Voltage harmonic elimination in PWM A.C.

chopper using genetic algorithm

K. Sundareswaran and A.P. Kumar Abstract: A method of voltage harmonic elimination in a pulse-width modulated AC/AC voltage converter using genetic algorithms (GA) is proposed. The output voltage of the AC chopper with k pulses per half cycle is written in terms of switching angles using Fourier series, and the best switching angles are identied with the dual objectives of harmonic elimination and output voltage regulation. The problem is redrafted as an optimisation task, and a solution is sought through GAs. For performance comparison of GAs, other optimisation methods such as Rosenbrocks rotating coordinates method, the random search method and the NewtonRasphson method are also applied to the present problem. Comparison shows that the genetic algorithm method is on a par with conventional optimisation methods. In addition, the GA approach has several advantages, such as a reduced computational burden, faster convergence and guaranteed global optima in most cases. The theoretical ndings are veried through experimental results.

Introduction

Many applications such as industrial heating, lighting control and speed control of induction motors require variable AC voltage. To obtain variable AC voltage from a xed AC voltage source, AC voltage controllers are widely employed. Generally, Triacs or anti-parallel connected thyristors are used as power converters in such systems. Voltage control using the above scheme is simple, reliable and cost-effective. However, AC voltage converters suffer from various drawbacks, such as increased harmonic content and poor power factor, especially at lower output voltages. The pulse-width modulated (PWM) AC chopper has been suggested as an alternative to the AC voltage controller. The advantages of the AC chopper over the AC voltage controller include improved power factor, elimination of low order harmonics and wide voltage control range. The AC chopper circuit employs forced commutated devices [1] or self-commutating devices [24]. The system performance is further improved using various harmonic elimination techniques in the AC chopper [34]. The harmonic elimination methods used in AC choppers are similar to those employed in PWM inverters [5, 6] or in AC to DC converters [79]. The common characteristic of this method is that the waveform analysis is done in the Fourier domain. A set of non-linear, transcendental equations are then derived, and the solution is obtained using an iterative procedure, mostly by Newton-Raphson method. This method is derivative-dependent and may end in local optima; further, a judicious choice of initial values alone will guarantee convergence. Another

approach uses Walsh functions. A PWM inverter using the Walsh function harmonic elimination method is presented in [1012]. By using Walsh function method, the switching angles are optimised by solving linear equations, instead of solving non-linear transcendental equations. An analysis of the PWM waveform shows that piecewise linear solutions can be obtained between the switching angles and the fundamental amplitude. From the above brief review, it is possible to conclude that only the Newton-Raphson method is extensively used for harmonic elimination in power converters, followed by the Walsh function method. This paper proposes the application of genetic algorithms for harmonic elimination in the PWM AC chopper. The dual objectives of harmonic elimination and output voltage regulation are reframed as an optimisation task, and the switching instances are identied through the steps of GA. Further, other derivative-free optimisation methods such as Rosenbrocks rotating coordinates method and the Random search method are also employed to achieve the solution. For completeness, the popular Newton-Raphson method is also applied under identical conditions. A comparative evaluation between different methods is then effected. The formulation of the problem of harmonic elimination in the PWM AC chopper and the application of GA are discussed. Experimental results are supplemented to validate the computed results.

Problem formulation

r IEE, 2003 IEE Proceedings online no. 20040061 doi:10.1049/ip-epa:20040061 Paper rst received 17th October 2002 and in revised form 19th May 2003 The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Regional Engineering College, Tiruchirappalli, India

The power circuit of an IGBT-based PWM AC chopper driving a capacitor-run induction motor is shown in Fig. 1a. Here, there are two IGBTs marked as S1 and S2. S1 is used for connecting the load to source and S2 is employed to free-wheel the load current, when S1 is switched off. S1 is turned on at various switching angles, a1, a3,y, ak1 and turned off at a2, a4,y, ak per quarter cycle. The output voltage of the AC chopper with k
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 151, No. 1, January 2004

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aux.winding S1

the problem as: Minimise F a F a1 ; a2 ; ::::; ak er hc; subject to :

C

single-phase AC supply

main winding

S2

rotor

a Vm

p 0  a1  a2 . . . ak 1  ak  : 2    B1   and where er  V0 p 2 hc jB3 j jB5 j jB7 j jBk 1 j

3
0
1 2 3 4 k

Harmonic elimination using genetic algorithm

3 2

Vm b

Fig. 1
a Circuit of PWM AC chopper b Output voltage

pulses per half cycle is shown in Fig. 1b. The switching angles are symmetrical with respect to p/2. The output voltage can be expressed using Fourier series as: V 0 a0
n X 1

An cosnot

n X 1

Bn sinnot;

where n 1; 2; 3; 4; 5 . . . : Referring to the output voltage shown in Fig. 1b, it is observed that even harmonics are absent due to the symmetry of the wave. Further, the coefcients An and a0 are zero. Thus, the above equation reduces to: V0
n X 1

Bn sinnot; where n 1; 3; 5 . . . :

The value of Bn is computed as: Bn   2Vm sinn 1$t sinn 1ot a2 ;a4 ;...;p=2 ; n 1 n 1 p a1 ;a3 ;...;ak

n 6 1 where Vm is the maximum value of the input sine wave. The fundamental component is given by:   2V m sinot a2 ;a4 ;...;p=2 ot B1 2 p a1 ;a3 ;...;ak 2

GAs are stochastic optimisation techniques. They are simple, powerful, general purpose, derivative-free stochastic global optimisation techniques (search algorithms) inspired by the laws of natural selection and genetics [1316]. They follow Darwins theory of evolution, where tter individuals are likely to survive in a competing environment. These algorithms are derivative-free in the sense that they do not need functional derivative information to search for a set solution that minimises (or maximises) a given objective function. This property of GAs reduces the computational burden and search time, and also enables them to solve complex objective functions. In this Section, various steps involved in a GA-based approach for harmonic elimination in the PWM AC chopper are explained, describing how the GA is designed and applied to the present problem. Various components of GA such as chromosomes, tness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation as applied to the present work are illustrated. Step 1: Create an initial population of solution The solution to the problem is k number of switching angles, which perform selective harmonic elimination. For this, initial values of switching angles are required in the rst stage. Each switching angle is called a gene, which is represented by two binary numbers. A chromosome consists of all genes and in this instance there are k genes in one chromosome. Thus, each chromosome represents a solution to the problem. This is illustrated in Fig. 2a. GA starts with a set of solution rather than a single set. The population consists of a set of chromosomes. A population size of 30 is considered in this work. Step 2: Evaluation of tness function The degree of goodness of a solution is qualied by assigning a value to it. This is done by dening a proper tness function for the problem. In the present problem, harmonics are to be reduced, and the difference between the fundamental component and the reference output voltage is to be minimised. Since GA can be used only for maximisation problems, the following tness function, F, is used: F 10 1 F a 3

The objective is to nd the switching angles to * and perform selective harmonic eliminamake B1 V0 * is the reference output voltage. This is tion where V0 converted to an optimisation problem and is stated as follows: For k number of pulses per half cycle, let F(a) be the objective function; then, mathematically, we can write
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 151, No. 1, January 2004

Thus, (3) is used to nd the tness of each solution. Step 3: Generation of offspring Offspring is a new chromosome obtained through the steps of selection, crossover and mutation. After the tness of each chromosome is computed, parent solutions are selected for reproduction. This process emulates the survival of the ttest mechanism in nature. Roulette wheel selection is the most common and easyto-implement selection mechanism. A virtual wheel is
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0
1

0
2

0
K

......... a

25%
E A

20% 10%

5%

B C

work, multipoint crossover is adopted for increased efciency, since k number of variables are embedded in one chromosome. Mutation is another genetic operation by which a bit within a chromosome may toggle to the opposite binary. The crossover and mutation are performed based on the probability of crossover and mutation and these values are selected here as 0.8 and 0.06, respectively. Step 4: Replace the current population with the new population Step 5: Go to step 2 until termination criterion is reached 4 Simulation results and comparison with other optimisation methods

40% b

E D C

A B

8 c

parents 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 crossover 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

offspring 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 mutation d 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

Fig. 2
a Chromosome structure b Typical allocation of sectors for chromosomes c Roulette wheel selection d Crossover and mutation

implemented for this selection process. Each chromosome is assigned a sector in this virtual wheel, and the area of the sector is proportional to their tness value. Thus, the chromosome with the largest tness value will occupy the largest area, while the chromosome with a lower value takes the slot of a smaller sector. Initially, there are ve chromosomes labelled as A, B, C, D and E, and their tness value increases in the order of D, B, A, E and C. Figure 2b shows a typical allocation of ve sectors of chromosomes in the Roulette wheel. In Roulette wheel selection, an angle is generated randomly, and the chromosome corresponding to this angle is selected. Figure 2c shows a randomly generated angle of 5p/8 rad. In this case, chromosome C is selected. The chromosomes thus selected undergo crossover and mutation to produce offspring for the next generation. The conventional method adopted in GA is Roulette wheel selection and, in this work, this selection method is modied by combining it with elitism. Using elitism, a denite number of best solutions are retained and are re-used in the next generation without undergoing the steps of selection, crossover and mutation. Here, the best two values are retained and hence the remaining 28 chromosomes are chosen for reproduction via roulette wheel selection procedure. The 28 parent solutions selected by Roulette wheel selection are then subjected to crossover and mutation. Figure 2d illustrates this crossover and mutation. Crossover is the operation by which a certain number of bits are exchanged between parent chromosomes. In this
28

Dedicated software is developed in the C programming language for the application of GA for voltage harmonic reduction in the PWM-type AC chopper. The parameters of GA such as crossover and mutation probability, population size and number of generations are usually selected as common values given in the literature, or by means of a trial and error process to achieve the best solution set [17, 18]. Although these parameters inuence the dynamics and quality of convergence of GA, the proper determination of these parameters for a particular problem is still an open question. In the present work, the authors vary the parameters and study the impact. It is observed that a value of 2030 is ideal for population size; a lesser value increases the number of iterations. On the other hand, a large number for population size does not decrease the number of iterations signicantly. The number of iterations is rst xed at 100, and increased to 1000 in steps of 100. In most of the operating points, an optimum solution is obtained around 100400 iterations. Hence, the number of generations is xed at 500. The probability of crossover is rst put at 0.9 and then changed to 0.8, 0.7, 0.6 and 0.5. It is observed that the best solution for a given termination criterion emerged for 0.8. The probability of mutation is rst xed at 0.1. An increased value yields poor results; as this value is decreased, results improve until it reaches 0.06. Further reduction is detrimental. The parameters thus selected for the implementation of GA are listed below: Population size 30 Coding Binary Number of generations 500 Selection scheme Combination of Roulette wheel selection with elitism Crossover operator Multipoint crossover Crossover probability 0.8 Mutation probability 0.06 Termination criterion 500 iterations The program is run for different voltage conversion ratios and for different values of number of pulses per half cycle of the output voltage. The computed harmonic spectra using GA for different operating conditions of the power converter system is represented in Fig. 3. In the computation, stress is given to eliminate the possible number of lower order harmonics, and this is achieved by suitably dening hc. With three pulses per half cycle, since we can eliminate two harmonic components, hc is written as hc jB3 j jB5 j, and with ve pulses per half cycle, hc is modied as hc jB3 j jB5 j jB7 j jB9 j, and so on. From Fig. 3 it is evident that GA works successfully in the present problem by eliminating desired voltage harmonics.
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 151, No. 1, January 2004

% amplitude

100 75 50 25 0

3 pulses/half cycle
GA NR RS RB

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 order of harmonic

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 101 201

F( )

GA

% amplitude

100 75 50 25 0

5 pulses/half cycle

301

401

501

generation number a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 order of harmonic 10 11 12 13

0.2 F( ) 0.1 0

Newton-Raphson method

% amplitude

100 75 50 25 0

7 pulses/half cycle

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 order of harmonic

3 generation number b

% amplitude

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 order of harmonic

F( )

100 75 50 25 0

9 pulses/half cycle

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1

GA NR RS RB

Rosenbrock's method

a
% amplitude 100 75 50 25 0 3 pulses/half cycle

501

1001 generation number c

1501

2001

10

11 12 13

order of harmonic % amplitude 100 75 50 25 0

0.8 F( ) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 500

Random search method

5 pulses/half cycle

10

11

12

13

order of harmonic % amplitude

1000 d

1500

2000

2500

3000

generation number
100 75 50 25 0 7 pulses/half cycle

Fig. 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Variation of objective function with different methods

order of harmonic % amplitude 100 75 50 25 0

9 pulses/half cycle

function value at different iterative steps is plotted for each method. Referring to Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, and from the experience of the authors of the present study, the following comparative conclusions are listed: 1. All the methods work exceedingly well with a reduced number of pulses, while an increased number of pulses deteriorates the performance of all the methods except GA and Rosenbrocks method. 2. It is observed that convergence to an optimum value in Newton-Raphson and random search methods depends to a larger extent on the initial values selected. Hence, a judicious choice of initial values is crucial for these methods. This involves a painstaking selection of proper initial values, especially with increased value of k. GA and Rosenbrocks methods do not suffer from this drawback. In fact, irrespective of initial values, these two methods converge to global optima at all operating points. 3. As far as computational burden is concerned, Rosenbrocks method comes highest, followed by NewtonRaphson method. Genetic algorithm and random search methods involve only simple computational steps. 4. With the number of iterations as another performance index as plotted in Fig. 4, fewer iterations are observed in Newton-Raphson method. With GA, a global optimum is attained with fewer iterations in comparison with the other two remaining methods.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 order of harmonic

Fig. 3
a Harmonic spectra of output voltage using different methods for * 0.8 p.u. V0 b Harmonic spectra of output voltage using different methods for * 0.6 p.u. V0

Three traditional optimisation techniques are also employed to solve the present problem, and the results obtained with GA and with these methods are compared. The conventional optimisation methods applied are Newton-Raphson (NR) method, random search (RS) method and Rosenbrocks rotating coordinates (RB) method [19, 20]. The comparison of different approaches at different operating points of the AC to AC converter is given in Fig. 3. It is obvious from Fig. 3 that the performance of GA is on a par with other methods for voltage harmonic elimination and output voltage regulation. Further comparison is given in Fig. 4, where the variation of objective
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 151, No. 1, January 2004

5. Another performance criterion is the value of the objective function, F a at the end of iterations. As shown in Table 1, the minimisation process is highly effective in Newton-Raphson method, followed by GA. However, Rosenbrocks and random search methods result in a slightly increased value of F a.
Table 1: Value of F(a) with iterations
Approach Number of iterations 77 2 1800 2500 Value of F (a) 0.0063 0.000001 0.0359 0.048

Genetic Algorithm Newton-Raphson method Rosenbrocks method Random search method

6. One central aspect is that, excepting GA and Rosenbrocks method, the other two methods fail dismally for larger numbers of switching pulses. Random search method does not yield a solution for kZ9, while Newton-Raphson method starts to diverge with kZ11. On the other hand, for any value of k, GA and Rosenbrocks method give satisfactory results, and also a global optimum is guaranteed in all the cases. This is illustrated in Fig. 5 where k 15 and Vo 0.6 p.u.
% amplitude 100 75 50 25 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 order of harmonic a

was programmed accordingly. The experiment was carried out for different voltage conversion ratios and for different values of switching pulses per half cycle. Harmonic content of motor terminal voltage (i.e. the output voltage of AC chopper) was recorded for a typical case of seven pulses per half cycle with Vo 0.6 p.u of input supply voltage. The harmonic content of the motor terminal voltage thus obtained with the four methods described above is shown in Fig. 6. Figure 6 also shows computed harmonic content of motor terminal voltage of the respective methods for ease of comparison. A good correlation between the computed and measured results indicates the validity of the method and comparative evaluation presented in this paper. The small discrepancy between the computed and measured results can be attributed to change in the supply frequency, which is assumed constant at 50 HZ while programming the microprocessor. The switching spikes present in the experimental waveform also add to the small error between the predicted and experimental results. The measured motor terminal voltage and current waveforms are depicted in Fig. 7.

82% 50 Hz % amplitude 100 75 50 25 0 1 3 5 7

122v RMS

9 11 13 15 a

order of harmonic 85% 50 Hz % amplitude 100 75 50 25 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 order of harmonic 85% 50 HZ % amplitude 100 75 50 25 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 order of harmonic 124v RMS 121v RMS 120v RMS

100 % amplitude 75 50 25 0 1 3 5 7 9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 order of harmonic b

Fig. 5

* Harmonic spectra for k 15 and V0 0.6 p.u.

The above observations are veried at other operating points of the AC to AC converter system and found to be justied. Thus, from the above simulation study it can be concluded that the GA method as an optimisation problem works efciently, and its performance is superior to other traditional optimisation methods. 5 Experimental results

% amplitude

a Using GA b Using Rosenbrocks method

90% 50 HZ 100 75 50 25 0 1 3 5 7

9 11 13 15 d experimental

order of harmonic computed

Fig. 6 Computed and experimental results with seven pulses/half cycle and V* 0 0.6 p.u.
a GA b Newton Raphson method c Rosenbrocks method d Random search method

In order to validate the theoretical ndings and comparative evaluation of different approaches, an IGBT-based AC chopper was fabricated in the laboratory and used to drive a 220 V, 55 Watts, 1250 rpm capacitor-run induction motor, driving a domestic fan load. A 8085 microprocessor was used to generate switching pulses to the IGBTs. The switching angles were calculated off-line for different operating points of the converter and the microprocessor
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Conclusions

A new method of harmonic elimination in a PWM-type AC chopper using genetic algorithm is developed and presented
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 151, No. 1, January 2004

Fig. 7 Experimentally recorded motor terminal voltage and current waveforms Upper trace 200 V/div. Lower trace 0.2 Amps./div.

in this paper. It is observed that the genetic algorithm works efciently for output voltage regulation together with harmonic elimination. A comparison is also made with derivative-free optimisation methods and the NewtonRaphson iterative procedure. It is shown that the GA method is superior to conventional methods on several counts. Although the method is applied to the AC chopper, the proposed approach is general in nature and can be easily extended for harmonic elimination in other power electronic converters. 7 References

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