1. MICHAEL BRENNER: Now that we've learned how to count the number of molecules that 2.

there are in a hunk of stuff, in a glass of water, let's do something 3. more interesting and actually figure out how many molecules there are in 4. the various ingredients of my favorite recipe, the Nestle Toll House 5. Chocolate Chip Cookies. 6. So here, once again, is the recipe for Nestle Toll House 7. Chocolate Chip Cookies. 8. And although we don't really have time, and you would get a little bored 9. if we were to go through and calculate the number of molecules there are of 10. each of the ingredients, what I want to do now is start to give you a 11. flavor for this. 12. And let's start out with what might be the most peculiar of the ingredients 13. that's in the recipe. 14. At least, if you've cooked it, you might almost think that you don't need 15. it, but you really do, which is baking soda. 16. And the recipe calls for one teaspoon of baking soda. 17. Now, I'm going way ahead of ourselves in this class. 18. But if you stay with us for another, I don't know, eight weeks or so, we will 19. tell you why you have to put baking soda in the cookie. 20. This is a preamble. 21. I'll tell you now. 22. And the reason is because it turns out that every molecule of the baking 23. soda, actually, is converted, in the course of the recipe, to a molecule of 24. carbon dioxide gas, which then tends to puff up the cookie. 25. So the baking soda is there. 26. It reacts with some of the other ingredients to puff up the cookie.

27. And you see, the way that I said this, it was the molecule of baking soda 28. that produced a molecule of carbon dioxide gas. 29. And so, in a way, you can think about, in this recipe, the baking soda as 30. putting in carbon dioxide gas into the recipe. 31. And what really matters here, and you'll see this when we go forward in 32. this, is the number of molecules. 33. So now, how many molecules of baking soda are there? 34. So let's just figure that out. 35. So the recipe calls for one teaspoon of baking soda. 36. And it turns out that that is about, if you were to weigh it, five grams. 37. You should make sure your baking soda is well compacted in your spoon. 38. You know, if it's fluffy, you won't have as much. 39. And that won't be as good. 40. That's why, you really, when you're cooking, should be weighing your 41. ingredients and not measuring their volumes. 42. But we won't discuss that very much now. 43. But anyway, it's 5 grams of baking soda. 44. So it turns out the molecular weight of baking soda is 84 grams per mole. 45. So this is the way the molecular weight is reported. 46. And one mole, that is 6.022 times 10 to 23 molecules of baking soda, the 47. weight of that is 84 grams. 48. So we therefore can compute the number of moles of baking soda that there are 49. in this recipe. 50. We simply take five grams. 51. We divide by 84 grams per mole. 52. That gives us 0.06 moles. 53. That's the number of moles of baking soda that's in the recipe. 54. Now, as a number, that's not very impressive, 0.06 moles.

55. For me, it's actually more impressive if you just convert it back to the 56. number of molecules, which we can do, of course, by multiplying by 57. Avogadro's number. 58. 6.022 times 10 to the 23 times 0.06. 59. And it turns out that there are 3.6 times 10 to the 22 molecules of baking 60. soda in this recipe. 61. So when you make this recipe, you are going to be releasing, if all the 62. baking soda reacts, about 10 to the 22 molecules of carbon dioxide gas. 63. And we will come back to the importance of that later. 64. But that's how much there is. 65. So now we can go and look at the other ingredients. 66. And there are lots of other ingredients; So when I'm cooking my 67. batch of Nestle Toll House Chocolate Chip Cookies, sometimes I decide, 68. well, I'm not going to put in any salt today. 69. Anyway, the sale shouldn't matter because it's only asking for about a 70. teaspoon of salt. 71. How many molecules of salt are you leaving out when you do that well? 72. So it turns out, and you could also look this up, salt, namely sodium 73. chloride, has a molecular weight which is 58 grams per mole. 74. And you can convert 58 grams per mole-75. so if you can simply measure the weight of a teaspoon of salt, you can 76. therefore compute the number of molecules. 77. So it turns out the weight of a teaspoon of salt is about 10.6 grams. 78. That's how much it weighs. 79. And if you can simply [? take ?] 80. 10.6 grams divided by 58, and then you multiply by Avogadro's number, you 81. find that the number of molecules of salt that's in the recipe is about 1.1 82. times 10 to the 23.

83. So there are actually more molecules of salt in the recipes than there are 84. of baking soda. 85. Of course, the reason for that is that salt is a smaller 86. molecule than baking soda. 87. But anyway, that's a lot of salt. 88. What about sugar? 89. So I don't know about you, but when I'm making my Nestle Toll House 90. Chocolate Chip Cookies, one of the most enjoyable parts is filling the 91. cup to 3/4 a cup of both brown sugar and granulated sugar. 92. There are these two types of sugars. 93. And we're not going to discuss now why you need them both. 94. But anyway, so what about sugar? 95. How many molecules of sugar there are? 96. There's certainly a lot of it that you're pouring in. 97. Well, it turns out that sugar, granulated sugar, 98. is basically sucrose. 99. And sucrose has a molecular weight which is 342 grams per mole. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. It's actually much heavier than salt. It's about six times heavier than salt. And so you can also sort of do the conversion and discover for yourself that 3/4 a cup of sugar, which is the amount that the recipe calls for, is about 151 grams. And if you then go and work out the math, which you should all go and do right now in your table, just to check that I'm doing this correctly, it turns out that the number of molecules of sugar is about 2.6 times 10 to the 23 molecules. So 2.6 times 10 to the 23 molecules. Now remember, we decided before there are only about 1.1 times 10 to the

111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138.

[? 23 ?] molecules of salt. And at least, when I'm doing it, I think, well gee, the salt is much less important than the sugar. But there's only a factor of two more sugar molecules in this than salt. And anyway, I don't know about your chocolate chip cookies. But when I make mine, they taste sweet. They don't actually taste salty, even though you're actually putting quite a bit of salt in the recipe. That's also an interesting thing. So one can go through a similar conversion for other ingredients. So brown sugar, which is very related to sugar. There are a couple of other ingredients. It turns out that it's about 2.4 times 10 to the 23 molecules of brown sugar. What about protein? We all talk about protein. How many protein molecules are there in this recipe? Well, if you look through the various ingredients, there are various places where protein comes in. Protein comes in in the egg. Remember, we already talked about ovalbumin. Another place that protein comes in is in the flour. Gluten, which is actually one of the major constituents of flour, is itself a protein. Let's, just for fun, we could go through this in much more detail, but let's just count the number of proteins and molecules there are in an egg. And actually, I'm going to simplify this dramatically because eggs are rather complicated things.

139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166.

There are lots of different protein types in them. But one egg, it turns out, contains within it, if you just go look at a food label or something for egg, one egg contains about four grams of protein. So if this recipe calls for 2 eggs, which is about 8 grams total. And we now have to figure out how many protein molecules there are. And so what I'm going to do is very simple-minded, but it should at least give us the right number, is I'm going to take one of the major constituent proteins in egg. I'm going to take a protein called ovalbumin, which is a major protein component of egg white. And it turns out that an ovalbumin p protein weighs, each one-which is, remember, a long chain of amino acids. We talked about this before-each molecule weighs about 7 times 10 to the minus 23 grams. So if you then take the 8 grams, which is the total protein content, and you divide by 7 times 10 to the minus 23, just assuming that the protein is ovalbumin, that gives us about 1.1 times 10 to the 23 protein molecules. So actually, there are as many molecules of protein, at least in the egg, as there are molecules of salt. So even though they have widely different size, actually, the number of molecules is not so different. So let's just do one more for fun. And then I'll show you a summary. So another thing this recipe calls for, which I usually include when I cook the recipe. I don't know if you always do. But it's a small ingredient that one might tend to neglect

167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194.

is the vanilla extract. And the recipe calls for one teaspoon of a vanilla extract, which is about four grams. Now, it turns out, that the main ingredient of vanilla extract, which, of course, is a flavor molecule which is there to give the cookie a taste of vanilla, is as a molecule called vanillin. Creative name, vanillin. And it turns out the vanillin has a molecular weight of about 151 grams per mole. That's the molecular weight of vanillin. And if one goes through the math that I've been describing, and you should all, of course, check me on this, the number of vanillin molecules that there are in the vanilla extract is about 1.5 times 10 to the 22. So again, the number of molecules of the is not so much smaller than the number of molecules of everything else. They're all basically within a factor of 10 of each other, all of the different molecules in this recipe. We can go through this and do this for other ingredients. We could take flour. That turns out to be about 300 or so grams. And when one computes the number of molecules from this, it turns out it's about 6 times 10 to the 20 molecules of the starch molecules in flour. These are long molecules, remember, I said, but still that's a number which is actually lower than the other number when one looks at it in terms of molecules. Of course there's so much flour because these molecules are much bigger. So now, just to summarize, and one can do this for all of the other

195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214.

components too, and I think that this is a really very interesting way of looking at the different ingredients within the Nestle Toll House Chocolate Chip Cookie recipe, which might give you a different feeling for it than you have when you just look at the ingredients from scratch-the largest number that, at least, I was able to find in my quick summary through them turns out to be that in the fat from butter, one of the main compounds is called butyric acid. And it turns out that there are about 1.6 times 10 to the 24 molecules from that. There are about 2.65 times 10 to the 23 molecules of granulated sugar, and so on, and so forth. And this is a list of ingredients of the Nestle Toll House Chocolate Chip Cookies which is shown in a different way. And of course, it raises many questions which, hopefully, you will now start to think about. How do these molecules interact with each other. Why are the numbers, the different ratios, what they are? And how do they actually get together to build the architecture of what we think of as being the perfect Nestle Toll House Chocolate Chip Cookie.