchphrase to Rusti:y econo)ic i)peratives is de.atea.le?nowled"e itsel: has .eco)e the )ain co))odity :or e9chan"e > the Gorld Trade Or"ani/ation <GTO= has recently cate"ori/ed education as a trada.le co))odity > which has :ar-reachin" i)plications :or learners0 or Ocusto)ersJ as they are increasin"ly known- @: education is a co))odity0 it )ust .e like other products and .e accounta.le to the shareholders who own it- !ducation as a co))odity there:ore has had to standardi/e its products in the interests o: the )arket and its )aRor shareholders0 the consu)ers and providers- @n hi"her education0 a proli:eration o: private providers has led in )any countries to "reater student choice0 .ut also to the potential :or lowered educational standardsThe co))odi:ication o: education has a::ected all levels o: the educational syste)- @n school syste)s0 )arket :orces have led to consu)er choice in relation to educational provision- For e9a)ple0 the $ritish school syste) under the O1ew #i"htJ Conservative "overn)ent in the 3764s responded to the de)and :or parental school choice and an open educational )arket- This led to the need :or educational transparency in the :or) o: school lea"ue ta.les and the assess)ent o: school per:or)ance on the .asis o: Standard Attain)ent Testin" <SAT= o: students- This pu.lication o: per:or)ance indicators )eant that schools wanted to attract only the clever or the acade)ically )otivated- The net result was0 O@t is not what the school can do :or the child that counts0 .ut what the child can do :or the schoolJ <Gerwirt/ '443* 3C&=-
(&plications *or the teacher

The social :orces involved in individuali/ation0 networkin" and "lo.ali/ation work to"ether in a dyna)ic way to chan"e the nature o: social and individual li:e- The
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teacher has always .een inti)ately involved in the li:e o: society and o: the individual learner0 so the trans:or)ations that are occurrin" in .oth have )any i)plications :or the teacher-
(n%ivi%uali=ation
The traditional :ra)es within which identity has .een constructed in the past > ho)e0 school and peers > have all .een weakened .y the :ra")entations occurrin" in society0 and the teacher needs to .e aware o: these lar"er social processes in order to respond- @dentities are now .ein" :or)ed in di::erent ways0 and the teacher will have no control over those identities that people wish to create- A world o: )ultiple identities and virtuality )akes the relationship .etween appearance and reality +uite pro.le)atic- This is re)iniscent o: the theory o: radical constructivis) discussed in Chapter H0 which clai)s that the e9tent to which our knowled"e re:lects e9ternal reality cannot .e deter)ined <von Glaser:eld '44C=One area where the teacher )ay .e a.le to e9ert so)e in:luence is in helpin" learners develop a critical awareness o: "lo.ali/in" )arket :orces- For instance0 people use their .odies as Oidentity proRectsJ to e9press status0 a::iliation0 and control over their lives <Giddens 3773=- $ody i)a"e trans:or)ations in the :or) o: dietin"0 e9ercise0 tattooin"0 and sur"ery are very co))on- !ducation should help people to see throu"h pro)ises o: trans:or)ation0 which )ay not .e reali/a.le- @nstead0 the teacher can pro)ise a di::erent kind o: trans:or)ation > o: perspectives0 assu)ptions and o: values0 .y showin" learners how to .e re:lective and discri)inatin"- #e:le9ivity too is an i)portant strate"y0 and teachers the)selves need to .e re:le9ive in order to )odel this thinkin" skill to learners* Reflection: Reflexi.it$: thinkin" with a purposeP an awareness o: personal involve)ent in )eanin" construction-
;et$or#s
@n the :uture0 an e9tension o: the individuali/ation o: learnin"0 aided .y new technolo"ies0 will pro.a.ly sweep away physical classroo)s- The or"ani/ation o: learnin" in lar"e class "roups )akes :ew acco))odations to personal learnin" styles and co"nitive or cultural di::erences- owever0 the disappearance o: the classroo) leaves a space :or co))unities o: learnin" and practice which could .e local0 dispersed or .oth- Iisions o: a co))unity-centred society have .een articulated .y the US-.ased O!ducational Futures ProRectJ in which schools are replaced .y an open-learnin" syste) where the co))unity itsel: could .e responsi.le :or networks o: learnin" centres o: all kinds- These could .e :or)al and in:or)al0 in which Olearnin" trainersJ0 like :itness advisers0 could .e availa.le to learners on de)and <Mei"han and SiraR-$latch:ord '44A* A47=-
Alo ali=ation
Ghen we talk o: co))unity0 we think o: local co))unity0 .ut the @nternet )akes co))unity "lo.al- Apart :ro) ti)e /one di::erences0 the e9periences o: a co))unity on an in-house co)puter network0 and one dispersed in 1ew:oundland0 $eiRin" and Si.eria0 is e9actly the sa)e- $ourdieu has shown that education reproduces advanta"e in society <A.ercro).ie 376H* A3=0 and )ore reproduction o: advanta"e can .e )aintained on a "lo.al scale .y the )ore econo)ically advanced societies- Glo.al co))unities are not likely to include )any people in su.-Saharan A:rica who lack access to the technolo"y and the econo)ic resources to en"a"e in "lo.al e9chan"es-
Future teacher roles

$ased on these trends0 we can o::er so)e su""estions as to how :uture teacher roles )i"ht .e di::erent to those today-
Teacher role an% characteristics

@n a "lo.ali/ed networked environ)ent0 the teacher could .eco)e a Osin"le point o: contactJ <SPOC= to )ediate .etween the learner and a )ultiplicity o: networks and o: knowled"e- !).odi)ent will still .e i)portant0 even in a virtual environ)entTeachers e).ody learnin" and knowled"e throu"h their e9periences0 history0 e9pertise0 i))ediacy and responses to learners@: knowled"e can .e accessed in a )ultiplicity o: ways0 then learners will choose teachers :or their a.ility to en"a"e0 .oth with the knowled"e and the learnin"- @t will re+uire a di::erent set o: aptitudes :ro) the teacher0 re+uirin" artistry rather than a set o: technical skillsTeachers will have a role in )otivatin" learners throu"h personal coachin"0 and in sca::oldin" support learners in their personal proRects- Teachers will .e :reed :ro) knowled"e trans)ission or duplication0 to act as critical :riends and "uides :or learners-
5etho%ologies
@n line with individuali/ation teachers will help learners to construct their individual learnin" plans <@%Ps=0 and to plan relevant curricula- This is undertaken to a li)ited e9tent now :or special cate"ories o: learner0 .ut needs to .e e9tended in a process analo"ous to that envisa"ed .y Iy"otsky in the VP; discussed in Chapter H-
-no$le%ge trans*er
@t is already apparent that learners are )ore likely to o.tain si)ple in:or)ation throu"h the @nternet than to ask a teacher0 so this role is .eco)in" redundant- More
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co)ple9 knowled"e trans)ission will .e the responsi.ility o: co))unities o: practice that construct and share knowled"e- The teacher will need to .e a participant in such co))unities o: practice0 sharin" e9pert knowled"e as a valued )e).er0 rather than standin" outside the)- This will entail a )ore even and e+ual distri.ution o: power relations within the network-
Cognitive organi=ation
The or"ani/ation o: the classroo) environ)ent or the provision o: e9ternal learnin" e9periences will .e unnecessary0 since pupils will have )ore learnin" e9periences outside the school than can .e arran"ed within it- @nstead0 the teacher will aid in the co"nitive or"ani/ation o: learners throu"h )odellin" and illustratin" the e9plicit co))unication processes which a.er)as clai)s are vital in the construction o: rationality < a.er)as 376H=- Teachers can help learners to .eco)e critical evaluators o: knowled"e clai)s-
Assess&ent
Assess)ent practices will not concentrate on the teacherJs su))ative or :inal assess)ent o: learner per:or)ance- This places the teacher in an invidious relationship to the learner- Since the nineteenth century0 education has carried out societyJs work .y assessin" peopleJs :itness :or the workplace and :or other social purposesThis was not o: .ene:it to the )aRority o: learners who were le:t with e9periences o: :ailure or o: )ediocre achieve)ent- @t also created role a).i"uity and con:lict :or teachersSu))ative assess)ent and certi:ication could .e the responsi.ility o: other a"encies not involved directly in teachin" or in supportin" the learner- The role o: the teacher then could .e to work with the learner in the Roint a"ree)ent o: learnin" "oals to .e achieved0 in supportin" the learner in their achieve)ent0 and in providin" :eed.ack-
-e, i%eas
Q Q Q Q The :uture directions o: educational policy "enerally depend on decisions )ade in the presentThe swin" to the instru)entalis) o: the knowled"e econo)y is .ein" countered .y the re-e)er"ence o: li.eral valuesCurrent social pheno)ena that have si"ni:icant :uture i)plications include* individuali/ation0 networks and "lo.ali/ationThese social pheno)ena are shown educationally in* the e)phasis on individual learnerJs stren"ths0 styles and needsP the i)pact o: co))unication technolo"ies and the @nternetP the co))odi:ication o: education and the "rowth o: new educational )arkets-
Q Q
The :uture role o: education should lie in encoura"in" re:le9ive and critical thinkersThe :uture role o: the teacher should .e to e).ody knowled"e0 support learners in plannin" individuali/ed curricula0 and assist their co"nitive develop)ent-
Conclusion
Teachers need to .e aware o: social and conte9tual develop)ents in the worldP they cannot con:ine the)selves to the classroo) or to the a.stract re:or)ulation and testin" o: knowled"e- The world enters the classroo) on two le"s- Already0 networks and new technolo"ies are .ein" used in ways that could not have .een predicted when they were developed- Predictions o: an increase in "lo.al )arket :orces could .e overthrown .y the realities o: "lo.al war)in"0 .ut it is .etter to .e prepared :or .othThe e).odied teacher will still .e necessary in the :uture0 in spite o: :urther technolo"ical develop)ents and the disappearance o: schools as physical entities as we know the)- @: past e9perience has shown anythin" a.out technolo"ical advance and distance education solutions0 it is that the technolo"y on its own is always insu::icient to support the learner- So)ewhere0 a person is needed to connect physically0 e9perientially and e)otionally to the physical e9perience o: the learnerGhether in the present or :or the :uture0 teachers need to develop or clari:y a personal philosophy and a set o: values- They )ay endorse so)e0 and oppose ones i)posed on the)0 with which they do not a"ree- One o: the purposes o: this te9t is to pro)pt educators to consider and identi:y their theoretical positions- ;iscourse with other practitioners and novices in co))unities o: practice can lead to speech acts and the esta.lish)ent o: co))unicative rationality which can "uide shared knowled"e construction and rationalityThis chapter shows that the social :orces which operate throu"hout the world are structural and outside the control o: individual a"ency- The social chan"es we have identi:ied here are creatin" new :or)s o: knowled"e and new ways o: e9periencin" the world- $ut in the end0 there will still .e a teacher and a learner however they co))unicate-
)e*erences
A.ercro).ie0 1- <376H= The %enguin 3ictionar$ of &ociolog$ <Hth edn=- %ondon* Pen"uin $ooksAhlstro)0 ;- <'44C= Ghy easy-to-:ind e-:riends cannot .e counted on0 #rish Times0 33 Septe).er0 httpFFwww-ireland-co)FnewspaperF:rontpa"eF <accessed 7 1ove).er '44C=$$C <'446= Online 1ews- http*FFnews-..c-co-ukF3FhiFeducationFC'47'C& <accessed 3H Fe.ruary '446=$eck0 U- <'444= >hat is Globali:ationG Ca).rid"e- Polity Press-
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Castells0 M- <377&= The Rise of the Network &ociet$- Ca).rid"e0 MA* $lackwellCastells0 M- <3777= An introduction to the in:or)ation a"e0 in - Mackay and T-
OJSullivan <eds= The ;edia Reader: ontinuit$ and Transformation- %ondon* Sa"e0 OU;urkhei)0 !- <37B&= Education and &ociolog$- 1ew 2ork* Free PressGewirt/0 S- <'443= The ;anagerial &chool: %ost(>elfarism and &ocial 9ustice in Education%ondon* #outled"eGiddens0 A- <3773= ;odernit$ and &elf(identit$: &elf and &ociet$ in the Late ;odern AgeCa).rid"e* Polity PressGiddens0 A- <3776= The Third >a$: The Renewal of &ocial 3emocrac$- Ca).rid"e* Polity Pressa.er)as0 J- <376H= The Theor$ of ommunicati.e Action- "olume /ne: Reason and the Rationali:ation of &ociet$ <trans- T- McCarty= $oston0 MA* $eacon PressJarvis0 P- and Preece0 J- <'443= Future directions :or the learnin" society0 in P- Jarvis <ed-= The Age of Learning and the 4nowledge &ociet$- %ondon* ?o"an Pa"e0 '''>AJenkins0 C- and Sher)an0 $- <37C7= The ollapse of >ork- %ondon* !yre Methuen-
?elly0 ?- <3776= New Rules for the New Econom$: 18 Radical &trategies for a onnected >orld- 1ew 2ork* Pen"uin?o"an0 M- <'444= %i:elon" learnin" in the U?0 European 9ournal of Education0 AB<A=* AH3>B7Mei"han0 #- and SiraR-$latch:ord0 @- <'44A= A &ociolog$ of Educating <Hth edn=- %ondon* Continuu)von Glaser:eld0 !- <'44C= An Exposition of onstructi.ism: >h$ &ome Like it Radical@taly* Associa/ione Oikos- http*FFwww-oikos-or"Fconstructivis)-ht) <accessed 'A Au"ust '44C=Gen"er0 !- <3776= ommunities of %ractice: Learning! ;eaning and #dentit$- Ca).rid"e*
Ca).rid"e University Press-
Alossar,
Acco&&o%ation The adaptation o: e9istin" sche)a in the li"ht o: new in:or)ationAccretion The co"nitive process .y which repeated e9perience is "enerali/ed as sche)ataActivit, learning %earnin" :ro) action rather than trans)issionA%vance organi=er Ausu.elJs theory that )eanin":ul learnin" o: new knowled"e .uilds upon e9istin" knowled"e0 and that presentin" an overview o: that knowled"e acts as a )eans o: learnin"A**ective %o&ain Area o: learnin" associated with :eelin"s0 .elie:s and valuesAgenc, A concept in sociolo"y concerned with peopleJs :reedo) to act or to chooseAn%ragog, A ter) populari/ed .y the US educationalist Malcol) ?nowles to re:er to the art and science o: teachin" adultsAristotle2s three la$s o* thought The law o: contradiction* e-"- &ocrates cannot be a man and not a man at the same timeThe law o: e9cluded )iddle* The law o: identity* e-"- &ocrates is either ali.e or not ali.ee-"- &ocrates is &ocrates-
Assi&ilation The incorporation o: new in:or)ation into e9istin" sche)aAssistive technologies <AT= Technolo"ies which support individuals who :ace )aRor .arriers to an inclusive education0 e-"- $raille .ooks0 speech readin" technolo"ies0 etcAttention The co"nitive process o: selectively concentratin" on one thin" while i"norin" othersAttri ution theor, The theory e9plains how people account :or their successes or :ailures- People "enerally attri.ute their successes to their own a.ilities and their :ailures to uncontrolla.le causes such as environ)ental :actorsAuto&atic processes o* attention Co"nitive processes which re+uire little attention or e::ort and are usually outside conscious awareness and control0an#ing &o%el A )odel o: education associated with Freire0 which positions teachers as active and learners as passive0 as thou"h teachers deposit knowled"e into studentsJ accounts-
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0a!ter 5agol%a2s episte&ological %evelop&ent theor, Theory o: intellectual develop)ent clai)in" that there are :our discrete se+uential sta"es in the adult ac+uisition o: knowled"e0ehaviour &anage&ent The process o: chan"in" or stren"thenin" learnersJ .ehaviour in order to develop co"nitive skills0ehaviouris& A theory o: learnin" which concentrates on .ehavioural chan"es in or"anis)s0iological age #e:ers to the .odyJs physical a"e0 which is a::ected .y chronolo"ical a"e0 "enetic :actors0 and personal and environ)ental :actors such as diet0 e9ercise and health0loo&2s ta!ono&ies o* learning A typolo"y devised .y $enRa)in $loo) which proposes three do)ains o: learnin" > the co"nitive0 a::ective and psycho)otor > which translate learnin" into overt o.serva.le .ehaviours0otto&6up processing All the in:or)ation needed :or perception0 provided .y the sensory sti)uli <Ja)es Gi.son 37B4=0rain plasticit, The a.ility o: .rain re"ions to vary their usual :unction0 either .y co)pensation or .y develop)ent0ron*en renner2s ecological &o%el o* %evelop&ent A )odel which su""ests that the environ)ent in:luences individualsJ develop)ent dyna)ically .y )eans o: econo)ic0 "eo"raphic0 historical0 social and political :actors0runer2s representational &o%es Accordin" to Jero)e $runer0 people ac+uire three )aRor intellectual skills :or representin" the world* the enactive0 iconic and sy).olic )odesCentral e!ecutive @n workin" )e)ory0 the syste) which controls what enters into STM and decides what will .e trans:erred to %TMChronological age #e:ers to the ti)e since .irthChun#ing The process o: co).inin" separate ite)s o: in:or)ation into chunks0 :or inputtin" to %TMClassical ehaviouris& The theory that all learnin" con:or)s to o.serva.le scienti:ic laws "overnin" .ehavioural associations and patternsP the learner responds to e9ternal sti)uli in a deter)inistic )annerCognition All the )ental acts or processes .y which knowled"e is ac+uiredCognitive apprenticeship #o"o::Js theory o: social learnin" which e)phasi/es the colla.orative nature o: co"nitive develop)ent .y portrayin" learners as Oapprentices in thinkin"JCognitive %evelop&ent Pia"etJs theory that childrenJs active en"a"e)ent with their environ)ent leads the) to construct )eanin"-
Cognitive %o&ain Area o: learnin" associated with )ental activity0 like thinkin" and knowled"e ac+uisitionCognitive &ap The )ental codin"0 storin" and accessin" o: spatial and other in:or)ationCognitive science The scienti:ic study o: co"nitionCognitivis& The study o: )ental in:or)ation processin"0 or co"nitionCo&&unicative rationalit, a.er)asJs clai) that reason and knowled"e are
constructed throu"h the social practice o: co))unication0 accordin" to the rules o: discourseCo&&unities o* practice Social "roups set up to :ul:il a particular set o: ai)s and o.Rectives0 and with rules :or )e).ership and clear di::erentiation :ro) othersCo&petenc, The a.ility to carry out a co)ple9 task that re+uires the inte"ration o: knowled"e0 skills and attitudesConnectionist &o%els Models which propose that knowled"e is not stored as separate units .ut as connections .etween di::erent ideas in the networkConstructivis& A .road "roup o: theories that e9plain knowled"e ac+uisition and learnin"- For constructivists0 learnin" is an active process0 throu"h which learners OconstructJ )eanin"Content theories Content theories concentrate on the e9trinsic and intrinsic needs0 :actors and orientations that )otivate individualsContinuous rein*orce&ent A pattern in which every desira.le response is :ollowed .y rein:orce)entControlle% processes o* attention Processes which re+uire intentional e::ort and conscious awarenessCoole,2s pri&ar, groups Fa)ily0 peers and co))unity > the three social institutions that play a vital role in shapin" hu)an .ehaviour and :unctionin"0 includin" learnin"Cre%it6 ase% s,ste& A +uanti:ication o: the studentJs e::ort on havin" achieved speci:ied learnin" outco)es o: a )odule- A credit e+uates to a certain nu).er o: e::ort hoursCriterion6re*erence% assess&ent A syste) o: assess)ent in which learner per:or)ance is Rud"ed accordin" to criteria speci:ied in stated learnin" outco)esCritical constructivis& A cate"ory o: constructivist thou"ht which e)phasi/es the i)portance o: people .ein" sel:-re:lective0 and .ein" a.le to think critically a.out social and cultural conditionsCritical thin#ing The process o: +uestionin"0 challen"in" and )akin" Rud"e)ents a.out e9istin" assu)ptions and knowled"e-
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Cr,stalli=e% intelligence Accu)ulated knowled"e and wisdo)Cultural a$areness Awareness o: the ways in which learnersJ cultural .ack"round in:or)s how they construct knowled"e and )ake sense o: the worldCultural capital Cultural knowled"e which .rin"s status and power- Accordin" to $ourdieu there are three types o: cultural capital > e).odied0 o.Recti:ied and institutionali/edCultural language co%es The :or)s o: lan"ua"e used .y di::erent social classesCultural learning A ter) which can )ean .oth Olearnin" a.out a cultureJ and also Olearnin" within a cultureJCultural repro%uction an% e%ucation !ducation reproduces culture and ha.itus0 so)eti)es very deli.erately throu"h su.Rects such as civics0 citi/enship0 and personal and health educationCultural stereot,ping The :or)in" o: inaccurate0 si)plistic "enerali/ations a.out a "roup .ased on their cultural di::erencesCulture Fro) the %atin word OcolereJ0 which )eans Oto cultivateJ or Oto care :orJ- This )eans that culture is so)ethin" cultivated/eep an% sur*ace processing &o%el A )odel which proposes that inco)in" in:or)ation is processed at di::erent levels- Sur:ace processin" si)ply involves the recall o: in:or)ation- ;eep processin" involves :or)in" associations .etween )aterial already held and what is inco)in"/eep gra&&ar Underlyin" structures o: "ra))ar0 .elieved .y structural lin"uists like 1oa) Cho)sky to .e innate0 not learned/eep learning An approach to learnin" in which students try to understand )aterial .y linkin" it to e9istin" concepts and principles/e*icit &o%el o* %isa ilit, Posits a cate"ory o: people lackin" so)e i)portant intellectual or physical +uality and re+uirin" re)ediation/i**erentiation in learning #eco"nition that all learners are di::erent and )ay need di::erent :or)s o: teachin" and di::erent learnin" opportunities/iscourse Structured0 coherent se+uences o: lan"ua"e on a particular topic0 either written or spoken- For Foucault0 the lan"ua"e and practices o: a knowled"e :ield/iscover, learning A school )ove)ent o: the 37&4s in which children were encoura"ed to discover the principles o: su.Rects such as )athe)atics and science throu"h e9ploration/ise3uili riu& For Pia"et0 the desta.ili/ation o: e9istin" )ental constructs0 which leads to the search :or new constructs0 and so :acilitates learnin"/rive sti&uli 1eeds such as hun"er0 thirst and sleep which drive .ehaviour-
/ur#hei&2s &o%el o* societ, Co)prises three ele)ents* syste)0 structure and :unction.%ucation A conscious atte)pt to develop personality in a pre:erred direction.&piricis& The view that all knowled"e is "ained :ro) the senses0 .rou"ht to pro)inence in the seventeenth century .y the !n"lish philosopher John %ocke.nactive &o%e The process o: learnin" .y per:or)in" a task.nco%ing The process o: trans:errin" in:or)ation :ro) short-ter) to lon"-ter) )e)ory.nculturation The process .y which students are led to understand the needs o: their culture0 :or e9a)ple0 how it is socially or"ani/ed0 what is considered knowled"e0 and what is thou"ht to .e worth learnin".nlighten&ent> the An ei"hteenth-century literary and philosophical )ove)ent stressin" the i)portance o: reason and the critical reappraisal o: e9istin" ideas and social institutions.3ualit, #e:ers to an e+ual distri.ution o: resources :or everyone0 irrespective o: their needs.3uit, argu&ents Stress the o.li"ations o: the state to ensure Rustice in the distri.ution o: Osocial "oodsJ like education or e)ploy)ent <John #awls=.!pectanc, @ndividual e9pectations o: attain)ent with respect to "oals <)otivation theory=.!periential learning %earnin" :ro) active en"a"e)ent with others and with the environ)ent.!tinction The eli)ination o: .ehaviour .y re)ovin" the unconditional sti)ulus.!trinsic &otivators Factors e9ternal to learners that )otivate the) to respond0 e-"- hi"h "rades0 praise or )oneyFlui% intelligence Speed in co"nitive processin"Four la$s o* perception Accordin" to Gestalt0 the laws o: perception are those o: pro9i)ity0 si)ilarity0 continuity and closureFunctional age A de:inition o: people in ter)s o: their actual a.ilities rather than the len"th o: ti)e they have .een aliveAagnF2s instructional events A set o: instructor .ehaviours and learner responses which should occur in every instructional sessionAeneral Gg2 intelligence Spear)anJs theory that there is an underlyin" "eneral intelli"ence0 also known as OunitaryJ intelli"enceAlo ali=ation Process .y which the world is said to .e trans:or)ed into a sin"le "lo.al <econo)ic= syste)-
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Aroupthin# A potential e::ect o: "roup sociali/ation0 in which "roup consensus and con:or)ity overrides o.Rective analysis0 in the interests o: "roup unity9a it strength The :re+uency o: association .etween a particular sti)ulus and response0 which leads an or"anis) to choose the response connected to the stron"est ha.it9a itus A ter) used .y $ourdieu to descri.e all )ani:estations o: cultural diversity that are seen in daily practices and .ehaviours that O"o without sayin"J9all2s high6conte!t versus lo$6conte!t %i&ension An inde9 :or )easurin" the )anner in which in:or)ation in a culture is e9chan"ed9all2s &onochronic versus pol,chronic %i&ension An inde9 :or )easurin" the way ti)e is perceived in a "iven culture9ea%start +roDect A US pro"ra))e o: the 37&4s which ai)ed to i)prove the educational and vocational opportunities :or youn" .lack children throu"h lan"ua"e enhance)ent9i%%en curriculu& #e:ers to values that are not articulated .ut )ay still "uide the way the curriculu) is e9perienced9igher6or%er processes Processes such as in:erence0 deduction and knowled"e o: conte9t which are necessary :or perception9o*ste%e2s cultural %i&ensions An inde9in" syste) that can .e used to descri.e0 cate"ori/e and co)pare cultures9u&an rights argu&ents These stress the entitle)ent o: all citi/ens to participate :ully in social li:e(conic &o%e The process o: learnin" .y internali/in" i)a"es that stand :or an idea(%ealis& The philosophical doctrine that ideas represent reality which ori"inated with Plato0 the third-century $C! thinker(nclusivit, Acknowled"in"0 acco))odatin" and drawin" upon the richness o: individual di::erences to ensure that all individuals can reach their :ull potential(n%ivi%ualis& in%e! <(/8= Measures the e9tent to which the individual is )ore i)portant than the "roup(n%ivi%ual Learning +lans <(L+s= Plans devised .y a teacher or )entor to cater :or the speci:ic needs o: individual pupils(n%ivi%uali=ation Process where.y individuals have to :or"e their own identities and .io"raphies <Giddens=(nstru&entalis& The view that education should serve a purpose > usually econo)ic(nstructional %esign An approach to instruction that atte)pts to incorporate syste)atically all the events a::ectin" learnin"-
(nterposition The perception that closer o.Rects o.scure )ore distant ones(ntrinsic &otivators Factors internal to learners that are rewardin" in the)selves without the need :or incentives0 e-"- sel:-estee)-eller2s A)C4 &otivational &o%el A )odel which proposes that )otivation includes attention to :our cate"ories > attention0 relevance0 con:idence and satis:action-ell,2s personal construct theor, A techni+ue which ena.les teachers and learners to identi:y their own personal constructs and discover their values-no$le%ge econo&, The concept that knowled"e can .e treated as a )arketa.le econo)ic resource that "ives a nation a co)petitive advanta"eLa elling The ne"ative cate"ori/ation o: individuals who are di::erent in .ehaviour or appearance0 )ost o:ten used in relation to perceptions o: deviancy0 .ut also relevant to cate"ori/ations o: disa.ilityLanguage The socially shared conventions that "overn co))unication usin" words0 sy).ols or "esturesLearne% helplessness The psycholo"ical state in which individuals have learned that any .ehaviour they try will :ailP thus0 they re:use to en"a"e in a task .ecause they assu)e that they cannot succeedLearning A relatively per)anent chan"e in .ehaviour as the result o: e9perienceLearning outco&e An e9plicit state)ent o: what a learner will .e a.le to do as a result o: co)pletin" a course o: studyLearning plateau A point at which people learnin" new )aterial clai) to .e una.le to )ake pro"ress- One e9planation is that there is insu::icient )aterial stored in )e)ory with which new )aterials can linkLi eral e%ucation An education devoted to the study o: :irst principles0 or theoretical ideas0 :or their own sakeLi eral stu%ies A co).ined arts su.Rect intended to provide students with "eneral cultural knowled"e- A descendent o: Oli.eral educationJ0 it "enerally includes the study o: lan"ua"es0 literature0 history and philosophyLi*e course The se+uence o: events and e9periences :ro) .irth to death0 and their related physical and psycholo"ical statesLi*elong learning A philosophy .ased on the i)portance o: providin" learnin" opportunities throu"hout li:e- @t is associated with the knowled"e society and econo)ic a"endasLoci o* *oci A )ethod o: )e)ory cuein" supposedly invented .y the ancient Greek poet Si)onides0 who re)e).ered the na)es o: those killed in a :ire in a .an+uetin" hall .y )e)ori/in" where they had .een sittin" at dinner-
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Locus o* control #e:ers to peopleJs .elie:s a.out the e9tent to which they have control over their own situations or desiresLong6ter& &e&or, <LT5= Me)ory which can store very lar"e a)ounts o: data :or a very lon" ti)e- @n:or)ation held in %TM is encoded in sche)ataLong6ter& orientation <LT1= Measures the e9tent to which people attach i)portance to a lon"-ter) :uture rather than to tradition or the past or present5asculinit, in%e! <5A4= Measures the e9tent to which the roles o: )en and wo)en are distinct with little or no overlap5aslo$2s hierarch, o* nee%s MaslowJs theory that )otivation is .ased on three types o: .asic hu)an needs > physiolo"ical0 social and co"nitiveFe9istential5aster, learning The state)ent o: educational o.Rectives and their translation into learner .ehaviours in order to "enerate criteria :or assess)ent "rades5cAregor2s B an% @ Theor, Two contrastin"0 stereotypical )ana"e)ent styles descri.ed .y McGre"or0 which re:lect teachin" styles .ased either on praise or reproo:5eaning sche&es Sets o: .elie:s0 attitudes and e)otional reactions which co)prise e9perience5in%6 o%, %ualis& Theory o: the French seventeenth-century philosopher #enS ;escartes0 that the )ind and .ody are two separate entities0 with only the )ind in touch with ulti)ate reality5o%al 5o%el The view that )e)ory contains two seperate stora"e syste)s0 STM <short ter)= and %TM <lon" Ter)=5o%ulari=ation The practice o: dividin" a course o: study into discrete units to which credits are attached5oral %evelop&ent theor, Theory associated with ?ohl.er" which proposes that )orality is a process that develops throu"h an individualJs li:e sta"es5otion cues The perception that o.Rects appear to )ove i: the o.server is )ovin" <)otion paralla9=5otivation Fro) the %atin mo.ere > Oto )oveJ- @t re:ers to the set o: :actors that O)oveJ people so that they respond5ultiple intelligences <5(= GardnerJs theory that there are ei"ht separate intelli"ences* lin"uistic0 lo"ical-)athe)atical0 spatial0 .odily-kinaesthetic0 )usical0 interpersonal0 intrapersonal and naturalistic;ational ?uali*ication Fra&e$or#s <;?F=s Syste)s used in )ost advanced countries showin" the relationship .etween di::erent levels o: +uali:ication0 and how each level can .e achieved;eo6 ehaviouris& A )ove)ent in .ehaviourist theory which includes so)e attention to )ental processin" .y considerin" )otivation and purposive .ehaviour in ani)als and people-
;et$or# societ, Ter) used .y Castells to descri.e a new :or) o: social or"ani/ation created .y the @nternet0 which .ypasses space and ti)e;eural net$or# &o%el A )odel which presents knowled"e as a we. within which )e)ory processes operate;or&ative groups Groups in which learnin" is concerned with the )aintenance o: shared values;or&6re*erence% assess&ent A syste) o: assess)ent in which learner per:or)ance is Rud"ed in relation to avera"e or Onor)alJ "roup per:or)ance1 Dect recognition The process .y which we reco"ni/e three-di)ensional o.Rects1 servational learning or &o%elling Accordin" to $andura0 a )eans o: learnin" .ased on i)itation o: others1perant con%itioning The process o: shapin" .ehaviour .y :ollowin" it with rein:orce)ent that increases in :re+uency1ptical *lo$ pattern The perception that i)a"es such as the "round or sky :low as the o.server approaches a point1r%ere% change *ra&e$or# A :ra)ework applied to hu)an develop)ent which occurs in an ordered se+uence+e%agog, The art and science o: teachin" in "eneral0 .ut used .y ?nowles to re:er to the teachin" o: children <see Andra"o"y=+eer pla, Accordin" to Geor"e Mead0 play :unctions as a )eans :or children to rehearse and act out social roles0 which encoura"es the) to cultivate a sense o: identity+erception The process .y which we interpret and )ake sense o: the thin"s that are presented to our senses+honics For) o: readin" instruction in which letterFsound relationships are tau"ht e9plicitly+honological or articulator, loop An auditory )e)ory store that holds a li)ited a)ount o: acoustic data :or a .rie: period o: a :ew seconds .y )eans o: rehearsal+iaget2s theor, o* cognitive %evelop&ent Outlines :our predeter)ined sta"es o: co"nitive develop)ent in childrenP sensori-)otor0 pre-operational0 concrete operational and :or)al operational+o$er %istance in%e! <+/(= Measures the e9tent to which people without power accept the une+ual distri.ution o: that power+ra!is The practice and practical side o: a :ield o: study0 as opposed to the theory+rinciple o* in%uction The process o: in:errin" :ro) particular cases to "eneral rules-
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+ro le& o* #no$le%ge One o: the )ost ancient pro.le)s in philosophy > that is0 how do we know what we knowK Ghat is the role o: the sensesK @s everythin" we know in the )indK +roce%ural #no$le%ge ?nowled"e that ena.les an individual to per:or) certain activitiesP Oknowin" howJ to do so)ethin"+rocess theories o* &otivation Focus on the co"nitive0 dyna)ic and social processes that develop0 encoura"e and sustain )otivation in individuals+s,chological age #e:ers to the way people cope with and adapt to li:e situationsThe ter) is also used in relation to intelli"ence and pro.le)-solvin" a.ilities+s,cho&etrics The .ranch o: psycholo"y concerned with the desi"n and use o: psycholo"ical tests+s,cho&otor %o&ain Area o: learnin" associated with )ind-.ody coordination and physical skills+s,chosocial %evelop&ent theor, Theory proposed .y !rikson and )odi:ied .y Peck0 that each sta"e o: a personJs li:e re+uires the achieve)ent o: a key psychosocial task0 which itsel: involves the resolution o: so)e crisis)a%ical constructivis& A .ranch o: constructivis) cha)pioned .y the US acade)ic !rnst von Glasers:eld which )aintains that all knowled"e is a process and product o: the hu)an .rain)eal virtualit, A culture where appearances do not si)ply co))unicate e9perience0 .ut .eco)e the e9perience)ecalling The process which ena.les )e)ories to .e retrieved :ro) %TM and trans:erred to workin" )e)ory :or use or output)econstruction The process .y which inconsistent e9perience can cause old sche)ata to .e replaced .y new)e*le!ivit, #e:ers to an individualJs involve)ent in a Ore:le9ive proRectJ > a continuous analysis o: past0 present and :uture0 undertaken to .uild a sense o: personal identity)ein*orce&ent Any event that increases the pro.a.ility that an associated .ehaviour will .e repeated)epetition The pattern in which :re+uent and conti"uous presentation o: the sti)ulus and response is desi"ned to produce an association .etween the))o&anticis& The literature0 philosophy0 )usic and art o: the late ei"hteenth and early nineteenth centuries0 usually opposed to classicis)4apir67har* h,pothesis <479= That lan"ua"e does not si)ply reproduce0 .ut in:luences the thou"hts and cate"ori/ations that speakers )ake-
4ca**ol%ing Selective help provided .y a teacher and "radually withdrawn0 which ena.les students to do thin"s they could not do .y the)selves4che&a A )ental :ra)ework or or"ani/ed pattern o: thou"ht a.out so)e aspect o: the world such as class o: people0 events0 situations or o.Rects4egregate% e%ucational provision or Gspecial e%ucation2 Speciali/ed :acilities :or so)e "roups o: learners0 "enerally o::ered in a se"re"ated settin"4elective attention The process .y which we :ocus attention on one piece o: in:or)ation to the e9clusion o: others4el*6e**icac, #e:ers to peopleJs perception and evaluation o: their own a.ility within speci:ic areas4el*6estee& #e:ers to peopleJs perceptions and evaluations o: their own worth4el*6tal# Accordin" to Iy"otsky0 the internal dialo"ue that takes place when children .e"in to use lan"ua"e as a tool :or sel:-re"ulation4e&antic &e&or, @ndividualsJ )e)ories :or "eneral concepts and principles and :or the relationships a)on" the)P unlike episodic )e)ory0 se)antic )e)ory is not linked with a particular ti)e and place4e&esteri=ation ;ivision o: the acade)ic year into two e+ual parts4ensation The process throu"h which in:or)ation or sti)uli :ro) the e9ternal environ)ent is held very .rie:ly in sensory re"isters4ensor, i&pair&ents Si"ht0 sound and )otor skill de:iciencies4ensor, &e&or, Me)ory which can store very lar"e a)ounts o: data :or a very short ti)e4ervice learning A )eans o: "ivin" acade)ic credits :or work in the co))unity4haping The process o: rein:orcin" .ehaviour as it .eco)es )ore like the tar"et .ehaviour4hort6ter& &e&or, <4T5= Me)ory which can store li)ited a)ounts o: data :or a short ti)e- @t is so)eti)es known as Oworkin" )e)oryJ .ecause it has several :unctions such as rehearsal0 codin"0 decision-)akin" and retrieval4#ill The a.ility to carry out a particular activity consistently- This a.ility )ay depend on physical or )ental co)petence or attitude4#inner o! Method used .y Skinner to de)onstrate the e::ectiveness o: positive and ne"ative rein:orce)ent in the trainin" o: rats4lots Units in sche)ata that can contain either :i9ed or varia.le values4ocial age #e:ers to a personJs attitudes0 .ehaviour and interests in relation to their chronolo"ical a"e-
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4ocial constructivis& A cate"ory o: constructivist thou"ht which e)phasi/es the role played .y society and culture in learnin"4ocial or person6centre% &otivation Accordin" to Maslow social )otivation is placed .etween intrinsic and e9trinsic :actors0 and ori"inates :ro) peopleJs desire :or attention0 reco"nition and acceptance4peci*ic learning i&pair&ents Severe di::iculties in lan"ua"e0 readin"Fwritin" and )athe)atics4tan%ar% Attain&ent Testing <4AT= A syste) devised to test the aptitude o: all pupils in core su.Rects4ti&ulus an% response relationships A sti)ulus is any event which pro)pts and or"anis) to respond in a certain way- There are conditional and unconditional :or)s o: sti)ulus and response4ur*ace learning An approach to learnin" in which students si)ply re)e).er :acts0 which pro)otes neither understandin" nor retention4,& olic &o%e The process o: learnin" throu"h a.stract and re:lective thinkin"4,& olic violence Accordin" to $ourdieu0 any actions or e9pectations that privile"e or rein:orce the status o: one class over another4,ste&atic %ou t The philosophic0 )ethod e9pounded .y #enS ;escartes in which everythin" in the universe was +uestioned0 until he ca)e to so)ethin" he could not dou.tTeleolog, Philosophical doctrine that e)phasi/es the purpose or end o: develop)entTe!ture gra%ient The perception that closer o.Rects appear )ore te9tured than distant onesThe Gtechnical6rational2 &o%el A curriculu) )odel developed :or the US school syste) .y #alph Tyler <37H7=0 .ased on an analysis o: the ways in which educational )aterial could .e .roken down into discrete ele)ents0 and se+uenced in the appropriate order :or presentation to learnersThin#ing s#ills an% philosoph, *or chil%ren Two associated )ove)ents in the 3764s0 which atte)pted to incorporate critical thinkin" and lo"ic into the school curriculu)Thin#ing together A pro"ra))e developed in the U? :or pri)ary school children0 which ai)s to develop critical thinkin" throu"h appropriate +uestionin" .y peers and teachersTop6%o$n processing Conte9tual knowled"e and reasonin" processes are used to )ake sense o: sensory output <#ichard Gre"ory 3764=Trans*or&ative learning Theory0 developed .y Jack Me/irow0 to denote the process o: individual sel:-e9a)ination0 in an e::ort to develop a deeper understandin" o: personal e9periences or political0 social or econo)ic structures-
Trivial constructivis& A cate"ory o: constructivist thou"ht which assu)es that the ac+uisition o: knowled"e is an individual process with individual outco)es0 which depends on personal )ental :ra)eworks and processesTuning The process .y which new e9perience causes old sche)ata to .e i)provedT,polog, o* %isa ilities' %h$sical @)pair)ents in hearin"0 vision0 psycho)otor and )otor skillsogniti.e Perceptual0 attentional0 encodin" and )e)ory disorders such as attention de:icit hyperactivity disorder <A; ;=0 su.-nor)al @(Emotional and affecti.e Asper"ers syndro)e0 autis)0 conduct disorders&ensor$ impairments Si"ht0 sound and )otor skill de:iciencies&pecific learning impairments Severe di::iculties in lan"ua"e0 readin"Fwritin" and )athe)atics<ncertaint, avoi%ance <<A(= Measures the e9tent to which people wish to reduce an9iety .y reducin" uncertainty<nconscious perception The a.ility to perceive pheno)ena to which we are not consciously attendin"0 such as .ein" aware that oneJs na)e has .een spoken<niversit, o* the 3r% Age <<3A= A pro"ra))e :ounded in France in the 37C4s to provide an in:or)al li.eral education :or older people<tilitarianis& The doctrine that the )orally correct course o: action consists in the "reatest "ood :or the "reatest nu).er8aria le rein*orce&ent The pattern in which only so)e desira.le responses are :ollowed .y rein:orce)ent8ariation The process o: varyin" the sti)uli in order to produce a )ore "enerali/ed response8A)- learning st,le inventor, A syste) which cate"ori/es people as either visual0 auditory0 readFwrite or kinaesthetic learners8isual illusions A).i"uous i)a"es that need to .e interpreted on the .asis o: previous e9perience and e9pectation8isuo6spatial scratchpa% A shorter-ter) store in which visual i)a"es can .e e9a)ined and )anipulated8,gots#,2s =one o* pro!i&al %evelop&ent <H+/= An intellectual space where learner and teacher interact7or#ers .%ucational Association <7.A= Founded in 3676 .y Al.ert Mans.rid"e0 with the ai) o: providin" a li.eral education :or workin"-class adults <now the U? 1ational @nstitute o: Adult Continuin" !ducation0 1@AC!=-
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7or#place groups Groups .ased in the workplace which take responsi.ility :or pro:essional and vocational learnin"@oung 5en2s Christian Association <@5CA= A )ove)ent which was :ounded in %ondon in the 36H4s to serve the )inds0 .odies and spirits o: youn" workin" )en-
(n%e!
%ocators shown in italics re:er to :i"ures and ta.lesA$A <Applied $ehaviour Analysis=0 AA A.elson0 #-0 HA A.ercro).ie0 1-0 C'>A access and participation0 as ele)ent in understandin" o: adult education0 3AA>H ac+uisition and develop)ent0 lan"ua"e child sta"es and process o:0 367>730 1IB+B8 si"ni:icance :or evidence o: co"nitive activity0 AC ad)inistration0 curriculu) as re:lection o: values within education0 3B4>B3 see also plannin"0 curriculu) adult education de:initions0 3'6>70 15B educational i)plications o: theories o:0 3A&>7 history o:0 3'7>A3 in:luence o: co))unity )ove)ents on0 3AH>B theoretical and practical concerns surroundin" capacity o:0 3AA>& theories supportin" develop)ent o:0 3A3>A adults and adulthood educational i)plications o: theories o: develop)ent durin"0 3'H>B0 15< theories o: develop)ent durin"0 3'4>'3 see also old a"e advanta"e0 educational i)pact o: social class on0 CA>H structure vs- a"ency as ele)ent o:0 C'>A Oa::ective do)ainJ <$loo)=0 5I a"e and a"ein" as ele)ent o: li:ecourse develop)ent0 33B>3& theories o:0 336>'A0 11B! 158! 151+5 see also old a"e a"ency vs- structure0 as ele)ent o: educational advanta"e0 C'>A A)erica <United States= evolution o: adult education within0 3A4>A3 analysis0 as ele)ent in instructional desi"n0 525! 'AA andra"o"y educational i)plications :or adult education0 3AC theory o: as in:luence on adult education0 3A3>' Ani)atin" Principles <Aristotle=0 1J Applied $ehaviour Analysis <A$A=0 AA Oapprenticeship in thinkin"J <#o"o::=0 &4 A#CS )odel o: )otivation0 3&'0 3&H>B Aristotle0 330 3B>3C0 3HA assess)ent0 student as re:lection o: values within education0 3B4 :uture teacher roles0 'H7 in:luence o: .ehaviourist theory0 A3>'0 25 associate network )odels o: )e)ory retrieval0 HC>60 FI Atkinson0 #-0 A&0 HB attention characteristics as co"nition process and principle0 H4>H30 F5 educational i)plications o:0 H7>B4 attri.ution theory o: )otivation0 3&3>&' audiences0 si/e and scope as advanta"e o: .lended learnin"0 ''6 awareness0 cultural educational i)plications0 6C>60 II awareness0 sel: relationship with .ody0 3C'>&0 1E2! 1EF Ayer0 A-0 3' $addeley0 A-0 A&0 H&>C0 FJ $andura0 A-0 &40 E<! 3&3 $artlett0 F-0 A& $arton0 %-0 ''A $a9ter0 Ma"olda0 M-0 3'4>'30 15F! 3HB>& .ehaviouris) co)parison with co"nitivis) and constructivis)! <<+J educational i)plications0 'C>AA0 5I! 5B! 25
evolution and characteristics0 '3>&0 55! 5F! 5<! 5J in:luence on desi"n o: instructional )odels0 'AA>H $ernstein0 $-0 C'0 36&>C $inet0 A-0 7C0 344>3430 1810 34'>A0 33& $inet-Si)on test :or intelli"ence0 344>3430 181 .iolo"y as ele)ent in understandin" o: )otivation0 3BB educational salience in de:inition o: hu)ans0 3C4 i)pact on old a"e and a"ein"0 33B0 151+5 .lended learnin" advanta"es0 ''6>7 characteristics and history0 ''C>6 educational approaches to0 ''6 see also influences eg desi"n0 technolo"ical $loo)0 $-0 3A>3H0 'C>70 5I! 5B0 3C&>C0 1EJ! '4H>B! 58< .ody0 hu)an de:initions0 3C4>C' relationship with )ind0 3C'>&0 1E2! 1EF salience in education tradition0 3&7>C4 see also personhood $oud0 ;-0 '44 $ourdieu0 P-0 C'0 6&>C .rain0 structure0 :unction and develop)ent0 3CA>&0 1E2! 1EF0 3640 1I8 $road.ent0 ;-0 H3 $ron:en.renner0 U-0 6'0 33H0 11< $rook:ield0 S-0 3A'>A0 3A6 $rophy0 J-0 3&& $rown0 S-0 3B7 $runer0 J-0 BC>60 <I! &A>H0 660 3C6 $runin"0 #-0 37H0 37& $runnin"0 $-0 E< .usinesses0 i)plications o: interest in co)petence-.ased learnin"0 '3' Ca)phill Schools0 '36 capital0 cultural <$ourdieu=0 6&>C Carroll0 J-0 18F case study0 value o: educational policies and practice0 H60 FI Castells0 M-0 'H' Cattell0 #-0 18F C$% <co)puter-.ased learnin"=0 ''7 chan"e0 social
i)plications :or educational policies0 'H'>C i)plications :or teacher roles and practices0 'HC>7 Child0 ;-0 3BC0 3&40 367 children and childhood sta"es o: lan"ua"e develop)ent0 367>740 1IB+B8 theories o: develop)ent durin"0 336>'A0 11B! 158 Cho)sky0 1-0 3A0 AC0 374 chronolo"ical a"e and a"ein" 0 33B citi/enship0 as re:lection o: values within education0 3H7 Clark0 #-0 'AB class0 social and educational advanta"e0 CA>H see also t$pe eg workin" classes classroo)s educational i)plications o: lan"ua"e usa"e within0 37'>&0 1B< teachers role within0 A40 28 Cleary0 %-0 74 Coady0 M-0 3A4>A3 codes0 cultural lan"ua"e0 36&>C co"nition educational i)plications o: culture on0 67>74 i)pact in old a"e0 151+5 in:luence on and :unction in lan"ua"e usa"e0 36&0 366>730 1IB+B8 in relation to )otivation theories0 3BB0 3&4>&' processes involved0 AC>H&0 2E! 2B! F8! F5! FF! F< theories o:0 336>'40 11B see also develop)ent0 co"nitive and psychosocialP intelli"ence Oco"nitive do)ainJ <$loo)=0 5I Co"nitive Ta9ono)y o: %earnin" <$loo)=0 3A>3H co"nitivis) characteristics and develop)ental in:luences0 A&>C0 2E co)parison with .ehaviouris) and constructivis)0 <<+J educational i)plications0 H6>B3 Cohen0 %-0 3&40 37' Cohen0 #-0 '44 Col.y0 A0 336 colla.oration0 as advanta"e o: .lended learnin"0 ''6 co))unication
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salience in a.er)asJs theoretical investi"ations0 &' co))unities0 learnin" :unction and in:luence on learnin" e9periences0 CC co))unities0 rural evolution o: Scandinavian adult education within0 3A4 co)petence-.ased learnin" de:inition and characteristics0 '4A>B0 582! 58F! 58<! 58J educational i)plications0 '47>3A0 158! 515! 512 co)petition vs- cooperation as co"nitive style0 74 co)puter-.ased learnin" <C$%=0 ''7 Oco)putersJ use o: ter) to e9plain co"nition0 AC0 2E conditionin"0 classical and operant characteristics and educational i)plications0 '3>&0 55! 5F! 5< con:lict0 co"nitive and ideas o: Pia"et0 BC constructive ali"n)ent approach to co)petence-.ased learnin"0 '33>3'0 515 constructivis) co)parison with co"nitivis) and .ehaviouris)0 <<+J educational i)plications0 &'>B in:luence on desi"n o: instructional desi"n )odels0 'AH>B0 52F types and characteristics0 B&>&'0 &40 1<J! 1<I! 1& control0 learner as ele)ent in instructional desi"n )odels0 'A6 Cooley0 C-0 &7>C'0 E8 Cooper0 M-0 3AH cooperation vs- co)petition as co"nitive style0 74 CP; <continuin" pro:essional develop)ent=0 3AB>& Craik0 F-0 HC Crick #eport <3776=0 3H7 critical constructivis)0 &4>&' crystalli/ed intelli"ence0 3''>A Ocultural di)ensionsJ << o:stede and all=0 6H>B cultural learnin"
educational i)plications0 6C>7' theories shapin"0 6'>C! I2 culture de:inition and characteristics0 6A0 I2 i)pact on ethnicity0 7' i)pact on )otivation0 74>73 i)pact on stereotypes and stereotypin"0 73>' i)plications o: co"nition and knowled"e upon0 66>74 in:luence on learnin"0 6'>C0 I2 see also values see also outputs illustrating eg lan"ua"e ulture of Education <$runer=0 B6 curricula i)plications o: intelli"ence theories0 34C>60 18E+I see also ad)inistration0 curriculu)P plannin"0 curriculu) cyclical e9periential learnin"0 '4'0 585 ;arwin0 C-0 3BB ;avey0 G-0 343 ;avis0 J-0 ''' ;eci0 !-0 3B6>7 deep and sur:ace processin" )odel o: )e)ory retrieval0 HC de:icit )odel o: disa.ility0 '3C>37 delivery0 as ele)ent in instructional desi"n )odels0 525! 'A7 ;escartes0 #-0 60 340 330 3BB desi"n0 curriculu) i)plications o: teleolo"y upon0 3C desi"n0 instructional <@;= characteristics and scope0 'A4 )odels o:0 'A3>70 525! 52F! 52J! 52E desi"n0 technolo"ical use:ulness in .lended learnin"0 'A4>A30 521 deter)inis)0 reciprocal0 CH>B0 E< develop)ent as ele)ent in instructional desi"n0 525! 'AC>6 characteristics and theorists o: philosophy o:0 3B>3C hu)an li:ecourse see li:ecourse0 the develop)ent0 co"nitive and psychosocial !riksonJs theories0 33&>3C0 11E PeckJs theories0 33C>360 11E+1 Pia"etJs theories0 BC see also intelli"ence ;ewey0 J-0 3A40 3HH0 '43 di)ensions0 cultural < o:stede and all=0 6H>B disa.ility
history o: perceptions o:0 '3&>3C )odels and typolo"ies o:0 51J! '3C>37 see also discourses eg inclusivity and inclusion0 social see also influences upon perceptions eg la.els and la.ellin"P lan"ua"e 3iscipline and %unish <Foucault=0 &30 3C3 discussion0 student-teacher educational i)plications o:0 37A>H distance education0 3C7 diversity0 cultural su""estions :or teacher i)ple)entation0 7'>H do)ains0 learnin" and .ehavioural <$loo)=0 'C>70 5I! 5B OdrivesJ characteristics as ele)ent o: classical conditionin"0 'A>H0 5F dualis)0 as ele)ent in understandin" o: )otivation0 3BB ;urkhei)0 !-0 &6>7 ;weck0 C-0 3&' !..in"haus0 -0 A& econo)ics0 as deter)inant o: value o: learnin"0 3HH>B education i)plications o: values within0 3H7>B3 )eanin" and purpose0 3H'>& salience o: concept o: hu)an .ody0 3&7>C4 see also learnin"P philosophy0 education see also influences upon eg awareness0 culturalP class0 socialP :a)iliesP )otivationP peers see also t$pes eg adult educationP distance educationP "uided educationP inclusive educationP li.eral educationP social educationP special education e::icacy0 sel: in:luence on )otivation0 3&3 Emile et &ophie on les &olitaires <#ousseau=0 3H e)piricis)0 characteristics and educational i)plications0 3'>3H encodin" characteristic as co"nition process and principle0 H3>A0 HH enculturation0 educational i)plications0 66 En'uir$ oncerning )uman *nderstanding < u)e=0 3' environ)ents0 learnin"
)ulti-)edia nature as advanta"e o:0 ''7 si"ni:icance :or success:ul learnin"0 3CC>6 episte)olo"ical develop)ent0 theory o: <$a9ter Ma"olda=0 3'4>'30 15F0 3HB>& e+uality and e+uity0 educational in:luence on e9pectations and e9periences0 3CC>6 !rikson0 !-0 33&>3C0 11E Essa$ oncerning )uman *nderstanding <%ocke=0 3' !sser0 J-0 C3 ethnicity and theories o: intelli"ence0 34& educational i)plications o: culture on0 7' evaluation0 as ele)ent in instructional desi"n )odels0 525! 'A6>7 evolution0 hu)an and ac+uisition o: lan"ua"e0 374>73 e9chan"es0 +uestion and answer educational i)plications o: teacher-student e9chan"e0 37A e9pectancy theory o: )otivation0 3&4>&3 e9pectations0 hu)an in:luence o: educational e+uality0 3CC>6 e9perience <philosophical cate"ory= characteristics and theorists0 33>3B e9periences0 hu)an educational i)plications :or learnin"0 3CC>640 1I8 educational i)plications o: pri)ary and secondary0 '4&>C e9periential learnin" de:inition and characteristics0 377>'440 588 educational i)plications0 '4B>70 58B theories o:0 '44>'4A0 581! 585 e9position0 teacher-student educational i)plications o:0 37' e9trinsic )otivators0 3BC>6 :a)ilies educational i)plications o: lan"ua"e usa"e within0 373>' in:luence on learnin"0 &7>C40 C& Fein.er"0 !-0 3B7 Fein.er"0 G-0 3B7 Field0 J-0 3'60 3AB :ield independence vs- :ield sensitivity as co"nitive style0 74 :luid intelli"ence0 3''
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:ocus0 characteristics as ele)ent o: attention0 H3 Foucault0 M0 &30 670 3C30 36C Freire0 P-0 &3 Freud0 S-0 33H :riendship0 in:luence on learnin"0 C4>C30 E8 :unctional a"e and a"ein"0 33& :unctional theories o: hu)an develop)ent0 336>'A0 11B! 158! 151+5 Ga"nS0 #-0 3&B Galli)ore0 #-0 &H Galton0 F-0 7C Gardner0 -0 34H>B0 18< Gayne0 #-! 28 "ender0 and theories o: intelli"ence0 34&0 18J "eneralisation0 characteristics as ele)ent o: classical conditionin"0 'A Gi.son0 J-0 A7>H4 Giddens0 A-0 'HA "lo.ali/ation i)plications :or educational policies0 'HB>& i)plications :or teacher practices0 'H6>7 "oals0 settin" o: salience in relation to )otivation and per:or)ance0 3&' Gol.y0 M-0 3HC Gopher0 ;-0 H3 "overn)ents0 educational policies as re:lection o: societal values0 3H&>C0 3H60 1FI Gran"er0 M-0 'A3>70 525! 52F! 52J! 52E Gre"ory0 #-0 H40 F8 "roups0 co))unity i)pact on learnin"0 C3>' "roups0 social and peer and educational advanta"e0 CA>H i)pact on learnin"0 &7>CA0 E80 C&>C "roupthink0 in:luence on learnin"0 C3 "uided education0 &H>B a.er)as0 J-0 &'0 3HH0 366 ha.itus <$ourdieu=0 6& all0 !-0 6H>B hardware0 co)puter develop)ent o: in assistin" .lended learnin"0 'A4>A3 are0 #-0 3HA artson0 -0 'AB eadstart ProRect <USA=0 36C e..0 ;-0 344 helplessness0 learned0 3&3
er/.er"0 F-0 3BC Ohierarchy o: )oral develop)entJ <?ohl.er"=0 3HB>& Ohierarchy o: needsJ <Maslow=0 3HB>&0 3B&0 1<J! 3&A hi"h-conte9t vs- low-conte9t di)ensions < all=0 6B itch0 G-0 A&0 H&>C0 FJ i90 ;-0 'AB o..es0 T-0 3HH o:stede0 G-0 6H0 66 oule0 C-0 3A3 households educational i)plications o: lan"ua"e usa"e within0 373>' in:luence on learnin"0 &7>C40 C& ull0 C-0 'A>H0 5F0 'C hu)ans evolution and ac+uisition o: lan"ua"e0 374>73 theories o: develop)ent0 BC0 33&>'A0 11E+1I! 11B! 158! 151+5 see also .ody0 hu)anP e9pectations0 hu)anP e9periences0 hu)an u)e0 ;-0 3' Ohy"iene :actorsJ < er/.er"=0 3BC @; <instructional desi"n= characteristics and scope0 'A4 )odels o:0 'A3>70 525! 52F! 52J! 52E ideas and idealis) <philosophical cate"ory= characteristics and theorists0 C>33 identity0 individual and social i)pact on learnin"0 CA>H0 C6 see also individuali/ation0 social identity ideolo"y0 political as deter)inant o: value o: learnin"0 3HH in:luence on lan"ua"e usa"e0 36C>6 @;I <individualis) inde9= < o:stede=0 6H @%Ps <individual learnin" plans=0 'H6>7 i)itation <lan"ua"e ac+uisition=0 374 i)pedi)ent <concept= salience in de:inition o: hu)ans0 3C' inclusive education advanta"es and disadvanta"es o: provision0 ''4>'''0 555 threats to0 '''>A inclusivity and inclusion0 social educational i)plications o:0 ''A>H in relation to education :or disa.led0 '37>'A individualis) inde9 <@;I= < o:stede=0 6H
individuality <concept= salience in de:inition o: hu)ans0 3C4>C3 individuali/ation0 social identity i)plications :or educational policies0 'HA i)plications :or teacher practices0 'HC0 'H6>7 individual learnin" plans <@%Ps=0 'H6>7 in:or)ation technolo"y <@T= use:ulness in .lended learnin"0 'A4>A30 521 innate lan"ua"e0 374 input-process-output )odel o: in:or)ation processin"0 AC0 2E in+uiry-.ased learnin"0 '4C inspiration0 as ele)ent in understandin" o: )otivation0 3BH institutions0 social i)pact on learnin"0 &7>CA0 E8 instruction see teachin" instructional desi"n <@;= characteristics and scope0 ''7>A4 )odels o:0 'A3>70 525! 52F! 52J! 52E instru)entalis) as ele)ent in understandin" o: adult education0 3AB>& i)plications :or adult education develop)ent0 3A7 intelli"ence <concept= de.ates over nature and nurture0 76>344 de:inition and evolution0 7C>60 BE+I i)plications o: theories o:0 34C>340 18E+I theories o:0 34H>&0 18F=! 18<! 18J see also co"nitionP crystalli/ed intelli"enceP :luid intelli"ence see also test and testin"0 intelli"ence intelli"ence +uotient <@(=0 343>'0 185 interactions and interactivity learner-technolo"y interaction as advanta"e o: .lended learnin"0 ''7 salience o: parent-child interaction0 B7>&4 see also targets of interaction eg e9positionP listenin"P readin" and writin" intrinsic )otivators0 3BC>6 @( <intelli"ence +uotient=0 343>'0 185 @#! )odel o: teacher-student lin"uistic e9chan"e0 37A @T <in:or)ation technolo"y=
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+uestionin"0 Socratic0 7 race and theories o: intelli"ence0 34& educational i)plications o: culture on0 7' rational e9periential learnin"0 '43 #awls0 J-0 3H&>C readin"0 student educational i)plications o:0 37H>B0 37B reco"nition0 o.Rect and pattern characteristics as ele)ent o: perception0 A6>70 A7 reco"nition o: prior learnin" <#P%=0 '33 re:lection <concept= as advanta"e o: .lended learnin"0 ''7 educational i)plications o:0 '46>70 '470 '34 re:lective e9periential learnin"0 '43>' Orein:orce)entJ <Skinner=0 ''0 'B reli"ion0 as deter)inant o: value o: education0 3HA>H reproduction0 cultural and education0 6& #epu.lic0 The <Plato=0 70 3HH #esen/wei"0 M-0 3CH responses0 conditional and unconditional <Pavlov=0 '' retrieval0 )e)ory processes and principles0 H&>60 H&0 H6 #i.otJs %aw0 3'' #ie"el0 ?-0 3'3 #ist0 #-0 C' #italin dru"0 364 #o"ers0 C-0 3HC0 3B7>&4 #o"o::0 $-0 &4 ro)anticis)0 characteristics and educational i)plications0 3H>3B #ousseau0 J-J-0 3H0 &70 3&7 #P% <reco"nition o: prior learnin"=0 '33 #ules on the !+uali/ation o: Opportunities :or Persons with ;isa.ilities <U1=0 ''4 #yan0 #-0 3B6>7 SUlRT0 #-0 HC Sa)ovar0 %-0 67>74 sanctions0 student as )otivator0 3&B>& Sapir-Ghar: hypothesis <SG =0 366 Osca::oldin"J educational i)plications o:0 &H>B Scandinavia0 evolution o: rural adult education within0 3A4 Scarr0 S-0 77
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educational values re:lected .y0 3H&>60 1FI i)plications o: social chan"e upon roles and practices0 'HC>7 i)portance o: presence and practice in success:ul learnin"0 3C6>64 )odels and theories o:0 '7>A40 B6 strate"ies to satis:y student )otivational needs0 3&A>& su""estions :or i)ple)entin" cultural diversity0 7'>H see also curriculaP practices0 teachers and teachin" technical-rational )odel o: e)piricis)0 3A>3H technolo"ies0 use:ulness o: develop)ent o: :or .lended learnin"0 'A4>A30 521 teleolo"y0 characteristics and educational i)plications0 3B>3C0 1J Ter)an0 %-0 34' ter)inolo"y0 educational evolution o: chan"es within adult education0 3'6>70 15B tests and testin"0 intelli"ence characteristics and types0 344>34A0 181! 185! 182 theories o: educational i)plications o:0 347>34 Tharp0 #-0 &H theories .ene:its o: knowled"e concernin"0 3 psychosocial hu)an develop)ent0 33&>360 11E+1I see also )odels see also circumstances influenced eg cultural learnin"P social education see also sub0ect eg adult educationP co"nitionP develop)ent0 co"nitive and psychosocial intelli"enceP li:ecourse0 theP )otivationP see also t$pe eg .ehaviouris)P co"nitivis)P constructivis) Otheory .e:ore practiceJ characteristics as i)plication o: idealis) theory0 6>34 thinkin"0 critical educational i)plications :or adult education develop)ent0 3A6 theory o: as in:luence on adult education0 3A'>A thinkin"0 lo"ical characteristics as i)plication o: idealis) theory0 34 Tho)as0 G-0 '''
Tho)pson0 J-0 3AH>B Thorndike0 !-0 '' Tol)an0 !-0 '&0 AC trans:or)ative learnin" de:inition and theorists0 '4'>A educational i)plications :or adult education develop)ent0 3A6 theory o: as in:luence on adult education0 3A' Treis)an0 A-0 H3 trial and error vs- Owatch then doJ as co"nitive style0 74 trivial constructivis) characteristics0 B&>60 H Tulvin"0 !-0 HH Tyler0 #-0 '7 typolo"ies see )odels uncertainty avoidance <UA@= < o:stede=0 6H United States o: A)erica0 evolution o: adult education within0 3A4>A3 values <concept= de:initions0 3H' see also culture see also sub0ect embracingKreflecting eg assess)ent0 studentP educationP plannin"0 curriculu)P policies0 educationalP practices0 teachers and teachin"P society "erbal Beha.ior <Skinner=0 AC vocationalis)0 i)plications o: on co)petence-.ased learnin"0 '3' Iy"otsky0 %-0 B7>&40 &H>B0 3'40 158! 36& Galker0 ;-0 '44 Owatch then doJ vs- trial and error as co"nitive style0 74 Owater:all )odelJ o: so:tware develop)ent <#oyce=0 521 Gatson0 J-0 'A Gechsler0 ;-0 3'' Gechsler @ntelli"ence Scale :or Children <G@SC=0 34A0 182! 347 Gein.er"0 #-0 77 Gilco90 ?-0 C' Good0 C-0 34A0 337 Gorkers !ducational Association0 3'7 workin" classes0 evolution o: educational develop)ent0 3'7>A4 Oworkin" )e)oryJ <$addely and itch=0 H&>C0 FJ! B4>B3 writin"0 student educational i)plications o:0 37B>&
D and 2 theory o: )otivation <McGre"or=0 3B6>70 1<I! 1A4 /one o: pro9i)al develop)ent <VP;= <Iy"otsky=0 B7>&4
Approaches to Learning
A Guide for Teachers
This book provides a really sound grounding in the theories that underpin successful teaching and learning. Without oversimplification it provides accessible introductions to the key learning theories with which teachers and students are likely to engage, and it has immense practical value.
Professor Sally Brown, Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK This comprehensive guide for education students and practitioners provides an overview of the major theories of learning. It considers their implications for policy and practice and sets out practical guidelines for best pedagogical practice. The book can be read as a series of stand-alone chapters or as an integrated overview of theoretical perspectives drawn from the philosophy, psychology, sociology and pedagogy that guide educational principles and practice. Each chapter contains:
An accessible introduction to each theory A summary of key principles Critical insights drawn from the theories discussed Examples and illustrations from contemporary research and practice Summary boxes that highlight critical and key points made Practical implications for education professionals
Approaches to Learning is an invaluable resource for students and practitioners who wish to reflect on their educational constructs and explore and engage in the modern discourse of education. Anne Jordan is Programme Director of the MA in Learning and Teaching in Higher Education at Waterford Institute of Technology, Ireland, and Honorary Professor at Lev Tolstoy Pedagogical University, Russia. Orison Carlile is Programme Director of the MA in Management in Education at Waterford Institute of Technology, Ireland, and Honorary Professor at Lev Tolstoy Pedagogical University, Russia. Annetta Stack is Programme Director of the MSc in Multimedia and E-Learning, and Teacher and Learning Coordinator at Waterford Institute of Technology, Ireland.
Cover design: del norte (Leeds) Ltd

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Approaches to Learning

ANNE JORDAN ORISON CARLILE ANNETTA STACK

Approaches to Learning A Guide For Teachers

Anne Jordan Orison Carlile and Annetta Stack

Ge dedicate this .ook to our :a)ilies-

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Chapter 1 +hilosoph, o* e%ucation

-e, %e*initions in e%ucational philosoph,

Theory before practice Logical thinking Liberal education

Philosophy and its educational i)plications-

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There:ore0 philosophy :or)s an i)portant part o: every educatorJs education-

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The %evelop&ent o* ehaviouris&

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Unconditional and conditional responses-

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Figure 2.2 Ta le 2.1

A co)parison o: classical conditionin" and ?ey ter)s in classical conditionin"

Generali:ation 3ri.e stimuli Repetition

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.%ucational i&plications o* ehaviouris&

0loo&2s ta!ono&, o* learning

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Levels E.aluation &$nthesis Anal$sis Application omprehension 4nowledge

Levels Generali:ation "alue s$stem "alue Response Attention

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Curriculu& planning an% &o%els o* instruction

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The teacher2s role in the classroo&

+ractical i&plications o* ehaviouris&

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*ction +behavioural verb , -erformance threshold Context +conditions of performance,

An e9a)ple o: a learnin" outco)e-

intrinsic0 such as :eelin"s o: sel:-actuali/ation or pride-

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The %evelop&ent o* cognitivis&

The shi*t *ro& ehaviouris& to cognitivis&

Co&puters an% arti*icial intelligence

@nput-process-output )odel o: .rain processes-

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Figure 3.2 Perceptual cate"ori/ation&ource: .ased on Andrade and May <'44H*A4=-

5(3 <%rimal sketch= 5-<(3 2(3

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Figure 3.4 Theories o: selective attention&ource: .ased on 1aish <'44B=-

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Figure 3.5 Ta le 3.1

ow e9perience is encoded;i::erent types o: )e)ory syste)s

5e&or, t,pe Sensory STM %TM

A&ount o* %ata Iery lar"e %i)ited Iery lar"e

/uration Iery short Short Iery lon"

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The shit ro& ehaviouris& to cognitivis&