Jessica Zambito Religion and Magic Professor Dauria Women and Possession Trance The topic of my research stems

from the overall topic of Altered States of Consciousness, specifically investigating the role women play in Possession Trance. Possession Trance is a popular characteristic of Altered States of Consciousness which possession trance plays a large role in diverse societies (Cohen 2008:1). Possession trance is simply defined as a, experience of a person whos changed in some way through the presence of a spirit or entity or power. (Myersm 2010). Throughout my paper, I refer to theories of women in possession trance constructed by anthropologists I.M. Lewis, Erika Bourguignon, Janice Boddy and Claire Plancake based off of their firsthand observation of cults in societies. Specifically, I narrowed my focus down to three particular Cults in order to analyze the role and power that women attain in Possession and Trance. The first Cult I focus on is the Nomadic Somali Zar Cult of North East Africa, conducted by anthropologist I.M. Lewis. The next cult I proceed to analyze is the Hofriyat Zar Cult of the Sudanese Village, conducted by anthropologist Janice Boddy. That leads me to my final cult I reference the study of the Bayisi Cult of the Punu-Congo of Brazzaville, conducted by Claire Plancke. Thus, I focus my entire paper on answering a question proposed by Lewis, What categories of person most frequently succumb to spirit possession and figure most prominently in possession cults? (Lewis 1966: 309). Throughout my paper I proceed to

further investigate this question by analyzing the observations and theories that these anthropologists have constructed. There are two specific types of cults that I focus on throughout the paper. These are two diverse types of cults because are defined by the way the women in these societies utilize their power they receive during possession trance. The Somali Cult of North Africa and the Hofriyat Cult of Sudan are two specific types of Zar Cults. In Ethiopia the meaning of Zar is a bit different than the meaning of the Zar in Muslim Africa and the Middle East. Zar, in Ethiopian terms simply means a possessing spirit. As opposed to in Muslim Africa and the Middle East, where Zar specifically means redistributing power in a maledominated society. The Somali and Hofriyat Zar Cults are two prime illustrations of women utilizing their power in male-dominated societies . In addition, it is believed that the women that are apart of these Zar-Cults are the victims of spirit possession in order to satisfied their needs and wants that are normally deprived from their everyday society. The spirits that victimize these cult women are said to be, consumed by envy and greed particularly in favor of luxurious clothing, finery, perfume and dainty foods.(Lewis 1966: 309). Therefore these spirits were looked at as malevolent and it is believed that women utilized their power as their outlet to benefit their individual needs that are suppressed in daily society. Contrary to this is the belief of why spirit possession occurs to women who are a part of the Bayisi Cult, which belong to the Punu-Congo Brazzaville of Africa. In this cult, society simply defines and references the Bayisi as the symbolism of water spirits. It is through the process of possession trance that these women celebrate these spirits. Women

in the Bayisi Cult are specifically targeted by spirit possession in order to help assure the communitys well-being, as opposed to only the womens self-satisfaction (Plancke 2011:1). The primary purpose of possession of women in the Bayisi cult is to establish and assure the communities well-being. Women are viewed by society as the main form of guidance of the societys stability through possession trance. Plancake discusses that the spirits choose these women as outlets to, reveal their wishes and conditions their willingness to assure the communitys well-being. (Plancke 2011:1). In 1966, anthropologist I.M Lewis focused his study on the Zar cult of the Somali Society of North East Africa. Specifically, Lewis studied diverse categories of people in different societies most likely to be the most susceptible to being possessed by spirit during possession trance. The Somali Zar Cult has a particular view about the power that women obtain in their society. The remainder of the Somalian society holds the women in this Cult to certain expectations and they also have a visualization of these women fulfilling specific roles in the Somali society. In the Somali Zar Cult women are often looked at as being inactive, weak, and a non- authoritative member that belongs to their society. (Lewis 1966:311). The women of the Somali Zar Cult do participate in labor tasks such as herding and managing flocks of goat and sheep in their society, however the women are excluded from any interaction or possession of camels. (Lewis 1966:311). Lewis makes it evident that in this Somali Cult, camels are a symbolization of wealth and power in their society. This highly male dominated society does not allow women to attain any minimal amount of power or wealth. The women are thus completely forbidden of any physical interaction or any form of authoritative ownership of the camel. (Lewis 1966: 311). This is a clear demonstration of how little power the women attain in the Somali Zar Cult. The

representation of women being denied from any possession or ownership of the camels symbolizes the lack of authority these women have. By seeing how the women are in charge of herding the goats and sheep which symbolize zero wealth in the society demonstrates how any form or method of power in their daily lives is practically nonexistent. That is until the women under possession trance where they receive the power that is absent in their daily lives. The women are ultimately dominated by the men in this society and are held accountable to obey the rules provided by their male spouses, and are expected to fully respect the power he attains. After observing and analyzing the Somali Cult, Lewis had made a conclusion. After being exposed to the way the women were treated in this society, as well as how the opposing members of society viewed the role of women he believed, the prominent role of women in spirit possession as compensation for their exclusion and lack of authority in other spheres. (Lewis 1966; 311). Not only were women the primary target for spirit possession in the Somali society due to their status position they hold in society, but a there was a particular category of women seem to have spirit possession gravitate towards them most. The Zar prominently targets married women of Zar Cults due to the lack of attention these women receive from their partner. Lewis believes that womens needs are consistently neglected by their male spouses, and they are deprived of the luxurious amenities that often men are obligated to provide their wife. (Lewis 1966: 313). Lewis states, Womans affliction operates amongst the Somali as a limited deterrent against the abuses of neglect and deprivation in a conjugal relationship which is heavily

biased in favor of men. (Lewis 1966:314). This is a clear example of deprivation that is present in every day society, leaving the women to endure and suffer this alone. From this particular observation Lewis formulated a theory that applies specifically to the women in Zar Cult Possession. The theory known as hard-pressed wife proposes the conception that women struggle to supply food and shelter for their children in this environment, in addition to her own needs being neglected by her husband (Lewis 1966: 313). Although it is extremely clear that women display and hold zero power in this society, males perceive Zar possession as merely a devious trick women play on them in their society. Its a bit humorous that the dominant and powerful men in this society feel threatened to a certain extent by their submissive wives and women while undergoing possession trance. Supporting the idea of why women are the prominent victim of Zar possession, Lewis concludes, Women, I am arguing may thus resort in spirit possession as a means both of airing their grievances indirectly and gaining self-satisfaction. (Lewis 1966: 314). This brings me to a much later view of the role which women hold in possession trance by anthropologist Erika Bourguignon around 1994. Segmenting a bit from Lewiss sociological study of women in Zar cults and possession trance, Bourguignon focuses more on the psychodynamic aspect of women in Zar Cults. She analyses the daily interaction of unconscious and conscious emotions and the certain impact that they have on womens behavior in society. Bourguignon believed that Acting out the identity of spirits in ritual possession trance offers women an acceptable and consciously deniable, way to express unconscious, forbidden thoughts and feelings, particularly in situations of social subordination. (Bourguignon 2008:558). Bourguignon's view can evidently provide support as to why women in Zar Cults are the primary victims, while incorporating the

psychodynamic perspective of the women in Zar Cults. Bourguignons psychodynamic perspective provides support for Lewiss sociological reasoning of the role Women attain in possession trance. Dissociation is another essential element that Bourguignon refers to as being associated with the involvement of women and possession trance (Bourguignon 2008: 558). Bourguignon states, Dissociation is central to the experience and performance of possession trance. (Bourguignon 2008: 558). She believes that women during possession trance have their own power to disassociation themselves from their everyday minimal role in society, and allow them to express their genuine emotions and feelings that are suppressed daily. In 1980, Anthropologist Janice Boddy takes an insight look and formulates her own theory of the role and power women attain in Zar Cults. Boddy studied the Sudanese Zar Cult of the Hofriyat people in Africa, and specifically focused on two aspects of the society. These two elements were the social and cultural factors of the Sudanese village, and made a clear distinction of role of men and women in this society (Boddy 1980: 410). Boddy observes that in this particular society, women and men are seperated from one another in many daily activities they partake in. The women in the Hofriyat Cult spend most family time in compounds that are constructed of mud-brick walls, segregating them for most of society (Boddy 1994: 9). She described that during meals the sexes on occasion are allowed to eat together, however they male and females are entirely forbidden to ever be seen in public eating a meal together (Boddy 1994: 9). In addition, the women and males are forbidden to sleep together, and have to sleep in separated sleeping quarters (Boddy 1994: 9). She describes

the characteristic of literacy and how women over the age of 25 are mostly illiterate, whereas the males are basically fully literate. Being that the Sudanese participate in the Islamic religion, women are only allowed to practice their religion in private and never in public. The women in this cult are stripped of attending Mosque, and the only group of women that may be excluded from not attending mosque is the elderly women in the society (Boddy 1994: 9). The Islamic religion attains virtues that predominately suppress any right or power to be gained by the women in this cult. In this Sudanese Zar Cult, Boddy studies how, circumcision and infibulation establish in women a sense of their primary cultural image of woman as a reproducer. (Boddy 1994: 6). Boddy explains Circumsion as the surgically altered bodies of women actively symbolize this cultural thought process and society principal values. (Boddy 1994: 5). The women in this society once again are the less authoritative sex and therefore there are four main reasons as to presumably the only reasons womens are useful and praised in society. Reproductive Power and childbirth, marriage, female circumsion and infibulation, are the four values in which women are viewed as productive and valuable in society. Aside from the women in this cult undergoing possession trance by the Zar, these specific situations are the only other times a woman is fully supported by the community. Not only through minimal instances is the women supported by the community, but she is for once the central point of attention, which women never receive unless undergoing one of these instances (Chidester 1992: 1). The women in the Hofriyat Zar cult are aware that society only views them as valuable for these specific elements, besides when undergoing a spirit possession. Therefore Boddy theorizes that, Through possession women resituate

daily reality in light of their world and their own specific concerns without denying the dominant masculine ideology. (Boddy 1994: 5). In Boddys book published in 1989, Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men and the Zar Cult of Northern Sudan she specifically studies the actions and rituals that are utilized while under the Zar Possession. During the possession trance ceremonies, drums are beating, women are chanting and the spirit presumably enters the Zars victim, and the spirit overtakes the Hofriyat women. While observing the women partaking in possession trance, Boddy describes specific actions which are completely unacceptable in Hofriyats everyday society. Boddy states she observed the women, Smoking, Wanton dancing, flailing about, burping and hiccupping, drinking blood and alcohol, wearing male clothing, publicly threatening men with swords, speaking loudly due regard for etiquette. (Myersm: 2001). These actions that the women partake in during the possession trance are completely contradictive to the image that society holds them accountable to in their daily society. The Hofiyat Women are held to demonstrate actions that only exemplify dignity and propriety. As I previously noted Boddys conclusion provides support that although women enter possession trance and are presented with emotions and actions that are normally suppressed, they realize that it is only during this time these male pursued actions are acceptable. Regardless of the temporary power the women receive in possession trance, it has zero effect of the power or role women hold in the Hofriyat Zar Cult. The Punu-Congo of Brazzaville do not have a Zar Cult apart of their society, instead the Bayisi Cult is present in this society. The differentiation between a Zar Cult and a Bayisi

Cult is how the women utilize their power they receive during possession trance in their society. As women in Zar Cults are believed to be possessed in order to fulfill their selfsatisfying needs, the women in the Bayisi Cult use their power for another purpose. In the Bayisi Cult, Possession trance allows for the opportunity of the spirit possessing the women to address and establish the entire communitys well-being. (Plancke 2011: 1). In 2010, Carine Plancke conducted a study of the Bayisi Cult of the Punu of Congo Brazzaville of Africa. Agreeing to an extent with Janice Boddys theory, Plancake states, and the Bayisi cult is itself a celebration of female regenerative capacities in their potential to assure social and cosmic revitalization, hence sustaining womens social position in relation to men in their ideological basis of gender complementarity. (Plancake 2011:369). Therefore Plancke believes that through this power the women receive in possession trance, they are not trying to compete with the males in their society in any form. Instead, possession trance allows the women to maintain and understand their role that they possess in the Bayisi Cult. To assure the communitys wellbeing as well as male and females maintaining specific roles that are a part of their society, it is stated by Plancke that, the spirits continue to send her advice about medicinal plants and treatments through dreams or trances. Sometimes they predict future events. (Plancke 2011: 376). The spirit takes possession of the women, and thus proceeds to cure any headaches, madness, fertility disorders, and any diseases that have been afflicted upon children. Although through this possession trance the women is basically responsible for curing members of her society her power also allows her to ultimately become the overall controller of her society. In a way, the women in the Bayisi Cult are the figures who make sure their community is safe, well in order, and abiding by normal society rules through possession trance. Rather than

competing with the opposing sex in their society, the Bayisi Cult establishes a complementary relationship between males and females. The strengths of females which are much less powerful and sufficient roles in society but the women are still held to practice these powers. These obligations that women partake in balance out what the males do not have the ability to do, such as fertility and birthing procedures. There are certain rituals that women partake in while undergoing a possession trance in the Bayisi Cult. To begin, the Bayisi women take initiation and begin with a circular dancing, followed by the start of water spirit songs which are two forms of how the spirit can communicate through the possessed women. The women enter into these dances; however Plancake observes that during these trances, there is lack of control and the execution of movement. (Plancke 2011:379). This illustrates just how powerful these spirits are that are entering the women of the Bayisi Cults body. Plancke describes the women dancers specific movements, a straight upper body, open shoulders, and upright head and a solemn look, she adds, this gives an impression of inner, concentrated strength.( Plancke 2010: 626). Plancake describes how the rotational motion movements that are a part of the dance in possession trance symbolize their flexibility, ease and endurance which are viewed as characteristics of the females in this cult. Therefore, these women in this Bayisi Spirit continue to dominate possession trance however they dont look at their male counterparts in a negative light. Instead, the women of the Bayisi Spirit view the relationship with the males in their society as working together. The women do receive the majority of their power while undergoing possession trance, and their well aware of that.

Throughout my paper I have answered my initial question I was investigating, What categories of person most frequently succumb to spirit possession and figure most prominently in possession cults? (Lewis 1966: 309). Women are the category of people in cults that are the most susceptible to spirit possession and have a prominent role in spirit possession. Beginning with I.M. Lewiss first look at women of the Somali Cult Society he his theory is clear and accurately based off of his observations. The Somalian Zar Cult, Sudanese Zar Cult, and the Bayisi Cult all exemplify women in possession trance and how they use their power. The difference segregating these two cults is the women of the Bayisi utilize their power for the benefit of their community. As opposed to the women of the Zar Cults who use their utilize their power in order to self-satisfy the womans individual needs. In addition, the spirit possession that overtakes the women in these Zar Cults is viewed as a malevolent spirits, especially by the males apart of the society. The spirit that overtakes the women in the Bayisi Cult is not looked at as a greedy or malicious spirit, and the characteristics that stem from spirit possession are not threating to the males in the society. By analyzing the work and theories created by these anthropologists, it enabled me to illustrate the evolution of the theories and conclusions of women in possession trance. Lewiss experiment conducted in the early 1960s was a perfect introduction to an early theory created by an anthropologist specifically dedicating his study of the role of Women in Zar Cults and Possession Trance. Then by looking at Planckes experiment of the Bayisi Cult constructed in 2010 exemplified how theories of the role of women in possession trance has evolved. Although theories of women in cults and possession trance have changed, women are still the most susceptible and prominent figures spirit possession.

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