PREPARED BY CHIRAG KARGATHRA

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ALTERNATORS:1) INTRODUCTION
An electric machine is an electromechanically device or a dynamoelectric or more briefly dynamo hich converts mechanical ener!y into electric ener!y or vice versa" The machine hich coverts electrical ener!y into mechanical ener!y is called as #otor$ hile the machine hich converts mechanical ener!y into electric ener!y is %no n as Generator" Ho ever$ electrical machines are reversible ca&able of o&eratin! both as Generator and as a #otor"

2)

SYNCHRONOUS

GENERRATORS

OR

A.C.GENERATORS

OR

ALTERNATORS: Alternators o&erate on the same f'ndamental &rinci&les of electroma!netic ind'ction as D"C" !enerators "B't there is one im&ortant difference bet een t o" (hereas in D"C" !enerators$ the armat're rotates and the field system is stationary$ the arran!ement in alternators is )'st the reverse of it" In their case$ standard constr'ction consists of armat're indin! mo'nted on a stationary element called the stator and field indin!s on a rotatin! element called rotor"

3) BASIC PRINCIPLE: (hen the rotor rotates$ the stator cond'ctors *bein! stationary+ are c't by the ma!netic fl',$ hence they have ind'ced e"m"f" &rod'ced in them$ beca'se the ma!netic &oles are alternately - . /$ they ind'ce an e"m"f" and hence c'rrent in armat're cond'ctors$ hich first flo s in one direction and then in the other "Hence an alternatin! e"m"f" is &rod'ced in the stator cond'ctors *0+ (hose fre1'ency de&ends on the no" of - . / &oles movin! &ast a cond'ctor in one second and *2+ (hose direction is !iven by 3lemin!4s Ri!ht hand r'le"

4) ADVANTAGES OF HAVING STATIONARY ARMATURE AND A ROTATING FIELD SYSTEM ARE:

*0+ The o't&'t c'rrent can be led directly from fi,ed terminals on the stator to the load circ'it$ havin! to &ass it thro'!h br'sh contacts" *2+ It is easier to ins'late stationary armat're val'e as 56%v or more" *5+ The slidin! contacts i"e" sli& rin!s are transferred to the lo hich can$ therefore$ be easily ins'lated" *8+ The armat're indin!s can be more easily braced to &revent any deformation$ hich co'ld be &rod'ced by the mechanical stresses set '& as res'lt of short circ'it c'rrent and the hi!h centrif'!al forces bro'!ht into &lay" volta!e7 lo &o er D"C" field circ'it indin! for hi!h a"c" volta!es$ hich may have as hi!h a itho't

5) ROTOR:T o ty&es of rotors are 'sed in alternators *0+ /alient9&ole ty&e and

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*2+ /mooth cylindrical ty&e"

*0+ /alient *or &ro)ectin!+ &ole ty&e: 9

It is 'sed in lo and medi'm9s&eed alternators It has a lar!e no" of &ro)ection */alient+ &oles$ havin! their cores bolted or dovetailed onto a heavy ma!netic heel of cast9iron$ or steed of !ood ma!netic !'ilty$ /'ch !enerators are characteri;ed by their lar!e diameter and short a,ial len!ths" The &oles and &ole shoes are laminated to minimi;e heatin! chafe to eddy c'rrents"

*2+ /mooth cylindrical ty&e: 9

It is 'sed for t'rbo9alternators$ hich r'n at very hi!h s&eeds" The rotor consists of /mooth solid for!ed steel alternators$ havin! a no" of slots milled o't at intervals alon! the o'ter &eri&hery *and &arallel to the shaft + for accommodatin! field coils" /'ch rotors are desi!ned mostly for 29&ole *or 89 &ole+ t'rbo9!enerators r'nnin! at 5<66 r"&"m" Cor 0=66 r"&"m" +" To avoid e,cessive &eri&heral velocity$ s'ch rotors have very small diameter and also have very lon! a,ial len!th" DA#PER (I-DI-G/: 9 #ost of the alternators have their &ole9shoes slotted for receivin! co&&er bars of !rid or dam&er indin! also %no n as s1'irrel9ca!e indin!+" The co&&er bars are shot9circ'ited at both ends by heavy co&&er rin!s" These dam&ers are 'sef'l in &reventions and are needed in synchrono's motors to &rovide the startin! tor1'e" T'rbo !enerators 's'ally do not have these dam&er indin!s *e,ce&t in s&ecial case to assist in synchroni;in! beca'se the soiled field9&lates themselves act as efficient dam&ers" It sho'ld be clearly 'nder stood that 'nder normal r'nnin! conditions $ dam&er indin!s does not carry and c'rrent beca'se rotor r'ns at synchrono's s&eed" The dam&er conditions" >et$ indin! also tends to maintain balanced 5 9 volta!es 'nder 'nbalanced load

P ? Total no" of ma!netic &oles$ - ? Relative s&eed of the rotor in r" &" m" 3? 3re1'ency of !enerated e"m"f" in h2"

/ince one cycle of e"m"f" is &rod'ced hen a &air of &oles &asses &ast a cond'ctor$ the n'mber of cycles of e"m"f" &rod'ced in one revol'tion of the rotor is e1'al to the n'mber of &air of &oles"

-o" of cycles @ revol'tion ? & @ ; and no" of revol'tions @ second ? - @ <6 3re1'ency ? cycles @ second

? *cycles @ revol'tion+ , *Revol'tions @ second+ ? &@2 , -@<6

Frequency = PN / 120 H 2 N = 120 / Pr . p.m.( sys.speed )

The T o ty&es of armat're indin!s most commonly 'sed for 5 A &hase alternators are : *i+ /in!le >ayer indin! *ii+ Do'ble layer indin!

6) EQUATION OF INDUCED E.M.F.

The avera!e e"m"f" @ &hase ? 2 f B ? 8 f T (here$ 3 ?3re1'ency of ind'ced e"m"f" in H; ? 3l', in (ebers B ? -o" of cond'ctor or coil sides in series @ &hase " ? 2 T$ T ?-o" of coils &er &hase R"#"/" val'e of e"m"f" @ &hase ? 0"00 , 8 f T ? 8"88 f T Colt"

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7) ARMATURE REACTION: As in d"c" !enerators armat're reaction is the effect at armat're fl', on the main field fl'," In the case of alternators $ the &o er factor of the load has a considerable effect on the armat're reaction $ e ill consider three cases: *i+ *ii+ *iii+ (hen load of &"f" is 'nity $ the armat're fl', is cross9 ma!neti;in! " (hen &"f" is ;ero la!!in!$ the effect of armat're reaction is (hen &"f" is ;ero leadin! the effect at armat're reaction is holly dema!neti;in! holly ma!neti;in!"

8) VOLTAGE REGULATION: (ith chan!e in >oad$ there is a chan!e in terminal volta!es of an alternator" The ma!nit'de of this chan!e de&ends not only load b't also on the load &o er factor" The volta!e re!'lation of an alternator is defined as D the rise in volta!e hen f'll9load is removed * field e,citation and s&eed remainin! the same+ divided by the rated terminal volta!esE "

% Regulation =

E0 V 100 V

3ollo in! methods are 'sed for determin! the volta!e re!'lation : 9
(1) /ynchrono's Im&edance FR E"#"3" method FR Pessimistic method * By Behn Eschenber!+ (2) The am&ere A t'rn FR #"#"3 method * By Rothert+ (3) Bero &o er factor FR Potier methoid *By Potier +

10) PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATORS OR SYNCHRONOUS OF ALTERNATORS : The o&eration of connectin! an alternator in &arallel is %no n as synchroni;in!" ith another alternator or ith common b's9 bars ith many other

Generally $ alternators are 'sed in a &o er system alternators

here they are in &arallel

It means that the alternators is connected to live system of constant volta!e and constant fre1'ency" Fften the electrical system to hich the alternators is connected $ has already so many alternators and loads connected to it that no matter hat &o er is delivered by the incomin! alternators $ the volta!es . fre1'ency of the system remain the same" In that case$ the alternators is said to be connected to infinite b's9bars" It is never advisable to connect a stationary alternators to live b's9bars$ beca'se stator ind'ced e"m"f" bein! ;ero $ a short circ'it ill res'lt"

3or &o er synchroni;ation of alternators$ the follo in! three condition m'st be satisfied:9
*0+ The terminal volta!e of the incomin! alternators m'st be same as b's9bars volta!e"

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*2+ *5+

The s&eed of the incomin! machine m'st be s'ch that its fre1'ency * ? P- @ 026+ e1'als b's9 bar fre1'ency The &hase of the alternators volta!e m'st be identical correct9&hase relationshi& condition ith the &hase of the b's9bar volta!e" It means that the s itch m'st be closed at * or very near + the instant the t o volta!es have

*8+

Is indicated by a voltmeter$ condition *2+ . *5+ are indicated by synchroni;in! lam& or a synchronosco&e"

It sho'ld be noted that synchroni;ation by lam& not 1'ite acc'rate$ beca'se to a lar!e e,tent it a on the sense of correct )'d!ment of the o&erator" Hence$ to eliminate the element of &ersonal )'d!ment in ro'tine o&eration of alternators $ the m@cs are synchroni;ed by a more acc'rate device called a synchronosco&e" It consists of 5 stationary coils and a rotatin! iron val'e hich is attached to a &ointer" F't of 5 ils$ a &air is connected to one &hase of the line and the other to the corres&ondin! m@c terminals$ &otential transformer *P"T+ bein! 's'ally 'sed" The &ointer moves to one side or the other from its vertical &osition de&endin! on hether the incomin! m@c is too fast or too slo " 3or correct s&eed$ the &ointer &oints vertically '&"

11) INFINITE BUS-BARS: Infinite b's A bars are those hose fre1'ency and the &hase of &otential differences are not affected by chan!es in the conditions of any one m@c connected &arallel to it" In other ords $ they are constant9fre1'ency $ constant A volta!e b's A bars"

Effect of Gne1'al Colta!es: 9

>et 's consider t o alternators$ hich are r'nnin! e,actly in &hase" * relative to the e,ternal circ'it+ b't hich have sli!htly 'ne1'al volta!es" >et E0 is the volta!e at one alternators . E2 is the volta!es at the another alternators" >et E0 is !reater than E2 then their res'ltant is Er?*E09E2+ and is in A&hase ith E0" this Er sets '& a local synchroni;in! c'rrent hich is almost H6 6 behind E0" This la!!in! c'rrent &rod'ces dia!nosin! effect on the first m@c hence E0 is red'ced" The other m@c r'ns as a synchrono's motor $ ta%in! almost H6 6 leadin! c'rrent" Hence$ its field is stren!thened d'e to ma!neti;in! effect of armat're reaction" This tends to increase E2" These t o effects act to!ether and hence lesson the ine1'alities bet een the t o volta!es and tend to establish stable conditions"

/ome Points re!ardin! to Distrib'tion >oad: 9

(1) The load ta%en '& by an alternators directly de&ends '&on its drivin! tor1'e" Fr in other '&on the an!'lar advance of its rotor" (2) The e,citation merely chan!es the &o er factor at hich the load is delivered the load so lon! as steam s'&&ly remains 'nchan!ed" ords$

itho't affectin!

(3) It in&'t to the &rime motor of an alternators is %e&t constant $ b't its e,citation is chan!ed $ then KCA com&onent of its o't&'t is chan!ed $ not K("

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
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1) INTRODUCTION: A synchrono's motor is electrically identical ith an alternator or a"c" !enerator" In fact$ a !iven synchrono's machine may be 'sed$ at least theoretically$ as alternator$ hen driven mechanically$ or as a motor$ hen driven electrically$ )'st as in the case of d" c" machines" #ost synchrono's motors are rated bet een 0I6 %( and 0I#( and r'n at s&eeds ran!in! from 0I6to 0=66 r"&"m"

/ome characteristic feat'res of synchrono's motors are

orth notin!:9

It r'ns either at synchrono's s&eed or not at all i"e" hile r'nnin! it maintains a constant s&eed" The only ay to chan!e its s&eed is to vary the s'&&ly fre1'ency beca'se -s ?026f@&" It is not inherently self startin! "It has to be r'n '& to synchrono's *or near synchrono's+ s&eed by some means$ before it can be synchroni;ed to the s'&&ly" It is ca&able of bein! o&erated 'nder a ide ran!e of &o er factors$ both la!!in! and leadin!" Hence$ it can be s'&&lyin! tor1'e to drive loads"

2) SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS WITH DIFFERENT EXCITATIONS : A synchrono's motor is said to have normal e,citation hen its bac% e"m"f" Eb ?s'&&ly volta!e v" If field e,citation is s'ch that EbJv$ the motor is said to be 'nder 9 e,cited" In both these conditions$ it has a la!!in! &o er factor" Fn the other hand it d"c field e,citation is s'ch that Eb Kv$ then motor is said to be over9 e,cited and dra leadin! c'rrent"

3) DIFFERENT TORQUES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:0+ /tartin! tor1'e$ 2+ R'nnin! tor1'e$ 5+ P'll9in tor1'e$ 8+ P'll 9o't tor1'e.

0" /tartin! tor1'e: 9 It is the tor1'e develo&ed by the motor hen f'll volta!e is a&&lied to its stator
*armat're+ indin! "It is also sometimes called brea%a ay tor1'e"

2" R'nnin! Tor1'e: 9 As its name indicates$ it is the tor1'e develo&ed by the motor 'nder r'nnin!
conditions" It is determined by the horse 9&o er and s&eed of the driven machine"

5" P'll 9in Tor1'e: 9 A synchrono's motor is started as ind'ction motor till it r'ns 29to ILbelo
synchrono's s&eed" After ards$ e,citation is s itched$ on and the rotor &'lls into ste& ith the synchrono'sly rotatin! stator field" The amo'nt of tor1'e at hich the motor ill &'ll into ste& is called the &'ll9in tor1'e"

8" P'll 9o't Tor1'e: 9 The ma,im'm tor1'e$ hich the motor can develo& itho't &'llin! o't of ste&
or synchronism is called the &'ll9 o't tor1'e"

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4) EFFECT OF EXCITATION ON ARMATURE CURRENT AND POWER FACTOR:

The ma!nit'de of armat're c'rrent varies ith e,citation" The c'rrent has lar!e val'e both for lo .hi!h val'es of e,citation *tho'!h it is la!!in! for lo e,citation -D >adin! for hi!her e,citation+" In bet een$ it has minim'm val'e corres&ondin! to a certain e,citation" The variations of I ith e,citation have MCM sha&es$ so$ it is called DCEc'rves" ide ran!e and so ca'ses the &o er factor also to ith la!!in! P"3" hen 'nder9e,cited" In

3or the same in&'t$ armat're c'rrent varies over a vary accordin!ly" (hen over A e,cited$ motor r'ns bet een the P"3" is 'nity" The variations of P"3" It

ith leadin! P"3" and

ith e,citation have inverted NC4 sha&e"

o'ld be noted that minim'm armat're c'rrent corres&onds to 'nity &o er factor"

An over A e,cited motor can be r'n ith leadin! &o er factor" This &ro&erty of the motor renders it e,tremely 'sef'l for &hase advancin! *and so &o er factor correctin!+ &'r&oses in the case of ind'strial loads driven by ind'ction motors and li!htin! and heatin! loads s'&&lied thro'!h transformers" Both transformer and ind'ction motors dra la!!in! c'rrents from the line"

Es&ecially on li!ht loads the &o er dra n by them has a lar!e reactive com&onent and the &o er factors have a very lo val'e" By 'sin! synchrono's motors in con)'nction ith ind'ction motors and transformer$ the la!!in! reactive &o er re1'ired by the latter is s'&&lied locally by the leadin! reactive com&onent ta%en by the former$ thereby relievin! the line and !enerators of m'ch of the reactive com&onent" Hence$ they no s'&&ly only the active com&onent of the load c'rrent" (hen 'sed in this ay a synchrono's motor is called a synchrono's ca&acitor$ beca'se it dra s$ li%e a ca&acitor leadin! c'rrent from the line"

5) SHUNTING OR SURGING OR SWINGING: (hen a synchrono's motor is 'sed for drivin! varyin! load then a condition %no n as h'ntin! is &rod'ced" H'ntin! may also be ca'sed if s'&&ly fre1'ency is &'lsatin!" H'ntin! may be &revented by dam&er indin!"

6) METHODS OF STARTING: Almost all synchrono's motors are e1'i&&ed ith dam&er or s1'irrel ca!e bars embedded in the &ole9shoes and short A circ'it at both ends" indin!s consistin! of C'

/'ch a motor starts readily$ actin! as an ind'ction motor d'rin! the startin! &eriod" The line volta!e is a&&lied to armat're *stator+ terminals and the field circ'it is left 'ne,cited"

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 A motor start as an ind'ction motor and D"C" field is e,cited"

hile at reachin! nearly HIL of its synchrono's s&eed$ the ith each other and hence &'ll

At that moment the stator and rotor &oles !et en!a!ed or interloc%ed the motor into synchronism"

At the be!innin!$ hen volta!e is a&&lied$ the rotor is stationary" The rotatin! field of the stator indin! ind'ces a very lar!e e"m"f" in the rotor d'rin! the startin! &eriod$ tho'!h the val'e of this e"m"f" !oes on decreasin! as the rotor !athers s&eed" -ormally$ the field indin!s are meant for 006 v b't d'rin! startin! &eriod there are many tho'sands of volts ind'ced in them" Hence$ the rotor indin!s have to be hi!hly ins'lated for ithstandin! s'ch volta!es" (hen f'll line volta!e is s itched on to the armat're at rest$ a very lar!e c'rrent$ 's'ally I to O times and the f'll 9load armat're c'rrent is dra n by the motors" In some cases$ this may not be ob)ectionable b't by 'sin! a'to9transformers" here it is$ the a&&lied volta!e at startin! is red'ced

Ho ever$ the volta!e sho'ld not be red'ced to a very lo val'e beca'se the startin! tor1'e of an ind'ction motor varies a&&ro,imately as the s1'are of an a&&lied volta!e"

7) PROCEDURE FOR STARTING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS: 3irst$ main field Red'ced volta!e starts '&" indin! is short9circ'ited" ith the hel& of a'to 9 transformers is a&&lied across stator terminals" The motor

(hen it reaches a steady s&eed$ a ee% D"C" E,citation is a&&lied by removin! the short9 circ'it on the m@c ill be &'lled into synchronism" 3'll s'&&ly volta!e is a&&lied across stator terminals by c'ttin! o't the a'to9 transformers" The motor may be o&erated at any desired &o er factor by chan!in! the d"c" e,citation"

8) COMPARISON BETWEEN SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION MOTORS: 3or a !iven fre1'ency$ the synchrono's motor r'ns at a constant avera!e s&eed hile the s&eed of an ind'ction motor falls some hat ith increase in load" The synchrono's motor can be o&erated over a b't may become very lo at li!ht loads" hatever the load$

ide ran!e of &o er factors$ both la!!in! . leadin!$

A synchrono's motor is inherently not self9 startin!" The chan!es in a&&lied volta!e do not affect synchrono's motor tor1'e as m'ch as the affect the ind'ction motor tor1'e" The brea%do n tor1'e of a synchrono's motor varies a&&ro,imately as the first &o er of a&&lied volta!e hereas that of an ind'ction motor de&ends on the s1'are of these volta!es" A D"C" E,citation is re1'ired by synchrono's motor b't not by ind'ction motor" /ynchrono's motors are 's'ally more costly and com&licated than ind'ction motors$ b't they are &artic'larly attractive for lo 9s&eed drives * belo 566 r"&"m"+ beca'se their &o er factor can al ays

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by ad)'sted to 0"6 and their efficiency is hi!h" Ho ever$ ind'ction motors are e,cellent for s&eeds above <66 r"&"m" /ynchrono's motors can be r'n at 'ltra9lo s&eeds by 'sin! hi!h &o er electronic converters$ hich !enerate very lo fre1'encies" /'ch motors of 06 m ran!e are 'sed for drivin! cr'shers$ rotary %ilns and variable A s&eed b'lls etc"

9) SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR APPLICATIONS:/ynchrono's motors find e,tensive a&&lication for the follo in! classes of service:9 a+ Po er factor correction" b+ Constant A s&eed$ constant9 load drives" c+ Colta!e re!'lation"

a+ Po er factor Correction: Fvere,cited synchrono's motors havin! leadin! &o er factor are idely 'sed for im&rovin! &o er factor of those &o er systems hich em&loy a lar!e no of ind'ction motors and other devices havin! la!!in! &"f" /'ch as elders . fl'orescent li!hts etc"

b+ Constant A s&eed A&&lication:

Beca'se of their hi!h efficiency and hi!h As&eed$ synchrono's motors are ell9s'ited for loads here constant s&eed is re1'ired s'ch as centrif'!al &'m&s &a&er mills$ blo ers etc" >o s&eed synchrono's motors *belo <66 r"&"m"+ are 'sed for drives s'ch as centrif'!al and scre ty&e &'m&s$ ball . t'be mills etc"

c+ Colta!e re!'lation: The volta!e at the end of alon! transmission line varies !reatly es&ecially hen lar!e ind'ctive loads are &resent "(hen an ind'ctive load is disconnected s'ddenly$ volta!e tends to rise considerable above its normal val'e beca'se of the line ca&acitance" By installin! a synchrono's motor ith a field re!'lator * for varyin! its e,citation + this volta!e rise can be controlled" (hen line volta!e decreases there by raisin! its &"f" hich com&ensates for the line dro&"

If$ on the other hand$ line volta!e rise d'e to line ca&acitive effect$ motor e,citation is decreased$ there by ma%in! its &"f" la!!in! hich hel&s to maintain the line volta!e at its normal val'e"

10) STOPPING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS: F in! to the inertia of the rotor and load$ lar!e synchrono's motors may ta%e several ho'rs to sto& after they are disconnected from the line" To red'ce the sto&&in! time e 'se the follo in! bra%in! methods: 0"#aintain f'll dc e,citation ith the armat're in short circ'it 2"#aintain f'll dc e,citation ith the armat're connected to 5 e,ternal resistors" 5"A&&ly mechanical bra%in!" In methods *0+ . *2+ $ the motor slo s do n beca'se it f'nctions as a !enerator$ dissi&atin! its ener!y in the resistive elements of the circ'it" #echanical bra%in! is 's'ally a&&lied after the motor has reached half s&eed or less$ to &ercent 'nder ear of the brea% shoes"

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