103

Study Committee B5 Colloquium

2005 September 14-16
Calgary, CANADA




LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT OF POWER TRANSFORMERS
USING TRANSFORMER PROTECTION RELAY


Andrew Klimek *
Vancouver, BC
Canada
Rich Hunt
Raleigh, NC
USA


Summary
Reductions in system expansion along with growing operating stresses from increased load and added bulk
power transactions have raised the average age and accelerated the aging of the large power transformer
population. Although known and often discussed, this aging square phenomenon has been difficult to analyze.
Quantification of the resulting implications, and risks that asset owners and operators will face in the years to
come, is a complex and multifaceted asset management problem. Yet such analysis is necessary to develop a
sound and defensible basis for replacement strategies and budgeting requests.
Transmission & Distribution Assets have highest potential risk exposure to the business due to less than optimal
maintenance practices in the past, limited quality knowledge of condition and performance, aging assets
approaching the at-risk phase of the life cycle, the magnitude of lost income due to asset failure.
One of the solutions that may help to assess and quantify the effects of accelerated aging on the power
transformer population, and understanding the risks and replacement needs may be offered by using advanced
Transformer Protection Relay with built-in asset management algorithms based on hot spot temperature and
load current inputs.
The paper will address loss of life of insulation through monitoring of hot spot temperature and application of
transformer early warning systems in combination with monitoring of load current. It further explains
transformer thermal overload management, adaptive overcurrent and through-fault monitor used as tools to
improve transformer reliability and survival curve leading to extension of service life of the equipment.

Keywords
Transformer Assets Protection Hot Spot Temperature Transformer Overload Early Waning System.

1. Introduction
Expected transformer life is directly related to loading of a transformer. The oil, core, case, and windings of most
power transformers are massive and the cooling fluid may take several hours to reach a new steady elevated
temperature after an increase in electrical loading. However, certain portions of the oil in ducts and the hottest
parts of the winding itself may reach elevated temperatures relative to the cooling fluid in no more than a few
minutes. Because the hottest part of the winding usually determines both insulation degradation rate and the
possibility of forming gas bubbles that might lead to dielectric failure, the rate at which the hot spot temperature
increases is initially rapid followed by a slow increase as the fluid heats up.

When an overload condition is apparent, an operator should determine if load can be shifted or shed. In this
way, the operator can have the ability to maintain the service reliability while at the same time protecting the
plant asset.
103 - 1

PEAK LOAD and LOSS-OF-LIFE
Bars: Load Line: Loss-of-life
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
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1.75
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L
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s
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f
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i
f
e


%


Figure 1. Peak Load & Loss of Life

The active alarm must be based on real time conditions, actual ambient temperature and not an estimated
maximum or average. Conventional Wisdom dictates that if the loading of the transformer exceeds 125% of
normal rating, the transformer should be replaced. One can argue that this approach might be simply wrong
today. Advanced state-of-the-art technologies and techniques are available to assist in assessing condition of
transformer insulation and apply maintenance practices that would allow extending service life of the equipment.
This conventional approach costs power utilities a lot of money.

2. Insulation Loss of Life Concept
The relay determines hot spot temperature, either from sensed ambient temperature, or sensed top oil
temperature, both sensed with a probe. The relay then calculates both top oil and hot spot based on ambient
temperature measurement, or calculates hot spot temperature based on directly measured top oil temperature.
When Hot Spot Temp equals 110
o
C, the insulation deteriorates at a normal rate and transformer insulation
strength will drop to 50% of its original value in 20,5 years, when it has reached the end of its useful life [1].
The rate of loss of life doubles for every 7
o
C rise in the hot spot temperature.

0
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20
24
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Winding (hot spot) temperature degC
T
i
m
e




h
o
u
r
s
LOSSOFLIFE, INDAYS,
FOREACHOVERLOAD
OCCURRENCE
1 2 4 8 16 32 64
Design
Temperature
Bubble
Temperature
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o
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LOSSOFLIFE, INDAYS,
FOREACHOVERLOAD
OCCURRENCE
1 2 4 8 16 32 64
Design
Temperature
Bubble
Temperature

Figure 2. Inverse Time Over-Temperature Setting and Insulation Rate of Aging

Example: If the hot spot temperature were constant at 140
o
C, then 4 times normal loss of life would occur in
about 5,5 hours. Hot Spot Temperature Depends on I
2
R losses and ambient temperature. For example: assuming
steady-state normal hot spot temperature for rated loading of the transformer is 110
o
C, the transformer can be
loaded 90% at ambient temperature 40
o
C, 100% at 30
o
C ambient and 120% at 0
o
C ambient.
Relay calculates hot spot temperature at every 5sec step into the future and predicts when it is going to reach
Hot Spot Temp assuming overload condition persists. The relay also calculates the rate of loss of life every
three minutes and from this the accumulated loss of life is calculated continuously. Therefore, the effect of past
overload conditions, especially repetitive ones, is known.

3. Transformer Reliability / Survival Curve with Condition Based Management Plan

A key element in the development of life cycle management for power transformers is based on Condition-
based Management Plan [2], shown in Figure 3. The use of preliminary reliability/survival curves for
transformers is only now becoming available, as published in a Canadian Industry Report. Development of one
of these preliminary curves by overlaying a condition-based management plan on the curve leads to condition
103 - 2
assessment criteria and the quality index value, shown in Figure 3. This can determine the maintenance
management plan.
Having transformer condition monitoring features provided in Transformer Protection Relay (TPRO) it becomes
possible to manage the life of transformers based on the assessed condition, and no longer rely on the generic
approach. The condition quality index value supported by other assessment criteria, estimates the transformers
true insulation age from which the annual business risk, and transformer refurbishment and replacement timing
can be determined.
Capital investment can be deferred as late as possible, with future expenditure determined from a more accurate
assessment of the business risks.



Figure 3. Transformer Condition-based Management Plan

4. Monitoring and Metering Relay Functions for Power Transformer Asset Management

In addition to all the standard features such as differential protection, overcurrent protection, overvoltage
protection, etc., the advanced transformer protection relays also have several features that monitor overheating
conditions:
- Transformer overload early warning system (TOEWS

)
- Transformer thermal overload management (49-1 to 49-12)
- Adaptive Overcurrent (51ADP

)
- Through Fault Monitor (49TFM

)



Figure 4. Transformer Protection Relay with Asset Management Functions - Line Diagram

4.1 Transformer Overload Early Warning System
Overload Early Warning is invaluable to help a system control operator take action that reduces load on the
transformer before it enters into overload condition. This feature automatically follows all guidelines in the
IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers [1], which includes: planned loading beyond
nameplate rating, long-time emergency loading, and short-time emergency loading.
These IEEE specifications are based on the premise that it is equally acceptable to overload a transformer lightly
for a long time, as it is to overload heavily for a short time. Basic principle relies on the fact that different
103 - 3
overload scenarios should result in the same loss of life of insulation for any one overload occurrence.
The recommended equation to calculate the rate of loss of life is: F
AA
= e
(15000/383 - 15000/(

H
+273)
Where: F
AA
is the rate of ageing,
H
is the hot spot temperature in degrees Celsius.

The Normal or Design condition is a hot spot temperature of 110
o
C, at which the life of the cellulose insulation
is assumed to be 20,5 years.
Incidentally, the reason that the actual lifetime of transformers is longer than 20,5 years is that they are usually
loaded well below 110
o
C in the early part of their service life, as well as at night. Under extreme conditions, it is
expected a transformer will be overloaded.
When the effect of one load cycle or cumulative aging effect of a number of load cycles is greater than the aging
effect of continuous operation at rated load over the same period of time, the insulation deteriorates at a faster
rate than normal. As a guide, an average loss of life of 1% per year or 4% in one emergency operation is
considered reasonable by some.
Effectively, a transformers can be loaded to 80% of their full load indefinitely, given the ambient does not
exceed 50 degrees Celsius. To ensure a transformer does not have a loss of life, a short time overload can exist
if the loading and the ambient temperature will provide adequate cooling.
Load Management Based on Hot Spot Temperature and Winding Load Current allows for having:
- Predictive overload warning system
- Operator to take action BEFORE transformer enters into overload condition (Planned Loading beyond
nameplate, Long-time Emergency Loading, Short-time Emergency Loading)
- Different load scenarios that result in the Same Loss of Life (of insulation) for any one overload occurrence
Excessive Hot Spot Temp
Excessive Loss of Life
30 min or 15 min warning
and trip output if HS or
LoL limits are exceeded
Excessive Hot Spot Temp
Excessive Loss of Life
30 min or 15 min warning
and trip output if HS or
LoL limits are exceeded

Figure 5. Excessive Loss of Life Warning

Transformer overload early warning system (TOEWS

) [3] predicts excessive hot spot temperature to 30min in

advance, and predicts excessive loss of life to 30min in advance as shown in the figure 5 above. If any of these
values exceed pre-set limits it enables a warning alarm, generates time-to-trip value, and enables operators to
take early remedial action by re-routing load to prevent loss or damage to equipment.

4.2 Thermal Overload Protection (49-1 to 49-12)
This feature is an improvement of the usual load shedding scheme. The loads are dropped based on a priority
scheme as a function of excessive current in the transformer supplying those loads [4]. As explained above, it is
really the hot spot temperature that should be the deciding factor.
In the relay scheme, hot spot temperature is the major load drop decision-making factor. In other words, if the
hot spot temperature is getting too high, loads should be dropped at a predictable rate until the temperature is
under control.
Ambient temperature is directly related to loading of a transformer. In some applications, the outdoor air
temperature may not truly be the temperature the transformer is being subjected to. Air circulation, other heat
sources, etc. may be preventing the transformer to take full advantage of ambient cooling.
Load Management Scheme provides selection of loads to drop as the transformer hot spot temperature or load
current rises.
103 - 4
1
2
3
4
T-PRO...
Block tapchanger if I > 2.0 pu
Prevent load restoration if
hs
> 150
Alarm if
hs
> 130
I
Ambient
...calculates
hs ,
the hot spot temp.

hs
160
155
140
135
Priority
Highest
Lowest
110 (normal)
180 (limit)
Top Oil
Transformer
1
2
3
4
T-PRO...
Block tapchanger if I > 2.0 pu
Prevent load restoration if
hs
> 150
Alarm if
hs
> 130
I
Ambient
...calculates
hs ,
the hot spot temp.

hs
160
155
140
135
Priority
Highest
Lowest
110 (normal)
180 (limit)
Top Oil
Transformer


Figure 6. 49-1 to 49-12 Thermal Overload Modules



Figure 7. Thermal Overload Protection Logic Diagram

Transformer loading or shedding can be automatically accomplished by monitoring the load and selectively
tripping loads to bring the transformer within an acceptable range of operation. Automatic operation of load
shedding would relieve an operator of the task of performing a calculation of an overload or loss of life
condition. In most cases, however, the operator will want to make the decision on whether or not to shed load to
prevent a loss of life to a transformer.

4.3 Adaptive Overcurrent Protection
The pick-up setting for an inverse-time overcurrent element is the current above which the relay operates to
remove a transformer from service if that value of current has been exceeded for a long time (many minutes).
There are some elements, such as a tap-changer, where this is a valid criterion, but if a user opts for insulation
loss of life as the criterion, then the ambient temperature is also a factor. With this scheme activated, the pick-up
current automatically tracks the ambient temperature and adjusts the pick-up current upwards in cold weather
and downwards in hot weather.
For cold and hot weather and in-between, an Ambient Temperature Adaptive Overcurrent function (51ADP

)
uses insulation loss of life criterion [4], and automatically adjusts pick-up current. The algorithm is based on
ambient temperature, user-entered multiplier of normal loss of life and standard equations [1], with execution
rate 1 per second.

4.4 Through Fault Monitor
The purpose the Trough-Fault Monitor function (49TFM

) is to predict transformer failure based on number and

severity of through-faults. This feature is of particular interest to the utilities that experience significant number
of distribution transformer failures per year.
Utility experience indicates that the best predictor of transformer failure is the number and through-faults
severity over the service life of the transformer.
A Through-fault is defined as an overcurrent event. It starts when current on any phase exceeds a specific
value related to the individual transformer, and lasts until the current on all three phases drops below this value.
This definition counts evolving faults as one event.

103 - 5

Figure 8. Ambient Temperature dependant Adaptive Pickup for an inverse time overcurrent function.




Figure 9. Through-fault monitor screen

Much of the information is available in the sequence of events log in the advanced transformer protection relays.
It usually requires a great amount of detail work to retrieve the information and tabulate it in order to draw
conclusions.
Specially designed Trough-Fault Monitor system can provide consolidated and meaningful information in one
viewing window in which the data can presented for easy review. It may include:
- Logging of the through-fault information that the transformer has experienced
- Duration of the fault
- 3 phase current peak RMS values
- Accumulated I
2
t value for the fault
- I
2
t calculation based on the highest current among phases A, B, C
- Through Fault Counter
103 - 6
5. Conclusions
Generally, it is difficult for an operator to assess risk of overloading the transformer. The transformer overload
early warning system and thermal overload functions can assist the operator in making these decisions.
Transformer data is usually entered into the relay settings identifies transformer overload capabilities based on
ambient and hot spot temperature, and acceptable loss of life. Warnings can be issued to the operator through
SCADA to identify that different operating points have been reached.
Advanced Transformer Protection Relays fitted with Asset Management functions can significantly help in
mitigating the risk of overloading power transformers and consequentially extend their useful service life.

References
[1] Guide for loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers (IEEE C57.91-1995)
[2] Robert Houbaer, Ken Gray, Innovations in Urban Infrastructure 2000, (APWA International Public Works
Congress, NRCC/CPWA Seminar Series, 75 Power Transformer Asset Management, Hydro Tasmania,
Australia, pages 1 - 10)
[3] T-Pro Relay Transformer Overload Early Warning System, NxtPhase. T&D Corporation, Vancouver, BC
Canada, Application Note pages 1 - 3)
[4] Glenn Swift, Dave Fedirchuk, Zhying Zhang, Transformer Thermal Overload Protection Whats It All
About (25
th
Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, October 1998, pages1 1 5)
103 - 7