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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
TEXT MEMORISATION IN CHINA: HEARING THE
LEARNER AND TEACHER VOICE
Xia Yu
Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosoh!
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON
A/STRACT
FACULT OF HUMANITIES
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
TE0T MEMORISATION IN CHINA1 HEARIN2 THE LEARNER AND TEACHER
VOICE
$! 0i3 Y4
This thesis i5"estig3tes te6t #e#ori73tio58 3 9idel! 4sed !et 45der:e6lored l35g43ge
r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g i5 #3i5l35d Chi53; The i5<4ir!
93s co5d4cted 3lo5g t9o li5es1 to co5cet43ll! e63#i5e 3 54#$er of iss4es ce5tr3l to
the 45derst35di5g of the r3ctice of te6t #e#ori73tio5 i5 the Chi5ese co5te6t8 35d
e#iric3ll! i5<4ire i5to Chi5ese le3r5ers=te3chers> r3ctices 35d ercetio5s of the
i5cl4sio5 of te6t #e#ori73tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g;
The re"ie9 of liter3t4re sho9s th3t ?te6t@ #e#oris3tio5 h3d $ee5 9idel! r3cticed i5
other 3rts of the 9orld 45til rece5tl!8 i5cl4di5g the A5gloho5e 9est; /! ch3lle5gi5g
the $elief th3t e#h3sis o5 #e#oris3tio5 stifles 35d cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g8 9hich is
$elie"ed to $e o5e of the Ae! 3i#s of Bester5 ed4c3tio58 I 3rg4e th3t #e#oris3tio5 or
#e#orised A5o9ledge is 5ot o5l! legiti#3te i5 $4t co5stit4tes 35 i#ort35t 3rt of
le3r5i5g; I 3lso de#o5str3te th3t Co5f4ci4s> theor! of le3r5i5g8 9hich 3llo9s the
coe6iste5ce of e#h3sis o5 #e#oris3tio5 35d critic3l thi5Ai5g 3rg43$l! c35 $e of
rele"35ce to ed4c3tio5 i5 the %'
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ce5t4r!; Also 3d"35ced i5 the co5cet43l st4d! is the
3rg4#e5t th3t the #ethodologic3l co5sider3tio5s 45derl!i5g ALM ?A4dio Li5g43l
Method@8 desite its 9ester5 origi58 #3tch 4 to so#e f45d3#e5t3l Chi5ese
co5cetio5s of le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g;
The e#iric3l st4d! reorted i5 this thesis 3ddresses the 5eed for 3 co#rehe5si"e
35d i5:deth 45derst35di5g of the r3ctices 35d $eliefs of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d
te3chers reg3rdi5g the 4se of te6t #e#ori73tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d
te3chi5g; This st4d! $3ses its #ethodolog! o5 se#i:str4ct4red i5ter"ie9s
co#le#e5ted $! s#3ll:sc3le s4r"e!s; The d3t3 93s collected fro# 3 gro4 of
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Chi5ese le3r5ers ?NC)%@ 35d te3chers ?NC%&@ 3ffili3ted 9ith '& schools 35d +
45i"ersities 3t three differe5t ed4c3tio53l le"els8 i;e; D45ior high8 se5ior high 35d
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collectio5 93s #3i5l! $3sed i5 3 si5gle Chi5ese i5l35d c3it3l cit! 35d l3sted for o5e
!e3r 35d t9o #o5ths i5"ol"i5g t9o field9orA tris to Chi53;
A53l!ses of the d3t3 le3d to t9o #3Dor fi5di5gs; First8 $oth le3r5ers 35d te3chers hold
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$ec34se it 3ssists le3r5i5g i5 3 54#$er of 93!s $4t $ec34se it $4ilds the le3r5ers>
se5se of 3chie"e#e5t 35d co5fide5ce; Seco5d8 the i5for#35ts> ositi"e $eliefs 3$o4t
te6t #e#oris3tio58 tho4gh co5te6t:co5str3i5ed8 #ight $e #ore 3ttri$4t3$le to their
ercetio5 of $e5efits to their l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g th35 to the "ie9 th3t the
r3ctice is co5siste5t 9ith tr3ditio53l Chi5ese c4lt4re 35d "3l4es;
I5 s4#8 this i5<4ir! ro#otes 3 Ediffere5t:r3ther:th35:deficit> ersecti"e i5
45derst35di5g Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d their le3r5i5g r3ctice 3s 9ell 3s ro$le#3ti7i5g
the 45critic3l 3ss4#tio5s 3$o4t the 5eg3ti"e i#3ct of 3 Co5f4ci35 hilosoh! of
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CONTENTS
Page
A/STRACT FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF;;ii
TA/LE OF CONTENTS FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF;i"
LIST OF TA/LESFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF;;"iii
LIST OF FI2URES FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF;;i6
DECLARATION FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF;;6
ACGNOBLED2EMENTS FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF;6i
LIST OF A//REVIATIONS FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF;;;;6iii
CHAPTER 1 TEXT MEMORISATION: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ...1
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CHAPTER 2 A MACROSCOPIC VIEW: MEMORISATION IN CONFCIAN
HERITAGE LEARNING .!"
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CHAPTER & AN EMPIRICAL STDY: METHODOLOGY AND
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CHAPTER ( CHINESE LEARNERS) PERCEPTIONS OF TEXT
MEMORISATION IN FOREIGN LANGAGE LEARNING . 1%1
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CHAPTER $ TEACHERS) PERCEPTIONS OF THE SE OF TEXT
MEMORISATION IN FOREIGN LANGAGE TEACHING ..1!$
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CHAPTER " PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES OF TEXT MEMORISATON
ACROSS EDCATIONAL LEVELS: COMMONALITIES AND DIVERSITIES
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DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP
I, XIA YU,
declare that the thesis entitled
TEXT MEMORISATION IN CHINA HEARIN! THE LEARNER AND TEACHER
"OICE
35d the 9orA rese5ted i5 the thesis 3re $oth #! o958 35d h3"e $ee5 ge5er3ted $! #e 3s the
res4lt of #! o95 origi53l rese3rch; I co5fir# th3t1
this 9orA 93s do5e 9holl! or #3i5l! 9hile i5 c35did3t4re for 3 rese3rch degree 3t this
U5i"ersit!J
9here 35! 3rt of this thesis h3s re"io4sl! $ee5 s4$#itted for 3 degree or 35! other
<43lific3tio5 3t this U5i"ersit! or 35! other i5stit4tio58 this h3s $ee5 cle3rl! st3tedJ
9here I h3"e co5s4lted the 4$lished 9orA of others8 this is 3l93!s cle3rl! 3ttri$4tedJ
9here I h3"e <4oted fro# the 9orA of others8 the so4rce is 3l93!s gi"e5; Bith the
e6cetio5 of s4ch <4ot3tio5s8 this thesis is e5tirel! #! o95 9orAJ
I h3"e 3cA5o9ledged 3ll #3i5 so4rces of helJ
9here the thesis is $3sed o5 9orA do5e $! #!self Doi5tl! 9ith others8 I h3"e #3de cle3r
e63ctl! 9h3t 93s do5e $! others 35d 9h3t I h3"e co5tri$4ted #!selfJ
5o5e of this 9orA h3s $ee5 4$lished $efore s4$#issio5;
Si#ned ..
Date.
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AC,NOWLEDGEMENT
I5 re3r3tio5 for this thesis8 I h3"e $e5efited8 i5 5o s#3ll #e3s4re8 fro# 54#ero4s
eole i5 "3rio4s 93!s;
A$o"e 3ll8 I h3d the ri"ilege of doi5g rese3rch 45der the s4er"isio5 of Professor
Ros3#o5d Mitchell8 9ho is highl! resect3$le i5 ter#s of i5tellect43l $re3dth 35d
deth 3s 9ell 3s her 454s43l le"el of dedic3tio5 35d sAills to her role 3s 3 s4er"isor; I
3# gr3tef4l to her for te3chi5g #e rese3rch sAills thro4gh her i5siri5g lect4res8 f3ce:
to:f3ce s4er"isio5s 35d i5sightf4l 9ritte5 co##e5ts ?o5 #! reg4l3r rese3rch reorts
3s 9ell 3s e3ch ch3ter of this thesis@; More i#ort35tl!8 she g4ided #e thro4gh the
9hole Do4r5e! of this rese3rch K i5cl4di5g the re:orie5t3tio5 of the thesis K 3s 35
45fl3ggi5g so4rce of #o5itori5g8 s4ort 35d e5co4r3ge#e5t;
I feel i5de$ted to Dr; 2l!5 HicAs 35d 2eorge /l4e8 t9o #e#$ers o5 #! 4gr3de
35el 9hose co##e5ts h3"e heled #e to see thi5gs fro# differe5t ersecti"es; I 3#
3lso gr3tef4l to Dr; L3i5e /es9icA8 #! 3d"isor8 9ho 93s ge5ero4s to #e of her ti#e;
All the 3rtici35ts 9ho 9ere i5"ol"ed i5 the rese3rch deser"e #! he3rtfelt th35As8
eseci3ll! those 9ho 3greed to 3rtici3te 9itho4t recei"i5g 35! t!e of re93rds;
Seci3l th35As go to 0i3o$i5g Che58 #! h4s$35d8 for his 45selfish fi535ci3l s4ort8
e5d4ri5g lo"e 35d e6tr3ordi53r! 3tie5ce;
I 9o4ld 3lso liAe to co5"e! 3 seci3l 5ote of gr3tit4de to Mr 35d Mrs P3rriss for filli5g
#e 9ith the 93r#th of ho#e 9hile soDo4r5i5g i5 3 foreig5 co45tr! 9ith their
hosit3lit! 35d ge5erosit!8 35d #ore i#ort35tl!8 for heli5g #e to see 3 f4ller
#e35i5g of life 35d 9orA;
This thesis 93s f45ded $! the LASS F3c4lt! I5ter53tio53l /4rs3r! Sche#e ?FI/S@
35d School of H4#35ities Rese3rch St4de5tshi 3t U5i"ersit! of So4th3#to5 ?%&&,:
%&'&@; P3rt of the tr3"el e6e5ses for #! field9orA 93s co"ered $! 3 HUMS P2R
rese3rch 9i5df3ll 393rd %&&. ?School of H4#35ities@; I $o9 9ith gr3tit4de to #!
Alma Mater U5i"ersit! of So4th3#to5 for ge5ero4s ro"isio5 of reso4rces 35d
f3cilities 9itho4t 9hich it 9o4ld $e i#ossi$le for #e to co#lete the st4d!;
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I5 th35Ai5g 3ll the eole I h3"e $ee5 $lessed 9ith8 I here$! rocl3i# th3t 35! 35d 3ll
i5co5siste5cies8 3#$ig4ities 35d errors co##itted herei5 3re e6cl4si"el! #! o95;
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LIST OF A++REVIATIONS
ALM A4dio:li5g43l #ethod= 34dioli5g43lis#
CHC Co5f4ci35:herit3ge c4lt4re
CLT Co##45ic3ti"e l35g43ge te3chi5g
EFL E5glish 3s 3 foreig5 l35g43ge
ELT E5glish l35g43ge te3chi5g
ELL E5glish l35g43ge le3r5i5g
ESL E5glish 3s 3 seco5d l35g43ge
FLTRP Foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d rese3rch ress
GT 2r3##3r:tr35sl3tio5
LTM Lo5g ter# #e#or!
SLA Seco5d l35g43ge 3c<4isitio5
STM Short ter# #e#or!
TCM Tr3ditio53l Chi5ese #ethod
TESOL Te3chi5g E5glish to se3Aers of other l35g43ges
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CHAPTER ONE--------------------------------------------
TEXT MEMORISATION: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

As 35 e6erie5ced E5glish le3r5er 35d foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tor $ro4ght 4 i5 Chi538 I h3"e
lo5g $ee5 f3sci53ted $! the 93! so#e Chi5ese le3r5ers le3r5 E5glishMle3r5i5g te6ts $!
he3rt
'
; Yet it 93s 5ot 45til rece5tl! th3t I $eg35 i5"esti5g serio4s thi5Ai5g i5 this le3r5i5g
r3ctice 9he5 I fo45d th3t it co5ti54ed to $e 4sed $! the 5e9 ge5er3tio5 of Chi5ese le3r5ers
of E5glish e"e5 tho4gh the! 9ere e<4ied 9ith "3rio4s t!es of #oder5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g
e<4i#e5t s4ch 3s "ideo8 #4lti#edi3 s!ste#s8 l35g43ge l3$or3tories8 i5ter5et 35d so o5; O5e
st4de5t $or5 i5 the '.-&s 9rote1
Fro# L45ior O5e to Se5ior O5e8 I se5t fo4r !e3rs le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt; Accordi5g
to o4r 35cestors8 EMe#ori7i5g (&& T35g oe#s #3Aes o5e 3 oet hi#self>; F It is
3lso tr4e to foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; I regret 5ot reciti5g e5o4gh te6ts the5; ?L; S458
%&&*1 %'-J Chi5ese origi53l@
%
The rese3rch to $e reorted i5 this thesis 93s8 i5 effect8 i5sired $! E5glish le3r5ers liAe S45
i5 Chi538 9ho see# to h3"e 3 lot to s3! o5 this r3ctice $3sed o5 their o95 le3r5i5g
e6erie5ces; A5ecdotes 3$o45d8 35d feeli5gs 3re stro5g 35d #i6ed; Is it so#ethi5g o4r
st4de5ts Ec35 5either li"e 9ith 5or li"e 9itho4t> ?Di5g8 %&&)@H
The r3ctice of le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt #3Aes o5e str3ightfor93rdl! rel3te it to the stereot!e
of Chi5ese le3r5ers 9ho h3"e lo5g $ee5 descri$ed 3s Ero"er$i3l rote #e#ori7ers or
rec!clers> ?DeAert8 '..(1 '((@ or Erele5tless rote le3r5ers> ?L; /iggs8 '..'1 %,@; There h3s
$ee5 35 i5cre3si5g i5terest i5 Chi5ese E5glish le3r5ers 9ith the i5fl46 of #ore Chi5ese
st4de5ts i5to 9ester5 co45tries; A 54#$er of 3tte#ts h3"e $ee5 #3de to deict 35d e6l3i5
the secificit! of Chi5ese le3r5ers8 $4t these re"e3l 3 co5tr3dictor! 35d8 i5 #ost c3ses8 o"er:
si#lified ict4re ?Li35g N S#ith8 %&&.@; Co5ti54i5g de$3te o5 Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d the
'
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Thro4gho4t this thesis8 the ter#s learning texts by heart 35d text memorisation 3re 4sed #ore or less
9itho4t differe5ti3tio5;
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The Chi5ese <4otes ?i5cl4di5g ro"er$s or s3!i5gs@ thro4gho4t the thesis 3re tr35sl3ted $! #!self e6cet
other9ise 5oted;
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Chi5ese 93!s of E5glish le3r5i5g h3s Ai5dled i5 #e e"e5 gre3ter i5terest i5 seeAi5g 3 f4ller
45derst35di5g of the l3rgest gro4 of E5glish le3r5ers i5 the 9orld thro4gh i5"estig3tio5 i5to
Chi5ese le3r5ers> r3ctice of le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt;
Eco5o#ic refor#s 35d the oe5i5g of the doors to the Best h3"e $ee5 i5 oer3tio5 for o"er
(& !e3rs 35d rofo45dl! ch35ged 3l#ost e"er! 3sect of Chi5ese societ! i5cl4di5g its "3l4e
s!ste#; Bhile #35! tr3ditio53l $eliefs cr4#$le 35d eole h3"e 45dergo5e e5or#o4s
ideologic3l ch35ges8 9h! is it th3t the Chi5ese E5glish le3r5ers h3"e 5ot dise5sed 9ith
tr3ditio53l le3r5i5g #ethods8 i5 this c3se8 le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt K 35 e6tre#e 4se of
#e#oris3tio5H Ho9 c35 the! $e5efit fro# the r3ctice 9ith 9hich the! #ight st3rt fro#
Ai5derg3rte5 35d co5ti54e o593rds 4 e"e5 to 45i"ersit!H This is the o"er3ll #oti"3tio5
45deri55i5g this i5<4ir!;
This rese3rch th4s 3tte#ts to e6lore ho9 le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt is r3cticed 35d ercei"ed
i5 #oder5 Chi53 $! 3ccessi5g E5glish le3r5ers> 35d te3chers> "oices; It is hoed th3t this
i5"estig3tio5 #3! shed light o5 the <4estio5 of 9h! Chi5ese le3r5ers h3"e co5ti54i5g i5terest
i5 e#lo!i5g this le3r5i5g #ethod 9hich #ight $e ri#iti"e i5 e"er! 3sect see5 thro4gh
9ester5 sect3cles; It is 3lso hoed th3t 35 i5<4ir! fro# 35 e#ic ersecti"e c35 4sh 3he3d
the c4rre5t 45derst35di5g of Chi5ese st4de5ts 9ho E9ere le3r5i5g r3ther #ore effecti"el!
th35 the! Osho4ldP h3"e $ee58 gi"e5 9h3t Bester5 rese3rch redicted to $e co45ter:
rod4cti"e te3chi5g=le3r5i5g e5"iro5#e5ts> ?B3tAi5s N /iggs8 %&&'1 ref3ceJ see 3lso
B3tAi5s N /iggs8 '..+@; This thesis follo9s t9o li5es of e5<4ir!1 ?'@ to e6lore rele"35t
liter3t4re i5 order to offer 3 s!ste#3tic 353l!sis of the role of #e#oris3tio5 i5 ?l35g43ge@
ed4c3tio5 i5 ge5er3l 35d i5 rel3tio5 to Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 3rtic4l3r8 3 h4ge gro4 9ho 3re
5otorio4sl! A5o95 3s rote:#e#ori7ersJ 35d ?%@ to reort o5 35 i5ter"ie9:$3sed e#iric3l
st4d! 9hich i5"estig3tes Chi5ese $eliefs 35d r3ctices reg3rdi5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3
le3r5i5g=te3chi5g de"ice $! 3ccessi5g the i5di"id43l "oices of 3 gro4 of le3r5ers 35d
te3chers;
/efore t3Ai5g the ersecti"e of c4lt4r3l ed3gog!=ed4c3tio5 3s the 3ro3ch to the c4rre5t
rese3rch8 I 3lso s4$st35ti3ll! e6lored the #e#or! $3se of l35g43ge 35d its i#lic3tio5s for
foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g fro# 3 s!choli5g4istic ersecti"e ?0; Y48 %&''@; Alo5g 9ith the
rece5t de"elo#e5t i5 s!choli5g4istics8 3lied li5g4istics 35d cor4s li5g4istics8 the
#e#or! $3se of l35g43ge h3s $ee5 g3i5i5g i5cre3si5g 3#o45t of 3tte5tio5 i5 SLA ?Seco5d
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L35g43ge Ac<4isitio5@; For re3ders 9ho 3re i5terested i5 this toic8 I 9o4ld liAe to i5"ite
the# to co5sider the follo9i5g three li5es of i5<4iries8 53#el!8 the d43l:53t4re "ie9 of
l35g43ge ?SAeh358 '..-@ 35d the for#4l3icit! of l35g43ge ?cf; /oli5ger8 '.,*J Si5cl3ir8 '..'J
Biddo9so58 '.-.J Bo5g:Fill#ore8 '.,+J Br3!8 %&&&8 %&&%@ 3s 9ell 3s the role of rehe3rs3l
i5 #e#oris3tio5 35d i#licit le3r5i5g ?cf; N; Ellis8 %&&%J Ro$i5so58 '..*8 '..+J Billi3#s8
'...@; Si5ce these i5<4iries 3re 9ell $e!o5d the scoe of disc4ssio5s i5 this thesis8 I 9o4ld
5ot go f4rther i5to these 3re3s;
/ei5g 393re th3t there 3re 3 54#$er of historic3l re3so5s for Chi5ese le3r5i5g #ethods
?H3r"e!8 '.-*@8 I 9o4ld liAe to $egi5 #! i5<4ir! $! re"ie9i5g the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 Chi53 fro# 3 historic3l ersecti"e;
';' Te./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 C5i4a
This sectio5 9ill disc4ss ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is r3cticed i5 Chi53 fro# 35cie5t liter3c!
ed4c3tio5 to co5te#or3r! foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g;
1.1.1Te./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 C5i4e3e 6i/e2a78 e9u7a/i14
2i"e5 th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3s $ee5 3 tr3ditio53l 93! of 3c<4iri5g Chi5ese liter3c! i5
Chi538 this s4$sectio5 e6lores ho9 #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3ls 93s r3cticed i5
differe5t historic3l eriods 35d e63#i5es 9h! gre3t i#ort35ce 93s 3tt3ched to the r3ctice
i5 Co5f4ci35is#:do#i535t Chi53;
';';';' T5e :2a7/i7e
Desite the f3ct th3t #e#oris3tio5 of cl3ssics 93s highl! "3l4ed i5 the liter3c! ed4c3tio5 of
35cie5t Chi538 liter3t4re o5 ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s r3cticed re#3i5s s3rse; For
e63#le8 3 9ester5 schol3r #e5tio5ed it i5 3ssi5g i5 3 $ooA o5 Chi5ese tr3ditio51
The Fo4r /ooAs QEThe 2re3t Le3r5i5g> ?Da Xue@8 EThe Me35> ?Zhong Yong@8 EThe
A53lects ?Lunyu@ 35d EMe5ci4s> ?Mengzi@R F 9ere for si6 ce5t4ries ?A;D; '('(:
'.&*@ 4sed 3s school ri#ers8 to $e recited 35d #e#orised8 35d 3s the $3sis of the
ci"il ser"ice e63#i53tio5s 9hich selected $4re34cr3c!; ?De /3r!8 '.+&1 ''(@
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Fro# the re3di5g of this doc4#e5t 35d si#il3r so4rces8 it 3e3rs th3t le3r5i5g thro4gh
#e#oris3tio5 occ4ied 35 i#ort35t l3ce i5 the tr3ditio53l8 Co5f4ci35 ed4c3tio5 rior to the
3d"e5t of #oder5 Chi53 i5 the %&
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ce5t4r!; /o!s of 9e3lth! f3#ilies 9ere s3id to st3rt their
liter3c! ed4c3tio5 3s e3rl! 3s the 3ge of three 4si5g three te6t$ooAs
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Cl3ssic ?sanzijing@8 9hich Eco5t3i5ed three:ch3r3cter li5es of "erse co5sisti5g of '8&+-
ch3r3ctersJ ?%@ the Tho4s35d Ch3r3cter Ess3! ?qianziwen@ 9hich Eco5sisted of '8&&&
ch3r3cters i5 li5es of fo4r ch3r3cters e3ch 9ith 5o ch3r3cter ree3ted thro4gho4t the e5tire
$ooA>J ?(@ the H45dred N3#es Pri#er ?baijiaxing@8 9hich Eco5t3i5ed )&& f3#il! s4r53#es>
?Cle"erle!8 '.-*1 '+@; The $o!s first le3r5ed to co! the ch3r3cters fro# these $ooAs 35d re3d
the# 3lo4d; The! 9ere re<4ired to #e#orise these te6ts 35d recite the# "er$3ti#;
/o!s of se"e5 35d 3$o"e 9ere se5t to ri"3te f3#il! school ?Sishu@8 st3rti5g 9ith the 9riti5gs
fro# the Co5f4ci35 c35o5 9hich 3re 4s43ll! gro4ed 3s the Fi"e Cl3ssics ?Wu Jing@
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35d
Fo4r /ooAs ?Si Shu@; St4de5ts Aet #e#orisi5g these te6ts thro4gh reciti5g8 drilli5g 35d
checAi5g 45derst35di5g 45til the! 9ere re3d! to t3cAle the i#eri3l ci"il ser"ice
e63#i53tio5s ?or eju@; Accordi5g to U5ger ?'.-%@8 3 $o! o5 3"er3ge #e#orised 3 5e9 %&&:
ch3r3cter 3ss3ge e"er! d3! for si6 !e3rs 35d he 9o4ld h3"e #e#orised te6t43l #3teri3l 4
to o"er )&&8&&& ch3r3cters $! the ti#e he re3ched 3ge '*;
Follo9i5g is 3 $rief descritio5 of recit3tio5 erfor#ed i5 the f3#il! school1
After the te3cher fi5ishes his e6l353tio5 35d checAs 9ith the st4de5ts to see if the!
h3"e correct co#rehe5sio58 the st4de5ts 3re re<4ired to re3d the te6t D4st le3r5ed '&&
ti#es1 slo9l! 3t first8 the5 3 $it f3ster; The te6t sho4ld $e re3d 9ith rh!th#8 correct
34ses 35d 3cc4r3te 4se of the fo4r to5es; If 35! st4de5t c355ot erfor# the re3di5g:
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ce5t4ries AD resecti"el!; Versio5s of these three ri#ers8 9hich 9ere 4sed together8 do#i53ted
ele#e5t3r! ed4c3tio5 i5 Chi53 for se"e5 ce5t4ries desite the f3ct th3t o5e of the# ?the H45dred N3#es
Pri#er@ 93s 35 33re5tl! #e35i5gless colloc3tio5 of #ore th35 fo4r h45dred 9ords for s4r53#es
?Boodside8 '..%@; The Tho4s35d Ch3r3cter Ess3!8 9hich h3d $ee5 i5 4se for ') ce5t4ries8 93s
45do4$tedl! the #ost d4r3$le 35d i5fl4e5ti3l liter3c! ri#er i5 9orld histor! ?S;:2; Sh35g8 '.+%@;
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The Fi"e Cl3ssics 3re EThe /ooA of Ch35ges> ?Yi Jing@8 EThe /ooA of Histor!>?Shu Jing@8 EThe /ooA of
Poetr!> or EOdes> ?Shi Jing@8 EThe Rit43l> ?Li Ji@8 ESri5g 35d A4t4#5 A553ls> ?!hun "iu@; Tr3ditio5
3scri$es the 34thorshi or editorshi of #ost of The Fi"e Cl3ssics 35d Fo4r /ooAs to Co5f4ci4s8 $4t i5 f3ct
the! 3re 3 collectio5 of 9riti5gs fro# 9idel! differe5t ti#es ?Price8 '.,&@;
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3lo4d roerl!8 35other '&& ti#es of re3di5g 3re re<4ired of hi#; ?Sh48 '.+'J Chi5ese
origi53l@
A "i"id ict4re of ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s co5d4cted is offered $! Price ?'.,&@1
Te6ts 9ere co##itted to #e#or!8 9ith the 3id of li$er3l h!sic3l e5co4r3ge#e5t 35d
#4ch 5oise; Bhe5 s4ccessf4ll! #3stered the! 9ere recited $! the i5di"id43l st4de5t8
$3cA to his te3cher8 f3ci5g the cl3ss; The E5glish ro545ci3tio5 of the 9ord 4sed for
this s!ste# of le3r5i5g $! he3rt8 bei8 or to E$3cA> 3 te6t8 s4ggests 9ell the so45d of 3
$4s! cl3ssroo#8 9ith e3ch 4il reciti5g 3t f4ll "oice his ec4li3r 3ss3ge; ?Price8
'.,&1 .*J e#h3sis Qit3licsR origi53l@
ELi$er3l h!sic3l e5co4r3ge#e5t> c35 #e35 s4ch e63gger3ted 3ctio5s 3s s93!i5g o5e>s he3d
to 3cco#35! the rh!th# of recit3tio5; If the 4se of $od! #o"e#e5t s4ggests there 93s so#e
f45 i5 this r3ctice8 the stor! i5 the Three Ch3r3cter Cl3ssic ?sanzijing@8 ho9e"er8 93s $! 5o
#e35s le3si5g; It 93s s3id th3t t9o schol3rs 9ere so 3fr3id of f3lli5g 3slee o"er their
st4dies th3t the! tort4red the#sel"es to Aee 393Ae1 o5e tied his h3ir to 3 $e3# i5 his ho4se
?tou xuan liang@ 35d the other Aet ricAi5g his thigh 9ith 35 39l ?zhui #i gu@; Stories liAe
this
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h3"e 3l93!s $ee5 cited to sho9 the h3rdshi of #e#oris3tio58 so to se3A8 if it is the
#3i5 3ro3ch to le3r5i5g i5 tr3ditio53l ed4c3tio5;
This tr3ditio53l r3ctice h3d s4ch 3 lo5g:l3sti5g i5fl4e5ce th3t it 93s still i5 e6iste5ce i5 the
e3rl! dec3des of the %&
th
ce5t4r!; This c35 $e 3ttested $! the $rief #e5tio5 of the 93! of
st4d!i5g Chi5ese i5 the $iogr3h! of M3d3#e Chi35g G3i:sheA8 the for#er first l3d! i5
T3i9351
She QM3d3#e Chi35g G3i:sheAR 93s F i5 f3"o4r of e5g3gi5g 35 old:f3shio5ed
schol3r to t4tor her se"er3l ho4rs 3 d3! i5 the cl3ssics 35d c3lligr3h!
+
; She
#e#orised her lesso5s i5 the tr3ditio53l 93! of schoolchildre58 ch35ti5g the# 3lo4d
*
*
The t9o schol3rs i5 the stor! 3re ofte5 #3de 3r3go5s of e5d4ri5g tro4$le 35d h3rdshi for the !o45g
ge5er3tio5 of Chi5ese le3r5ers; The o4l3rit! of the stor! sho9s the high resect of "irt4es of h3rd
9orAi5g i5 Co5f4ci35 c4lt4re r3ther th35 3d"isi5g the le3r5ers to h!sic3ll! follo9 35cie5t schol3rs;
+
+
This eisode tooA l3ce i5 3ro45d '.', 9he5 M3d3#e Chi35g G3i:sheA 9e5t $3cA to Chi53 3fter h3"i5g
$ee5 st4d!i5g i5 A#eric3 for te5 !e3rs; Her 3re5ts i5sisted th3t she ho5e her fl4e5c! i5 Chi5ese 9he5
the! fo45d th3t she h3d diffic4lties i5 co##45ic3ti5g i5 her 53ti"e to5g4e;
'-
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9hile rocAi5g the $od! rh!th#ic3ll!; The t4tor 93s Eterri$l! strict8 35d e6ects #e to
3cco#lish the 3l#ost i#ossi$le8> she 9rote F She erse"ered i5 her st4dies for
#35! !e3rs8 l3ter tr35sl3ti5g Chi5ese folA t3les 35d stories fro# histor!; ?T!so5 Li8
%&&+1 )(@
The li#ited doc4#e5t3tio5 of the r3ctice of #e#orisi5g te6t43l #3teri3ls8 eseci3ll! cl3ssics
see#s to s4ggest th3t this tr3ditio53l Chi5ese le3r5i5g h3$it 93s 3s deel! i5gr3i5ed 3s the
historic3l rocess th3t de"eloed it 93s lo5g 35d slo9;
';';';% Rea3143 ;12 5ea<8 u3e 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14
E#h3sis o5 te6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 $e s3id to $e historic3ll! rooted i5 the Chi5ese tr3ditio5
i5 ed4c3tio58 for it is 3ssoci3ted 9ith the Co5f4ci35
,
ed4c3tio53l hilosoh! th3t e63lts 35d
e"e5 9orshis Eest3$lished te6t>8 35d EF#e#ori73tio5 is see5 3s 3 sig5ific35t 3rt of le3r5i5g
i5 the Co5f4ci35 tr3ditio5> ?Lee8 '..+1 (+@;
Co5f4ci35is#8 3s 3 olitico:ethic3l doctri5e8 is reg3rded 3s co5ser"3ti"e $! #oder5 Chi5ese
schol3rs 9ho h3"e 5oted th3t tr3ditio53l Co5f4ci35 schooli5g 4s43ll! co5fi5ed le3r5i5g to
dog#3s ri5ted i5 the te6t$ooAs ?Di5g8 '.-,@; /ooAs8 eseci3ll! those 9riti5gs 9hich for#
the Co5f4ci35 c35o58 e5Do!ed the st3t4s of E3$sol4te 35d 45co5tested 34thorit!> ?H3!hoe8
'.-.1 '%@ for tho4s35ds of !e3rs 3s the! 3re tho4ght of 3s
F 35 e#$odi#e5t of A5o9ledge8 9isdo# 35d tr4th; G5o9ledge is Ei5> the $ooA 35d
c35 $e t3Ae5 o4t 35d 4t i5side the st4de5ts> he3ds; He5ce the re"ere5ce 9ith 9hich
$ooAs 3re tre3ted8 the "3l4e the! 3re 3ssig5ed8 35d the 9ish to le3r5 $! he3rt 9h3t the!
co5t3i5; ?M3le!8 '.-(1 .-@
Therefore8 resect for 34thorit! 35d e5th4si3s# 3$o4t the "3l4e of $ooAs8 to 3 gre3t e6te5t8
h3"e e5co4r3ged the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5;
,
,
Co5f4ci4s ?**'/C K ),. /C@ 93s 3 Chi5ese thi5Aer 35d soci3l hilosoher of the Sri5g 35d A4t4#5
Period;
Co5f4ci4s> tho4ghts h3"e $ee5 de"eloed i5to 3 s!ste# of hilosoh! A5o95 3s Co5f4ci35is#; It 93s
i5trod4ced to E4roe $! the It3li35 Les4it M3tteo Ricci8 9ho 93s the first to L3ti5ise the Chi5ese 53#e
$ong%uzi E2re3t Te3cher Go5g> 3s ECo5f4ci4s>?I"35hoe8 %&&&@;
'.
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A5 e<43ll!8 if 5ot #ore8 i#ort35t co5tri$4ti5g f3ctor is the e63#i53tio5 s!ste#8 9hich so#e
Bester5 schol3rs h3"e c3lled the Chi5ese I#eri3l Ci"il Ser"ice E63#i53tio5 ?eju@ s!ste#
-
;
This s!ste# h3d f3r:re3chi5g $3cA93sh effects; Accordi5g to the doc4#e5t ?TA5cie5t
ed4c3tio58T '..-@8 i5 the T35g D!53st!8 the #3i5 s4$Dects of the e63#i53tio5 9ere 9riti5g
35d st4d! of cl3ssic3l $ooAs; The e63#i53tio5 testi5g A5o9ledge of the cl3ssic3l $ooAs
follo9ed the #ethod of filli5g i5 $l35As; Us43ll! o5e 3ge of 3 $ooA 93s chose5 35d se"er3l
li5es 9o4ld $e o#itted; The c35did3tes 9ere re<4ired to fill i5 the #issi5g li5es;
Alter53ti"el!8 the! #ight $e re<4ired to e6l3i5 so#e of the li5es i5 the $ooA; The for# 35d
co5te5t of the e63#i53tio5s #ight "3r! i5 differe5t ti#es8 $4t 9h3t is co5siste5t i5 the
tr3ditio53l selectio5 s!ste# rior to the 3d"e5t of #oder5 Chi53 i5 the %&
th
ce5t4r! is the
gre3t i#ort35ce 3tt3ched to the #e#oris3tio5 35d el3$or3tio5 of the cl3ssics; I5 #ost c3ses8
3ll 3 c35did3te h3d to do d4ri5g the e63# 93s to 9rite 3 le5gth! ess3! o5 3 <4ot3tio5 fro#
the cl3ssics; This ess3! 93s e6ected to co5for# to the st35d3rd i5terret3tio5 35d fro# the
Mi5g D!53st! o593rds8 h3d to $e 9ritte5 i5 3 rigidl! for#3lised st!le ?A5o95 3s Eeight:
legged> ess3! or baguwen
.
@ th3t 93s 3lso #odelled 3fter the cl3ssics;
S4##i5g 48 the I#eri3l Ci"il Ser"ice E63#i53tio5 set the re<4ired st35d3rd of E#3ster! of
the cl3ssics> 3s its #e3s4re8 3ct43ll! D4dgi5g the <43lit! of the c35did3te i5 3ccord35ce 9ith
his 3$ilit! to recite fl4e5tl! $oth the te6ts 35d their 355ot3tio5s; Little else 33rt fro# cl3ssics
93s re<4ired i5 the e63# 35d therefore little else 93s i#3rted i5 tr3ditio53l schooli5g ?cf;
Cle"erle!8 '.-*J Se5ce8 '..&@; As 3 res4lt8 the 5eed to $e 3$le to recite or #e#orise the
offici3ll! recog5ised cl3ssic 9orAs 93s 3r3#o45t; As Price 4t it8 EBhile 3t its $est the
Qe63#i53tio5R s!ste# rod4ced ed4c3ted thi5Aers of the highest <43lit!8 its ge5er3l effect 93s
r3ther to co5fi5e the #i5d 35d tr3i5 the #e#or!> ?Price8 '.,&1 .*@;
';';% Te./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 ;12eig4 6a4guage e9u7a/i14
-
-
D4ri5g the lo5g eriod fro# the T35g D!53st! ?A;D; +'-:.&+@ to the l3te Ii5g D!53st!8 i5 '.&*8 the
r4li5g $4re34cr3c! of Chi53 93s selected $! s4ch 3 st3te s!ste# of e63#i53tio5s ?Price8 '.,&@;
.
.
&aguwen is ch3r3cteri7ed $! 3 rigid rhetoric3l for#3t 9hich 3llo9s little roo# for cre3ti"it!;
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%,
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So f3r I h3"e 4rs4ed8 3l$eit r3ther sAetchil!8 ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s r3cticed i5 Chi5ese
liter3c! ed4c3tio5; I5 this sectio58 I 9ill del"e i5to ho9 the r3ctice 93s tr35sferred 35d 4sed
i5 Chi5ese foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5;
';';%;' A 5i3/12i7a6 :e23:e7/i<e
Altho4gh 3 lethor3 of records doc4#e5t the histor! of Chi53>s foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5
?see8 e;g; Ad3#so58 %&&)J H3!hoe8 '.-)8 '..%J Price8 '.,&8 '.,.J Sh48 '.+'@8 there is 3
de3rth of 3cco45ts of the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8
eseci3ll! i5 the first h3lf of the %&
th
ce5t4r!; A $rief re"ie9 of the historic3l de"elo#e5t of
E5glish l35g43ge te3chi5g ?ELT@ i5 Chi538 ho9e"er8 #3! shed light o5 s4ch iss4es 3s 9he5
35d 9h! te6t #e#oris3tio5 g3i5ed its #o#e5t4# i5 ELT i5 Chi53 3s 9ell 3s o4r
45derst35di5g of 9h3t is h3e5i5g i5 rese5t:d3! Chi5ese foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5;
Foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 is disc4ssed i5 this sectio58 e"e5 tho4gh thro4gho4t this thesis 3
ri#3r! ?3ltho4gh 5ot e6cl4si"e@ foc4s is o5 the te3chi5g=le3r5i5g of E5glish d4e to E5glish>s
45ch3lle5ge3$le st3t4s of $ei5g the Efirst foreig5 l35g43ge>
'&
i5 Chi53 ?Che5g8 %&&&J 2e8
%&&(@;
It 93s 5ot 45til '.&( th3t E5glish co4rses 9ere co##o5l! gi"e5 i5 i5stit4tio5s of higher
ed4c3tio5 35d i5 #iddle schools8 3ltho4gh the e3rliest school offeri5g E5glish co4rses 93s set
4 i5 '-+%
''
8 c3lled Jing Shi 'ong Wen (uan ?the I#eri3l Foreig5 I5stit4te
'%
@ ?R; S458 '..+@;
2i"e5 th3t the 4rose of this school 93s to tr3i5 i5terreters 35d tr35sl3tors8 it is 5ot
s4rrisi5g th3t tr35sl3tio5 93s the o5l! co4rse c3rried thro4gh 3l#ost the e5tire eight:!e3r
'&
'
As e3rl! 3s '.')8 E5glish 93s decl3red $! the Mi5istr! of Ed4c3tio5 the #ost i#ort35t foreig5
l35g43ge i5 #ost regio5s of Chi53 ?I; Che58 '.+'@; I5 rece5t dec3des8 3ro6i#3tel! .,U of Chi53>s
(%&8&&& f4ll:ti#e seco5d3r! school foreig5 l35g43ge te3chers te3ch E5glish ?Ross8 '..%@; At terti3r! le"el8
the o"er9hel#i5g #3Dorit! of st4de5ts 3re le3r5i5g E5glish 3ltho4gh 3 "3riet! of other foreig5 l35g43ges
3re t34ght to 45dergr3d43te 35d ostgr3d43te st4de5ts;
''
'
Strictl! se3Ai5g8 for#3l foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g h3s e6isted i5 "3rio4s for#s i5 Chi53 for 3
#ille55i4#; Eseci3ll! si5ce the Y435 d!53st!8 st3te:so5sored 35d ri"3te foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 h3s
$ee5 i#le#e5ted to f3cilit3te tr3de8 territori3l e635sio58 foreig5 3ff3irs 35d tre3t! 5egoti3tio5 ?cf; F48
'.-+@; M! foc4s8 ho9e"er8 is o5 the histor! of foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 co5te#or3r! 35d #oder5
Chi53;
'%
'
It 3lso $e3rs the 53#e of E/eiDi5g School of Co#$i5ed Le3r5i5g> ?Ross8 '..%1 %)&@; This first school of
foreig5:l35g43ge tr35sl3tio5 93s est3$lished 45der the 3d"oc3c! of 3 s#3ll $4t o9erf4l 35d high:l3ced
gro4 of st3tes#e5 9ho $elie"ed th3t Chi5ese roficie5t i5 foreig5 l35g43ges co4ld le3r5 Bester5
tech5ic3l sAills8 t4r5 the# 3g3i5st Bester5 3ggressio58 35d rotect the sirit43l core of Co5f4ci35 Chi53;
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c4rric4l4# ?0;:Y; B48 '.+'@; Tr35sl3tio5 3s 3 #ethod 4sed for tr3i5i5g i5terreters 35d
tr35sl3tors 93s l3ter c3rried o"er to 3l#ost 3ll E5glish rogr3##es i5 Chi53 ?C;:C; Y48
'.-)@; This #3! 3lso rerese5t the e3rliest de"elo#e5t of 3 gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio5 3ro3ch i5
Chi53; It is 45cle3r 9hether te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s r3cticed 3#o5g the first $3tch of E5glish
le3r5ers i5 #oder5 Chi53 3s 3 93! of sAill tr3i5i5g;
Follo9i5g the i5trod4ctio5 of scie5ce i5 the #oder5 se5se fro# the Best $egi55i5g i5 the
#iddle of the 5i5etee5th ce5t4r!8 eseci3ll! 3s 3 res4lt of the O5e:H45dred:D3! Refor#
Mo"e#e5t i5 '--.8 3 series of refor# #e3s4res 9ere 45dert3Ae5 i5 ed4c3tio58 s4ch 3s the
est3$lish#e5t of 53t4r3l scie5ces 3s 3rt of the school c4rric4l4#8 5e9:t!e schools rel3ci5g
3c3de#ics of cl3ssic3l le3r5i5g8 35d the 3$olitio5 of the Eeight:legged> ess3! ?F35 N Cohe58
'..+@; Bh3t is of 3rtic4l3r i5terest to #e is the ossi$le i#3ct o5 the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 of the do95l3! of cl3ssic3l le3r5i5g 35d Eeight:legged> ess3!8 the e6iste5ce of
9hich #ight8 to 3 gre3t e6te5t8 h3"e $ee5 e5co4r3gi5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 ?see ';';';%@; Bhile
the doc4#e5t3tio5 of the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 the eriod of the ost:I#eri3l
Ci"il Ser"ice E63#i53tio5 is l3cAi5g i5 the liter3t4re8 it is cle3r th3t Ethere 93s 3 co5ti54ed8
tho4gh 3#$ig4o4s8 e#h3sis o5 E5glish> thro4gho4t the e3rl! !e3rs of the t9e5tieth ce5t4r!
?Li5 N Cort377i8 %&&%1 *)@8 t!ified $! the 9ell:A5o95 slog35 zhongxue weiti) xixue weiyong
?Est4d! Chi53 for esse5ce8 st4d! the Best for r3ctic3l 4s3ge> ?tr35sl3tio5 fro# Ad3#so58
%&&)1 %,@@ ;
Fro# the fo45di5g of the Re4$lic of Chi53 i5 '.'% 45til the Co##45ist "ictor! i5 '.).8
foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 see#ed to $e ch3r3cterised $! Edisco5ti54it!> ?Ross8 '..%1 %)%@;
Foreig5 l35g43ge olic! $ec3#e e5#eshed i5 fer"e5t de$3te o5 the differe5ce $et9ee5
E#oder5is3tio5> 35d E9ester5is3tio5>8 3 dile##3
'(
co5fro5ted $! the the5 Chi5ese le3ders;
EBhile 9idesre3d foreig5 l35g43ge e6ertise 93s still 3cA5o9ledged 3s 5ecess3r! to Chi53>s
s4r"i"3l $! $oth co##45ists 35d 53tio53lists8 its co5se<4e5ces $ec3#e i5cre3si5gl!
ideologic3ll! s4sect>?Ross8 '..%1 %)%@; As 3 res4lt8 $oth E5glish 35d L335ese l35g43ge
'(
'
Si5ce i5stit4tio5s s4ch 3s 'ong Wen (uan 9ere rel3ced i5 '.&( $! 3 L335ese:i5sired E#oder5>
ed4c3tio53l s!ste#8 foreig5 l35g43ges ?redo#i535tl! E5glish 35d L335ese@ 3cco45ted for #ore ho4rs er
9eeA of the seco5d3r! school c4rric4l4# th35 35! other s4$Dect; I5 the fi"e:!e3r seco5d3r! schools
est3$lished i5 '.&(8 st4de5ts st4died 3 tot3l of '8))) eriods of foreig5 l35g43ges; I5 the fo4r:!e3r
seco5d3r! school s!ste# of '.'% to '.%(8 E5glish 93s st4died for 3 tot3l of '8&*+ eriods; ?I; Che58 '.+'@
Bhe5 foreig5 l35g43ges 9ere o5 their 93! to $eco#i5g ide5tified 9ith foreig5 s4$st35ce 3s 9ell 3s
f45ctio58 it 93s see5 3s 3 d35gero4s 3ssoci3tio5 9he5e"er Chi53>s le3ders h3"e 935ted to 3ssert 5ot
EBester5> $4t EChi5ese> #oder5it! ?Ross8 '..%@;
%%
+(-
+(.
+)&
+)'
+)%
+)(
+))
+)*
+)+
+),
+)-
+).
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+*'
+*%
+*(
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+*,
+*-
+*.
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++*
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)-
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9ere de5o45ced for Ede53tio53lisi5g> or Ee5sl3"i5g> Chi5ese st4de5ts
')
?i$id@8 35d so#e
schol3rs c3lled for the re#o"3l of E5glish 35d other foreig5 l35g43ges fro# the school
c4rric4l4# ?cf; Ts35g8 '.+,@;
I5 ost:'.). #oder5 Chi538 the fl4ct43ti5g fort45es of ELT h3"e $ee5 see5 3s 3 E$3ro#eter
of #oder5is3tio5> ?Ross8 '..%1 %(.@; I5 the e3rl! fifties8 there 93s 35 3$r4t shift fro#
E5glish to R4ssi35 for olitic3l re3so5s
'*
; R4ssi35 $ec3#e 3l#ost the o5l! foreig5 l35g43ge
t34ght i5 colleges 35d 45i"ersities; Co5se<4e5tl!8 the So"iet U5io5 e6ercised 3 stro5g i#3ct
o5 foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 i5 Chi538 so#e of 9hich ?for i5st35ce8 the fi"e:ste
3ro3ch
'+
@ is still see5 e"e5 tod3!; Methodologic3ll!8 the gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio5 #ethod 93s
3doted to tr3i5 #3ssi"e 54#$ers of eole to le3r5 R4ssi35 9ith e#h3sis o5 "oc3$4l3r!8
tr35sl3tio5 35d gr3##3r i5 order to 45derst35d the re"ol4tio53r! ideolog! ?Ng N T35g8
'..,@; /eliefs i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 3t th3t ti#e #3! $e $est s4##3rised $! three:
ce5tered5ess1 te3cher:ce5tered5ess8 te6t$ooA:ce5tered5ess 35d gr3##3r:ce5tered5ess ?see8
e;g; C3#$ell N Yo5g8 '..(J Di5g8 '.-,J Ross8 '..(J Schoe5h3ls8 '..(J L;:0; T35g8 '.-(@;
The So"iet tr3ditio5 of i5te5si"e re3di5g fro# Fre5ch origi5s ?see Di5g8 '.-,J M3le!8 '.-(
for #ore disc4ssio5@ K co5cer5i5g itself 9ith the fi5e det3ils of l35g43ge K e"e5t43ll! e"ol"ed
i5to the I5te5si"e Re3di5g Co4rse ?jin*u@ 9hich h3s $ee5 do#i535t i5 ELT i5 Chi53 for
dec3des till 5o9; It is 3rg4ed $! so#e schol3rs ?e;g; Cort377i N Li58 '..+J S3#so58 '.-)@
th3t the I5te5si"e Re3di5g Co4rse is 3 rod4ct of 3rtic4l3r soci3l8 eco5o#ic 35d li5g4istic
circ4#st35ces 35d th4s i5here5t i5 the f3$ric of Chi5ese societ!; The Ei5te5si"e st4d!> "ie9
th3t Ethe 3ss3ges sho4ld 5ot D4st $e re3d for #e35i5g8 $4t 3lso 3rsed 35d recited> ?Ad3#so58
')
'
The tot3l 54#$er of cl3ssroo# eriods seco5d3r! school st4de5ts st4died foreig5 l35g43ges droed
fro# '8&-& i5 '.(( to -&& i5 '.)- ?Ross8 '..%@;
'*
'
The erce5t3ge of cl3ss eriods de"oted to foreig5 l35g43ge i5str4ctio5 i5 the seco5d3r! school
c4rric4l4# droed fro# '';-U i5 '.*& to +;,U fo4r !e3rs l3ter ?Mi5istr! of Ed4c3tio58 '.-)@8 e"e5t43ll!
le3di5g to the Edisco5ti543tio5 of lo9er seco5d3r! school foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 '.*) ?Ross8 '..%1
%)%@;/ec34se st4de5ts 9ere 5ot to $egi5 l35g43ge st4d! 45til 4er seco5d3r! school8 the foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chi5g l35 c3lled for 3 red4ctio5 of tot3l cl3ss eriods se5t o5 foreig5 l35g43ges fro# -&& to )&-;
'+
'
So"iet ed4c3tor:ed3gog4e I;A; G3iro">s so:c3lled *:ste te3chi5g #ethodolog! still 3e3ls to #35!
Chi5ese te3chers of E5glish8 eseci3ll! the e6:R4ssi35:l35g43ge te3chers8 9ho co5stit4te 3 "er! l3rge
erce5t3ge of E5glish te3chers i5 scie5ce de3rt#e5ts 3t the terti3r! le"el ?3ro6i#3tel! +&U 4 to e3rl!
'.-&s@; G3iro">s ide3 is th3t 3 good lect4re sho4ld co5sist of * stes1 ?'@ re"ie9i5g the old #3teri3lJ ?%@
orie5ti5g the 5e9 #3teri3lJ ?(@ e6l3i5i5g the 5e9 #3teri3lJ ?)@ co5solid3ti5g the 5e9l!:le3r5ed #3teri3lJ
35d ?*@ gi"i5g 3ssig5#e5ts8 9ith e3ch ste $ei5g c3ref4ll! sched4led 35d 9ritte5 o4t i5 gre3t det3il; I5 f3ct8
re"ie9 35d co5solid3tio5 fit 9ell i5to Co5f4ci35 3ro3ches to le3r5i5g; Bhile the fi"e:ste 3ro3ch
i#orted fro# R4ssi3 93s 4sed i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 ost:'.). Chi53 ?Pe55er8 '..'J C;:C; Y48
'.-)@8 it 93s s3id to $e t3Ai5g o5 Chi5ese ch3r3cteristics 3fter M3o $roAe ties 9ith the So"iet U5io5
?Si#so58 %&&-@;
%(
+++
++,
++-
++.
+,&
+,'
+,%
+,(
+,)
+,*
+,+
+,,
+,-
+,.
+-&
+-'
+-%
+-(
+-)
+-*
+-+
+-,
*%
*(
*)
**
*+
*,
*-
*.
+&
+'
+%
+(
+)
+*
++
+,
+-
%&&)1 +.@8 #3!8 to so#e e6te5t8 legiti#3tise 35d co5solid3te the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5;
Follo9i5g the first i5ti#3tio5 of Si5o:So"iet te5sio5 i5 the #id of '.*&s8 co5cer5 for
i#ro"i5g Chi53>s foreig5 rel3tio5s 9ith the Best $ro4ght $3cA the legiti#3c! of other
foreig5 l35g43ge tr3i5i5g i5cl4di5g E5glish; I5 the l3te '.*&s 35d e3rl! si6ties there 93s 3
slo9 shift $3cA fro# R4ssi35 to E5glish; This ti#e8 3 fo4r sAills 3ro3ch ?se3Ai5g8
liste5i5g8 re3di5g8 9riti5g@ 93s 3d"oc3ted to rel3ce Ede3f 35d d4#$> ?longzi) yaba@
gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio5 #ethods ?Ross8 '..%@; E6eri#e5t3l E5glish te6t$ooAs 4sed i5 '.+*
9ere fo45d to $e i5dic3ti"e of #o"es to93rds or3l l35g43ge rod4ctio5 ?A4dioli5g43lis#@ to
rel3ce the for#er e#h3sis o5 gr3##3tic3l r4les ?Price8 '.,.@; The 34dio:li5g43l
i5fl4e5ces8 together 9ith drills 35d s4$stit4tio5 t3$les8 $ec3#e o4l3r ?Li5 N Cort377i8
%&&%@; For i5st35ce8 E5glish te6t$ooA series ?cf; +nglish &oo ,-./08 '.+'@ co5t3i5 3 54#$er
of di3log4es 35d sig5ific35t 3#o45ts of or3l r3ctice8 h3"i5g fe3t4res K s4erfici3ll! 3t le3st K
3Ai5 to those of A4dioli5g43lis#8 9hich 93s e#ergi5g i5ter53tio53ll! 3s 3 referred seco5d
l35g43ge ed3gog! 3t the ti#e ?Ad3#so58 %&&)1 --@; The 3ct43l i#le#e5t3tio5 of the
te3chi5g refor#8 ho9e"er8 93s restricted d4e to the i53$ilit! of the go"er5#e5t to fi5d
<43lified E5glish te3chers
',
;
The C4lt4r3l Re"ol4tio5 $egi55i5g 3t the #id of '.+&s led to 3 5e3rl! st3g535t st3t4s of
E5glish te3chi5g i5 Chi53 $ec34se the te3chi5g of E5glish 93s o4tl39ed for 3 ti#e; Bhe5 it
93s 3llo9ed 3g3i58 the te3chi5g of E5glish 93s to ser"e the 4rose of c4lti"3ti5g st4de5ts
9ho 3re E$oth red 35d e6ert> ?co##45ists 35d rofessio53ls@8 th3t is8 to te3cher the# e5o4gh
l35g43ge to le3r5 the soci3list ersecti"e 9itho4t $ei5g t3i5ted 9ith E$o4rgeois ide3s> ?Ford
'.-+8 cited i5 I; Li8 '..)1 (&@; /3sed o5 the $elief th3t EQAR foreig5 l35g43ge is 3 9e3o5 i5
the str4ggle of life> ?3 <4ote fro# G3rl M3r6@8 fre<4e5tl! 4sed for E5glish drills 9ere olitic3l
slog35s ?s4ch 3s ELo5g Li"e Ch3ir#35 M3oV Lo5g Li"e the Co##45ist P3rt! of Chi53V@ or
35ti:rightist=35ti:foreig5 e6ressio5s ?s4ch 3s EDro !o4r 9e3o5s 35d co#e o4t 9ith !o4r
h35ds 4V@ ?I; Li8 '..)1 ',@; Cre3ti"e 4se of the l35g43ge 93s c3lled i5to <4estio5 9he5 the
3ro"ed #ethod 35d #3teri3ls for le3r5i5g 93s reciti5g <4otes fro# M3o>s Red /ooA or
Co##45ist 5e9s3ers ?Si#so58 %&&-@;
',
'
It is esti#3ted th3t o5e:h3lf of these schools 9ere s4osed to $egi5 te3chi5g E5glish 9ith <43lified
te3chers; I5 '.*, there 9ere o5l! ,( f4ll:ti#e lo9er seco5d3r! 35d ,,& f4ll:ti#e 4er seco5d3r! school
E5glish te3chers i5 3ll of Chi53 ?Mi5istr! of Ed4c3tio58 '.-)@;
%)
+--
+-.
+.&
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After 3 dec3de of hi3t4s i5 the C4lt4r3l Re"ol4tio5 ?'.++:'.,+@8 E5glish 93s 3g3i5 see5 3s
i#ort35t i5 the refor# 35d #oder5is3tio5 of Chi53 3ltho4gh there 9ere occ3sio53l fe3rs th3t
it 9o4ld $ri5g c4lt4r3l co5t3#i53tio5 or ESirit43l Poll4tio5> ?Ad3#so58 %&&)J Li5 N
Cort377i8 %&&%J G;:S; Li8 '..*@; The for#3l st3t4s of foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g8 eseci3ll!
E5glish
'-
8 rose 3g3i5 i5 the e3rl! '.-&s 35d st4d!i5g E5glish is c4rre5tl! restigio4s K Ethe
"og4e8 the f3shio58 the r3ge> ?D7348 '..&@ for the 53tio5; I5 f3ct8 Chi5ese eole h3"e
e#$r3ced the st4d! of E5glish i5 rece5t dec3des 9ith fer"o4r desite the tr34#3tic
e6erie5ces of the C4lt4r3l Re"ol4tio5 35d other olitic3l #o"e#e5ts 9ith 35ti:Bester5
ele#e5ts ?cf; Ad3#so58 %&&)@;
It is cle3r fro# the recedi5g re"ie9 th3t 3 co5sider3$l! lo5g eriod i5 the histor! of foreig5
l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 i5 co5te#or3r! Chi53 9it5essed 3 l3cA of co5ti54it! 35d cohere5t
foreig5 l35g43ge olic! d4e to olitic3l t4r#oil 35d tighte5ed olitic3l co5trol ?see Ad3#so58
%&&) for 3 f3sci53ti5g histor! of E5glish 35d E5glish te3chi5g i5 Chi538 eseci3ll! ho9
olitic3l co5cer5s h3"e co5ti54i5g i5fl4e5ce o5 the E5glish l35g43ge c4rric4l4#@; R; S45
?'..+@ ide5tified the follo9i5g fi"e st3ges thro4gh 9hich ELT i5 Chi53 h3s rogressed or
regressed1
'; I5iti3l eriod ?'-+%:'.).@
%; I5iti3l Postli$er3tio5 eriod ?'.).:'.*+@
(; For#3tio5 eriod ?'.*,:'.++@
); EC4lt4r3l Re"ol4tio5> eriod ?'.++:'.,+@
*; De"elo#e5t eriod ?'.,, 4 to 5o9@
D4ri5g the De"elo#e5t eriod8 5e9 ed3gogies fro# the Best8 s4ch 3s 2r3##3r:
Tr35sl3tio5 ?2T@ 35d A4dioli5g43lis# ?ALM@8 c3#e i5 9ith the re:e5tr35ce of foreig5ers
?H358 '..%@; If the tr3ditio53l 3ro3ch to ELT i5 Chi53 is i5deed 3 Ec4rio4s co#$i53tio5 of
the gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio5 #ethod 35d 34dioli5g43lis#8 9hich is ch3r3cterised $! s!ste#3tic
35d det3iled st4d! of gr3##3r8 e6te5si"e 4se of cross:li5g4istic co#3riso5 35d tr35sl3tio58
#e#oris3tio5 of str4ct4r3l 3tter5s 35d "oc3$4l3r!8 3i5st3Ai5g effort to for# good "er$3l
h3$its8 35d e#h3sis o5 9ritte5 l35g43ge8 35d 3 refere5ce for liter3r! cl3ssics> ?H48 %&&%31
'-
'
E5glish 93s gr3d43ll! 3ccorded the s3#e 9eight i5 the college e5tr35ce e63#i53tio5 3s th3t of
#3the#3tics 35d Chi5ese ?Ross8 '..%@
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.(@8 these i#orted #ethods 9ere co#3ti$le 9ith the 3lre3d! 9ell:est3$lished tr3ditio53l
Chi5ese #ethod ?TCM@ 35d h3"e si5ce 3dded to the stre5gth of its i5tr3ct3$ilit! 35d its
reelle5ce of co##45ic3ti"e l35g43ge te3chi5g ?CLT@ i5trod4ced i5 the '.-&s ?H48 %&&%3J
Si#so58 %&&-@ ?see (;% 35d (;( for #ore disc4ssio5s@;
I5teresti5gl!8 i5 ter#s of #ethodolog!8 l35g43ge te3chers see#ed to h3"e e5Do!ed the
freedo# of choosi5g 9h3te"er te3chi5g #ethod the! refer; Bhe5 Ch3ir#35 M3o rei5st3ted
the olic! of EQLRet o5e h45dred flo9ers $losso#8 let o5e h45dred schools co#ete
'.
> i5 the
'.*&s8 it 3lso ser"ed 3s 3 g4idi5g ri5cile i5 sol"i5g the co5tro"ers! o"er the #ethodolog!
of te3chi5g i5 Chi53; Chi5ese oe5:#i5ded5ess i5 this reg3rd is 5icel! s4##3rised 3s
follo9s1
The Chi5ese co5cet is th3t 35!thi5g th3t is re3ll! $3d8 or does 5ot 9orA8 9ill
e"e5t43ll! die o4t i5 the rocess of co#etitio5; E"er! #ethod h3s so#e re3so5 i5 it8
35d e"er! 5e9 #ethod is de"eloed o4t of so#e ele#e5t fro# older o5es; There is 5o
s4ch thi5g 3s 3$sol4tel! right or good; Methodolog! is see5 3s $oth 35 3rt 35d
scie5ce; To 3 gre3t e6te5t8 it er#its te3chers to e6ercise their i5di"id43l gifts 35d
t3le5ts; ?C;:C; Y48 '.-)1 ():(*@
I5 f3ct8 35! #ethod c35 $e 4sed i5 E5glish te3chi5g i5 Chi538 Efro# the 35cie5t Chi5ese
tr3ditio5 of recit3tio58 #e#oris3tio58 to gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio58 3tter5: 35d str4ct4re:drill8
co##45ic3ti"e e6ercises8 or eclecticis#>
%&
?C;:C; Y48 '.-)1 (*@; Ne9 fe3t4res of ELT i5 ost:
'.). Chi53 #3! i5cl4de the 3#3lg3#3tio5 of 3 r35ge of ed3gogic3l 3ro3ches; For
i5st35ce8 Ad3#so5 ?%&&)@ o$ser"ed th3t ed3gog! reflected i5 E5glish te6t$ooAs 4$lished i5
'.+&s ?cf; +nglish &oo ,-./08 '.+'J +nglish &oo ,-.108 '.+*@ did 5ot fit 35! of the #3Dor
i5ter53tio53l E5glish l35g43ge #ethods; Alo5g 9ith Chi53>s reorg35isi5g its 3ro3ch to
foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 3fter the schis# 9ith the So"iet U5io58 #35! ch35ges 3rose 35d
'.
'
This slog35 93s "er! o4l3r i5 the eriod of Sri5g 35d A4t4#5 35d B3rri5g St3tes ?/;C; )&(:%%'@
35d #3rAed the 45recede5ted roserit! of liter3t4re8 3rt 35d scie5ce of Chi53 i5 th3t eriod ?C;:C; Y48
'.-)@
%&
%
I5 the #id '.-&s8 efforts 9ere #3de i5 seco5d3r! schools to reco5cet43lise foreig5 l35g43ge
ed4c3tio5>s Ethree:ce5tered5ess>1 te3cher:ce5tered5ess8 te6t$ooA:ce5tered5ess 35d gr3##3r:ce5tered5ess;
Atte#t to dislodge the 34thorit3ri35 hold for te3cher8 te6t 35d gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio5 #ethods o5 foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5g 3re co##o5l! descri$ed $! seco5d3r! school te3chers 3s Edi"ersific3tio5> or
Eeclecticis#> ?*uoyangxing@ ?Ross8 '..%@;
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,+.
,,&
,,'
,,%
,,(
,,)
,,*
,,+
,,,
,)
,*
,+
,,
,-
,.
-&
-'
so#e of these ch35ges c3#e fro# the gr3ssroots ?Ad3#so58 %&&)@; Te6t #e#oris3tio58 35
i5dige5o4s r3ctice tr35sferred fro# the tr3ditio53l 93! of le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g cl3ssics #3!
53t4r3ll! fi5d its l3ce i5 l35g43ge te3chi5g #ethodolog! gi"e5 the 45s!ste#3tic 35d
disco5ti54o4s de"elo#e5t of ELT i5 Chi53; /3sed o5 occ3sio53l #e5tio5s of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 liter3t4re8 9e sho4ld s4r#ise th3t this r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g
35d te3chi5g is liAel! to h3"e $ee5 co5ti54o4sl! e6iste5t e"e5 3fter the 3$olitio5 of the
I#eri3l Ser"ice E63#i53tio5 S!ste# i5 '.&*; For i5st35ce8 i5 3 c3se st4d! of foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi53 co5d4cted i5 the '.+&s8 Price ?'.,&1 '-'@ 5oted th3t
EQTRhe $3sis of the #ethod 4sed Qi5 E5glish te3chi5gR 93s 3 te6t 9hich 93s
#e#orised $! the st4de5ts8 35d i5 3 high roortio5 of c3ses 45derstood 9ith the 3id
of tr35sl3tio5>;
He 3lso descri$ed the efforts #3de $! the st4de5ts to rehe3rse the te6ts1
A3rt fro# he3ri5g the recorded te6t 3 54#$er of ti#es 35d ree3ti5g it i5 "3rio4s
93!s i5 cl3ss8 the st4de5ts se5t #35! ho4rs re3di5g it 3lo4d; ?Price8 '.,&1 '-%@
F
As the! get 4 e3rl! i5 the #or5i5g8 so45ds of re3di5g c35 $e he3rd 5e3r the
cl3ssroo#s 35d i5 the sorts gro45d; ?2435g#i5g Ri$3o QD3il!R cited i5 Price8 '.,&1
'-%@
It see#ed th3t the tr3ditio53l #ethod of 3c<4iri5g Chi5ese liter3c!: Ere3di5g 3lo4d for
#e#oris3tio5> h3s $ee5 r3cticed i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g 3t le3st i5 the
3st dec3des; I5teresti5gl!8 Price 3e3red to $e redicti5g the dis3e3r35ce of this r3ctice
$! s3!i5g EQTRh3t s4ch tr3ditio53l #ethods die slo9l! 9ill $e 3ttested to $! foreig5 te3chers
rece5tl! 9orAi5g i5 Chi53>; Is the r3ctice d!i5g8 the5H
';';%;% Cu22e4/ 3i/ua/i14
Altho4gh Co5f4ci35 34thorit3ri35 ed4c3tio5 h3s lo5g f3lle5 i5to disf3"o4r i5 #oder5 Chi53
35d the st3t4s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 le3r5i5g #ethod h3s th4s $ee5 ch3lle5ged ?Di5g8
%&&)1 .@8 the r3ctice of #e#orisi5g te6t43l #3teri3ls 3#o5g Chi5ese le3r5ers see#s to $e
d!i5g h3rd; I5 the o5li5e NNEST ?No5:N3ti"e E5glish Se3Aer Te3chers@ c34c4s for4#8 I
%,
,,-
,,.
,-&
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,-)
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,..
-&&
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-&)
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-&.
-'&
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re3d the follo9i5g 3cco45t of Li8 35 E5glish lect4rer 35d 3 s4ccessf4l e3rl! rese3rcher fro# 3
restigio4s Chi5ese 45i"ersit!1
I 93s $or5 i5 3 s#3ll e3cef4l to95 i5 Norther5 Li35gs48 M3i5l35d Chi538 i5 the
'.,&s; F As 3 Aid8 I re#e#$er $ei5g forced to r3ctice c3lligr3h! 35d #e#ori7e
T35g oe#s; F M35! !e3rs l3ter i5 3 #iddle school i5 N35Di5g 9he5 I st3rted to
le3r5 E5glish8 I did st3rt to de"elo 3 fl3ir for le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt; Fi5e co#$i5g of
gr3##3r oi5ts8 3tter5:drills8 35d 6ea24i4g /e./3 =8 5ea2/ ;i4a668 6e9 /1 08 g119
:e2;120a47e i4 E4g6i35 i4 /5e e4/2a47e e.a0i4a/i143 ;12 5ig5e2 6ea24i4g
i43/i/u/i143. So I l35ded 3t 35 E5glish De3rt#e5t; ?Y;:Y; Li8 %&&-J E5glish origi53lJ
e#h3sis 3dded@
Li>s c3se is erh3s t!ic3l of #35! Chi5ese E5glish le3r5ers 9ho e#lo! le3r5i5g te6ts $!
he3rt 3s o5e of their #3i5 le3r5i5g str3tegies 35d e"e5t43ll! s4r3ssed their eers i5 E5glish
le3r5i5g; A f4rther e63#le co#es fro# 35other Chi5ese schol3r ?$or5 i5 the '.,&s@ 5o9
9orAi5g i5 3 Ho5gAo5g 45i"ersit!8 9ho #e5tio5ed i5 3ssi5g i5 his thesis1
I st3rted le3r5i5g E5glish i5 D45ior #iddle school 3t the 3ge of '%8 #e#orised 9ords
35d te6ts for the N3tio53l College E5tr35ce E63#i53tio58 35d l3ter #3Dored i5 E5glish
3t 3 Q53tio53l Ae!R 45i"ersit! o5 the Chi5ese #3i5l35d; ?23o8 %&&,31 - @
Si#il3rl!8 3 Chi5ese college st4de5t Sh35g8 $or5 i5 the '.-&s8 9ho 93s co5"i5ced th3t
EQRRecite 3s #35! E5glish 3ss3ges 3s ossi$le> #ight $e o5e of the E$est tools ossi$le>
%'
for
le3r5i5g E5glish8 9rote i5 his $log1
For 5e3rl! se"e5 h45dreds d3!s8 I h3"e $ee5 re#e#$eri5g 5e9 9ords8 i#it3ti5g the
t3es8 reciti5g 54#ero4s E5glish 3ss3ges8 i5 the $elief th3t o5e d3! I 9ill $e 3#l!
re93rded; F 35d 5o98 I h3"e re3ll! $losso#ed8 I 3ced QsicR the CET)
%%
9ith .& oi5ts
Qo4t of '&&R ?<4ite 39eso#e i5 other eoleWs e!es 3t th3t ti#e@ 35d 9o5 the to ri7e
%'
%
The other t9o 3re1 EI#it3te 3s "i"idl! 3s ossi$le> 35d EDo dict3tio5 for '&&& ho4rs>; Accordi5g to
Sh35g ?%&&,@8 Ee3ch of these #ethods ste#s fro# three s4ccessf4l E5glish le3r5ers> e6erie5ces>;
%%
%
CET) ?College E5glish Test /35d:)@ is 3 53tio5:9ide st35d3rdi7ed E5glish l35g43ge roficie5c! test
for 5o5:E5glish #3Dors i5 Chi5ese colleges 35d 45i"ersities; It is desig5ed 35d 3d#i5istered $! the
N3tio53l College E5glish Testi5g Co##ittee o5 $eh3lf of the Chi5ese Mi5istr! of Ed4c3tio5;
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of the N3tio53l E5glish Co5test for college st4de5ts i5 %&&); ?0;:D; Sh35g8 %&&,J
E5glish origi53l@
He see#ed to $e s3tisfied 9ith the fr4its th3t this r3ctice h3d !ielded 3ccordi5g to his
9riti5g1 9itho4t it8 EQTRo $e fr35A8 I thi5A it 9o4ld t3Ae #e lo5ger to re3ch th3t oi5t> ?i$id@;
If 5o D4dge#e5t c35 $e #3de o5 the o4l3rit! of le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt i5 #oder5 Chi53
fro# se"er3l 35ecdot3l 53rr3ti"es8 the "ie9oi5t held $! i5fl4e5ti3l l35g43ge te3chi5g e6erts
#3! 5ot $e ig5ored; Y4 Mi5Ho5g
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8 3 cele$r3ted ed4c3tor 35d se3so5ed E5glish te3cher 9ho
93s $or5 i5 the '.+&s8 9rote1
I h3"e $ee5 fre<4e5tl! 3sAed the <4estio5 of ho9 to le3r5 E5glish 9ell; I c35 gi"e #!
f4ll 35s9er i5 D4st o5e se5te5ce1 le3r5 $! he3rt 35! o5e 9ell:9ritte5 te6t$ooA 3s
fl4e5tl! 3s ossi$le; I c355ot8 of co4rse8 s4ggest the /i$le for the fe3r th3t eole
9o4ld t3Ae #e 3s 3 re3cher; ?M;:H; Y48 %&&-J Chi5ese origi53l@
This ositio5 #ight $e rel3ted to his e3rl! e6erie5ce of le3r5i5g Chi5ese te6ts $! he3rt; He
9rote8
I5 ri#3r! 35d seco5d3r! school8 3ll th3t 9e h3d 9ere se"er3l thi5 te6t$ooAs; Bitho4t
35! other $ooAs to re3d8 9e h3d to recite the te6ts 3g3i5 35d 3g3i5 : so #4ch so th3t I
co4ld rec3ll the# till 5o9 3s if the! 9ere c3r"ed i5 #! he3rt; ?M;:H; Y48 %&&-1
Chi5ese origi53l@
He 3lso 3d#itted th3t8 to his dis3oi5t#e5t8 #ost of the te6ts #e#orised 9ere 3$o4t
olitic3l ro3g35d3; Ne"ertheless8 he did 5ot therefore de5igr3te the #ethod of le3r5i5g
te6ts $! he3rt; O5 the co5tr3r!8 he co##e5ted8 EIf o5l! those elite te6ts o5 the esse5ce of
Chi5ese c4lt4re 9ere i5cl4ded i5 the te6t$ooAsV I $elie"e the #e#oris3tio5 of those cl3ssic
3ss3ges c35 $e5efit 4s for 3 lifelo5g ti#e> ?i$id@;
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Y4 Mi5Ho5g is the fo45der 35d reside5t of the Ne9 Orie5t3l Ed4c3tio5 35d Tech5olog! 2ro4 ?#ore
co##o5l! Ne9 Orie5t3l@; He is ho5ored 3s the E2odf3ther of St4d! A$ro3d> 3#o5g Chi5ese st4de5ts;
Fo45ded i5 '..(8 Ne9 Orie5t3l h3s gro95 fro# 3 cl3ss of o5l! (& st4de5ts to Chi53Ws l3rgest ri"3te
ed4c3tio5 ser"ice ro"ider 9ith #ore th35 three #illio5 st4de5t e5rol#e5ts i5 o"er %& schools 3ll o"er the
53tio5; Ne9 Orie5t3l 93s listed o5 the Ne9 YorA StocA E6ch35ge i5 Sete#$er %&&+8 the first ri"3te
ed4c3tio5 co#35! to 3chie"e this fe3t; Y4 is tho4ght to $e Chi53Ws richest te3cher 9ith 3$o4t % $illio5
!435 ?%*& #illio5 U;S; doll3rs@ of 3ssets; ?So4rce1 0i5h438 %&&+@
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Moreo"er8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is so#eti#es #e5tio5ed $! the g4est e6erts 9ho 3re i5"ited to
rec3ll their e6erie5ce of le3r5i5g E5glish i5 3c3de#ic Do4r53ls or E5glish le3r5i5g
#3g37i5es; For i5st35ce8 Sh3o ShiG3i8 3 le3di5g li5g4ist i5 Chi538 s3id1
Le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt is e6tre#el! helf4l to #e; It 9orAs #4ch $etter th35
#e#orisi5g i5di"id43l 9ords i5 the se5se th3t #e#orisi5g o5 the $3sis of 9hole
3ss3ge or 3t le3st 9hole se5te5ce e53$les 4s to $etter 45derst35d 9ord #e35i5g8
gr3##3r 35d e"e5 rhetorics; The so:c3lled te6t li5g4istics 35d r3g#3tics 9e st4d!
tod3! 3re 3ll i5cl4ded i5 the te6t; ?Sh3o8 %&&%1 ''J Chi5ese origi53l@
It c35 $e see5 fro# the foregoi5g re"ie9 th3t the re3so5 9h! so#e E5glish le3r5ers ?or
s4$se<4e5t te3chers@ re#3i5 e5th4si3stic 3$o4t this r3ctice #3! lie i5 the f3ct th3t this is the
93! the! the#sel"es 9ere t34ght or 4sed for le3r5i5g 3 foreig5 l35g43ge for !e3rs 35d the!
ercei"ed it to $e effecti"e to so#e e6te5t; 04 24oSh35g8 3 highl! i5fl4e5ti3l foreig5
l35g43ge ed4c3tor h3d t3Ae5 Eto recite ree3tedl! for #e#oris3tio5> ?long *u er neng bei
song@ ?048 '...@ 3s his #36i# of le3r5i5g E5glish; It is 5ot s4rrisi5g th3t #e#oris3tio5 of
3r3gr3hs8 oe#s 35d idio#s $eco#es 3 re<4ire#e5t thro4gho4t the 9hole te6t$ooA series
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04 h3s chief:edited; Tho4gh his te6t$ooAs co5tr3dict Bester5 c4lt4re i5 #35! 93!s8 04
#3i5t3i5s 3 fir# footi5g i5 E5glish st4d! circles to this d3! ?TE5glish Cr37e Le3ders8T %&&%@;
Tod3!8 r3ther th35 3 d!i5g r3ctice8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is Estill 9idel! r3cticed i5 schools
thro4gho4t the co45tr! QChi53R> ?Di5g8 %&&)1 .J see 3lso R3o8 '..+J Li5 N Cort377i8 %&&%@;
St4de5ts #3! se5d ho4rs #e#orisi5g te6ts 35d so#e te3chers re<4ire i5di"id43l st4de5ts to
recite these te6ts i5 cl3ss or i5 the te3chers> offices ?Li5 N Cort377i8 %&&%@; Le3r5i5g te6ts $!
he3rt see#s to $e g3i5i5g 3tte5tio5 fro# l35g43ge ed4c3tors 35d rese3rchers 3s #ore 35d
#ore c3ses of s4ccessf4l E5glish le3r5ers 3re reorted cl3i#i5g to h3"e i5te5si"el! e#lo!ed
this r3ctice 3s 3 le3r5i5g str3teg! ?see8 e;g;8 Di5g8 %&&)8 %&&,J 23o8 %&&,3J H435g N Ii8
%&&*J Be58 '..+@; O5e e63#le i5 oi5t is th3t 3 9idel! 4sed te6t$ooA series for 5o5:E5glish
#3Dors i5 45i"ersit!8 !ollege +nglish . 2ntegrate* !ourse ?Y;:H; Li8 Sh35g8 N B35g8 %&&'@8
for the first ti#e8 to the $est of #! A5o9ledge8 set i5 e3ch 45it 3 reg4l3r 3ssig5#e5t of
le3r5i5g $! he3rt se"er3l ?4s43ll! ( to )@ 3r3gr3hs i5 the te6t; This #3! eito#ise 35
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The fo4r:"ol4#e E5glish te6t$ooA 9hich is titled Xu (uoZhang +nglish do#i53ted E5glish st4d! i5
Chi5ese 45i"ersit! for (. !e3rs; ?TE5glish Cr37e Le3ders8T %&&%@
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offici3l recog5itio5 of the "3l4e of this tr3ditio53l 93! of le3r5i5g; H3"i5g $ee5 ch3lle5ged 3s
3 le3r5i5g #ethod d4e to the disf3"o4r of Co5f4ci35 34thorit3ri35 ed4c3tio5 i5 #oder5 Chi53
?Di5g8 %&&)@8 the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 #3! 5eed to $e re:e63#i5ed8 for it c355ot
si#l! $e dis#issed 3s Eri#iti"e>8 Eold:f3shio5ed>8 or E#isg4ided> ?H3r"e!8 '.-*@;
Prior to roceedi5g f4rther8 I 9o4ld liAe to ro"ide 3 $rief 353l!sis of the 9orA do5e $! t9o
Chi5ese schol3rs; Di5g ?%&&)@ i5"estig3ted the $eliefs 35d str3tegies co5cer5i5g the le3r5i5g
35d 4si5g of l35g43ge ch45As thro4gh te6t #e#oris3tio5 $! e63#i5i5g Do4r53l e5tries 35d
i5ter"ie9 reorts rod4ced $! 3 gro4 of E5glish #3Dors i5 3 restigio4s 45i"ersit! i5 Chi53;
The 34thor 3tte#ted to t3 i5to K 3#o5g other thi5gs K the follo9i5g t9o iss4es1 st4de5ts>
oi5io5s 3s to the effecti"e5ess of the #ethod of le3r5i5g te6t $! he3rt 35d their co#3riso5
of le3r5i5g te6t $! he3rt 9ith other #ethods; It 93s fo45d th3t the 3rtici35ts "ie9ed the
#ethod of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 3s effecti"e i5 heli5g the# to i#ro"e $oth their seech 35d
9riti5g desite the h3rdshi the! h3"e e6erie5ced;
23o ?%&&,3@ co5d4cted 3 lo5git4di53l eth5ogr3hic i5<4ir! i5to #3i5l35d Chi5ese
45dergr3d43tes> shifti5g str3tegic e5g3ge#e5t i5 3c<4iri5g E5glish co#ete5ce o5 the
Chi5ese #3i5l35d 35d Ho5gAo5g; T9e5t!:t9o #3i5l35d Chi5ese st4de5ts 9ere i5ter"ie9ed
3$o4t their l35g43ge le3r5i5g e6erie5ces o5 the Chi5ese #3i5l35d8 i##edi3tel! 3fter their
3rri"3l i5 Ho5gAo5g 35d fiftee5 of the# 9ere i5ter"ie9ed for the seco5d ti#e 3$o4t their
l35g43ge le3r5i5g e6erie5ces i5 Ho5gAo5g; The 3rtici35ts 9ere 3 gro4 of rel3ti"el!
s4ccessf4l or Eelite> Chi5ese le3r5ers fro# 3 #iddle:cl3ss f3#il! $3cAgro45d; It 93s reorted
th3t #35! 3rtici35ts i5 this st4d! fo45d the #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3ls ?either i5 the
for# of E5glish ess3!s8 seeches or so5g l!rics@ helf4l 9ith their E5glish le3r5i5g;
A5 i5teresti5g he5o#e5o5 3ssoci3ted 9ith te6t #e#oris3tio5 th3t 5eeds to $e #e5tio5ed
here is the 9ide 4se of 3ew !on#e4t +nglish ?Ale635der8 '.+,@ 3#o5g #illio5s of Chi5ese
E5glish le3r5ers; Rec3lli5g his E5glish le3r5i5g e6erie5ce i5 college8 T35g L45
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e6e5si"e rofessio53l #353ger i5 Chi53 ?$or5 i5 the e3rl! '.+&s@8 9rote i5 his $iogr3h!1
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T35g L45 93s cro95ed 3s Chi53Ws Te#eror e#lo!eeT 9ith 35 35543l s3l3r! of '&& #illio5 RM/8 or
') #illio5 U;S; doll3rs; He h3d $ee5 9orAi5g i5 Microsoft for te5 !e3rs 35d 93s 3oi5ted reside5t of
Microsoft Chi53 i5 %&&%; ?So4rce1 crie5glish;co#8 %&&-@
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I set 3 go3l for #!self; Th3t is8 I #4st le3r5 o5e te6t $! he3rt e3ch d3!; I5 this 93!8 I
#e#orised 3ll the te6ts i5 the first three $ooAs of 3ew !on#e4t +nglish series; ?L;
T35g8 %&&-J Chi5ese origi53l@
3ew !on#e4t +nglish
51
is 3 o4l3r UG:i#orted te6t$ooA series 9hich is 4sed i5 seco5d3r!
35d terti3r! i5stit4tio5s8 eseci3ll! ri"3te E5glish tr3i5i5g schools; Its "3st i#3ct o5 E5glish
te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g i5 Chi53 is s4ch th3t there is 35 e#erge5ce of 3 3ew !on#e4t +nglish
i5d4str!8 i5cl4si"e of te6t$ooAs8 s4le#e5t3r! #3teri3ls8 #4lti:#edi3 rod4cts8 35d tr3i5i5g
rogr3##es ?P;:Y; Li8 et 3l;8 %&&)@; To the $est of #! A5o9ledge8 it is "er! liAel! to $e the
te6t$ooA 9hose te6ts 3re #ostl! #e#orised $! Chi5ese le3r5ers ?cf; Di5g8 %&&,J 23o8 %&&-@;
There is 35 35ecdote 9hich 93s told $! 3 Chi5ese 5eti7e5 35d 3lso <4oted $! 3 fe9 of #!
3rtici35ts to s4ort their $eliefs 3$o4t te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 9ell 3s their 9orshi for the
$ooA series1
I he3rd th3t there 93s so#e g4! fro# PeAi5g U5i"ersit!
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; He #e#orised 3ll the te6ts
i5 3ew !on#e4t +nglish $ooA '8 %8 (8 35d ); L3ter8 he 9e5t to st4d! i5 the U5ited
St3tes; His rofessor tho4ght th3t he coied eole>s 9orAs i5 9riti5g si5ce he
$elie"ed th3t 5o Chi5ese co4ld 9rite s4ch 53ti"e:liAe ess3!s; To ro"e his i55oce5ce8
he 3sAed his rofessor to 53#e 3 te6t i5 the 3ew !on#e4t +nglish te6t$ooAs; A5d he
retold it 4si5g the e63ct 9ords F ?/3$3$38 <4oted i5 23o8 %&&-1 ))'@
Bhile the stor! is liAel! to $e 35 i#3gi5ed i5cide5t 9hich is 3t $est for 4s to re3d for f458 the
follo9i5g reflectio5 $! Li Pe5gYi8 the Preside5t of the Foreig5 L35g43ge Te3chi5g 35d
Rese3rch Press ?FLTRP@ i5 Chi53 #3! deser"e o4r 3tte5tio51
M! erso53l co55ectio5 9ith 3ew !on#e4t +nglish st3rted %* !e3rs 3go8 9he5 I first
$eg35 to le3r5 the l35g43ge8 3t the 3ge of %(; Be 3ll A5o9 th3t le3r5i5g 3 foreig5
l35g43ge is 3 for#id3$le ch3lle5ge for 3d4lts; /4t 3ew !on#e4t +nglish i5sired #!
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First 4$lished i5 '.+,8 3ew !on#e4t +nglish 5ot o5l! s9et the 9ester5 9orld $4t 3lso <4icAl!
$ec3#e the #ost o4l3r E5glish co4rse i5 Chi53; I5 '.., 3 5e9 editio5 93s 4$lished; This editio5 93s
9ritte5 secific3ll! to 3ddress the 5eeds of E5glish le3r5ers i5 Chi53; Si5ce its 4$lic3tio58 the s3les of the
fo4r #3i5 $ooAs 3lo5e8 5ot to #e5tio5 the s4ort co#o5e5ts ?s4le#e5t3r! #3teri3ls 35d #4lti:#edi3
rod4cts@8 h3"e e6ceeded , #illio5 coies; /ooA O5e 93s reri5ted *& ti#es $! the s4##er of %&&);
?So4rce1 P;:Y; Li8 Ethridge8 Y35g8 N Ale635der8 %&&)@
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st4died $3cA the58 F ; ?P;:Y; Li8 et 3l;8 %&&)1 %'@
As the $est:recog5ised cl3ssic3l E5glish co4rse $ooA8 3ew !on#e4t +nglish h3s $ee5
e5Do!i5g 3 lege5d3r! 35d co5ti543l s4ccess i5 Chi53 35d Ef4ll! est3$lished Lo4ise Ale635der
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%&&%@; The e5d4ri5g o4l3rit! of the $ooA series #3! lie i5 the f3ct th3t it is 5ot o5l! D4st 3
so4rce of i5for#3tio5J Eit is 3 ed3gogic3l tool> ?P;:Y; Li8 et 3l;8 %&&)1 %*@1
C3ref4ll! se<4e5ti3l8 co5siste5t8 35d 45ct43ted 9ith 453#$ig4o4s directio5s to $oth
te3cher 35d st4de5t8 it Q3ew !on#e4t +nglishR is ercei"ed 3s 3 #odel of ho9 te3chers
c35 g4ide st4de5ts to 4se E5glish 3cti"el! 9hile si#4lt35eo4sl! le3r5i5g s!ste#3tic
35d le6ic3l A5o9ledge; ?Ross8 '..%1 %)+@
I5 3dditio5 to sAilf4l co#il3tio58 the 3ttr3cti"e5ess of the $ooA series #3! l3rgel! $e
3ttri$4t3$le to c3ref4l selectio5 of its te6ts8 9hich8 3ccordi5g to so#e le3r5ers ?3rtici35ts i5
the i5ter"ie9 st4d! reorted l3ter i5 the thesis@8 3re #4ch #ore i5teresti5g th35 the
do#estic3ll! co#iled te6t$ooAs; There 3re #35! good stories i5 this co4rse $ooA 9hich
e3sil! e5g3ge the le3r5ers> c4riosit!8 s4rrise 35d feeli5gs ?P;:Y; Li8 et 3l;8 %&&)@ thro4gh
sh3red h4#35it! 3cross c4lt4res; The 4se of te6ts i5 3ew !on#e4t +nglish $! Chi5ese
le3r5ers 3s #3teri3ls to le3r5 $! he3rt 93s 3lso co5st35tl! #e5tio5ed $! le3r5ers 35d te3chers
i5"ol"ed the i5ter"ie9 st4d!; I 93s s4rrised to disco"er i5 the field9orA th3t 3 st3te school
93s 3lso 4si5g 3ew !on#e4t +nglish 3s their for#3l te6t$ooA; This is 5ot o5l! 3 sig5 of
#o"i5g fro# st3te:deter#i5ed to93rds clie5t:deter#i5ed i5 ter#s of choosi5g te6t$ooAs for
ELT i5 4$lic schools8 $4t 3lso 35 i5dic3tio5 of the he5o#e53l recog5itio5 of 3ew !on#e4t
+nglish i5 Chi53;
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$ro57e st3t4e 93s r3ised i5 his ho5o4r i5 the gro45ds of the Foreig5 L35g43ge Te3chi5g 35d Rese3rch
Press ?FLTRP@8 o5e of Chi53>s l3rgest school$ooA 4$lishers; The i5scritio5 o5 the $3se of the st3te re3ds1
EF The #35 9ho cr3cAed the li5g4istic code of the E5glish l35g43ge 35d #3de it le3r53$le for #illio5s of
st4de5ts 9orld9ide thro4gh Ne9 Co5cet E5glish 35d #35! other co4rse $ooAs> ?P;:Y; Li8 et 3l;8 %&&)1
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It 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t the Chi5ese 3re 5ot the o5l! eole i5 histor! 9ho h3"e he3"il!
r3ctised or 3tt3ched i#ort35ce to te6t #e#oris3tio5; 2i"e5 th3t EQUR5til 3$o4t )&&& $;c; 3ll
liter3t4re 93s or3l>8 3ll c4lt4res i5 the 9orld h3"e i5 the 3st #3i5t3i5ed or3l tr3ditio5s 9hose
co5ti54ed e6iste5ce dee5ded o5 #e#or!8 for8 3t th3t ti#e8 E3ll of 9h3t is c3lled liter3r!
e6ressio5 93s c3rried i5 the #e#or! of the folA8 35d eseci3ll! of gifted 53rr3tors> ?S;
Tho#so58 %&&.@; Si5ce the 9orld le3r5ed to 4se 9riti5g8 9ritte5 l35g43ges i5 "3rio4s
c4lt4res #3de it ossi$le to st35d3rdi7e est3$lished te6ts; The r3ctice of 4si5g 9riti5g 93s
ho9e"er8 i5 the e3rliest st3ge of record:#3Ai5g8 Ee6cetio53ll! for sole#5 religio4s or or3l
4roses> ?Cl35ch!8 '..(1 %@;
1.2.1 Te./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 2e6igi1u3 :2a7/i7e>e9u7a/i14
As 3 seci3l Ai5d of or3l tr3ditio58 religio4s cere#o5ies 35d he3li5g rites ofte5 re<4ire their
erfor#ers8 i;e; riests 35d sh3#35s8 to rerod4ce rit43listic te6ts 9ord for 9ord8 9ith
co#lete f3ithf4l5ess to 9h3t h3s $ee5 3ssed do95 to the# ?S; Tho#so58 '..,@;
To ill4str3te ho9 the 3cc4r3c! of #e#or! 93s e#h3si7ed i5 rit43listic ro4ti5es i5 3
#edie"3l Christi35 #o53ster! or ch4rch8 Cl35ch! 5oted1
/! co5st35t reetitio5 the clerg! le3r5ed the lit4rg! $! he3rt; I5 #o53stic choirs the
de#o5 T4ti"ill4s 93s $elie"ed to collect 4 s3cAf4ls of droed s!ll3$les fro# the
Ps3l#s to $e 9eighed 4 3t the L3st L4dge#e5t 3g3i5st those 9ho "oiced the te6ts
i53cc4r3tel!
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; Mo5As 9ho f3iled to s3! their r3!ers correctl! i5"3lid3ted the# 35d
e5d35gered 5ot o5l! their o95 so4ls $4t their 3tro5s> 3s 9ell; ?Cl35ch!8 '..(1 +%@
Moder5 #5e#o5ic tech5i<4es8 3ccordi5g to C3rr4thers ?'..&@8 c35 $e tr3ced $3cA to the
i5herit35ce of cl3ssic3l 35ti<4it! 9hich the #o5As 4sed to hel the# #e#orise the #35!
9orAs the! h3d to re3d; As "35 Ho4ts ?'...1 ,@ 4t it1
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I5 o5e of his ser#o5s L3c<4es de Vitr! told the stor! of ho9 3 cleric i5 choir s39 3 de"il 9eighed do95
9ith 3 s3cA; The de"il e6l3i5ed th3t the s3cA 93s f4ll of Es!ll3$les 35d sl4rred 4tter35ces 35d "erses of the
s3l#s> 9hich the clerg! h3d stole5 fro# 2od 9he5 e545ci3ti5g their r3!ers i5correctl!; ?For #ore 3$o4t
the stor!8 see Cl35ch!8 '..(1 '-,@
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No #o53ster! h3d e5o4gh $ooAs8 /i$les8 $i$lic3l co##e5t3ries or i#ort35t cl3ssic3l
te6ts for e3ch #o5A to h3"e his o95 $ooAshelf; He5ce #o5As h3d to #e#orise 3
co5sider3$le 3#o45t of liter3t4re; To $e 3$le to 45derst35d 35d i5terret the /i$le8 for
e63#le8 o5e h3d to $e s4re th3t the te6t 93s fir#l! fi6ed i5 o5e>s #i5d; All sorts of
tricAs 9ere de"ised to #3Ae this Do$ e3sier;
H4gh of St Victor8 35 i5fl4e5ti3l te3cher of $i$lic3l st4dies i5 the '%
th
ce5t4r!8 de"ised se"er3l
sche#es to hel his 4ils #e#orise s3lter 35d /i$lic3l te6ts for recisel! these re3so5s ?cf;
C3rr4thers8 '..&1 %+':%++J see %;(;% for #ore disc4ssio5 @; It 93s recorded th3t8 i5 9riti5g 3
co#il3tio5 of 3tristic te6ts o5 the 2osels8 St; Tho#3s A<4i53s8 35 It3li35 theologi35 i5 the
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ce5t4r!8 E4t the co#il3tio5 together fro# te6ts th3t he h3d re3d 35d co##itted to
#e#or! fro# ti#e to ti#e 9hile st3!i5g i5 "3rio4s religio4s ho4ses> ?24i cited i5 C3rr4thers8
'..&1 (@; It see#ed th3t e5h35ci5g o5e>s #e#or! c33cit! $ec3#e 35 esse5ti3l 3rt of
#o53stic life; It 93s 3lso recorded th3t i5 o5e #o53ster!8 e3ch #o5A 93s gi"e5 o5e $ooA to
st4d! for 3 !e3r ?Cl35ch!8 '.-%@; This 93s 5ot "er! differe5t fro# ri"3te school st4de5ts i5
35cie5t Chi53 9ho se5d !e3rs le3r5i5g $! he3rt o5l! 3 fe9 cl3ssics;
I5 35cie5t Hi5d4 ed4c3tio58 the Ved3
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8 the scrit4re of the Hi5d4s8 93s 3lso t34ght i5 3
si#il3r 93! to ho9 the Co5f4ci35 cl3ssics 9ere le3r5ed i5 35cie5t Chi531
The te3cher 9o4ld i5str4ct the fe9 st4de5ts se3ted o5 the gro45d 3$o4t hi# $! rote8
35d for #35! ho4rs d3il! the! 9o4ld ree3t "erse 3fter "erse8 45til o5e or #ore 93s
#3stered; So#eti#es8 to e5s4re correct5ess8 the h!#5s 9ere t34ght i5 #ore th35 o5e
93!8 F or i5 e"e5 #ore co#lic3ted 93!s; ?/3sh3#8 '.*)1 '+(@
It is this re#3rA3$le s!ste# of #5e#o5ic checAs 35d the 3tie5ce 35d $rilli35t #e#ories of
#35! ge5er3tio5s of te3chers 35d st4de5ts 9hich reser"ed the Ved3s for osterit! i5 #4ch
the s3#e for# 3s th3t i5 9hich the! e6isted 5e3rl! 3 tho4s35d !e3rs $efore Christ ?i$id@; E"e5
tod3!8 3rts of the Ved3 3re still recited 35d #e#orised 3s 3 Ereligio4s 3ct of gre3t #erit> ?"35
/4ite5e58 '..,1 *%.@;
';%;% ?Te./@ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 0e9ie<a6 Eu21:e
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Ved3 liter3ll! #e35s EA5o9ledge> 35d is reg3rded 3s the e#$odi#e5t of eter53l tr4th th3t 93s o5ce
re"e3led to gifted 35d i5sired seers ?rishis@8 9ho i5 t4r5 tr35scri$ed it i5to S35sArit ?"35 /4ite5e58 '..,@
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Altho4gh te6t #e#ori73tio5 h3s ge5er3ll! $ee5 #3rgi53lised i5 co5te#or3r! Bester5
ed4c3tio5 or e"e5 9orse8 tre3ted 3s8 i5 CooA>s ?'..)1 '((@ 9ords8 E35 45forgi"3$le si5> or E3s
tho4gh there is 5o c3se to 3rg4e> 3g3i5st it8 it is $! 5o #e35s 3$se5t i5 histor!; O5 the
co5tr3r!8 #e#or! 93s the s!chologic3l f3c4lt! "3l4ed 3$o"e 3ll others i5 the eriod
stretchi5g fro# l3te 35ti<4it! thro4gh to the Re53iss35ce ?C3rr4thers8 '..&@;
I5 her det3iled 353l!sis of 4ses of #e#or! 35d the co5cetio5s of #e#or! i5 the Middle
Ages8 C3rr4thers ?'..&@ sho9ed ho9 #e#or! l3!ed 3 sig5ific35t role i5 #edie"3l eole>s
i5tellect43l 35d c4lt4r3l li"es; The gre3t "3l4es the! 3tt3ched to #e#or! c35 $e se5sed fro#
C3rr4thers>s deictio51
A5cie5t 35d #edie"3l eole reser"ed their 39e for #e#or!; Their gre3test ge5i4ses
the! descri$e 3s eole of s4erior #e#ories8 the! $o3st 453sh3#edl! of their
ro9ess i5 th3t f3c4lt!8 35d the! reg3rd it 3s 3 #3rA of s4erior #or3l ch3r3cter 3s
9ell 3s i5tellect; ?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 IJ e#h3sis origi53l@
F
Me#ori38 F8 93s 3 3rt of litter3t4r31 i5deed it 93s 9h3t liter3t4re8 i5 3 f45d3#e5t3l
se5se8 93s for; Me#or! is o5e of the fi"e di"isio5s of 35cie5t 35d #edie"3l rhetoricJ
it 93s reg3rded8 #oreo"er8 $! #ore th35 o5e 9riter o5 the s4$Dect 3s the E5o$lest> of
3ll these8 the $3sis for the rest; ?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 .J e#h3sis origi53l@
Bh3t is c3t4red fro# the 3$o"e <4ot3tio5s8 3#o5g other thi5gs8 is th3t i5 3dditio5 to ser"i5g
3s 3 rhetoric3l tool to 3ssist schol3rs8 the tr3ditio5 of #edie"3l #e#or! 93s e"e5 3 #3tter of
ethics8 for8
A erso5 9itho4t 3 #e#or!8 if s4ch 3 thi5g co4ld $e8 9o4ld $e 3 erso5 9itho4t
#or3l ch3r3cter 35d8 i5 $3sic se5se8 9itho4t h4#35it!> ?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 '(@;
To highlight the f45d3#e5t3l role of #e#ori38 C3rr4thers co5sidered #e#ori3 3s Eo5e of the
#od3lities of #edie"3l c4lt4re ?chi"3lr! #ight $e 35other@> so th3t it h3d 3 "er! lo5g life 3s 3
co5ti54i5g so4rce 35d refere5ce for h4#35 "3l4es 35d $eh3"io4r ?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 %+&@;
Fro# this "ie98 the E4roe35 Middle Ages c35 $e #e35i5gf4ll! soAe5 of 3s 3 E#e#ori3
c4lt4re> ?i$id@;
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Olso5 ro"ided the follo9i5g ict4re of #edie"3l 9riters> co5cetio5s of #e#or! 9he5
co##e5ti5g o5 the C3rr4thers ?'..&@ 9orA1
F Medie"3l 9riters 5e"er tho4ght of 9riti5g 3s 3 s4$stit4te for #e#or! $4t r3ther 3s
35 3id to #e#or!; Briti5g 93s tho4ght of 35d 4sed #erel! 3s 3 #5e#o5ic de"ice8 3
s!ste# of "isi$le #3rAs th3t co4ld $e 4sed to checA #e#or!; Me#or! 93s tho4ght of
3s E9riti5g> o5 the #i5d 35d #e#or! 93s the ri#3r! i5str4#e5t of tho4ght; ?Olso58
'..)1 +'@
It is cle3r th3t #edie"3l schol3rs relied ri#3ril! o5 #e#or! r3ther th35 9ritte5 te6ts i5 #ost
of their schol3rl! 3cti"ities; Me#or! sAills 9ere "3l4ed 3s highl! $! schol3stic #3sters 3s
the! 9ere $! ordi53r! #o5As; I5 his tre3tise o5 4se of #e#or!8 M3ster H4gh of St Victor8 3
f3#o4s theologi35 35d histori35 i5 the #id t9elfth ce5t4r!8 s3id8 EA5o9ledge is 3 tre3s4re 35d
!o4r he3rt is its stro5g$o6> ?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 %+'J see 3lso Cl35ch!8 '..(1 ',%:',(@;
/ec34se the he3rt is 3 tre3s4re of recio4s i5for#3tio58 re#e#$eri5g is the rocess of
e6tr3cti5g 3 3rtic4l3r ite# fro# it $! rec3lli5g its Ecolo4r8 sh3e8 ositio5 35d l3ce#e5t> i5
the 3rchi"e of the #i5d ?Cl35ch!8 '..(1 ',(@; H3"i5g reco##e5ded re#e#$eri5g 9h3t o5e
re3d8 r3ther th35 dee5di5g o5 the 9ritte5 te6t ?Cl35ch!8 '..(1 '.(@8 H4gh set o4t 93!s to
i#ri5t the A5o9ledge so th3t it c35 $e e3sil! retrie"ed; For e63#le8 he 9rote 3t le5gth o5
ho9 to le3r5 the s3lter 9ord for 9ord $! he3rt ?cf; C3rr4thers8 '..&1 %+':%++@; H4gh>s
schol3rl! 3d"ice 93s follo9ed i5 the schools 35d 45i"ersities of #edie"3l E4roe 35d his
i5str4ctio5s for #e#ori7i5g te6ts 9ere e"e5 tho4ght to h3"e Eheled to Aee the te6t43l
tr3ditio5s of i#ort35t 34thorit3ti"e 9orAs #ore or less i5t3ct> ?"35 Ho4ts8 '...1 -@;
O5e 3sect of the for#3tio5 of #edie"3l liter3te h3$its 9hich 93s tho4ght to $e ec4li3rl!
#edie"3l 93s th3t E#edie"3l 9riti5g 93s #edi3ted to the 5o5:liter3te $! the ersiste5ce of
the h3$it of re3di5g 3lo4d 35d $! the refere5ce8 e"e5 3#o5g the ed4c3ted8 for liste5i5g to 3
st3te#e5t r3ther th35 scr4ti5i7i5g it i5 scrit> ?Cl35ch!8 '..(1 '-+@; Desite the i5cre3si5g 4se
of doc4#e5ts8 tr3ditio53l or3l roced4res s4ch 3s the refere5ce for re3di5g 3lo4d r3ther th35
sc355i5g 3 te6t sile5tl! 9ith the e!e8 ersisted thro4gh the Middle Ages 35d $e!o5d ?Cl35ch!8
'..(1 %@; This tr3ditio58 3g3i58 disl3!ed si#il3rit! to th3t r3cticed $! st4de5ts i5 35cie5t
Chi53 ?see ';%@;
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le3r5i5g8 3ccordi5g to C3rr4thers8 #edie"3l eole 9o4ld 5ot h3"e 45derstood o4r se3r3tio5
of #e#or! fro# le3r5i5g $ec34se
QIR5 their 45derst35di5g of the #3tter8 it 93s #e#or! th3t #3de A5o9ledge i5to 4sef4l
e6erie5ce8 35d #e#or! th3t co#$i5ed these ieces of i5for#3tio5:$eco#e:
e6erie5ce i5to 9h3t 9e c3ll Eide3s8> 9h3t the! 9ere #ore liAel! to c3ll ED4dg#e5ts;>
?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 I@
This ositio5 #ight $e 3 roDectio5 of #edie"3l $elief th3t E3ll le3r5i5g is $3sed i5
re#e#$eri5g> ?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 %*.@ or Eh4#35 le3r5i5g is #e#or3ti"e QsicR i5 53t4re>
?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 %+&@; Bitho4t rete5tio5 i5 the #e#or!8 3ccordi5g to H4gh8 there is 5o
le3r5i5g8 5o 9isdo# ?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 -%@;
Echoi5g 35d f4rtheri5g this ositio58 Miller ?'.+(1 )):)*@8 o5e of the fo45ders of #oder5
cog5iti"e s!cholog!8 st3ted th3t le3r5i5g c35 $e see5 3s 3 rocess of 3c<4iri5g s#3rter 35d
richer #5e#o5ic de"ices to rerese5t i5for#3tio58 e5codi5g si#il3r i5for#3tio5 i5to 3tter5s8
org35i73tio53l ri5ciles8 35d r4les 9hich rerese5t e"e5 #3teri3l 9e h3"e 5e"er $efore
e5co45tered8 $4t 9hich is EliAe> 9h3t 9e do A5o98 35d th4s c35 $e Erecog5ised> or
Ere#e#$ered>; This is o$"io4sl! 3 ersecti"e th3t #edie"3l 9riters 9o4ld h3"e 3greed o5;
It is cle3r fro# the 3$o"e disc4ssio5 th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3s $ee5 3 s3lie5t fe3t4re of
le3r5i5g 35d schol3rl! tr3ditio5 i5 the Best 3t 3 3rtic4l3r ti#e i5 histor!; Altho4gh schol3rs
h3"e 3l93!s recog5ised th3t #e#or! 5ecess3ril! l3!ed 3 cr4ci3l role i5 re:#oder5 Bester5
ci"ilis3tio58 Ei5s4fficie5t 3tte5tio5 h3s $ee5 3id to the ed3gog! of #e#or!8 to 9h3t #e#or!
93s tho4ght to $e8 35d ho9 35d 9h! it 93s tr3i5ed> ?C3rr4thers8 '..&1 -@;
';%;( P13i/i<e <1i7e3 14 /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 /5e 019e24 We3/
I re3lised th3t #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3ls 93s ro$3$l! 5ot 35 e6cetio53l r3ctice i5
5i5etee5th ce5t4r! UG ed4c3tio5 9he5 #! s4er"isor ?Ros3#o5d Mitchell8 erso53l
co##45ic3tio58 A4g4st &+8 %&'&@ dre9 #! 3tte5tio5 to the follo9i5g eisode i5 Jane +yre
?/ro5te8 '..)@ 9here L35e E!re e6l3i5s ho9 she le3r5ed Fre5ch1
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h3d 3l93!s #3de 3 oi5t of co5"ersi5g 9ith M3d3#e Pierrot8 3s ofte5 3s I co4ld8 a49
5a9# =e3i9e3# 9u2i4g /5e 6a3/ 3e<e4 8ea23# 6ea24/ a :12/i14 1; F2e475 =8 5ea2/
9ai68 K 3l!i5g #!self to t3Ae 3i5s 9ith #! 3cce5t8 35d i#it3ti5g 3s closel! 3s
ossi$le the ro545ci3tio5 of #! te3cher K I h3d 3c<4ired 3 cert3i5 degree of
re3di5ess 35d correct5ess i5 the l35g43ge8 35d 93s 5ot liAel! to $e #4ch 3t 3 loss 9ith
M3de#oiselle Adel3;
This #3! 9ell ser"e 3s 35 e63#le of ho9 ordi53r! the r3ctice of #e#oris3tio5 93s i5
5i5etee5th ce5t4r! UG ed4c3tio5;
E"e5 i5 the #oder5 Best8 there 3re those 9ho 3reci3te the $e5efits of #e#oris3tio5 of
te6ts 3s 3 4sef4l le3r5i5g tech5i<4e; For i5st35ce8 3 #3Dor 9ester5 schol3r s3id the follo9i5g
9he5 offeri5g 3d"ice o5 E5glish te3chi5g1
Memorising or 6e4etition is eseci3ll! good8 $ec34se8 $! 3id of it8 the for# 35d fl3#e
of e6ressio5 3dhere to the #i5d8 35d little $! little t3ste is 3c<4ired8 good liter3t4re
$eco#i5g 3 sort of erso53l roert! of the reciie5t8 to 3ct 3s 35 35t3go5is# to the
#ediocre; ?Her$ert P3l#er '.(&1 (% cited i5 Pe55!cooA8 '..+J e#h3sis origi53l@
I5 3 si#il3r "ei58 3 9ester5 le3r5er e6ressed his feeli5g 3$o4t #e#oris3tio51
I h3"e le3r5ed th3t there 3re #35! $e5efits to #e#ori7i5g; For #e8 erso53ll!8 it
deee5s #! 45derst35di5g of the 3ss3ge 35d fi6es it i5 #! he3rt; As !o4 go o"er 35d
o"er 3 3ss3ge i5 !o4r #i5d8 !o4 thi5A 3$o4t it 3g3i5 35d 3g3i5; The rich5ess of the
9ords8 the 93! the! 3re 4t together8 the ossi$le s!#$olis#s8 the cle"er 4se of
liter3r! de"ices8 35d 5e9 #e35i5gs th3t !o4 #3! 5e"er h3"e 5oticed or 45derstood
$eforeM3ll $eco#e 33re5t i5 the rocess of #e#ori7i5g; Me#ori7i5g c35 4t
9ords i5 o4r he3rts 3s 9ell 3s i5 o4r #i5ds; Le3r5i5g $! he3rtM9hich #3! $e
so#e9h3t of 3 d!i5g tr3ditio5M#e35s to le3r5 so#ethi5g so deel! th3t it $eco#es
3rt of o4r core1 it fills 4sJ it ch35ges 4s; ?T355er8 %&&)@
To el3$or3te o5 ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is ositi"el! "ie9ed $! so#e 9ester5 schol3rs8 i5 the
re#3i5i5g 3rt of this sectio5 I 9ill e63#i5e t9o st4dies1 Ste"icA ?'.-.@8 9hich 353l!ses
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isol3ti5g i#lic3tio5s of 9h3t the le3r5ers re"e3l of the co#le6 soci3l 35d cere$r3l rocess
of l35g43ge le3r5i5gJ 35d CooA ?'..)@8 9hich is 4rel! 3 co5cet43l 9orA8 sec4l3ti5g o5 the
rele"35ce to 35d i#lic3tio5s for TESOL of Ei5ti#3te disco4rse>
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Ste"icA ?'.-.@ erfor#ed 35 i5ter"ie9:$3sed c3se st4d! 9ith se"e5 o4tst35di5g 3d4lt
l35g43ge le3r5ers fro# "3ried rofessio53l 35d L' $3cAgro45ds; D3t3 9ere e5tirel! fro#
ho4r:lo5g recorded co5"ers3tio5s the 34thor h3d 9ith the i5for#35ts; The c3se of /ert8 35
L':E5glish le3r5er of Chi5ese8 3ro4sed i5 #e gre3t i5terest; He 93s8 3ccordi5g to Ste"icA
?'.-.1 %'@8 E3 !o45g dilo#3t 9ho h3d re3ched an extraor*inarily high le7el o% #om4eten#e
$oth i5 se3Ai5g 35d i5 re3di5g Chi5ese> ?#! e#h3sis@; I 93s f3sci53ted $! /ert>s stor! 5ot
o5l! $ec34se the 34thor 4sed the #ost 453#$ig4o4s e6ressio5s to descri$e his high
3chie"e#e5t i5 Chi5ese le3r5i5g8 $4t $ec34se #35! of the tech5i<4es he cl3i#ed to h3"e
3doted 9ere t!ic3l of the 9ell:A5o95 A4dio:Li5g43l #ethod 9hich h3s $ee5 ch3lle5ged
35d l3rgel! rel3ced $egi55i5g i5 the l3te '.+&s i5 the Best; A3rt fro# #3ssi"e E#i#icr!:
#e#oris3tio5> 35d i5te5si"e #ech35ic3l drills8 /ert e"e5 tooA E#e#oris3tio5 of te6ts> 3s o5e
of the le3r5i5g 3cti"ities; His re3ctio5 to te6t #e#ori73tio5 93s reflected i5 the follo9i5g
<4ot3tio51
EBh3t 3$o4t #e#ori7i5g co55ected te6ts i5 3 foreig5 l35g43ge8 s4ch 3s di3log4es or
little stories or the liAeH> I 3sAed; EIs th3t so#ethi5g !o4 thri"e o58 or so#ethi5g !o4 c35
do $4t do5>t c3re for8 so#ethi5g !o4 detestH>
EBell8 this is esse5ti3ll! 9h3t 9e 9ere re<4ired to do i5 Chi5ese; Wi/5i4 2ea314# 1;
71u23e; I #e358 o5e does5>t sit do95 35d #e#ori7e these 3ges of te6tMof 53rr3ti"e8 $4t
there is so#ethi5g to $eF>
EMe#ori73tio5 93s5>t so#ethi5g th3t 3rtic4l3rl! $othered !o4H>
EN1. N1# Bi/5i4 2ea314; /! th3t I #e35 th3t o5e h3d to h3"e 3ss4r35ce th3t this 93s
9h3t eole re3ll! s3id; If I 93s goi5g to se5d the ti#e o5 it8 I 935ted to $e s4re it 93s
goi5g to $e 9orth the effort;>
E/4t #e#ori7i5g t9e5t! or t9e5t!:fi"e li5es8 or so#ethi5g liAe th3tF>
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EYo4>d go ho#e 35d do it8 35d $ri5g it $3cA the 5e6t d3!8 35d F>
EYes8 35d I stress th3t $ec34se8 9ith the te6t 9e>re 4si5g i5 this l35g43ge8 I thi5A 3ll
of 4s h3"e 3 feeli5g th3t the l35g43ge i5 the $ooA is r3ther stilted 35d 3rtifici3l8 35d 5ot
5ecess3ril! 9h3t 9e>d $e s3!i5g;>
ETh3t fe3t4re of the Chi5ese co4rse 93s 9h3t g3"e !o4 35 i5sti5ct for 9h3t is
3ct43ll! s3id i5 the l35g43geMfor ho9 se5te5ces 3re 4t together;>
EYes; I5 this l35g43ge I feel th3t I D4st h3"e co45tless 3tter5s sort of s9i##i5g
3ro45d i5 #! he3d;> ?'.-.1 %.:(&J e#h3sis Q$oldR 3dded@
A 54#$er of i5trig4i5g iss4es 3rise fro# this eisode; First8 /ert see#ed 5ot $othered $! this
r3ctice 3t 3ll ?see 9ords highlighted i5 $old i5 the 3$o"e <4ot3tio5@ e"e5 3s 3 le3r5er $ro4ght
4 i5 the Bester5 c4lt4re of le3r5i5g; Theorists or rese3rchers 3re ofte5 o$li"io4s of 3cti"ities
9hich #e35 3 lot for the le3r5ers8 tho4gh 5ot sig5ific35t for the#; The c3"e3t here is th3t the
ersecti"es of le3r5ers 9ho 3re 3ct43ll! e5g3ged i5 le3r5i5g 3 seco5d l35g43ge h3"e 5ot
$ee5 gi"e5 e5o4gh s3ce i5 SLA rese3rch8 9hich8 h3s $ee5 $i3sed to93rds Ee6ert t3lA> ?e;g;
P3rr!8 '..-@; Seco5d8 ercetio5s or $eliefs h3$it43ted i5 the le3r5ers> #i5d for o5e re3so5 or
35other8 ser"e 3s8 i5 /3rtelt>s ?'..,@ ter#8 EfolA #odels> 9hich g4ide 35d #oti"3te their
le3r5i5g 35d e6l3i5 9h! the! $eh3"e the 93! the! do; For i5st35ce8 /ert cl3i#ed to h3"e
de"eloed fro# te6t #e#oris3tio5 35 i5sti5ct for Eho9 se5te5ces 3re 4t together> 35d felt
hi#self to h3"e co45tless 3tter5s s9i##i5g 3ro45d i5 his he3d; This ercetio5 #3! 5ot fit
9ell 9ith cert3i5 theoretic3l oi5ts of "ie98 5or c35 it co5"i5ce 35! e6erts or le3r5ers 9ho
h3"e 5ot e6erie5ced the #e#oris3tio5 of te6t; Ho9e"er8 this reflects ho9 the le3r5er
ercei"es 9h3t h3s $ee5 effecti"e i5 his le3r5i5g rocess; S4ccess 9ith foreig5 l35g43ge8 3s
Ste"icA fo45d i5 this st4d! of s4ccessf4l le3r5ers8 Edoes 5ot co#e $! o5e si#le for#4l3>
?'.-.1 6i@; A5other iss4e th3t tr35sires fro# this eisode is le3r5ers> 393re5ess of their
le3r5i5g $eh3"io4r or str3teg!; A s4ccessf4l le3r5er is 5ot o5l! 3 le3r5i5g theorist ?A; L;
/ro958 /r35sford8 N C3#io5e8 '.-(@8 $4t 3lso 3 reflecti"e 35d r3g#3tic or 4rosef4l
le3r5er; Bhe5 he s3id he h3d to #3Ae s4re th3t the te6t to $e #e#orised sho4ld $e E9h3t
eole re3ll! s3id>8 /ert 33re5tl! $ore i5 his #i5d the 4rose of or3l co##45ic3tio5; He
see#ed 5ot to $e se5di5g ti#e o5 3 le3r5i5g 3cti"it! 3t 9illJ r3ther8 he 9eighed 4 c3ref4ll!
9hether Eit 93s goi5g to $e 9orth the effort>; I5ste3d of 45co5ditio53ll! 3cceti5g 9h3te"er
the te3cher ro#oted8 he critic3ll! or selecti"el! #3de 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio58 i;e;
co##itted to #e#or! o5l! te6ts he co5sidered to $e 4sef4l or re93rdi5g;
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follo9i5g the i5ter"ie9 tr35scrit8 Ste"icA #3de 5o refere5ce to 35! of the
iss4es disc4ssed 3$o"e; I5ste3d8 he disc4ssed $riefl! the 3rori3te5ess of l35g43ge s3#les
gi"e5 to the le3r5er $3sed o5 3 co#l3i5t $! /ert 9hich 93s 5ot 3ct43ll! e"ide5ced i5 the
i5ter"ie9 e6cets <4oted1
/ert is co#l3i5i5g th3t i5 his rese5t co4rse ?i;e; the l3ter l35g43ge8 5ot Chi5ese@8
s3#les of l35g43ge 3rori3te for o5e sit43tio5 or o5e soci3l le"el 3re #i6ed 9ith
s3#les 3rori3te for other sit43tio5s 35d le"els; This c34ses tro4$le 9hether he is
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so#ethi5g liAe l3!i5g 35 i5tellect43l g3#e; To 3sA 3 le3r5er to Aee tr3cA of 5e9
3tter5s o5 #ore th35 o5e soci3l or geogr3hic3l le"el is liAe 3sAi5g 3 5e9 checAer
l3!er to l3! o5 3 three:di#e5sio53l $o3rd; EAc<4isitio5> is #ore liAe de"eloi5g 3
5e9 self8 35d the s3#e co#lic3tio5s c35 Aee th3t self fro# de"eloi5g i5 3 9ell:
i5tegr3ted 93!; To 4se !et 35other fig4re of seech8 /ert #4st h3"e felt liAe 3
$egi55i5g #3rAs#35 9ho is 3sAed to shoot 3t 3 #o"i5g t3rget $efore he h3s le3r5ed to
hit 3 st3tio53r! o5e; ?'.-.1 (&@
Ste"icA>s co##e5ts 3e3red 5ot to the oi5t gi"e5 the co5te5t of the scrit o5 9hich the!
3re t3rgeted ?i;e; #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts@; T3lAi5g 3$o4t Ele3r5i5g> 35d E3c<4isitio5> 3t this
oi5t see#ed to $e disc4rsi"e or f3rfetched; Ho9e"er8 o5e iss4e of rele"35ce to #!
disc4ssio5 #ight $e the 3rori3te5ess of the l35g43ge s3#le ?te6t43l #3teri3l@ ro"ided
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i5te5ds to s3! #ight $e th3t the l35g43ge s3#le sho4ld $e c3ref4ll! chose5 to $e t3ilored to
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Ste"icA 93s i5deed 35 3d"oc3te of A4dioli5g43l:st!le 3cti"ities 3s he 9rote i5 the s4##3r!
ch3ter 45der the sectio5 title of What 2 mysel% woul* *o with a new language1 EI 9o4ld liAe
to h3"e ?i5 f3ct8 I 9o4ld ro$3$l! i5sist o5 h3"i5g@ 3 ch35ce to do 3 f3ir 3#o45t of 4rel!
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co##e5ts o5 so#e of the ri5ciles ill4str3ted8 35d s4ggest ho9 the re3der #3! 9orA critic3ll! 9ith the
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e#h3sis origi53l@; More i#ort35tl!8 Ste"icA did 5ot e6cl4de #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts fro#
E#ech35ic3l r3ctice>1
I 9o4ld e"e5 do 3 cert3i5 3#o45t of #e#oris3tio58 $ec34se #e#oris3tio5 is e3s! for
#e 35d $ec34se I h3"e fre<4e5tl! $ee5 3$le to u3e i5 co5"ers3tio5 <a2i1u3
a9a:/a/i143 1; /5i4g3 I 5a9 6ea24e9 =8 5ea2/; ?'.-.1 ')-J e#h3sis 3dded@
A5 i#ort35t re3so5 for Ste"icA>s r3ctice 9ith te6t #e#oris3tio5 is th3t he 93s 3$le to 4se
9h3t h3d $ee5 #e#orised fle6i$l! ?i5 his 9ords8 E3d3t3tio5s of thi5gs I h3d le3r5ed $!
he3rt>@ r3ther th35 Esheng ban ying tao> Q3 Chi5ese idio# liter3ll! #e35i5g Ee5forced #o"e
35d i53rori3te $orro9>R8 3 rote 4se or i#it3tio5 reg3rdless of r3ctic3l sit43tio5s or
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cre3ti"it! ?to $e disc4ssed i5 %;%;(@8 this erso53l e6erie5ce #3! le5d 3 #odest s4ort to
the 3rg4#e5t th3t the #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts is 5ot 3 oi5tless r3ctice 35d it does 5ot
5ecess3ril! f3il to le3d to rod4cti"e8 origi53l l35g43ge 4se ;
';%;(;% T5e C11A ?1**&@ 3/u98
Ste"icA does 5ot rerese5t the o5l! "oice 3#o5g 9ester5 schol3rs 9ho h3s 3tte#ted to
restore 3 good 53#e to le3r5i5g $! he3rt; Not3$l!8 i5 his co5cet43l st4d!8 CooA ro"ided
453#$ig4o4s s4ort for reetitio5 35d le3r5i5g $! he3rt8 9hich8 3re 5or#3ll! disco4r3ged i5
#oder5 9ester5 ed4c3tio51
I 9ish to 3rg4e the oositeF fro# 3 stro5g co5"ictio5 $3sed o5 e6erie5ce 3s 3
l35g43ge le3r5er8 35d sh3red I $elie"e $! #35! others8 th3t reetitio5 35d le3r5i5g $!
he3rt8 tho4gh co5de#5ed $! ed3gogic 35d 3c<4isitio5 theorists8 3re t9o of the #ost
le3s4r3$le8 "3l43$le8 35d efficie5t of l35g43ge le3r5i5g 3cti"ities8 35d th3t the! c35
$ri5g 9ith the# se5s3tio5s of those i5defi53$le8 o"er4sed !et still "3l43$le go3ls for
the l35g43ge le3r5er1 $ei5g i5"ol"ed i5 the 34the5tic 35d co##45ic3ti"e 4se of
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th3t this r3ctice sho4ld 5ot $e co5fi5ed to child le3r5ers1
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he3rt 35d ree3ti5g8 e"e5 9itho4t 45derst35di5g; G5o9i5g $! he3rt #3Aes it ossi$le
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The 3rg4#e5t th3t le3r5i5g $! he3rt 35d reetitio5 c35 3fford le3s4re or e5Do!#e5t to e"e5
3d4lt seco5d l35g43ge le3r5ers is 33re5tl! i5gr3i5ed i5 his "ie9 th3t8 l35g43ge8 33rt fro#
for the 4rose of co##45ic3tio58 is E3 so4rce of co#fort 35d 35 o4tlet for Do! 35d
e64$er35ce> ?'..)1 '(-@;
CooA>s ro5o45ced e5dorse#e5t of le3r5i5g $! he3rt 93s i5 effect 3ssoci3ted 9ith 3 olitic3l
ed4c3tio53l #o"e#e5t i5 /rit3i5 3d"oc3ti5g 3 Eret4r5i5g to $3sics> 9hich8 i5 his c3se8
h3e5ed to $e Erote le3r5i5g of the E5glish liter3r! cl3ssics
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353l!sis1
' e#h3sis o5 cre3ti"it! i5 l35g43ge r3ther th35 #e#or!
% 45rerese5t3ti"e d3t3
( c4lt4r3l $i3s 3g3i5st 35! 33re5tl! E4seless> l35g43ge
) 3 53rro9 "ie9 of l35g43ge ?35d disco4rse@ f45ctio5
?for det3iled 3rg4#e5t3tio58 see '..)1 '(*:'(.@ 9hich h3s i5 t4r5 led to the o4tl39i5g of
reetitio5 35d le3r5i5g $! he3rt i5 the seco5d l35g43ge cl3ssroo#;
To e6tr3ct i#lic3tio5s for TESOL fro# his disc4ssio5 3$o4t Ei5ti#3te disco4rse>8 CooA
st3ted1
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so th3t gr3d43ll!8 if o5e 9ishes8 the! #3! !ield 4 $oth their gr3##3r 35d their
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for cre3ti"e 35d origi53l 4se; ?'..)1 '(.J e#h3sis 3dded@
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i5"estig3tio58 CooA offered i5sights o5 the ossi$ilit! of 4si5g le3r5i5g $! he3rt 3s 3 tool for
i#licit le3r5i5g8 9hich8 tho4gh i5teresti5g8 is 9ell $e!o5d the scoe of the c4rre5t
disc4ssio5 ?for s!choli5g4istic 353l!sis of #e#orised 4tter35ces 35d i#licit le3r5i5g8 see
N; Ellis8 %&&%J Billi3#s8 '...@; I5teresti5gl!8 CooA>s sec4l3tio5 see#s to $e i5 3gree#e5t
9ith the ho4se:hold Chi5ese s3!i5g K EM3ster (&& T35g oe#s8 35d !o4 $eco#e 3 oet
!o4rself>
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K 9h3t 24 ?%&&(1 ., @ h3s c3lled E3 folA theor! of i#licit le3r5i5g>;
';( Ra/i14a6e ;12 /5e 7u22e4/ 3/u98
O"er the !e3rs8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 K i5 its o95 right K h3s $ee5 45der:i5"estig3ted eseci3ll!
gi"e5 the 9idesre3d 4se of the le3r5i5g r3ctice i5 Chi53; To d3te8 there h3s $ee5 5o
s!ste#3tic i5"estig3tio5 i5to the r3ctice 35d $eliefs of Chi5ese le3r5ers reg3rdi5g le3r5i5g
te6ts $! he3rt; Pre"io4s st4dies ?see8 e;g;8 Di5g N Y; Ii8 %&&'J Di5g8 %&&)J Di5g8 %&&,@ o5
le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt tooA 3s i5for#35ts 3 s#3ll 54#$er of rel3ti"el! s4ccessf4l le3r5ers 35d
E5glish #3Dors 3t terti3r! le"el 9ith 3 foc4s #ore o5 the s!chologic3l rocesses i5"ol"ed
th35 o5 ercetio5s of the r3ctice; A g3 left $! the e6isti5g st4dies is th3t8 e"e5 if there 3re
reorts o5 le3r5ers> $eliefs 3$o4t this r3ctice8 there is1
' 5o co5sider3tio5 gi"e5 to disti5ctio5s 3#o5g differe5t gro4s of le3r5ers ?i;e; fro#
differe5t ed4c3tio53l le"els 35d 9ith differe5ti3l E5glish roficie5c!@J 35d
% 5o 3tte#t to i5"estig3te the oi5io5s of 5o5:E5glish:#3Dors 9ho co5stit4te 35
o"er9hel#i5g #3Dorit! of college st4de5tsJ 35d
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( 5o for#3l st4d! of the "ie9s of l35g43ge te3chers i5 reg3rd to te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s
3 te3chi5g de"ice;
The rese5t st4d!8 therefore8 3ddresses this g3 i5 re"io4s e#iric3l st4dies $! e63#i5i5g
the r3ctices 35d $eliefs of 3 gro4 of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers reg3rdi5g the 4se of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g 9ith 35 3tte#t to co#3re the
co##o53lities 35d di"ersit! 3cross gro4s fro# three ed4c3tio53l le"els 9hich co5stit4te the
#3i5 3rt of the E5glish l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 s!ste# 35d rerese5t the l3rgest 54#$er of
E5glish l35g43ge le3r5ers i5 Chi53;
More $ro3dl!8 this thesis is i5te5ded 3s 3 co5tri$4tio5

to the liter3t4re o5 te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5
#oder5 Chi538

9hich8 i5 its o95 right8 h3s 5ot !et $ee5 s!ste#3tic3ll! e6lored i5 rel3tio5 to
foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 35d the 45derst35di5g of Chi5ese le3r5ers;
';) Ai03 1; /5e 3/u98
A ge5er3l o"er"ie9 of the rese3rch roDect h3s $ee5 gi"e5 3$o"e ?see P%@; To $e secific8
3i#s of the st4d! 3re to1
' f4rther the 45derst35di5g of the "3l4es of tr3ditio53l Chi5ese ed4c3tio5 r3ctices
35d Chi5ese ercetio5 of le3r5i5g thro4gh the le5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5J
% ro"ide 3 ote5ti3l rei5terret3tio5 of the Co5f4ci35 hilosoh! of le3r5i5g 35d
tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g r3ctices i5 Chi53 i5 order to <4er! to 9h3t e6te5t the!
3re rele"35t to #oder5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5J
( #o"e $e!o5d stereot!ed 35d s4erfici3l i5terret3tio5 of Chi5ese 93!s of le3r5i5g
$! co5d4cti5g i5:deth i5ter"ie9s 9ith 3 gro4 of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers fro#
differe5t ed4c3tio53l le"elsJ
) offer he4ristics th3t c35 !ield g4id35ce to do#estic foreig5 l35g43ge te3chers 3s
9ell 3s 9ester5:origi5 EFL=ESL te3chers=rese3rchers 9ho 3re or 9ill $e 9orAi5g 9ith
Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 35 i5terc4lt4r3l co##45ic3tio5 co5te6ts;
The o"er3ll 3i#s 35d iss4es re"ie9ed 3$o"e 45deri5 the #oti"3tio5 for the rese5t st4d!;
The rese3rch <4estio5s to $e 3ddressed 3re1
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' Bh3t 3re Chi5ese le3r5ers=te3chers> ercetio5s of the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5
foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g=te3chi5gH
% Ho9 c35 the e#erged fe3t4res of the le3r5ers=te3chers> ercetio5s $e e6l3i5edH
To $e secific8
Bh3t 3re the #ost co##o5 "ie9s or $eliefs of Chi5ese EFL le3r5ers=te3chers o5 te6t
#e#oris3tio5H
Bh3t 3re the ro$le#s ercei"ed or diffic4lties e6erie5ced $! Chi5ese EFL
le3r5ers=te3chers 9ith reg3rd to the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5H
Bh3t 3re the st4de5ts=te3chers> 3ttit4des to93rds the ote5ti3l ro$le#s th3t #ight $e
$ro4ght 3$o4t $! e6te5si"e 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5H
Are there 35! co##o53lities 35d di"ersit! 3cross gro4s 3t differe5t ed4c3tio53l
le"els reg3rdi5g the le3r5ers=te3chers> 4se 35d $eliefs o5 le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rtH
';* A4 1u/6i4e 1; /5e /5e3i3
This thesis is 35 3tte#t 3t i5"estig3ti5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 Chi53; The go3l is t9o:fold1 to
e6lore rele"35t liter3t4re to 4sh 3he3d c4rre5t 45derst35di5g of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d their
le3r5i5g r3ctice thro4gh the le5s of le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt 35d8 to i5"estig3te Chi5ese
co5cetio5s of foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g $! 3ccessi5g i5di"id43l "oices of Chi5ese
le3r5ers=te3chers;
U5if!i5g the #3croscoic 35d #icroscoic ersecti"e o5 the disc4ssio5 of #e#oris3tio5
co5stit4tes 3 #3Dor go3l of this thesis; This c35 $e 45derstood o5 t9o le"els; First8 s4$st35ti3l
co5cet43l 353l!ses 35d e#iric3l e"ide5ce 3re to $e ro"ided to co#le#e5t e3ch otherJ
seco5d8 35 i5<4ir! i5to the 5otio5 of the EChi5ese le3r5er> i5 3 $ro3d co5te6t of ge5er3l
?l35g43ge@ ed4c3tio5 is i5ter9o"e5 9ith 3 secific i5"estig3tio5 of the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g; To th3t e5d8 I $egi5 i5 Ch3ter % to
ose 3 ch3lle5ge to 9ester5 co5str4cts o5 ?te6t@ #e#oris3tio5 35d Chi5ese le3r5ers $!
el3$or3ti5g o5 3 54#$er of iss4es ce5tr3l to the 45derst35di5g of Co5f4ci35 ed4c3tio5 theor!
35d Chi5ese le3r5ers; It is 3rg4ed th3t #e#oris3tio5 c35 le3d to high le"el of 45derst35di5g
35d 3c<4isitio5 of A5o9ledge if 4sed roerl!J #oreo"er8 #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot 5ecess3ril!
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i5co#3ti$le 9ith critic3l thi5Ai5g8 3s ercei"ed $! #oder5 9ester5 ed4c3tio5 theorists; I5
f4rther 4rs4it of this li5e of 3rg4#e5t3tio58 i5 Ch3ter (8 3 #ore foc4sed 353l!sis is
co5d4cted of #e#oris3tio5 i5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g8 the #3Dor thr4st of 9hich is to
seeA 35 45derst35di5g of A4dioli5g43lis# K the #ost i#ort35t co5te#or3r! eiste#olog!
45derl!i5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 K i5 rel3tio5 to ELT i5 Chi53; Ch3ter ) descri$es the r3tio53le
35d desig5 for 35 i5ter"ie9:$3sed8 s4r"e!:co#le#e5ted e#iric3l st4d!; I #3Ae 35 3tte#t
i5 this ch3ter to sho9 ho9 the 3r3dig# of i5terreti"is# fits i5to the 53t4re of the c4rre5t
st4d!; I5 3dditio58 ge5er3l $3cAgro45d i5for#3tio5 3$o4t the 3rtici35ts 3s 9ell 3s d3t3
collectio5 35d 353l!sis 3re rese5ted i5 the rest of the ch3ter; Ch3ter * reorts o5 the
le3r5ers> ercetio5s of the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; Ch3ter +
the5 #o"es o5 to e63#i5e ho9 te3chers "ie9 the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 fro# the
ersecti"e of te3chi5g; Together 9ith the fi5di5gs i5 Ch3ter * 35d +8 Ch3ter , rese5ts 3
holistic ict4re of the 3rtici35ts> $eliefs 35d r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 $! looAi5g i5to
the si#il3rities 35d di"ersities 3cross three ed4c3tio53l gro4s o5 the $3sis of $oth <43lit3ti"e
35d <435tit3ti"e 353l!ses of the d3t3; Ch3ter - co5cl4des the dissert3tio5; It s4##3rises the
9hole st4d! 35d highlights the fi5di5gs "is:X:"is the rese3rch <4estio5s set 3t the o4tset;
Ped3gogic3l i#lic3tio5s 35d roosed directio5s for f4rther rese3rch 3re 3lso disc4ssed;
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CHAPTER TWO--------------------------------------------
A MACROSCOPIC VIEW: MEMORISATION IN CONFCIAN
HERITAGE LEARNING
I5 the re"io4s ch3ter 9e h3"e see5 th3t ?te6t@ #e#oris3tio5 93s 5ot 5ecess3ril!
st3#ed 9ith 3 Chi5ese $irth#3rA; There is 3 co5sider3$le $4lA of e"ide5ce le3di5g to
the co5cl4sio5 th3t ?te6t@ #e#oris3tio5 h3d $ee5 9idel! r3cticed i5 other 3rts of the
9orld i5cl4di5g the A5gloho5e Best 4 to the rece5t 3st; The de#3rc3tio5 $ec3#e
33re5t o5l! 9he5 the f3ct 93s t3Ae5 i5to co5sider3tio5 th3t the r3ctice h3s
s4r"i"ed i5 co5te#or3r! Chi53 35d ersisted 4 to 5o9 9hile it h3s $ee5 l3rgel!
3$35do5ed i5 9ester5 ed4c3tio5; This ch3ter 3i#s to offer ossi$le e6l353tio5s $!
sho9i5g ho9 #e#oris3tio5 is 45derstood i5 3 Co5f4ci35 c4lt4re of le3r5i5g 3s
oosed to 3 Bester5 co5te#or3r! co5str4ct; A #3Dor 3rg4#e5t to $e 3d"35ced is1 i5
the Co5f4ci35 hilosoh! of ed4c3tio58 #e#oris3tio5 is "ie9ed 5ot o5l! 3s 3
sig5ific35t 3rt of le3r5i5g8 $4t #e#orised A5o9ledge ser"es 3s the fo45d3tio5 for the
de"elo#e5t of cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g; First8 osi5g 3 ch3lle5ge to the 9idel!:held $elief
th3t the Co5f4ci35 tr3ditio5 "3l4es s4rf3ce le3r5i5g 9hich is ch3r3cterised $!
#e#oris3tio58 I 9ill 4t 45der scr4ti5! t9o Ae! iss4es1 ?'@ Is #e#oris3tio5 legiti#3te
i5 le3r5i5gH ?%@ Is #e#oris3tio5 doo#ed to $e i5co#3ti$le 9ith critic3l thi5Ai5gH
The58 I 9ill #o"e o5 to 3ddress the 3r3do6 of the Chi5ese le3r5er $! e63#i5i5g ho9
#e#oris3tio5 is r3cticed 35d ercei"ed $! Co5f4ci35 redecessors i5 rel3tio5 to its
rel3tio5shi 9ith 45derst35di5g8 reetitio5 35d cre3ti"it!; Fi53ll!8 I 9ill disc4ss the
rele"35ce of the Co5f4ci35 tr3ditio5 to co5te#or3r! ed4c3tio5 $! de#o5str3ti5g the
i5cl4sio5 of ele#e5ts of critic3l thi5Ai5g i5 Co5f4ci4s>s theor! of le3r5i5g;
2.1 Me012i3a/i14 a49 6ea24i4g: A :13i/i<e 2eCe.a0i4a/i14
As is cle3r fro# the historic3l re"ie9 of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 Ch3ter '8 #e#oris3tio5
h3d $ee5 3 ce5tr3l r3ctice i5 liter3c!8 liter3t4re8 35d religio4s ed4c3tio5 4 to the
rece5t 3st i5 the A5gloho5e Best8 5ot9ithst35di5g the f3ct th3t it h3s f3lle5 o4t of
f3"o4r i5 co5te#or3r! 9ester5 ed4c3tio5; Co5de#53tio5 of #e#oris3tio5 h3s
$eco#e 3 s3lie5t fe3t4re i5 the #ost rogressi"e theories i5 co5te#or3r! ed4c3tio5;
O5e of the $e5efits of ed4c3tio5 is co5sidered to $e 3 red4ctio5 i5 less stress o5 3
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good #e#or! ?Lis8 '.).@; It see#s th3t good #e#or! is 5o lo5ger 35 3d#ired or
9elco#e fe3t8 35d e"e5 9orse8 #e#oris3tio5 is red4ced to 35 Eo4tl39> 35d
E45forgi"3$le si5> ?CooA8 '..)1 '((@; A5! ed4c3tio53l theories 3cA5o9ledgi5g or
highlighti5g the role of #e#oris3tio5 ?Co5f4ci4s> theor! of le3r5i5g8 for i5st35ce@ 3re
reg3rded 3s irrele"35t to #oder5 sit43tio5s; This ositio5 see#s to h3"e ste##ed
fro# the follo9i5g 3ss4#tio5s1 ?'@ Le3r5i5g thro4gh #e#oris3tio5 does 5ot le3d to
A5o9ledge or 9isdo#J ?%@ Me#oris3tio5 is i5tri5sic3ll! i5co#3ti$le 9ith critic3l
thi5Ai5g8 9hich is 35 i5tegr3l co#o5e5t of #oder5 ed4c3tio5; M! roceedi5g
disc4ssio5 9ill $e o5 e63#i5i5g these co5Dect4res;
2.1.1 I3 0e012i3a/i14 6egi/i0a/e i4 6ea24i4gD
A 4sef4l oi5t of de3rt4re for 35s9eri5g the <4estio5 #3! $e e63#i5i5g 9h3t the
disse5ters to #e#oris3tio5 h3"e to s3!; I5 3tt3cAi5g 53rr3ti"e ed4c3tio5
(*
8 P3olo
Freire8 the r3dic3l L3ti5 A#eric35 ed4c3tio5 theorist ?'.%':'..,@ #3de the follo9i5g
st3te#e5t1
I5ste3d of co##45ic3ti5g8 the te3cher iss4es co##45i<4Ys 35d #3Aes
deosits 9hich the st4de5ts 3tie5tl! recei"e8 #e#orise8 35d ree3t; This is the
E$35Ai5g> co5cet of ed4c3tio58 i5 9hich the scoe of 3ctio5 3llo9ed to the
st4de5ts e6te5ds o5l! 3s f3r 3s recei"i5g8 fili5g8 35d stori5g the deosits;
?Freire8 '.,%1 *-@
Altho4gh #e#oris3tio5 93s 5ot e6cetio53ll! si5gled o4t here8 the co55ot3tio5 of
#e#oris3tio5 is 5eg3ti"e1
N3rr3tio5 ?9ith the te3cher 3s 53rr3tor@ le3ds the st4de5ts to #e#orise
#ech35ic3ll! the 53rr3ted co5te5t; Borse !et8 it t4r5s the# i5to Eco5t3i5ers8>
i5to Erecet3cles> to $e filled $! the te3cher; ?i$id@
(*
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/! E53rr3ti"e>8 Freire #e35s th3t i5 tr3ditio53l ed4c3tio58 the te3cher:st4de5t rel3tio5shi 3t 35!
le"el re"e3ls its f45d3#e5t3ll! 53rr3ti"e ch3r3cter8 9hich i5"ol"es 3 53rr3ti5g S4$Dect ?the
te3cher@ 35d 3tie5t8 liste5i5g o$Dects ?the st4de5ts@; ?Freire8 '.,%1 *,@;
*&
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The $35Ai5g #odel of ed4c3tio5 f3ils i5 the e!es of Freire $ec34se #e5 3re Efiled
393! thro4gh the l3cA of F A5o9ledge i5 this #isg4ided s!ste#> ?'.,%1 *-@; I5 other
9ords8 #e#oris3tio5 of the E53rr3ted co5te5t> does 5ot le3d to 35! A5o9ledge; The
#ost f45d3#e5t3l ro$le# 9ith this #odel8 3ccordi5g to Freire8 see#s to $e the
#is45derst35di5g of A5o9ledge; For hi#8 A5o9ledge c35 5e"er $e o$t3i5ed thro4gh
tr35s#issio5 or #e#oris3tio58 EQGR5o9ledge e#erges o5l! thro4gh i5"e5tio5 35d re:
i5"e5tio58 thro4gh the restless8 i#3tie5t8 co5ti54i5g8 hoef4l i5<4ir! F>; For #35!
Ai5ds of i#ort35t A5o9ledge8 Freire is cert3i5l! correct8 ho9e"er8 I co5c4r 9ith
other schol3rs s4ch 3s Gi# ?%&&(@8 9ho oi5t o4t th3t 5ot 3ll the thi5gs 9e A5o9 3re
A5o95 o5l! 3fter 35d $ec34se of critic3l i5<4ir! 35d the 3cti"e tr35sfor#3tio5 of d3t3;
For e63#le8 EFo4r ti#es fo4r is si6tee5J the c3it3l of P3r3 is /ele#;>
(+
?Freire8 '.,%1
*,@ This est3$lished A5o9ledge or e"e5 %a#t ?3s I c3ll it@8 33re5tl! re<4ires 5o s4ch
rocess of critic3l i5<4ir! 3s Freire descri$es; At le3st8 the t!e of A5o9ledge liAe Ethe
c3it3l of P3r3 is /ele#> re<4ires little 3cti"e e5g3ge#e5t o5 the 3rt of the le3r5er
co#3red to A5o9i5g E9h! or ho9 /ele# $eco#es the c3it3l of P3r3>;
This sort of E#45d35e A5o9ledge>8 3s Gi# ?%&&(1 -,@ c3ll it8 is "i"idl! referred to i5
Chi5ese 3s Esi zhi shi> Qthis liter3ll! #e35s Ede3d A5o9ledge> K Ei5fle6i$le A5o9ledge>
9o4ld $e 3 $etter tr35sl3tio5R; Neg3ti"e tho4gh it #3! 3e3r8 the 9ord Ede3d> here
h3s 5othi5g to do 9ith $ei5g o$solete or o4t:d3ted8 $4t si#l! co5"e!s the 5otio5 th3t
there is 3l#ost 5o ch35ce for 4s to ch3lle5ge the tr4thf4l5ess or correct5ess of this
A5o9ledge
(,
?45less the c3it3l of P3r3 is ch35ged l3ter@; Recog5itio5 of the
sig5ific35ce of critic3l i5<4ir! sho4ld 5ot le3d 4s to go the e6tre#e to de5! the
e6iste5ce of Ede3d> A5o9ledge si#l! $ec34se it is 3s $3sic 3s co##o5 se5se or
$ec34se it i5"ol"es 5o re3so5i5g or le3"es little roo# for criti<4e o5 the 3rt of the
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These 3re e63ctl! the t9o e63#les Freire cited to sho9 the o4tst35di5g ch3r3cteristic of
53rr3ti"e ed4c3tio58 53#el!8 the so5orit! of 9ords8 5ot their tr35sfor#i5g o9er; He 3sserts8
EQTRhe st4de5t records8 #e#orises8 35d ree3ts these hr3ses 9itho4t ercei"i5g 9h3t fo4r ti#es
fo4r re3ll! #e35s8 or re3li7i5g the tr4e sig5ific35ce of Ec3it3l> i5 the 3ffir#3tio5 Ethe c3it3l of
P3r3 is /ele#8> th3t is8 9h3t /ele# #e35s for P3r3 35d 9h3t P3r3 #e35s for /r37il;> For this E9h3t
#e35s for 9h3t> <4estio58 #e#orisi5g 9ith 45derst35di5g is the 35s9er ?see the disc4ssio5 i5
%;'@;
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This #3! 3rtl! e6l3i5 9h! #e#oris3tio5 is 4sed 3s the #ost effecti"e 35d efficie5t 93! to
de3l 9ith this sort of A5o9ledge i5 Chi5ese c4lt4re of le3r5i5g; Me#oris3tio58 or let 4s 3ss4#e it
is 9h3t so#e eole c3ll Erote:le3r5i5g> K Esi ji yin bei> Qliter3ll! #e35s Ede3d 35d i5fle6i$le
#e#oris3tio5>R i5 Chi5ese8 #3! $e co5sidered 3 s4it3$le 93! to le3r5 Ede3d> A5o9ledge1 it see#s
logic3l to le3r5 i5fle6i$le A5o9ledge 4si5g 35 i5fle6i$le #ethod;
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'**&
'('
'(%
'((
'()
'(*
'(+
'(,
'(-
'(.
')&
')'
')%
le3r5er; Altho4gh I stro5gl! reDect the ide3 th3t le3r5i5g is the #ere $35Ai5g or stori5g
of i5for#3tio5 or oi5io58 I 3lso ref4se to 3ccet th3t #e#orisi5g the esse5ce of the
35ti<4it! or scie5tific $3sics 9hich h3"e $ee5 3ttested thro4gh tho4s35ds of !e3rs of
h4#35 e6erie5ces does 5ot co5stit4te le3r5i5g or le3d to A5o9ledge or 9isdo#; I 3#
5ot o$li"io4s of De9e!>s 5otio5 of t9o se5ses of the 9ord Ele3r5i5g>1
O5 the o5e h35d le3r5i5g is the s4# tot3l of 9h3t is A5o958 3s th3t is h35ded
do95 $! $ooAs 35d le3r5ed #e5; It is so#ethi5g e6ter53l8 35 3cc4#4l3tio5 of
cog5itio5s 3s o5e #ight store #3teri3l co##odities i5 3 93reho4se; T2u/5
e.i3/3 2ea98C0a9e 310eB5e2e; St4d! is the5 the rocess $! 9hich 35
i5di"id43l dr39s o5 9h3t is i5 stor3ge; O5 the other h35d8 le3r5i5g #e35s
so#ethi5g 9hich the i5di"id43l does 9he5 he st4dies; F ?De9e!8 '.&(1 %&(,:
%&(-J e#h3sis Q$oldR 3dded@
It h3s th4s $ee5 co5cei"ed th3t 3cc4#4l3tio5 35d stor3ge of 9h3t is tr35s#itted fro#
E$ooAs 35d le3r5ed #e5> does co5stit4te 3rt of le3r5i5g i53s#4ch 3s tr4th c35 e6ist i5
3 Ere3d!:#3de> for#; Vie9ed i5 this light8 #e#oris3tio5 35d rete5tio5 of the re3d!:
#3de E$od! of tr4th> is 5ot o5l! legiti#3te i5 $4t 35 i5dise5s3$le co#o5e5t of
le3r5i5g; To <4ote Tho#so58 EIt is diffic4lt to thi5A of 35! ed4c3tio53l go3l for
9hich the 3$ilit! to ret3i5 i5for#3tio5 is 45i#ort35t; H4#35 #e#or! is cr4ci3l to
the co5cet of le3r5i5g> ?I; Tho#so58 '.-,1 )(@;
2.1.2 I3 0e012i3a/i14 9110e9 /1 =e i4710:a/i=6e Bi/5 72i/i7a6 /5i4Ai4gD
The reDectio5 of #e#oris3tio5 i5 le3r5i5g for so#e critic3l thi5Ai5g theorists
rerese5ted $! Freire ?'.,%8 '.,*8 '.,+8 '..(@ #ight h3"e origi53ted fro# the
res4#tio5 th3t #e#oris3tio5 is doo#ed to $e co45ter3cti"e or detri#e5t3l to
critic3l thi5Ai5g; 2i"e5 the 5e3r 4535i#it! of co5te#or3r! 3ccet35ce of the
i#ort35ce of critic3l thi5Ai5g8 #e#oris3tio5 see#s to $e 35 ele#e5t 9hich sho4ld $e
#i5i#ised or e"e5 eli#i53ted i5 le3r5i5g;
/efore co##e5ti5g o5 the i53cc4r3cies i5 this 3rg4#e5t8 tho4gh8 I 9o4ld liAe to oi5t
o4t th3t I 3# 5ot i5te5di5g to ch3lle5ge the i#ort35ce of critic3l thi5Ai5g i5
ed4c3tio5; I e5dorse the "ie9 th3t the 4lti#3te go3l of ed4c3tio5 is to rod4ce critic3l
*%
'**'
'**%
'**(
'**)
'***
'**+
'**,
'**-
'**.
'*+&
'*+'
'*+%
'*+(
'*+)
'*+*
'*++
'*+,
'*+-
'*+.
'*,&
'*,'
'*,%
'*,(
'*,)
'*,*
'*,+
'*,,
'*,-
'*,.
'*-&
'*-'
'*-%
'*-(
'*-)
thi5Aers; Ho9e"er8 I 3# hesit35t to e#$r3ce 3ss4#tio5s $3sed o5 either i5co#lete
45derst35di5g of or o"ere#h3sis o5 critic3l thi5Ai5g;
Prior to roceedi5g f4rther8 I h3"e to 3dd t9o c3"e3ts i5 45derst35di5g Freire>s
ed4c3tio5 hilosoh!; First8 the Freire35 #ethod #ight $e #4ch #ore co5cer5ed 9ith
h4#35 5eed8 53#el! the de"elo#e5t of 3 D4st societ! th35 9ith ed4c3tio5 er se ?cf;
T3!lor8 '..(@; The Freire35 se5se of ed4c3tio5 h3s 3l93!s $ee5 i5tert9i5ed 9ith
freedo# 35d 45derstood 3s 3 #e35s of Efreei5g eole fro# the $o5d3ge of the c4lt4re
of sile5ce> ?Rei#er8 '.,&1 +.@; If the 8e*agogy o% the 944resse* sho4ld 5ot $e re3d 3s
3 Ere"ol4tio53r! ed3gog!> $4t 3s 3 Eed3gog! for re"ol4tio5> ?H3r#358 '.,'@8
c34tio5 #3! 5eed to $e t3Ae5 i5 3ssessi5g its rele"35ce to #oder5 ed4c3tio5 or
tr35sfer3$ilit! to the co5te6t 9here the effic3c! of ed4c3tio5 is 3 #ore ce5tr3l #3tter
th35 li$er3ti5g the oressed; Seco5d8 Freire ?'.,%@ st3rAl! co5tr3sts t9o for#s of
ed4c3tio51 /35Ai5g K Digesti"e Ed4c3tio5 "s; Di3log4e K Li$er3ti5g Ed4c3tio5; If 9e
si#l! 3ccet Freire>s ?'.,%@ dichoto#!8 the te#t3tio58 3ccordi5g to T3!lor8 is th3t
E9e 3tte#t to co#$3t $35Ai5g ed4c3tio5 $! cre3ti5g 3 5e9 #odel fro# those
ele#e5ts 9hich lie o5 the oosi5g oles> ?T3!lor8 '..(1 *)@; I5 doi5g so8 9e 3rri"e
logic3ll! 3t the co5cet of Eed4c3tio5 for freedo#>8 it re#3i5s8 ho9e"er8 3 <4estio5
E9hether8 o5tologic3ll!8 this 5e98 roosed ol3rit! c35 3ct43ll! e6ist> ?i$id@;
A5 i#licit 3rg4#e5t i5 Freire>s ed4c3tio5 theor! 3e3rs to $e th3t the solit3r! go3l
of #e#oris3tio5 is to $li5dl! ree3t other>s "ie9s liAe 3 3rrot
(-
8 9hich is i5 ri5cile
i5co#3ti$le 9ith8 or $35ishes critic3l thi5Ai5g; He st3tes8 EThe #ore st4de5ts 9orA 3t
stori5g the deosits e5tr4sted to the#8 the less the! de"elo the critic3l co5scio4s5ess
F>; Bh3t is 3ll4ded to here #ore th35 35!thi5g else is th3t8 the #ore o5e #e#orises
?or stores the Edeosits>@8 the less critic3l o5e 9o4ld $eco#e; Bhile this "ie9 is 5ot
9itho4t its r3tio53lit! i5 the se5se th3t the A5o9ledge o5e 3lre3d! A5o9s #3!
so#eti#es co5str3i5 the scoe of o5e>s i#3gi53tio58 it is o$"io4sl! 35 e63gger3tio5 i5
#ost c3ses; The ro$le# 9ith the 3rg4#e5t is th3t the le3r5i5g rocess is liAe5ed to 3
closed s3ce i5 9hich #e#oris3tio5 of A5o9ledge 35d critic3l co5scio4s5ess 3re
co#eti5g 9ith e3ch for the occ43tio5 of 3 li#ited 3re3; If #e#orised A5o9ledge is
3llo9ed #ore s3ce8 less roo# 9o4ld $e left for critic3l co5scio4s5ess; Does the
(-
(
Descri$i5g the $35Ai5g #odel of ed4c3tio58 Freire ?'.,%@ 9rites8 EFthe st4de5ts 3tie5tl!
recei"e8 #e#orise8 35d ree3t;> ?See 3lso the <4ot3tio5 i5 l3st sectio5@
*(
'*-*
'*-+
'*-,
'*--
'*-.
'*.&
'*.'
'*.%
'*.(
'*.)
'*.*
'*.+
'*.,
'*.-
'*..
'+&&
'+&'
'+&%
'+&(
'+&)
'+&*
'+&+
'+&,
'+&-
'+&.
'+'&
'+''
'+'%
'+'(
'+')
'+'*
'+'+
')(
'))
34g#e5t3tio5 of #e#orised A5o9ledge 5ecess3ril! i#ede or i5hi$it the de"elo#e5t
of critic3l co5scio4s5essH
To 3ddress this <4estio58 9e 5eed first to de"elo 35 45derst35di5g of the role of the
3cc4#4l3tio5 of e6isti5g A5o9ledge; It is 5ot o5l! th3t A5o9ledge c35 $e re3d!:#3de
either fro# $ooAs or le3r5ed #e58 $4t 3lso 3ccordi5g to De9e! ?'.&(1 %&,.@8 this
A5o9ledge Ef4r5ishes the #e35s of 45derst35di5g or gi"i5g #e35i5g to 9h3t is still
goi5g o5 35d 9h3t is to $e do5e>; T3Ai5g the e63#le of 3 h!sici358 De9e! 5otes8
E9h3t he Qh!sici35R h3s fo45d o4t $! erso53l 3c<43i5t35ce 35d $! st4d! of 9h3t
others h3"e 3scert3i5ed 35d recorded> is A5o9ledge to hi# $ec34se
it s4lies the reso4rces $! 9hich he i5terrets the 45A5o95 thi5gs 9hich
co5fro5t hi#8 fills o4t the 3rti3l o$"io4s f3cts 9ith co55ected s4ggested
he5o#e538 foresees their ro$3$le f4t4re8 35d #3Aes l35s 3ccordi5gl!;
?De9e!8 '.&(1 %&,.:%&-&@
I5 this "ie98 A5o9ledge le3r5ed thro4gh #3ster! of 3st e6erie5ce or others>
oi5io5s to 3chie"e 35 3c<43i5t35ceshi 9ith e6isti5g i5for#3tio5 ser"es to l3! 3
fo45d3tio5 or forge 3 so4rce o5 9hich #ore cre3ti"e 9orA c35 $4ild;
De9e! ?'.&(1 '-&-:'-&.@ co5ti54es to 3rg4e th3t #e5 co4ld 5ot Ere3ll! thro9 393!
3ll tr35s#itted $eliefs co5cer5i5g the re3lities of e6iste5ce8 35d st3rt 3fresh 4o5 the
$3sis of their ri"3te8 e6cl4si"e se5s3tio5s 35d ide3s>8 $ec34se the o5l! o4tco#e of
doi5g so 9o4ld $e Ege5er3l i#$ecilit!>; I5ste3d8 h4#35 histor! is the o5e of re"isio5
35d reorg35is3tio5 of $eliefs1
Me5 set o4t fro# 9h3t h3d 3ssed 3s A5o9ledge8 35d critic3ll! i5"estig3ted
the gro45ds 4o5 9hich it restedJ the! 5oted e6cetio5sJ the! 4sed 5e9
#ech35ic3l 3li35ces to $ri5g to light d3t3 i5co5siste5t 9ith 9h3t h3d $ee5
$elie"edJ the! 4sed their i#3gi53tio5s to co5cei"e 3 9orld differe5t fro# th3t
i5 9hich their foref3thers h3d 4t their tr4st; ?De9e!8 '.&(1 '-&-:'-'&@
Th4s "ie9ed8 A5o9ledge th3t is 3ssed or tr35s#itted c35 ser"e 3s 3 st3rti5g oi5t for
critic3l i5"estig3tio5; It is this tr35s#itted A5o9ledge th3t l3!s the gro45d for eole
*)
'+',
'+'-
'+'.
'+%&
'+%'
'+%%
'+%(
'+%)
'+%*
'+%+
'+%,
'+%-
'+%.
'+(&
'+('
'+(%
'+((
'+()
'+(*
'+(+
'+(,
'+(-
'+(.
'+)&
'+)'
'+)%
'+)(
'+))
'+)*
'+)+
'+),
'+)-
'+).
'+*&
to e63#i5e its hidde5 3ss4#tio5s 35d 3rg4#e5ts8 so 3s to detect 35d correct 35!
i5co5siste5c! i5 the old A5o9ledge;
Adoti5g 35 oe5:e5ded ersecti"e o5 the le3r5i5g rocess8 De9e! sees the
3c<4isitio5 of e6isti5g A5o9ledge 3s 3 f3cilit3tio5 r3ther th35 i#3ir#e5t to the
co5fig4r3tio5 of E9h3t is to $e do5e>8 or8 i5 Freire>s ?'.,%1 *+@ 9ords8 E3 t3sA of re:
cre3ti5g th3t A5o9ledge>; It see#s th3t #e#orisi5g tr35s#itted A5o9ledge 35d the
de"elo#e5t of cre3ti"e co5scio4s5ess do 5ot 5ecess3ril! ose 35 either:or choice8 3s
is i5dic3ted $! Freire>s theor!J it 9o4ld $e #ore r3tio53l to "ie9 the t9o 3s "irt4o4sl!
co#le#e5t3r! to e3ch other;
O5e #3! 3rg4e th3t8 ho9e"er8 3c<4isitio5 of e6isti5g A5o9ledge #3! 5ot $e the s3#e
thi5g 3s the #e#oris3tio5 of this A5o9ledge ?Ros3#o5d Mitchell8 Octo$er %-8 %&'&8
erso53l co##45ic3tio5@; The iss4e of the 3ro3ch to A5o9ledge 53t4r3ll! 3rises;
ReDecti5g the 5otio5 th3t $odies of A5o9ledge 9ere self:co5t3i5ed e5tities8 De9e!
i5sists th3t 35 3ro3ch to A5o9ledge h3s to $e rooted i5 the co5cet of the soci3l
origi5 of le3r5i5g i5 order to E3"oid the itf3lls of isol3ted 3$str3ctio5> ?Birth8 '.++1
'(+@; If De9e!>s theor! of A5o9ledge 35d le3r5i5g 93s rooted i5 the re3lit! of the
h4#35 sit43tio5 or e6erie5ce ?see Birth8 '.++1 '(*:'), for det3iled disc4ssio5@8 the
Co5f4ci35 3ro3ch to A5o9ledge is 5ot c3tegoric3ll! differe5t i5 this se5se i5so#4ch
3s Co5f4ci4s does 5ot "3l4e le3r5i5g or i5<4ir! th3t is 5ot 35chored i5 35d reso5si"e
to the li"ed d3il! e6erie5ce of #e5 ?see Gi#8 %&&( for 3 det3iled 3rg4#e5t3tio5@;
Bh3t is disti5cti"e to the Co5f4ci35 tr3ditio5 of ed4c3tio5 #ight $e th3t #e#oris3tio5
is see5 3s o5e ossi$le K erh3s sig5ific35t K #e35s of 3tt3i5i5g A5o9ledge;
Altho4gh so#e ed4c3tio53lists #3! t3Ae the "ie9 th3t #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot the $est
93! to 3c<4ire 3 A5o9ledge store8 it #ight $e 3 r3g#3tic or efficie5t 93! for
Chi5ese le3r5ers to est3$lish i5for#3tio5 i5 their #i5d; Bhile co5te#or3r!
ed4c3tio5 i5 Chi53 is still $ei5g criticised for foc4si5g o5 the 3c<4isitio5 of 3 "3st
store of A5o9ledge 3t the e6e5se of cre3ti"it! ?S; Ch358 '...@8 this is 5ot to de5!
th3t this #ode of ed4c3tio5 does e53$le the st4de5ts to l3! 3 solid fo45d3tio5 i5
A5o9ledge 3cc4#4l3tio5; It is f4rther 3rg4ed here th3t stori5g 3 l3rge 3#o45t of
l35g43ge s3#les thro4gh #e#oris3tio5 #3! l3! 3 #ore i#ort35t 3rt i5 foreig5
l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 th35 i5 other discili5es8 eseci3ll! i5 the Chi5ese co5te6t ?see
Ch3ter ( for rele"35t disc4ssio5@;
**
'+*'
'+*%
'+*(
'+*)
'+**
'+*+
'+*,
'+*-
'+*.
'++&
'++'
'++%
'++(
'++)
'++*
'+++
'++,
'++-
'++.
'+,&
'+,'
'+,%
'+,(
'+,)
'+,*
'+,+
'+,,
'+,-
'+,.
'+-&
'+-'
'+-%
'+-(
'+-)
Prior to f4rtheri5g #! i5<4ir! 3$o4t #e#oris3tio5 i5 rel3tio5 to critic3l thi5Ai5g8 it is
i#ort35t to $e 393re th3t the co5tro"ers! o"er the rel3tio5shi $et9ee5
#e#oris3tio5 35d critic3l thi5Ai5g c355ot $e 4t to 35 e5d 9itho4t roer
45derst35di5g of the t9o co5cets; The cr46 of the de$3te is i5 esse5ce oi5ti5g to
t9o f45d3#e5t3l <4estio5s1 ?'@ Does #e#oris3tio5 3#o45t to rote:le3r5i5g de"oid of
45derst35di5gH ?%@ Bh3t does critic3l thi5Ai5g #e35H
To 35s9er these t9o <4estio5s8 the discre35c! o"er c4lt4r3l tr3ditio5 or ed4c3tio53l
"3l4es see#s 453"oid3$le; Si#il3r to the 45derst35di5g of #e#oris3tio58 9h3t critic3l
thi5Ai5g #e35s to E3ster5 le3r5ers ?Co5f4ci35 le3r5ers i5 3rtic4l3r@ #3! $e
co5tr3sted to the ercetio5 of their Bester5 co45ter3rts; Altho4gh 9e 3re ree3tedl!
re#i5ded of the h373rd of c4lt4r3l stereot!i5g ?H38 %&&)J G4#3r3"3di"el48 %&&(J
Little9ood8 %&&'@8 critic3l disc4ssio5 of c4lt4r3l differe5ces8 i5 #! oi5io58 c35
co5sider3$l! e5h35ce o4r 45derst35di5g of cert3i5 iss4es; I5deed8 3 te3chi5g or
le3r5i5g 3ro3ch ?3s 9ell 3s the 45derl!i5g co5cetio5 of le3r5i5g@ th3t is t3Ae5 for
gr35ted 35d reg3rded 3s 45i"ers3l 35d co##o5 se5se $! eole fro# o5e c4lt4re #3!
$e see5 3s idios!5cr3tic 35d i5effecti"e i5 the e!es of eole fro# 3 differe5t c4lt4re
?I; 248 %&&+@; Co5flicts or deficit i5terret3tio5s ?if see5 fro# 3 s4osedl! s4erior
c4lt4re to other c4lt4res@ 3re 453"oid3$le 9he5 others> $eh3"io4rs 3re D4dged $3sed
o5 o5e>s o95 c4lt4r3l $3cAgro45ds 35d stereot!es;
I 9ill de"elo #! disc4ssio5 of these t9o iss4es 9ith the e63#i53tio5 of the 5otio5s
of the EChi5ese Le3r5er> 35d EChi5ese Le3r5i5g St!les> 3s 9ell 3s 35 i5<4ir! i5to the
rele"35ce of the Co5f4ci35 hilosoh! of le3r5i5g to #oder5 ed4c3tio5 i5 sectio5s %;%
35d %;( $elo9;
2.2 Me012i3a/i14 a49 C5i4e3e 6ea24e23
It is co##o5l! reorted th3t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 o4l3r8 if 5ot the #ost i#ort35t8
le3r5i5g str3teg! for Chi5ese le3r5ers ?e;g; L; /iggs8 '..'J DeAert8 '..(J H3r"e!8
'.-*J H48 %&&%$J Li35g N S#ith8 %&&.J M3le!8 '.-(@; Bh3t is de$3ted he3tedl! is the
e6l353tio5 for s4ch 3 ro"er$i3l $eh3"io4r3l tr3it; I5 3dditio5 to the c4lt4r3l
*+
'+-*
'+-+
'+-,
'+--
'+-.
'+.&
'+.'
'+.%
'+.(
'+.)
'+.*
'+.+
'+.,
'+.-
'+..
',&&
',&'
',&%
',&(
',&)
',&*
',&+
',&,
',&-
',&.
','&
',''
','%
','(
',')
','*
','+
',',
co55ectio5s8 ed4c3tio53l co5te6ts ?or le3r5i5g co5te6ts@
(.
3re roosed 3s 3lter53ti"e
3ttri$4tio5s ?e;g;8 23o8 %&&*J Hollid3!8 '..)J Li35g N S#ith8 %&&.J Little9ood8 %&&&J
Pierso58 '..+@; It is 3rg4ed th3t st4de5ts> le3r5i5g 3ro3ches 3re #ore liAel! to $e E3
co5se<4e5ce of the ed4c3tio53l co5te6ts th3t h3"e $ee5 or 3re 5o9 ro"ided for the#8
th35 of 35! i5here5t disositio5s of the st4de5ts the#sel"es> ?Little9ood8 %&&&@; Be
sho4ld 3lso 5ot $e o$li"io4s of the f3ct th3t 35! ed4c3tio53l co5te6t or e5"iro5#e5t is
i5gr3i5ed i5 histor! 35d c4lt4r3l tr3ditio5 9hich sh3e the 3rtic4l3r co5te6t;
Disc4ssio5 45der the 4#$rell3 ter# of Ethe Chi5ese le3r5er> #3! $e i5s4fficie5tl!
se5siti"e to the 3ge8 le3r5i5g co5te6t8 or geogr3hic3l loc3tio5 of the le3r5ers i5
<4estio58 35d therefore ro$3$l! s4resses the re3lit! of e6iste5ce of #35! differe5t
s4$:gro4s of i5di"id43l le3r5ers 35d sets of di"erge5t s4$:"3l4es ?G4#3r3"3di"el48
%&&(@ 35d the ch35gi5g co5te6t 35d 53t4re of ed4c3tio5 i5 Chi53 ?cf; C; G; G; Ch35 N
R3o8 %&'&J Co"erd3le:Lo5es N R3st3ll8 %&&+8 %&&.J Li5 N Cort377i8 %&&-J R!35 N
Sleth34g8 %&'&@; Ho9e"er8 #ethodic3l 353l!sis of c4lt4r3l differe5ces8 3s st3ted o4t
e3rlier8 is esse5ti3l for o4r 45derst35di5g of s4ch le3r5i5g r3ctices 3s te6t
#e#oris3tio5 9hich is cl3i#ed to $e 45i<4e to 3 EChi5ese c4lt4re of le3r5i5g>
?Cort377i N Li58 '..+@; It h3s to $e oi5ted o4t th3t 5eglecti5g or 5eg3ti5g c4lt4r3l
differe5ces c35 $e 3s detri#e5t3l 3s the ersiste5ce of c4lt4r3l stereot!es i5
45derst35di5g EChi5ese le3r5ers>;
I5 the re#3i5i5g 3rt of this sectio58 3 $rief re"ie9 of Bester5 dis3r3gi5g 3ttit4des
to93rds Chi5ese le3r5ers is follo9ed $! 3 te5t3ti"e resol4tio5 of the 3r3do6 of
Chi5ese le3r5ers fro# 3 c4lt4r3l ersecti"e;
2.2.1 De;i7i/ <ieB3 14 /5e C5i4e3e 6ea24e2
Me#oris3tio5 is8 fro# the co5te#or3r! 9ester5 oi5t of "ie98 3 tr3ditio53l $4t
o4t#oded ed3gogic3l r3ctice; I5 e3rl! 9ester5 doc4#e5t3tio58 Chi5ese le3r5ers8
9ere 4s43ll! ortr3!ed 3s 3ssi"e8 i#it3ti"e #e#ori7ers8 3s is descri$ed $elo91
(.
(
Pierso5 ?'..+@ co5te5ded th3t the ch3r3cteristics of Chi5ese le3r5ers> le3r5i5g $eh3"io4rs 3re
#3i5l! the rod4ct of Ethe rese5t colo5i3l ed4c3tio5 s!ste# 9ith its e6cessi"e 9orAlo3ds8
ce5tr3li7ed c4rric4l38 did3ctic 35d e6ositor! te3chi5g st!les8 co5ce5tr3tio5 o5 A5o9ledge
3c<4isitio58 e63#i53tio5s e#h3si7i5g rerod4cti"e A5o9ledge o"er ge54i5e thi5Ai5g8
o"ercro9ded cl3ssroo#s8 35d i53de<43tel! tr3i5ed te3chers> ?'..+1 **@;
*,
','-
','.
',%&
',%'
',%%
',%(
',%)
',%*
',%+
',%,
',%-
',%.
',(&
',('
',(%
',((
',()
',(*
',(+
',(,
',(-
',(.
',)&
',)'
',)%
',)(
',))
',)*
',)+
',),
')*
')+
'),
')-
').
F the! #e#or3teQsicR8 the! he3r the Chi5ese e6l353tio58 35d this goes o5
fro# #or5i5g to 5ight for !e3rs8 35d the! get the cl3ssics i5to the#; ?'--%
Ed4c3tio5 Co##issio5>s i5ter"ie9 9ith the /isho of Victori38 cited i5
Pe55!cooA8 '..+@
Bester5 te3chers i5 Chi53 h3"e #ore ofte5 th35 5ot reso5ded to #e#oris3tio5 $!
Chi5ese st4de5ts 9ith derisio5 35d scor5 ?S3#so58 '.-)@; For i5st35ce8 d3ti5g $3cA
to the '.
th
ce5t4r!8 3 9ester5 ed4c3tor 53#ed FredericA Ste93rd ?'-+* cited i5
Pe55!cooA8 '..+@ tho4ght th3t Ethe Chi5ese h3"e 5o e*u#ation i5 the re3l se5se of the
9ord>8 $ec34se the de"elo#e5t of #e5t3l o9ers 9ere E3ll s3crificed to the
c4lti"3tio5 of #e#or!>; Fro# this "ie9oi5t8 #e#oris3tio5 see#s to $e serio4sl!
irreco5cil3$le 9ith #oder5 ed4c3tio5; As 9e h3"e see58 Lis ?'.).@ st3ted th3t8
9itho4t the $e5efits of ed4c3tio58 o4r ci"ilis3tio5 9o4ld $e red4ced to l3!i5g #ore
stress o5 3 good #e#or!; This i#lies th3t the #ost rogressi"e for#s of ed4c3tio5
#3! i5"ol"e little #e#oris3tio5 9hile e#h3sis o5 #e#or! is co5sidered 3s ri#iti"e
or $3cA93rd; Echoi5g this ercetio58 so#e Bester5 schol3rs e<43te #e#oris3tio5
9ith rote le3r5i5g; For i5st35ce8 st3te#e5ts 3re fo45d s4ch 3s1 ERote le3r5i5g is
#e#oris3tio5> ?P; R; Cohe5 N Feige5$34#8 '.-%@; I5 this se5se8 Chi5ese ed4c3tio5
rel!i5g he3"il! o5 #e#oris3tio5 35d Chi5ese le3r5ers c3st 3s rote:#e#ori7ers 5eed to
$e e5lighte5ed $! the ide3s of the cre3ti"e Best $ec34se the Chi5ese 93! of le3r5i5g
is i5ferior to the Bester5 93!8 3 coroll3r! res4lti5g fro# the stereot!i5g "ie9 th3t the
Chi5ese 3re rote le3r5ers ?Be58 '..,@;
Bhile o"er4se or #is4se of #e#oris3tio5 c35 3d#ittedl! $e detri#e5t3l to the
c4lti"3tio5 of #i5d to so#e e6te5t8 so#e co5te#or3r! rese3rchers ?e;g; L /iggs8
'..+J S3#so58 '.-)@ h3"e 3rg4ed th3t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e c3ref4ll! re:
e63#i5ed; Accordi5g to Pe55!cooA8 there is 3 5eed to seeA differe5t ossi$ilities i5
Eho9 l35g43ge8 te6ts8 35d #e#oris3tio5 #3! $e 45derstood> ?'..+1 %%%@;
B3tAi5s N /iggs>s ?'..+@ 9orA8 #3! rerese5t 3 first 3tte#t to e6lore s4ch
ossi$ilities; This $ooA s4orts 3 #ore ositi"e re3di5g of Chi5ese le3r5i5g st!les
35d c4lt4res of le3r5i5g8 desite 3ro6i#3tel! ,&U of the ch3ter 34thors $ei5g
Bester5ers; /3sed o5 so45d e#iric3l e"ide5ce 35d forcef4l 3rg4#e5ts8 the editors
*-
',)-
',).
',*&
',*'
',*%
',*(
',*)
',**
',*+
',*,
',*-
',*.
',+&
',+'
',+%
',+(
',+)
',+*
',++
',+,
',+-
',+.
',,&
',,'
',,%
',,(
',,)
',,*
',,+
',,,
',,-
',,.
',-&
',-'
co5cl4ded th3t the Chi5ese le3r5ers 3re co##o5l! #is45derstood $! Bester5ers; This
fi5di5g 93s i5 3ll i5te5ts 35d 4roses dri"e5 $! the disco"er! of the 3r3do6 of
Chi5ese le3r5ers8 35 iss4e to 9hich I 5o9 t4r5;
2.2.2 T5e :a2a91. 1; C5i4e3e 6ea24e23
Bh3t so#e 9ester5 rese3rchers ?e;g; L; /iggs8 '..'J Cooer8 %&&)J B3tAi5s N /iggs8
%&&'@ co5sider to $e the so:c3lled 3r3do6 of Chi5ese le3r5ers is th3t Chi5ese le3r5ers
3chie"e their e<43ll! ofte5 reorted 3c3de#ic s4ccess 33re5tl! $! 4si5g rote
str3tegies 35d s4rf3ce le3r5i5g 3ro3ches; O5 the o5e h35d8 the! 3re held 4 3s
3r3go5s of ed4c3tio53l e6celle5ce8 9hile o5 the other h35d8 the! 3re derided 3s rote
le3r5ers ?L; /iggs8 '..'@; Ho9 is it ossi$le th3t st4de5ts 9ith 35 orie5t3tio5 to rote
le3r5i5g8 9hich is 5eg3ti"el! correl3ted 9ith 3chie"e#e5t ?cf; L; /; /iggs8 '.,.@8
3chie"e so highl!H I5 the c3se of foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 the 3r3do6 $eco#es this1
Chi5ese st4de5ts 9ere le3r5i5g Er3ther #ore effecti"el! th35 the! Osho4ldP h3"e $ee58
gi"e5 9h3t Bester5 rese3rch redicted to $e co45ter:rod4cti"e te3chi5g=le3r5i5g
e5"iro5#e5ts> ?B3tAi5s N /iggs8 %&&'1 ref3ceJ see 3lso B3tAi5s N /iggs8 '..+@;
This 3r3do6 c35 o5l! $e sol"ed $! e6lori5g 9h3t Chi5ese le3r5ers 3ct43ll! do 9he5
the! #e#orise; I5 the re#3i5i5g 3rt of this sectio5 I sh3ll e6lore the Chi5ese
co5cetio5 of #e#oris3tio5 i5 rel3tio5 to 45derst35di5g8 reetitio5 35d cre3ti"it!;
2.2.2.1 Me012i3a/i14 a49 u49e23/a49i4g
O5e 3rtic4l3r 3sect of the E3r3do6 of the Chi5ese le3r5er> is the rel3tio5shi
$et9ee5 #e#oris3tio5 35d 45derst35di5g; Chi5ese st4de5ts 3re ercei"ed 3s 3ssi"e
rote le3r5ers8 !et sho9 high le"els of 45derst35di5g ?B3tAi5s N /iggs8 %&&'1 (@;
T9o oosi5g fi5di5gs e#erged fro# the co5sider3$le $4lA of doc4#e5ts disc4ssi5g
this iss4e; Bhile e3rlier doc4#e5t3tio5 ofte5 descri$es Chi5ese le3r5ers 3s rote
le3r5ers 9ho le3r5 #ech35ic3ll! 9itho4t #e35i5gf4l 45derst35di5g ?/3ll3rd N
Cl35ch!8 '.-)J Polit7er N Mc2ro3rt!8 '.-*J S3#4elo9ic78 '.-,@8 liter3t4re i5 the l3st
dec3de or so h3s see5 54#ero4s e6ressio5s of 3 co5tr3r! 3rg4#e5t8 53#el!8 E9h3t
fro# the o4tside looAs liAe #ere rote le3r5i5g is the5 i5 re3lit! 3 co#$i53tio5 of $oth
#e#ori73tio5 35d 45derst35di5g> ?D3hli5 N B3tAi5s8 %&&&1 +,J see 3lso Cooer8
*.
',-%
',-(
',-)
',-*
',-+
',-,
',--
',-.
',.&
',.'
',.%
',.(
',.)
',.*
',.+
',.,
',.-
',..
'-&&
'-&'
'-&%
'-&(
'-&)
'-&*
'-&+
'-&,
'-&-
'-&.
'-'&
'-''
'-'%
'-'(
'-')
'-'*
%&&)J Ge55ed!8 %&&%J M3rto58 D3llWAl$38 et 3l;8'..+J M3rto58 Be58 et 3l;8 '..+J
M3rto5 et 3l;8 %&&*@; T9eed 35d Leh#35 ref4te 9h3t the! descri$e 3s the 9ester5
i5str4ctor>s $elief th3t Chi5ese st4de5ts 3dot 3 sh3llo98 rote:le3r5i5g 3ro3ch o5 the
gro45d th3t EChi5ese st4de5ts ofte5 4se #e#oris3tio5 5ot 3s 35 e5d i5 itself $4t 3s 3
3th to 45derst35di5g> ?%&&%1 .(@; Si#il3rl!8 Lee ?'..+@ 3rg4es th3t #e#oris3tio5
#3! $e the $est 93! to $eco#e f3#ili3r 9ith 3 te6t for Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 the se5se
th3t it is D4st 3 st3ge i5 the le3r5i5g rocess8 recedi5g 45derst35di5g r3ther th35
stoi5g 3t rote le3r5i5g;
Th4s "ie9ed8 it is 3rg4ed th3t #e#ori73tio5 is seldo# se3r3ted fro# 45derst35di5g
for le3r5ers of Co5f4ci35 herit3ge c4lt4re ?CHC@
)&
8 he5ce the co5cetio5 of
E#e35i5gf4l 45derst35di5g> ?M3rto58 Be58 N N3gle8 '..+@; The t9o s4$co#o5e5ts
ide5tified 45der this l3$el 3re E#e#orisi5g 9h3t is 45derstood> 35d E45derst35di5g
thro4gh #e#oris3tio5> ?M3rto58 D3llWAl$38 N Tse8 '..+1 ,,@; S4##i5g 48 differe5t
fro# the co##o5 Bester5 thi5Ai5g th3t #e#oris3tio5 35d 45derst35di5g 3re
35tithetic3l8 Chi5ese st4de5ts co5sider #e#oris3tio5 35d 45derst35di5g to $e closel!
rel3ted 35d it is 5or#3l r3ctice for the# to tr! to 45derst35d 35d #e#orise
si#4lt35eo4sl!; The f3ct th3t #35! Chi5ese st4de5ts 3re 3$le to co#$i5e the
rocesses of #e#oris3tio5 35d 45derst35di5g i5 3 93! th3t Bester5 st4de5ts seldo#
do ?cf; Ge#$er8 '..+J F; M3rto58 et 3l;8 '..+J M3rto58 B3tAi5s8 N T35g8 '..,J Be5 N
M3rto58 '..(@ #3! hel e6l3i5 35other 3sect of the E3r3do6> of Chi5ese le3r5ers1
the! reort i5 $oth <43lit3ti"e 35d <435tit3ti"e i5"estig3tio5s th3t the! 3re tr!i5g to
45derst35d 9h3t the! 3re le3r5i5g 9hile their Bester5 te3chers co5sider the# 3s #ere
le3r5ers $! rote ?D3hli5 N B3tAi5s8 %&&&@;
2.2.2.2 Me012i3a/i14 a49 2e:e/i/i14
A5 3cti"it! see5 3s i5se3r3$l! rel3ted to le3r5i5g $! he3rt is "er$3ti# reetitio58
$ec34se le3r5i5g $! he3rt 5ecess3ril! i5"ol"es reetitio5 #35! ti#es o"er 35d
Ereetitio5 is the $egi55i5g of le3r5i5g $! he3rt> ?CooA8 '..)1 '((@; Reetitio5 is
)&
)
I5 their i5:deth i5ter"ie9s 9ith %& st4de5ts8 M3rto5 et 3l; ?%&&*@ 3lso reorted8 33rt fro#
E#e#oris3tio5 th3t s4cceeds 45derst35di5g>8 there 3lso e6ists the t!e of E#e#oris3tio5 th3t
recedes 45derst35di5g> 9hich #e35s8 the le3r5er rote:#e#orise i5 the first i5st35ce i5 order to
45derst35d l3ter;
+&
'-'+
'-',
'-'-
'-'.
'-%&
'-%'
'-%%
'-%(
'-%)
'-%*
'-%+
'-%,
'-%-
'-%.
'-(&
'-('
'-(%
'-((
'-()
'-(*
'-(+
'-(,
'-(-
'-(.
'-)&
'-)'
'-)%
'-)(
'-))
'-)*
'*&
'*'
'*%
'*(
defi5ed $! le3r5i5g str3tegists 3s Es3!i5g or doi5g so#ethi5g o"er 35d o"er1 liste5i5g
to so#ethi5g se"er3l ti#esJ rehe3rsi5gJ i#it3ti5g 3 53ti"e se3Aer> ?O6ford8 '..&1 )*@;
This see#i5gl! #ech35ic3l 3cti"it! h3s lo5g $ee5 co5sidered to $e o4t of f3shio5 i5
l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 ?N; Ellis N /e3to58 '..(@ ro$3$l! d4e to it $ei5g Ereg3rded 3s 3
t!ic3l for# of rote #e#oris3tio5>
)'
?0;:P; Li8 %&&*1 ''@; /iggs8 ho9e"er8 ch3lle5ged
this co5cetio5 $! e#h3sisi5g 3 differe5ce $et9ee5 the#1 re4etiti7e le3r5i5g 4ses
reetitio5 3s 3 #e35s of e5s4ri5g 3cc4r3te rec3ll 9hile rote le3r5i5g is Ethe #ere
e6ercise of #e#or! 9itho4t roer 45derst35di5g> ?Shorter O6ford Dictio53r!
<4oted i5 L; /iggs8 '..-1 ,%+@;
Holdi5g reetitio5 to $e the 5ecess3r! #e35s to 3c<4ire A5o9ledge ?H48 %&&%$@ or
Ethe ro4te to 45derst35di5g> ?L; /iggs8 '...1 %@8 Chi5ese st4de5ts 3re fo45d to 4se
reetitio5 for t9o differe5t 4roses1 first8 to cre3te 3 Edee i#ressio5> 35d the5ce
co##it to #e#ori73tio5J seco5d8 to deee5 or de"elo 45derst35di5g $! disco"eri5g
5e9 #e35i5g ?D3hli5 N B3tAi5s8 %&&&@; It is 3rg4ed th3t the rocess of reetitio5 is
5ot 3 si#le rocess of ree3ti5g i5 order to #e#orise8 $4t 3 rel4de to
45derst35di5g8 or 3 for# of 45derst35di5gJ it is 3 93! to gr3s the #e35i5g of 3 te6t
#ore f4ll! ?F; M3rto58 et 3l;8 '..+@; This s3id8 Chi5ese st4de5ts te5d to 4se reetitio5
3s 3 tech5ic3l tool for e5h35ci5g $oth #e#ori73tio5 35d 45derst35di5g; I5 3dditio5 to
3ssisti5g st4de5ts to 3cc4r3tel! rec3ll i5for#3tio58 reetiti"e le3r5i5g e53$les the
le3r5er to 3tt3ch #e35i5g to the #3teri3ls le3r5ed; Bester5 st4de5ts8 o5 the other
h35d8 te5d to 4se reetitio5 o5l! to checA th3t the! h3"e re3ll! re#e#$ered so#ethi5g
?B3tAi5s N /iggs8 %&&'1 +@; For these 34thors8 the $est e6lic3tio5 of E45derst35di5g
thro4gh #e#oris3tio5> 9hich #3! 477le Bester5ers lies i5 the f3ct th3t EChi5ese
st4de5ts t!ic3ll! thi5A of 45derst35di5g 3s 4s43ll! 3 rocess th3t re<4ires
co5sider3$le #e5t3l effort> ?reetiti"e le3r5i5g8 for i5st35ce@ 9here3s EBester5
st4de5ts see 45derst35di5g 3s 4s43ll! 3 rocess of s4dde5 i5sight> ?i$id@; Cle3rl!8 the
Bester5 5otio5 of rote le3r5i5g does 5ot see# to c3t4re 3de<43tel! r3ctices
3ssoci3ted 9ith #e#oris3tio5 35d reetitio5 i5 the Chi5ese le3r5i5g c4lt4re ?F;
M3rto58 et 3l;8 '..+@; E#h3sisi5g the differe5ce $et9ee5 rote le3r5i5g 35d
re4etiti7e le3r5i5g8 /iggs ?'..+@ 3rg4es th3t Chi5ese le3r5ers #3! $e reetiti"e
)'
)
Vie9ed historic3ll!8 ho9e"er8 the decli5e of reetitio5 is tho4ght to $e rel3ted to the f3ll fro#
f3"o4r of $eh3"io4rist le3r5i5g theor! ?Ros3#o5d Mitchell8 L45e ''8 %&&.8 erso53l
co##45ic3tio5@;
+'
'-)+
'-),
'-)-
'-).
'-*&
'-*'
'-*%
'-*(
'-*)
'-**
'-*+
'-*,
'-*-
'-*.
'-+&
'-+'
'-+%
'-+(
'-+)
'-+*
'-++
'-+,
'-+-
'-+.
'-,&
'-,'
'-,%
'-,(
'-,)
'-,*
'-,+
'*)
'**
'*+
le3r5ers r3ther th35 rote le3r5ers; For /iggs8 45derst35di5g co#le6it! re<4ires
reetitio58 i5 35! c4lt4re8 $4t it is forgotte5 i5 the BestJ reetiti"e le3r5i5g te5ds to $e
ercei"ed 3s #i5dless rote le3r5i5g ?L; /iggs8 '..,@; For i5st35ce8 rote le3r5i5g is
e"e5 defi5ed 3s E3 #ethod i5"ol"i5g reetitio5 35d #e#oris3tio5> ?Moore %&&&J cited
i5 0;:P; Li8 %&&*@;
A5other re3so5 9h! reetitio5 is o4red scor5 o5 i5 Bester5 c4lt4re #3! $e th3t
l35g43ge for# is "3l4ed less highl! th35 the #e35i5g it i5te5ds to co5"e!; As CooA
?'..)1 '(,@ 4t it1
Co5te#or3r! Bester5 c4lt4re is erh3s 454s43l i5 the l3cA of i#ort35ce it
3tt3ches to the for# of 9ords; Bh3t #3tters i5 disco4rse8 it 3e3rs8 is its
#e35i5g or i5te5tio58 35d the 4rose of disco4rse is see5 o5l! 3s the
Etr35s#issio5> of #e35i5gs 35d i5te5tio5s;
Bhile 3cA5o9ledgi5g the legiti#3c! of riorit! l3ced o5 #e35i5g8 9e sho4ld 5ot
de5! 35! ositi"e 3sect of foc4si5g o5 for#; I5 3dditio5 to erfor#i5g the f45ctio5
of co##45ic3tio5 of #e35i5g8 l35g43ge is 3lso E3 so4rce of co#fort 35d 35 o4tlet for
Do! 35d e64$er35ce> ?CooA8 '..)1'(-@; I5 3 se5se8 reetitio5 #3! ser"e to s3tisf! this
h4#35 5eed to 3 cert3i5 e6te5t; Moreo"er8 reetitio5 c35 3fford 3 co5d4it to s3"o4r or
e5Do! the 3esthetic s4$tlet! cre3ted $! #35oe4"ri5g for#s of 9ords;
I5 ter#s of l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 reetitio5 #3! still h3"e 3 #oti"3tio53l role to l3!1
I5 the e3rl! st3ges of l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 reetitio5 gi"es the st4de5ts the
oort45it! to #35i4l3te the or3l 35d 9ritte5 for#s of l35g43ge ite#s8 35d
#35! le3r5ers deri"e 3 stro5g se5se of rogress 35d 3chie"e#e5t fro# this
t!e of 3cti"it!; For this re3so5 it c35 $e "er! "3l43$le; ?23ir5s N Red#358
'.-+1 .(@
Th4s8 reetitio5 is co5tri$4ti"e to 3c<4isitio5 i5 t9o 3sects1 $ei5g 3 drilli5g of
l35g43ge for#s 35d o$t3i5i5g 3 ositi"e s!chologic3l feeli5g;
2.2.2.! Me012i3a/i14 a49 72ea/i<i/8
+%
'-,,
'-,-
'-,.
'--&
'--'
'--%
'--(
'--)
'--*
'--+
'--,
'---
'--.
'-.&
'-.'
'-.%
'-.(
'-.)
'-.*
'-.+
'-.,
'-.-
'-..
'.&&
'.&'
'.&%
'.&(
'.&)
'.&*
'.&+
'.&,
'.&-
'.&.
'.'&
I5 %;';%8 I osed 3 ch3lle5ge to the Bester5 co5cetio5 of the i5hi$iti5g effect of
#e#oris3tio5 o5 cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g i5 the $ro3d setti5g of ge5er3l ed4c3tio5; Mo"i5g
to 3 53rro9er co5te6t of l35g43ge ed4c3tio58 I8 too8 3sA1 Does the 4se of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i#3ir cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43geH A 4sef4l oi5t of de3rt4re for #!
disc4ssio5 c35 $e fo45d i5 the 53rr3ti"e $! Pe55!cooA ?'..+1 %&%:%&(@1
I rec3ll F t3lAi5g to so#e of #! Chi5ese colle3g4es 3$o4t #e#oris3tio5 35d
l35g43ge le3r5i5g; I 93s 3rg4i5g th3t 3ltho4gh #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts #ight $e
3 4sef4l le3r5i5g tech5i<4e8 it co4ld 5e"er le3d to rod4cti"e8 origi53l
l35g43ge 4se ?this8 9e h3"e $ee5 t34ght to $elie"e8 is o5e of those Ef3cts> of
seco5d l35g43ge 3c<4isitio5@; I g3"e 3s 35 e63#le o5e of o4r colle3g4es 9ho
93s 3cA5o9ledged 3s o5e of the #ost elo<4e5t 35d fl4e5t se3Aer i5 the
de3rt#e5t8 s4ggesti5g th3t he co4ld 5e"er h3"e $eco#e so if he h3d $ee5 3
#ere #e#ori7er; The others s#iled8 for this other colle3g4e 93s A41B4 41/
1468 a3 a4 e.7e66e4/ u3e2 1; E4g6i35 =u/ a631 a3 310e14e Bi/5 a ;i4e /a6e4/
;12 0e012i3i4g /e./3. F I A5e9 th3t 9he5 9e s3t 35d dr35A $eer 35d t3lAed
hilosoh!8 he 93s5>t se3Ai5g te6ts to #e; Ho9 h3d he co#e to o95 the
l35g43ge 3s he did8 9he5 th3t h3d 33re5tl! $ee5 do5e $! $orro9i5g others>
l35g43geH ?e#h3sis Q$oldR 3dded@
Pe55!cooA>s 477le rerese5ts #35! 9ester5 schol3rs> #isco5cetio5 9hich is $3sed
o5 the follo9i5g re#ises1 ?'@ rote le3r5i5g ?#e#orisi5g 9itho4t 45derst35di5g@ is
A5o95 to le3d to oor le3r5i5g o4tco#esJ #ost Chi5ese st4de5ts 3re rote le3r5ers
?B3tAi5s N /iggs8 %&&'1 * @J ?%@ #e#oris3tio58 5ot3$l! te6t #e#oris3tio58 is #e35t
3s 3 tool for co!i5g or e<43l to Esi ji yin bei> Qliter3ll! #e35i5g Ede3d 35d i5fle6i$le
#e#oris3tio5>
)%
8 9hich c35 ser"e 3s 3 erfect Chi5ese "ersio5 for Erote le3r5i5g>R8 3
5otorio4sl! deficie5t 35d $3cA93rd le3r5i5g #ethod co5de#5ed i5 Chi5ese
ed4c3tio5;
I sh3ll foc4s #! disc4ssio5 here o5 the seco5d re#ise si5ce the first o5e h3s $ee5
de3lt 9ith 3$o"e; I5 sh3r co5tr3st 9ith Esi ji yin bei>8 Ehuo xue huo yong>Qliter3ll!
)%
)
Tr35sl3tio5 fro# D;:L ;Li4 ?%&&*@;
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'.'+
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'.%.
'.(&
'.('
'.(%
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'.()
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'.(-
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'.)&
'.)'
'.)%
'*,
#e35i5g fle6i$le le3r5i5g 35d cre3ti"e 4seR is 3 highl! "3l4ed r3ctice th3t
E#e#oris3tio5 is #e35t to s4ort> ?Di:Li5; Li48 %&&*1 %(,@; Th3t is to s3!8 good
#e#orisi5g r3ctice 3i#s to hel the le3r5er to 4se 9h3t is #e#orised for cre3ti"e
co5str4ctio5 i5 his=her o95 rod4ctio5J o5 the co5tr3r!8 to #e#orise for the #ere
s3Ae of #e#oris3tio5 is co5sidered 3s 3 $3d r3ctice8 if 5ot oi5tless 3ltogether; As
the Chi5ese schol3r Li4 ?%&&*1 %(, @ 3tl! 4t it1
I5 f3ct8 #e#ori7i5g good 9riti5g to i#ro"e 9riti5g is "er! si#il3r to the
#e#ori73tio5 of the #4ltilic3tio5 t3$les8 3 r3ctice #e35t to hel o5e to do
#4ltilic3tio5 #ore efficie5tl!;
Li4 3lso #3de 3 co##e5t o5 the tr3ditio53l r3ctice of #e#orisi5g Chi5ese te6ts1
F 3 #3Dor role of #e#orisi5g good 9riti5g i5 Chi5ese is to hel the le3r5er to
3reci3te 35d $eco#e f3#ili3r 9ith effecti"e rhetoric3l st!les 35d 4sef4l
9riti5g tech5i<4es th3t the #e#orised 9riti5g 4ses so the le3r5er c35 4se the#
i5 his=her o95 9riti5g i5 the f4t4re; ?Di:Li5; Li48 %&&*1 %(,J e#h3sis 3dded@
If E5glish te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 45derstood i5 this 93!8 Pe55!cooA>s 477le is sol"ed;
First8 his Chi5ese colle3g4e E9ith 3 fi5e t3le5t for #e#orisi5g te6ts> is $! 5o #e35s E3
#ere #e#ori7er>J Seco5d8 he #4st $e 35 e63#le of Ehuo xue huo yong>8 other9ise
he co4ld 5e"er $eco#e E35 e6celle5t 4ser of E5glish>;
This ide3 of fle6i$le 4se of #e#orised 9riti5g8 i5 effect8 is 3lso recisel! 3ll4ded to i5
the Chi5ese ro"er$ Eshou *u tang shi san bai shou) bu hui xie shi ye hui yin> Qthis
liter3ll! #e35s EMe#orise (&& T35g oe#s 35d o5e c35 3t le3st recite the# if 453$le
to co#ose 3 oe# hi#self>R; It see#s to #e th3t 3 l3rge 3#o45t of te6t #e#oris3tio5
#3! le3d to t9o le"els of 3chie"e#e5t1 the lo9er le"el is to 3cc4r3tel! rec3ll 9h3t is
#e#orised8 the higher o5e is to t3Ae 3d"35t3ge of the E4sef4l 9riti5g tech5i<4es th3t
the #e#orised 9riti5g 4ses> ?Di:Li5; Li48 %&&*1 see the <4ot3tio5 o5e 3r3gr3h
$3cA@ for o5e>s o95 disos3l; Therefore8 the le3r5er>s i5iti3ti"e l3!s 35 esse5ti3l role
i5 deter#i5i5g ho9 #4ch s=he 9ill $e5efit fro# the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 35d
th3t is 9h! #35! Chi5ese 35cie5t schol3rs l3ce gre3t "3l4e o5 c4lti"3ti5g the
st4de5ts> i5dee5de5t thi5Ai5g ?see (;) for #ore disc4ssio5 o5 this iss4e@; Th4s
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'.*)
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'.+(
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'.+*
'.++
'.+,
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'.+.
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'.,'
'.,%
'.,(
'.,)
'.,*
'.,+
"ie9ed8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 K for the 4rose of l35g43ge le3r5i5g K is 5ot the ote5ti3l
#e53ce to cre3ti"it! th3t it is ofte5 3i5ted to $e;
Si#il3rl!8 le3r5i5g thro4gh co5scio4s #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot redesti5ed to e5d 4 $ei5g
less cre3ti"e; There is 5o e"ide5ce th3t high 3chie"ers i5 #e#oris3tio58 either those
9ho co##it #ore f3cts to #e#or! i5 3 $ro3d se5se of le3r5i5g or those 9ho le3r5
#ore te6ts $! he3rt i5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 3re i5ferior to their lo9:3chie"i5g
co45ter3rts i5 ter#s of cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g; M! 5e3r:dec3de te3chi5g e6erie5ces i5
Chi53 h3"e i5for#ed #e th3t the #ost cre3ti"e st4de5ts 3re liAel! to $e those 9ho
h3"e stored #ore i5for#3tio5 i5 their #i5d 9h3te"er the! 3re le3r5i5g; I5 the c3se of
l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 it is "er! 45liAel! th3t the le3r5er 9ho h3s de"eloed 35
e6tr3ordi53r! fl3ir i5 #e#orisi5g te6ts is less c33$le of cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge th35
those 9ho h3"e 5ot;
Altho4gh i5cre3si5gl! ch3lle5ged i5 the liter3t4re i5 rece5t !e3rs8 the stereot!ic3l
ercetio5 of the Chi5ese rote le3r5er is still co##o5 3#o5g 9ester5 te3chers;
U5critic3ll! forci5g 9ester5 co5cets 35d #ethods 4o5 35 e3ster5 setti5g liAe Chi53
c35 $e 45fr4itf4l 35d #isle3di5g; I5 B3tAi5s N /iggs>?'..+@ "ie98
Bhe5 Co5f4ci35 herit3ge c4lt4re eole 3re "ie9ed thro4gh the le5ses of
f3#ili3r 9ester5 ol3rities8 s4ch 3s #e#orisi5g "ers4s #e35i5gf4l le3r5i5g8
the foc4s $eco#es $l4rred 35d e"e5 distorted;
The le3r5i5g st!les of Chi5ese st4de5ts K 9ho 3ct43ll! refer Ehigh:le"el> or Edee:
le3r5i5g str3tegies> o"er the co##o5l! #isercei"ed rote le3r5i5g ?L; /iggs8 '..)@ K
h3"e $ee5 #isi5terreted 3s rote 35d s4erfici3l; The 3stig#3tic 3r3do6 of Chi5ese
le3r5ers ositio5ed $! Bester5 sect3cles is th4s sol"ed;
2.! I3 C14;u7iu3) /5e128 1; 6ea24i4g 2e6e<a4/ /19a8D
Co5f4ci4s> theor! of le3r5i5g is ge5er3ll! 45derstood i5 the Best 3s o5e 9hich
e#h3sises le3r5i5g thro4gh rote:#e#oris3tio5 35d the #3ster! of esse5ti3l
A5o9ledge 3s 9ell 3s $eh3"io4r3l 5or#s reser"ed i5 the c4lt4re of 35ti<4it!; It is
3ss4#ed $! Bester5 schol3rs th3t the Co5f4ci35 defi5itio5 of A5o9ledge is 3s
+*
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'.,-
'.,.
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'.-'
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'.-(
'.-)
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'.-.
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%&&&
%&&'
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so#ethi5g 9hich c35 $e directl! Et3Ae5 o4t Qfro# the $ooAR 35d 4t i5side the
st4de5ts> he3ds> ?M3le!8 '.-(1 .-@; It is 3lso s4osed th3t Co5f4ci4s t3Aes le3r5i5g
3s 3 rocess of $li5d 3cc4#4l3tio58 #e#oris3tio5 35d rete5tio5 of $eliefs i5 the
cl3ssics8 9hich is ide5tic3l 9ith the E$35Ai5g> co5cet of ed4c3tio5; Is Co5f4ci4s tr4l!
35 3d"oc3te of 3 $35Ai5g #odel of ed4c3tio5H Or i5 other 9ords8 is Co5f4ci4s>
co5cetio5 of le3r5i5g 3t odds 9ith critic3l thi5Ai5gH
Rece5t st4dies of Chi5ese hilosoh! le3d to i5cre3si5g recog5itio5 of the r3tio53lit!
of #35! 35cie5t thi5Aers rerese5ted $! Co5f4ci4s; 2r3h3# ?'.-.@8 35 i5fl4e5ti3l
co##e5t3tor8 e"e5 reg3rds Co5f4ci4s 3s hi#self 3 r3tio53l8 critic3l thi5Aer; Ho9e"er8
he still holds th3t Co5f4ci4s> co5cetio5 of le3r5i5g l3ces "er! 3 lo9 re#i4# o5
thi5Ai5g 9he5 co#3red to le3r5i5g
)(
; S4ch 35 i5terret3tio5 is re3ll! 45f3ir for
Co5f4ci4s 3s he e6licitl! st3tes i5 'he Anale#ts1 EHe 9ho D4st st4dies $4t does 5ot
thi5A 9ill $e 477led; He 9ho D4st thi5As $4t does 5ot st4d! 9ill $e erilo4s;>
?Co5f4ci4s8 %&&+$1 '(@ This <4ot3tio5 sho9s th3t Co5f4ci4s t3Aes thi5Ai5g 3s
i#ort35t 3s le3r5i5g
))
8 35d "ie9s the# 3s 3 t9o:3rt i5tegr3ted s!ste# the l3cA of
either of 9hich 9o4ld $e d35gero4s; For hi#8 le3r5i5g c355ot $e se3r3ted fro#
thi5Ai5g1 o5l! le3r5i5g 9ith thi5Ai5g or thi5Ai5g 9ith le3r5i5g c35 $e co45ted 3s the
f4ll se5se of le3r5i5g th3t Co5f4ci4s is i5te5di5g to ro#ote; This is de#o5str3ted i5
the follo9i5g eisode1
Si8 !o4 thi5A of #e 3s o5e 9ho st4dies #35! thi5gs 35d re#e#$ers the#8
do5>t !o4H
He relied1 Yes8 is it 5ot the c3seH
He s3id1 It is 5ot; There is o5e thi5g I 4se to stri5g the# together; ?Co5f4ci4s8
%&&&J '*1(@
)(
)
The co5cl4sio5 #ight $e $3sed o5 the f3ct th3t Ele3r5i5g> is #ore ofte5 th35 5ot #e5tio5ed i5
Co5f4ci35 Cl3ssics; Here 3re t9o e63#les1 Esui you zhi *ao) %u xue) bu zhi qi shan ye;> Q#e35i5g
EAltho4gh there 3re erfect ide3s 35d ri5ciles8 o5e 9ill 5ot detect their s4$tleties 9itho4t
st4d!i5g the#;R ?Co5f4ci4s8 %&&+31 (*@J Ebo wen qiang shi) : : wei zhi jun zhi> Q#e35i5g EA #35
of "irt4e ossesses 9ide le3r5i5g 35d stro5g #e#or!;>R ?Co5f4ci4s8 %&&+31 ,@
))
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Le3r5i5g here c35 $e 45derstood 3s the #ore #45d35e se5se of the ter#8 the E#e#orisi5g
$3sic 3rith#etic3l f3cts> se5se of the ter# : seei5g8 he3ri5g8 35d re#e#$eri5g8 3#3ssi5g d3t3 ?Gi#
%&&(@; Th3t>s 9h! le3r5i5g is co5tr3sted 9ith thi5Ai5g i5 the <4ot3tio5;
++
%&''
%&'%
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%&%+
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%&%.
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%&(%
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%&(*
%&(+
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'*-
'*.
'+&
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Cle3rl!8 Co5f4ci4s does 5ot li#it his le3r5i5g to #e#oris3tio5 or Efilli5g the
deosits>; ESt4d!Qi5gR #35! thi5gs 35d re#e#$erQi5gR the#> is o5e of the t9o
#e35s
)*
for the 3cc4#4l3tio5 of r39 #3teri3ls of A5o9ledge8 o4t of 9hich 9isdo# is
co5str4cted or e6tr3cted; There is Eo5e thi5g> i5 3dditio5 th3t he 4ses 3s 3 tool to
tr35sfor# the r39 #3teri3l i5to 9isdo# or A5o9ledge i5 the f4ll Co5f4ci35 se5se8 35d
th3t disti5g4ishes hi#self fro# the rote:le3r5er 35d the $li5d 3cc4#4l3tor of
A5o9ledge; Needless to s3!8 the Eo5e thi5g> re<4ired to stri5g together the #35!
thi5gs th3t he st4dies 35d re#e#$ers is thi5Ai5g8 or8 to $e secific8 s!5thesis8
s!ste#is3tio5 35d i5tegr3tio5 of r39 #3teri3ls; I5 esse5ce8 9h3t Co5f4ci4s #e35t8 i5
C; Ch35g>s ?'.*)@ 45derst35di5g8 93s th3t A5o9ledge is $3sed o5 $oth d3t3 35d
#ethod of thi5Ai5g1
If o5e h3s 5o d3t3 to 9orA 9ith8 35d #erel! l3!s 9ith the h35t3s#s of o5e>s
i#3gi53tio58 tho4ght 9ill $e 45reli3$le or 3d"e5t4ro4s; If o5e collects #35!
d3t38 sc3ttered8 iece#e3l8 35d 45rel3ted8 5o ri5cile 9ill r45 liAe 3 thre3d
thro4gh the co5geries to org35ise the# i5to 3 s!ste#; ?C; Ch35g8 '.*)1 ..@
Th4s8 Co5f4ci35 tho4ght o5 ed4c3tio5 is $! 5o #e35s 3 Chi5ese "ersio5 of the
E$35Ai5g co5cet of ed4c3tio5> ?Freire8 '.,%1 *-@8 #e35i5g o5l! th3t the st4de5ts 3re
s4osed to recei"e8 #e#orise8 35d ree3t 9h3t is deosited i5 the cl3ssics 9itho4t
45derst35di5g or 3cti"e e5g3ge#e5t;
A f45d3#e5t3l ro$le# 9ith the $35Ai5g #odel of ed4c3tio58 3ccordi5g to Freire8 is
th3t it #is45derst35ds A5o9ledge itself; The Freire35 se5se of A5o9ledge Ee#erges
o5l! thro4gh i5"e5tio5 35d rei5"e5tio58 thro4gh restless8 i#3tie5t8 co5ti54i5g8
hoef4l i5<4ir!> ?Freire8 '..(1 %&-@; For hi#8 the $35Ai5g #odel f3ils $ec34se it
recl4des s4ch i5"e5tio58 rei5"e5tio5 35d i5<4ir!; A5 i#ort35t <4estio5 to 3sA is
9h3t Co5f4ci4s h3d i5 #i5d 9he5 he tho4ght of EA5o9ledge>; Co5f4ci4s st3tes8
S4rel! there 3re eole 9ho 3chie"e so#ethi5g 9itho4t A5o9ledge8 $4t I for
#! 3rt l3cA this ch3r3cteristic; To he3r #4ch 35d select the good oi5ts fro#
)*
)
The other #e35s of 3cc4#4l3ti5g #3teri3ls of A5o9ledge is fro# first:h35d e6erie5ce:
o$ser"i5g8 liste5i5g 35d 3!i5g 3tte5tio5 to life ?Gi#8 %&&(@;
+,
%&(-
%&(.
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%&)+
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%&++
%&+,
%&+-
'++
'+,
it 35d co! the#8 to see #4ch 35d re#e#$er it co5stit4tes 35 i5ferior "3riet!
of A5o9ledge; ?Co5f4ci4s8 %&&&J ,1 %,@
Cle3rl!8 3ltho4gh the i#ort35ce of seei5g8 he3ri5g 35d re#e#$eri5g the 9isdo# of
others is 3cA5o9ledged8 9h3t o5e he3rs8 sees 35d #e#orises #3Aes o5l! 35 Ei5ferior
"3riet! of A5o9ledge>; This is $ec34se the 3c<4isitio5 of i#ort35t f3cts thro4gh
e6erie5ce8 thro4gh liste5i5g to others 35d o$ser"i5g the# is 5ot s4fficie5t; This st!le
of le3r5i5g deri"ed of thi5Ai5g is8 3s #e5tio5ed e3rlier8 co5sidered $! Co5f4ci4s
h373rdo4s 35d 5ot le3di5g to the f4ll Co5f4ci35 se5se of A5o9ledge; The f3cts o5e
#e#orises thro4gh he3ri5g 35d seei5g8 tho4gh 3ssi5g for A5o9ledge8 co5stit4te o5l!
the r39 #3teri3l o4t of 9hich s4erior A5o9ledge or 9isdo# is co5str4cted;
O$"io4sl!8 there is so#ethi5g th3t is 5eeded to #3Ae the r39 #3teri3l 9isdo# or 3
s4erior Ai5d of A5o9ledge;
Critic3l thi5Ai5g theorists8 5e"ertheless8 #3! 3rg4e th3t thi5Ai5g i5 3 Co5f4ci35 se5se
is 5ot e<4i"3le5t to the critic3l thi5Ai5g the! refer to; A Co5f4ci35 "ersio5 of critic3l
thi5Ai5g #ight $etter $e defi5ed 3s Er3tio53ll! reflecti"e thi5Ai5g 9hich is co5cer5ed
9ith 9h3t to do or $elie"e> ?E55is8 '.-*J cited i5 Gi#8 %&&(@; I c3ll this 3 9e3A for#
of critic3l thi5Ai5g 3s oosed to Freire>s stro5g for#; I5 co5tr3st 9ith 3cti"e
tr35sfor#3tio5 of r39 #3teri3l o5 the 3rt of the le3r5ers ?i5 order to re3re the# to
$eco#e Etr35sfor#ers of th3t 9orld>
)+
?Freire8 '..(1 %&.@8 Co5f4ci4s> reflecti"e
thi5Ai5g Eres4oses 35d rei5forces the le3r5ers> e63#i5i5g 45derl!i5g ri5ciles8
$ei5g oe5:#i5ded i5 liste5i5g 35d co5sideri5g the "ie9s of others8 $ei5g f3ir:#i5ded
i5 $3l35ci5g 35d 3ssessi5g e"ide5ce8 35d thi5Ai5g 34to5o#o4sl! i5 D4dgi5g 35d
3ss4#i5g reso5si$ilit! for o5e>s $eliefs> ?Gi# %&&(1,%@; S4ch reflecti"e thi5Ai5g
i5cl4des ?'@ reflectio5 o5 the #3teri3ls of A5o9ledge i5 order to s!5thesise 35d
s!ste#ise the r39 #3teri3ls i5to 3 9hole8 35d to i5tegr3te the# i5to o5eself 3s
9isdo#J 35d ?%@ reflectio5 o5 o5eself i5 order to e5s4re th3t s4ch s!5thesis8
)+
)
Freire roosed his ed4c3tio5 theor! i5 the co5te6t of seeAi5g E8e*agogy o% the o44resse*; ?the
53#e of his highl! i5fl4e5ti3l $ooA@8 9hich #3! 3rti3ll! e6l3i5 his r3dic3l ositio5 i5 defi5i5g
critic3l thi5Ai5g; The $35Ai5g co5cet of ed4c3tio58 3ccordi5g to Freire ?'.,%@8 is 9ell s4ited to
the 4rose of 35d ser"es the i5terests of the oressors; Co5f4ci35 3d"oc3c! of the E#3ster! of
the cl3ssics> 93s 3lso i5terreted 3s 35 i5str4#e5t for its olitic3l 4tilit3ri35is# th3t er#e3tes
Co5f4ci35 ed4c3tio53l co5te5ts 35d #ethod ?cf; Sh48 '..%@; M! disc4ssio5 here8 ho9e"er8 is fro#
3 4rel! ed4c3tio53l ersecti"e 3ltho4gh the ossi$ilit! of se3r3tio5 $et9ee5 olitics 35d
ed4c3tio5 is 35other #3tter;
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?For 3 f4ll 3rg4#e5t8 see Gi#8 %&&(@; To el3$or3te o5 this 9o4ld $e off the tr3cA of
the rese5t disc4ssio58 $4t it 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t these reflectio5s 3re i5deed
o5e of the $3sic fe3t4res of Ero$le#:osi5g ed4c3tio5> 9hich8 i5 Freire>s ?'.,%1 ,'@
9ords8 E$3ses itself o5 cre3ti"it! 35d sti#4l3tes tr4e reflectio5 35d 3ctio5 4o5
re3lit!>;
Th3t Co5f4ci4s h3s see5 3s 3 $elie"er i5 the $35Ai5g #odel of ed4c3tio5 #3! $e
rel3ted to his cl3i# th3t EQ/Rei5g fo5d of the tr4th8 I 3# 35 3d#irer of 35ti<4it!> ?'he
Anale#ts8 ,;'@?Co5f4ci4s8 %&&&@; Bh3t Co5f4ci4s #e35s is th3t tr4th K 9h3t 9e tod3!
9o4ld c3ll 9isdo# K 93s 3tt3i5ed i5 35ti<4it! 35d th3t his t3sA i5 le3r5i5g 35d
te3chi5g is to #3Ae s4re tr4th of s4ch 3 Ai5d is 5ot lost; Altho4gh he #3de 5o 3cti"e
effort to tr35sfor# the co5te5t of 9h3t he co5siders tr4e A5o9ledge8 Co5f4ci4s does
e#h3sise the 5eed for 3cti"e e5g3ge#e5t o5 the 3rt of le3r5ers i5 the for# of
353l!si5g8 reco5str4cti5g8 s!5thesisi5g 35d e"3l43ti5g 9h3t is tr35s#itted; For
Co5f4ci4s8 f4ll! #3steri5g or i5ter53lisi5g tr3ditio53l roriet! ?o4t of 3d#ir3tio5 for
35ti<4it!@ 5ot o5l! does 5ot recl4de $4t 3lso re<4ires the le3r5er>s 3cti"e
e5g3ge#e5t8 35d co5cet43lisi5g le3r5i5g 3s stori5g 35d tr35s#itti5g does 5ot
5ecess3ril! r4le o4t critic3l thi5Ai5g8 e"e5 if 9isdo# is o5e 35d the s3#e for $oth the
35cie5ts 35d the #oder5s; I5 esse5ce8 Co5f4ci4s> E3d#ir3tio5 of 35ti<4it!> is #ore 3
res4lt of co5str4cti"e criticis# 35d ho5est e"3l43tio5 th35 $li5d 9orshi for8 he
decl3res8 EI 3# the o5e 9ho thro4gh #! 3d#ir3tio5 of 35ti<4it! is Aee5 to disco"er
thi5gs>; Co5f4ci4s> 3d#ir3tio5 of 35ti<4it! 35d stress o5 the #e#oris3tio5 of the
9isdo# of 35cestors do 5ot re"e5t hi# fro# 3tt3chi5g "3l4e to critic3l thi5Ai5g8
9hich is e"ide5t fro# the follo9i5g <4ote1 EQA ge5tle#35 sho4ldR st4d! e6te5si"el!8
i5<4ire r4de5tl!8 thi5A c3ref4ll!8 disti5g4ish cle3rl! F ;> ?Co5f4ci4s8 %&&+31 ,'@
E"ide5tl!8 e6te5si"e st4d! 35d i5te5tio53l #e#oris3tio5 is o5l! o5e 3sect of 9h3t
Co5f4ci4s h3s i5 his #i5d for le3r5i5g8 35d 35 e<43ll!8 if 5ot #ore8 i#ort35t 3rt is
i5<4ir!; He e"e5 t3lAed 3$o4t ho9 thi5Ai5g sho4ld $e c3rried o4t1 EF3sAs si5cerel!
35d thi5As 3$o4t 9h3t is 3t h35d 35d the5 e635ds F ;> QF qie wen er jin si F ;R
?Co5f4ci4s8 %&&+$1 ..@
It th4s 3e3rs th3t critic3l thi5Ai5g is 5ot o5l! 3llo9ed $4t e#h3sised i5 3
Co5f4ci35 "ie9 of le3r5i5g; Differe5t fro# the $35Ai5g #odel of ed4c3tio5 9here
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Ethe st4de5ts 3re 5ot c3lled 4o5 to A5o98 $4t to #e#orise the co5te5ts 53rr3ted $!
the te3cher> ?Freire8 '.,%1 +-@8 3 Co5f4ci35 "ersio5 of ed4c3tio5 i5sists th3t the
st4de5ts tr4l! EA5o9> the co5te5t thro4gh their #e35i5gf4l cog5iti"e i5"ol"e#e5t
rior to #e#oris3tio5 of the co5te5t; I5ste3d of 3d"oc3ti5g 3cc4#4l3ti5g or
#e#orisi5g 45critic3ll! 35d therefore e5di5g 4 $eco#i5g 9h3t Freire ?'.,%1 *-@
c3lls Ecollectors or c3t3log4ers of thi5gs the! store>8 Co5f4ci4s e5co4r3ges critic3l
thi5Ai5g thro4gh 3cti"e e5g3ge#e5t i5 oe5:#i5ded self:reflectio5 or reso5di5g to
the 9isdo# of 35ti<4it! 35d the li"ed d3il! e6erie5ce of #e5; I5 f3ct8 Co5f4ci35
ed4c3tio5 l3ces 3 gre3t e#h3sis o5 the $3l35ce E$et9ee5 $ooA A5o9ledge 35d the
c33cit! to 3ct 35d thi5A i5dee5de5tl!> ?0;:S; Y3o8 %&&&1 %-%@; I5teresti5g e"ide5ce
#3! $e fo45d i5 the Chi5ese ter# ?xuewen@ for EA5o9ledge> 9hich is #3de 4 of t9o
ch3r3cters1 O5e is xue ?to le3r5@ 35d the other is Ewen> ?to 3sA@; This i#lies th3t the
3ctio5 of e5<4iri5g 35d <4estio5i5g is ce5tr3l to the <4est for A5o9ledge ?Che5g8
%&&&J N;:F; Li4 N Little9ood8 '..,@;
Bh3t is i"ot3l to the 45derst35di5g of Co5f4ci35 le3r5i5g hilosoh!8 it h3s to $e
oi5ted o4t8 is th3t o5e #4st $e deel! steeed i5 the #3teri3l thro4gh s4ccessi"e
reetitio5s8 iter3tio5s 35d #e#oris3tio58 e3ch of 9hich drills deeer 35d deeer i5 to
the gr3s of the #e35i5g $efore o5e 9i5s the right to de3rt fro# the #3teri3l ?Pr3tt8
'..%@; Le3r5ers fro# Co5f4ci35 herit3ge 3re $! 5o #e35s disse5ters fro# critic3l
thi5Ai5gJ the! si#l! c3st do4$t o5 the ossi$ilit! of <4estio5i5g or ch3lle5gi5g 9he5
o5e does 5ot co##35d co5sider3$le $3sics 35d rofo45d co#rehe5sio5 of 3 gi"e5
toic8 eseci3ll! i5 the e3rl! st3ges of le3r5i5g; A f45d3#e5t3l <4estio5 9hich 477les
the# #ight $e th3t1 Eho9 c35 45derst35di5g res4lt fro# free:for:3ll <4estio5i5g
rooted i5 ig5or35ceH>?2ree5holt78 %&&(1 '%)@ 9hile Bester5ers 3re 9o5deri5g ho9
#e#oris3tio5 does 5ot h3#er cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g;
S4##i5g 4 #! disc4ssio5 th4s f3r of the <4estio5 I osed 3t the o5set8 i;e;8 EIs
Co5f4ci4s> theor! of le3r5i5g rele"35t tod3!H> the reso5se therefore is 3 reso45di5g
EYesV>; Co5f4ci35 le3r5i5g is 5ot #erel! the 45critic3l rote #e#oris3tio5 of 9h3te"er
is i5 the te6t$ooA 3s stereot!ic3ll! 45derstood $! 9ester5ers; The Co5f4ci35 se5se of
#e#oris3tio5 is f3r fro# $ei5g E35 e3s! co:o4t or 3 rele3se fro# thi5Ai5g>
?S3#so58 '.-)1 %.@ for8 3s Lee ?'..+1 ()@ i5terrets8 Ethe 4rose of QCo5f4ci35R
le3r5i5g is to c4lti"3te o5eself 3s 35 i5tellige5t8 cre3ti"e8 i5dee5de5t8 34to5o#o4s
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ed4c3tio5 9hich E35estheti7es 35d i5hi$its cre3ti"e o9er> ?Freire8 '.,%1 +-@;
Therefore8 Co5f4ci4s> le3r5i5g theor! does 5ot recl4de critic3l thi5Ai5g 35d c35 $e
of high rele"35ce to ed4c3tio5 tod3!; Tr3ditio53l 9isdo# c35 $e 4sef4l i5 t3cAli5g
#oder5 ro$le#s if 9e t3Ae 3 $3l35ced 3ttit4de to93rds the#8 3s is co5"e!ed i5 3
Chi5ese idio# K E"u qi zao4o) qu qi jinghua> Q#e35i5g Edisc3rdi5g the dross8
selecti5g the esse5ce>R; Bh3t goes 9ro5g 9ith Co5f4ci35 ed4c3tio5 #3! $e #ore
co5cer5ed 9ith the f3ct th3t tr3ditio5 35d cl3ssic3l te6ts #3! $e #3de 35
45ch3lle5ge3$le 34thorit! for le3r5ers to tre3s4re 4 ?9hich is 5ot to de5! th3t #35!
of the "3l4es co5"e!ed $! 35cie5t cl3ssics h3"e $ee5 resected for ce5t4ries i5
Chi5ese societ! e"e5 4 to tod3! 3s the! deser"e@ th35 the 93! it e5g3ges le3r5ers i5
le3r5i5g; Co5f4ci35 e#h3sis o5 the i#ort35ce of tr35s#issio5 of "3l4es ?eseci3ll!
those 9hich h3"e 9ithstood the test of ti#e 35d h4#35 e6erie5ces@ #3! gi"e 3 5e9
#o#e5t4# to the est3$lish#e5t of 3 co#rehe5si"e ed4c3tio5 s!ste# 35d #3Ae
Co5f4ci35is# 3 li"i5g tr3ditio5 for the t9e5t!:first ce5t4r! ?0;:S; Y3o8 %&&&J see 3lso
D; A; /ell8 %&&-J D; A; /ell N Ch3i$o5g8 %&&(J /erthro5g8 '..-J /erthro5g N
/erthro5g8 %&&&J M3Aeh3#8 %&&-J Ne"ille8 %&&&@
2.& C1476u3i14
To s4##3rise the ict4re I h3"e 3tte#ted to 45fold i5 this ch3ter8 45derst35di5g of
the ersiste5t r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 9ell 3s Chi5ese le3r5ers i5"ol"es
i5terret3tio5s of 3 54#$er of Ae! iss4es 5ot li#ited to l35g43ge ed4c3tio5; I del"ed
i5to t9o of the#1 ?'@ Is #e#oris3tio5 legiti#3te i5 le3r5i5gH ?%@ Is #e#oris3tio5
doo#ed to $e i5co#3ti$le 9ith critic3l thi5Ai5gH I #3de the oi5t th3t #e#oris3tio5
or #e#orised A5o9ledge is 5ot o5l! legiti#3te i5 $4t co5stit4tes 35 i#ort35t 3rt of
le3r5i5g; More i#ort35tl!8 #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot i5co#3ti$le 9ith critic3l thi5Ai5gJ
o5 the co5tr3r!8 it l3!s the $3sis or s4lies the reso4rces for critic3l thi5Ai5g; Re:
e63#i53tio5 of Co5f4ci4s> theor! of le3r5i5g re"e3ls the coe6iste5ce of e#h3sis o5
critic3l thi5Ai5g 35d #e#oris3tio5; I5 3ss4#i5g th3t rote:#e#oris3tio5 is er"3si"e i5
Co5f4ci35 le3r5i5g8 Bester5 "ie9s te5d to serio4sl! 45deresti#3te the le"els of
cre3ti"it! th3t #3! res4lt fro# Co5f4ci35 le3r5i5g rocesses; I h3"e 3rg4ed th3t the
Co5f4ci35 hilosoh! of ed4c3tio5 c35 $e erti5e5t i5 the t9e5t!:first ce5t4r! e"e5
tho4gh it is i5cli5ed to 4t the stress o5 #e#oris3tio5;
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The 5e6t ch3ter is 35 3tte#t to looA 3t ho9 3 Co5f4ci35 hilosoh! of ed4c3tio5
h3s $ee5 disl3!ed i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g i5 Chi53 9ith 3 foc4s o5
e63#i5i5g A4dioli5g43lis# 35d the stre5gth of tr3ditio53l Chi5ese te3chi5g;
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CHAPTER !------------------------------------------------
ELT IN CHINA: MEMORISATION# ADIOLINGALISM AND
CHINESE CLTRE OF LEARNING
Thro4gh e63#i5i5g the rel3tio5shi $et9ee5 #e#oris3tio5 35d le3r5i5g 9e h3"e
re3ched the co5cl4sio5 th3t #e#oris3tio5 3s 35 3ro3ch to le3r5i5g does 5ot
5ecess3ril! res4ose 3 co5co#it35t l3cA of 45derst35di5g 35d critic3l thi5Ai5g
eseci3ll! "ie9ed fro# 3 Co5f4ci35 ersecti"e; I5 f3ct8 35 i5cre3si5g 54#$er of
co5te#or3r! Bester5 rese3rchers ?e;g;8 Pe55!cooA8 '..+J So9de58 %&&*J B3tAi5s N
/iggs8 '..+@ h3"e recog5ised th3t #e#oris3tio58 3 highl! "3l4ed 93! of le3r5i5g i5
the F3r E3st8 c35 le3d to high le"els of 45derst35di5g if 3lied 3rori3tel!;
Ho9e"er8 sceticis# 3#o5g Bester5 te3chers 35d #ethodologists o5 the 4rose of
e6te5si"e 4se of #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g ?3s is the
c3se i5 Chi53@ h3s 5ot ce3sed; The Chi5ese #3ster! of E5glish thro4gh #e#oris3tio5
is co##o5l! ch3r3cterised 3s Er3ther <43i5t8 3 #isg4ided 4se of effort 35d 3 $3rrier to
co##45ic3tio5>
),
?Cort377i N Li58 '..+1 '-*@; Bhe5 Co##45ic3ti"e L35g43ge
Te3chi5g ?CLT@ f3iled to #3Ae the e6ected i#3ct o5 ELT i5 the Chi5ese co5te6t
?H48 %&&%3J R3o8 '..+@8 #e#oris3tio58 the #ost s3lie5t fe3t4re i5 the Chi5ese 93! of
le3r5i5g E5glish8 h3s $eco#e 3 co5"e5ie5t r3ctice to $l3#e for its s4ressio5 of
Chi5ese st4de5ts> co##45ic3ti"e co#ete5ce; Th4s it is r3rel! #e5tio5ed i5 E5glish
te6t$ooAs or disc4ssed i5 foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 Do4r53ls 3s if it is the c34s3l
f3ctor of the c4rre5t sit43tio5 of ELT i5 Chi53 K 9hich 3 Chi5ese ed4c3tio5 offici3l
h3s descri$ed 3s Eti#e:co5s4#i5g $4t of lo9 efficie5c!>
)-
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#e#oris3tio5 the #3Dor c4lrit 9hich $e3rs reso5si$ilit! for 35! 45s3tisf3ctor!
),
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It 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t this is 5ot the oi5io5 of Cort377i N Li5 9ho D4st <4oted
co##o5l! held Bester5 i5terret3tio5s of Chi5ese 93! of E5glish le3r5i5g; The co5te6t of this
<4ot3tio5 is this1 EChi5ese st4de5ts> 45do4$ted 3chie"e#e5t i5 3c<4iri5g 35 3d"35ce A5o9ledge of
gr3##3r or #e#orisi5g #35! E5glish 9ords is see5 $! Bester5 te3chers 3s $ei5g ri#3ril! 3
5eg3ti"e f3ctor1 F> ?Cort377i N Li58 '..+1 '-*@;
)-
)
Li L35Ii5g8 the for#er "ice re#ier 9ho 93s the5 i5 ch3rge of ed4c3tio5 i5 Chi53 st3ted1
F foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g h3s $ee5 time #onsuming but o% low e%%i#ien#y;
Chi5ese st4de5ts st3rt le3r5i5g E5glish 9he5 the! 3re i5 the D45ior seco5d3r! school i5
the co45tr!side 35d those i5 the cities 3re re<4ired to le3r5 fro# gr3de ( i5 ri#3r!
schools; Ho9e"er8 #35! schools i5 the cities $egi5 te3chi5g E5glish fro# gr3de o5e i5
ri#3r! schools; +nglish is the only subje#t that lasts %or so long while a#hie7ing so little
in !hina; ?L;:I; Li8 %&&(1 'J Chi5ese origi53l8 e#h3sis Qit3licsR 3dded@
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o4tco#e of ELT i5 Chi538 3 co45tr! 9ith 35 e5or#o4s o4l3tio5 35d 3 "er! short
histor! of E5glish te3chi5gH Prior to 35s9eri5g this <4estio58 I 9ill del"e i5to
34dioli5g43lis# i5to 9hich te6t #e#oris3tio5 #ethodologic3ll! fits ?cf; H48 %&&*@
35d e6lore 9h! it is 5ot i5i#ic3l to the Chi5ese c4lt4re of le3r5i5g 9hile CLT see#s
to h3"e e5co45tered c4lt4r3l resist35ce ?H48 %&&%3@ 3ltho4gh $oth 3ro3ches 3re of
foreig5 origi5; A5 i5:deth 353l!sis of tr3ditio53l Chi5ese l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 9hich
te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3d $ee5 3 lo5g:ter# tr3ditio58 the58 follo9s 9ith 3 foc4s o5 its
ote5ti3l stre5gth;
!.1 Me012i3a/i14 a49 Au9i16i4gua6i30
I5 foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio58 reetitio5 35d #e#oris3tio5 h3s lo5g $ee5 i#ri5ted
9ith the #3rA of l35g43ge le3r5i5g 9ith Chi5ese ch3r3cteristics; Co5se<4e5tl!8 these
fe3t4res 3re $ei5g i5discri#i53tel! i5terreted 3s ri#iti"e 35d o$solete 3ccordi5g to
c4rre5t Bester5 5otio5s of E5glish l35g43ge te3chi5g; Le3r5i5g or te3chi5g #ethods
3doted $! Ec4lt4r3l Others> ?Pe55!cooA8 '..+1 %'-@ 3re see5 3s deficie5t r3ther th35
differe5t; Me#oris3tio5 h3s lo5g $ee5 derided 3s o4t#oded or i5ferior ed3gogic3l
r3ctice 3lo5g 9ith its 3ss4#ed Chi5ese $irth#3rA; It co4ld $e 3rg4ed th3t this is 3
Ai5d of c4lt4r3l i#eri3lis# ?Philliso58 '..%@ 3s Ethere is 5o re3so5 to s4ose th3t
o5e c4lt4re of le3r5i5g is s4erior to 35other> ?Ge55ed!8 %&&%1 ))%@; I#it3tio5 35d
#e#oris3tio58 3s 93s sho95 i5 ';%8 is $! 5o #e35s 45i<4e to Chi5ese l35g43ge
le3r5ers; I5 other 9ords8 he3"! 4se of #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot 5o5:e6iste5t i5 ed3gogies
of Bester5 origi5; A erti5e5t e63#le is A4dioli5g43l Method ?ALM
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'.+)@ 9hich flo4rished i5 the #id:'.
th
ce5t4r! ;
/efore roceedi5g f4rther8 3 fe9 9ords #3! $e 5eeded to 3ddress the 33re5t
3r3do6 3s to 9h!8 3g3i5st 3 $3cAdro i5 Bester5 %&
th
ed4c3tio5 9here #e#oris3tio5
93s f3lli5g o4t of f3"o4r8 ALM8 3 l35g43ge te3chi5g #ethodolog! he3"il! $3sed i5
#e#oris3tio58 93s i5trod4ced i5 the '.*&s; T9o ri5ci3l f3ctors 9ere tho4ght to $e
rele"35t1 first8 3s 3 res4lt of the e#erge5ce of li5g4istics 3s the co5trolli5g discili5e
for l35g43ge te3chi5g8 3 3rtic4l3r $r35d of li5g4istics h3e5ed to $e i5 its ri#e
ti#e K e;g; reocc43tio5 9ith li5g4istic for#s8 the "ie9 of fl4e5c! 3s 34to#3tic
).
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A5 e3rl! "ersio5 of ALM c3#e to $e A5o95 3s the EAr#! #ethod> $ec34se of its $irth i5 3
#ilit3r! co5te6t;
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#35i4l3tio5 of those for#s 3s reso5ses to "er$3l or 5o5"er$3l sti#4liJ seco5d8 there
93s 3 shift fro# foc4s o5 the 9ritte5 #ode to foc4s o5 the soAe5 #ode
*&
?see Scott8
'.-( for #ore disc4ssio5@; This shift 93s i5teresti5gl! co5tr3sted 9ith 4593"eri5g
i5siste5ce o5 9ritte5 l35g43ge i5 tr3ditio53l Chi5ese liter3c! ed4c3tio58 9hich #3!
still h3"e i5fl4e5ce o5 co5te#or3r! foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 ?see (;% 35d (;) for
rele"35t disc4ssio5@; Historic3ll! re"ie9ed8 the l35g43ge te3chi5g re"ol4tio5 of the
'.*&s 93s see5 to $e rerese5ted $! 3 #ethodolog! ?ALM@ th3t 93s co5str4cted $!
#ergi5g the co5cets of 3 3rtic4l3r "ersio5 of descriti"e li5g4istics ?str4ct4r3lis#@
9ith the co5cets of 3 3rtic4l3r "ersio5 of 3 theor! of h4#35 le3r5i5g ?$eh3"io4ris#@
9ith 3 co5f4sed 5otio5 of the 53t4re of 3 l35g43ge s!ste# ?seech@ ?cf; Scott8 '.-(@;
Methodologic3ll!8 the 34dioli5g43l #ethod 93s 3lso see5 to h3"e gro95 3rtl! o4t of
3 re3ctio5 3g3i5st the li#it3tio5s of the gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio5 #ethod ?e;g; rel!i5g
he3"il! o5 te3chi5g gr3##3r 35d r3ctisi5g tr35sl3tio5@8 35d 3rtl! o4t of 4rge5t 93r:
ti#e de#35ds for fl4e5t se3Aers of other l35g43ges ?cf; 2riffiths N P3rr8 %&&'@;
D4ri5g Borld B3r II8 i5 order to ro"ide A#eric35 soldiers 9ith 3t le3st $3sic "er$3l
co##45ic3tio5 sAills i5 foreig5 l35g43ges8 the #ethod 93s cre3ted i5 the Ar#!
Seci3lised Tr3i5i5g Progr3# i5 9hich soldier st4de5ts h3d to #e#ori7e 4sef4l
di3log4es 3s erfectl! 3s ossi$le8 fro# the #3teri3ls re3red $! li5g4ists; Li5g4ists
i5sisted o5 the i#it3tio5 35d #e#ori73tio5 of $3sic co5"ers3tio53l se5te5ces 3s
soAe5 $! 53ti"e se3Aers 35d the st4de5ts 9ere drilled 45til the! co4ld r3ttle off the
di3log4es 9ith e3se ?L3do8 '.+)@; This #ethod he3"il! dee5ded o5 drills8 reetitio5
35d s4$stit4tio5 e6ercises8 9hich 9ere D4stified 3ccordi5g to $eh3"iorist theor!
?SAi55er8 '.*,@; The $eh3"iorist eiste#olog! t3Aes the "ie9 th3t l35g43ge is 3
s!ste# of h3$its 9hich c35 $e t34ght 35d le3r5ed o5 3 sti#4l4s:reso5se:
rei5force#e5t $3sis; Th4s8 i#it3tio58 reetitio5 35d #e#ori73tio5 53t4r3ll! $eco#e
the core i5gredie5ts of ALM 3s 3re i5dic3ted $! the ter# E#i#icr!:#e#ori73tio5>8 3
ri#3r! te3chi5g tech5i<4e 3doted i5 this #ethod; The st4de5ts 3re e6ected to
Emimi# the di3log4e 35d e"e5t43ll! memorize it> ?Gr3she58 '.-,1 '%.:'(&J e#h3sis
*&
*
Bh3t Scott ?'.-(@ tho4ght re#3rA3$le8 35d therefore re"ol4tio53r! 3$o4t this shift i5 foc4s i5
the '.*&s8 93s the cl3i# th3t the o5l! roer 3ro3ch to the le3r5i5g of 3 foreig5 l35g43ge 93s
o5e th3t re<4ired the st4de5t to 3chie"e first 35 or3l #3ster! of the $3sic so45d 35d se5te5ce
3tter5s of the l35g43ge8 35d this shift occ4rred Ee"e5 i5 the 3$se5ce of co#elli5g soci3l8
c4lt4r3l8 35d olitic3l 5eeds for le3r5ers to $eco#e se3Aers of foreig5 l35g43ges> ?Scott8 '.-(1
'*@; This shift #3! legiti#ise or $e legiti#ised $! the o5e of the f3"o4rite li5g4istic 3horis#s of
the d3!8 i;e; EL35g43ge is seech8 5ot 9riti5g> ?Mo4lto58 '.+(@;
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origi53l@; The l39s of l35g43ge le3r5i5g
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45deri55i5g ALM st3te th3t the #ore
fre<4e5tl! 35d i5te5sel! 3 reso5se is r3cticed8 the lo5ger it is re#e#$ered; T3Ai5g
foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 3s $3sic3ll! 3 #ech35ic3l rocess of the for#3tio5 35d
erfor#35ce of h3$its ?/rooAs8 '.+)J Ri"er8 '.+)@8 34dioli5g43lists e#h3si7ed the
i#ort35ce of rei5forci5g the Eh3$it> thro4gh i#it3tio58 reetitio5 35d r3ctice; This
s3id8 holdi5g cert3i5 #3teri3ls ?e;g; se5te5ce 3tter5s@ i5 #e#or! see#s to $e 3 t3cit
go3l i5 the 34dioli5g43list "ie9s of l35g43ge le3r5i5g; The 5ecessit! of #e#orisi5g
cert3i5 l35g43ge i5st35ces see#s f45d3#e5t3l to the 45derl!i5g ri5ciles of ALM;
For its roo5e5ts8 the o5l! iss4es 45der disc4ssio5 3re1 9h3t 4tter35ces 3re $e to
chose5 for #e#ori73tio5 ?e;g; oetr!8 re3di5g selectio5s or co5"ers3tio53l #3teri3lJ
isol3ted se5te5ces or co55ected di3log4e@ 35d ho9 #4ch h3s to $e #e#ori7ed ?cf;
L3do8 '.+)@;
I4ite o$"io4sl!8 #e#oris3tio5 93s so ce5tr3l to 3 o4l3r #ethodolog! h3lf 3 ce5t4r!
3go i5 the A5gloho5e Best th3t it 93s "ie9ed 3s 3 5ecessit! r3ther th35 3 choice;
Altho4gh si5ce the l3te '.+&s there h3d $ee5 3d"erse criticis# le"elled 3t ALM 3s
9ell 3s its roo5e5ts8 there h3s $ee5 3 de3rth of i5for#ed 35d 45reD4diced
disc4ssio5s of E9h! it 93s th3t8 for 3$o4t fiftee5 !e3rs8 this Method did i5 f3ct g3i5
s4ch recog5itio5 35d 3ccet35ce 3s to #erit the oi5io5 th3t the er3 of A4dio:Li5g43l
s4re#3c! 93s i5deed the er3 of 3 re"ol4tio5i7ed 3ro3ch to foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chi5g> ?Scott8 '.-(1 '*@;
!.2 Au9i16i4gua6i30 a49 C5i4e3e 7u6/u2e 1; 6ea24i4g
Rece5t rese3rch o5 ELT 35d ELL i5 Chi53 h3s re3ched the co5cl4sio5 th3t tr3ditio53l
3ro3ches ?gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio5 #ethod 35d ALM@ 3re still do#i535t i5 #35! 3
cl3ssroo# ?e;g; H48 %&&'8 %&&%38 %&&*@ 35d #e#oris3tio5 h3s re#3i5ed 3#o5g the
#ost "3l4ed le3r5i5g str3tegies 3#o5g E5glish le3r5ers ?23o8 %&&,3J Y;:I; 248 %&&(J
H48 %&&%3J Li35g N S#ith8 %&&.@; The tr3ditio53l 3ro3ch to ELT i5 Chi53 is
co5sidered to $e 3 Ec4rio4s co#$i53tio5 of the gr3##3r:tr35sl3tio5 #ethod 35d
34dioli5g43lis#8 9hich is ch3r3cterised $! s!ste#3tic 35d det3iled st4d! of gr3##3r8
e6te5si"e 4se of cross:li5g4istic co#3riso5 35d tr35sl3tio58 memorisation o%
*'
*
The t9o l39s 3re El39 of e6ercise> 35d El39 of i5te5sit!> ?cf; L3do8 '.+)1 (,@;
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stru#tural 4atterns 35d "oc3$4l3r!8 3i5st3Ai5g effort to %orm goo* 7erbal habits8 35d
e#h3sis o5 9ritte5 l35g43ge8 35d 3 refere5ce for liter3r! cl3ssics> ?H48 %&&%31 .(J
e#h3sis 3dded@; Altho4gh the Chi5ese "ersio5 of 34doli5g43lis# ?e#h3sis 3tt3ched
to 9ritte5 l35g43ge 35d liter3r! cl3ssics@ is i5teresti5gl! co5tr3sted 9ith the origi53l
Bester5 "ersio5 9hich 93s de"eloed to e5h35ce co5"ers3tio53l roficie5c!8 it is
45do4$tedl! do#estic3ted i5 3 3i5less 93! i5 the Chi5ese c4lt4re of ed3gog! ?i5
co5tr3st to the c4lt4r3l resist35ce to CLT i5 Chi53 ?cf; H48 %&&%3@@;
The s4ccessf4l i5tegr3tio5 of ALM i5to the tr3ditio53l Chi5ese 3ro3ch
*%
93s
3ttri$4ted to the co#3ti$ilit! of so#e of its r3ctices ?e;g; e#h3sis o5 #e#oris3tio5
3s 3 4sef4l le3r5i5g str3teg!@ 9ith the Chi5ese c4lt4re of le3r5i5g ?cf; H48 %&&%3@; M!
ositio5 is stro5ger th35 th3t; 2oi5g $e!o5d the i#ort35ce 3tt3ched to #e#oris3tio58
9e #3! fi5d th3t the #ethodologic3l co5sider3tio5s 45derl!i5g ALM 3re striAi5gl!
co5siste5t 9ith Chi5ese co5cetio5s of le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g; The e5s4i5g disc4ssio5
9ill foc4s o5 34dioli5g43list 45derst35di5g of three i#ort35t iss4es i5 rel3tio5 to
#e#oris3tio5;
!.2.1 Li4gui3/i7 E=ea755ea93)
The r3ctice of #e#orisi5g 4sef4l di3log4es8 3ccordi5g to L3do ?'.+)1 +%@8 gi"es the
st4de5ts Ethe o9er to he3r8 rec3ll8 45derst35d8 35d se3A the #3teri3l> 35d th4s hels
the# est3$lish 3 Eli5g4istic $e3chhe3d>; This is to s3!8 the #e#orised co5"ers3tio53l
$3sics c35 e53$le the st4de5ts to #3ster the 5ecess3r! $its of l35g43ge i5 order to
#o"e to93rds 3 higher gr3de of di3log4es; The i5cre#e5t3l #e#oris3tio5 of
di3log4es or other #3teri3ls rod4ces 3 Es5o9$3ll effect>8 referri5g to the rocess th3t
st3rts fro# 35 i5iti3l st3te of s#3ll #3g5it4de or sig5ific35ce 35d gr3d43ll! $4ilds
4o5 itself8 $eco#i5g l3rger i5 s3ce or deeer i5 degree; Utter35ces re"io4sl!
#e#ori7ed $! the st4de5ts 3re s4osed to co5tri$4te to the 45derst35di5g or #3ster!
of l3ter i5trod4ced o5es8 th4s 3ddi5g to their E$e3chhe3d> i5 the t3rget l35g43ge; It is
hoed th3t EQARfter the first fe9 di3log4es8 the st4de5t #3! A5o9 e5o4gh of the
*%
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The A4dioli5g43list i5fl4e5ce o5 Chi5ese ELT #3! h3"e st3rted i5 the e3rl! '.+&s; It 93s
doc4#e5ted th3t the E5glish te6t$ooA series ?cf; +nglish &oo ,-./08 '.+'@ co5t3i5s 3 54#$er of
di3log4es 35d sig5ific35t 3#o45ts of or3l r3ctice8 h3"i5g fe3t4res K s4erfici3ll! 3t le3st K 3Ai5 to
those of A4dioli5g43lis#8 9hich 93s e#ergi5g i5ter53tio53ll! 3s 3 referred seco5d l35g43ge
ed3gog! 3t the ti#e ?Ad3#so58 %&&)1 --@;
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l35g43ge to 45derst35d 5e9 di3log4es 9ith the e6l353tio5 of 3 fe9 5e9 9ords i5 the
t3rget l35g43ge itself> ?L3do8 '.+)1 +-@; Cle3rl!8 #e#oris3tio5 is #e35t to $e
f45ctio5i5g 3s 3 str3tegic tool thro4gh 9hich le3r5i5g rei5forces itself i5 3 "irt4o4s
circle;
The ide3 th3t the le3r5er>s rior A5o9ledge offers 3 st3rti5g oi5t for le3r5i5g 9h3t is
to $e le3r5ed is 5ot 5e9; Accordi5g to /3tsto5e ?%&&%1 %%'@8 it is 9ell est3$lished ?35d
h3s 3 lo5g 35d disti5g4ished histor!@ th3t E9e 4se 9h3t 9e 3lre3d! A5o9 to thro9
light o5 9h3t 9e do 5ot !et A5o9>; As e3rl! 3s i5 the '.(&s8 De9e! ?'.(.1 %,@
recog5ised the i#ort35ce of the e6erie5ce le3r5ers 3lre3d! h3"e8 35d 5oted th3t
Ethis e6erie5ce 35d the c33cities th3t h3"e $ee5 de"eloed d4ri5g its co4rse ro"ide
the st3rti5g oi5t for 3ll f4rther le3r5i5g>; F4rther#ore8 the 3ssoci3tio5 of rior
A5o9ledge 9ith 9h3t is $ei5g le3r5ed is co5sidered 3 rere<4isite for #e#oris3tio51
EIt is i#ossi$le to re#e#$er 9itho4t 3ssoci3ti5g 5e9 i5for#3tio5 9ith 9h3t !o4
3lre3d! A5o9> ?Cro#le!8 %&&&1 )@; Bhile the sig5ific35ce of the f3cilit3ti"e role of
rior A5o9ledge i5 3c<4iri5g 5e9 A5o9ledge #3! 5ot $e 5ecess3ril! disti5cti"e to
A4dioli5g43lis#8 it is 33re5tl! 3 s3lie5t fe3t4re i5 the str4ct4r3list:$eh3"io4rist
tr3ditio5 of ALM 9hich e5co4r3ges h3$it for#3tio5 thro4gh 3tter5 r3ctice 35d
353logic3l e6te5sio5 of str4ct4r3l 3tter5s;
This $elief is 3lso reflected i5 3 Co5f4ci35 <4ote Ewen gu er zhi xin> Q#e35i5g EO5e
g3i5s 5e9 A5o9ledge $! re"ie9i5g the old>R; Th3t is to s3!8 co5st35tl! re"ie9i5g
9h3t the! h3"e 3lre3d! le3r5ed hel the st4de5ts co5solid3te the old A5o9ledge so 3s
to ser"e 3s 3 sc3ffold to 3c<4ire 5e9 A5o9ledge
*(
; G5o9ledge is 4s43ll! reg3rded i5
Chi5ese le3r5i5g c4lt4re 3s i5here5tl! di"isi$le i5to s#3ll $locAs8 o5e of 9hich le3ds
o5 to the 5e6t K A le3ds o5 to / 9hich i5 t4r5 le3ds o5 to C ?/ricA8 '..'@; Bhe5 it
co#es to le3r5i5g 3 l35g43ge8 it is liAe cli#$i5g the l3dder K E3s lo5g 3s the first r45g
is fir#8 the le3r5er c35 e3sil! cli#$ to the seco5d r45g8 35d so o5> ?/ricA8 '..'1 '*)@;
It is $elie"ed th3t thi5gs 3re le3r5ed little $! little8 o5e 3fter 35other 3s the 5e9
*(
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The 3horis# origi53tes fro# the follo9i5g1 Ewen gu er zhi xin) e yi wei shi yi> ?fro# Wei
Zheng@ Q#e35i5g EThe #35 9ho re35i#3tes the old 35d so gets to A5o9 the 5e9 is fit to $e 3
te3cher;>R It 3lso 3e3rs i5 35other Co5f4ci35 9riti5g1 Ejun zi :) wen gu er zhi xin) :> ?fro# 'he
Do#trine o% the Mean@ Q#e35i5g EA ge5tle#35 F re"ie9s 9h3t he h3s le3r5ed 35d the5 3c<4ires
5e9F ;>R A5other "ersio5 of 45derst35di5g of the <4ote is th3t 9he5 o5e 3tt3i5s 3 f4ller
45derst35di5g of 9h3t he h3s 3lre3d! le3r5ed thro4gh co5st35t re"ie9i5g8 it $eco#es 5e9l!
3c<4ired A5o9ledge;
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A5o9ledge is $4ilt 4o5 or gro9s o4t of the old o5e; This is 5otice3$l! si#il3r to the
A4dioli5g43list ositio5 th3t the 5e9 i5cre#e5t3l stes of le3r5i5g 9ere s4osed to
$e "er! s#3ll 35d co5trolled so th3t le3r5ers 9o4ld le3r5 efficie5tl!; Th3t is 9h! i5
tr3ditio53l f3#il! schools8 Ethe cl3ss $egi5s 9ith the re"ie9i5g of the #3teri3l le3r5ed
the d3! $efore ?recit3tio5@8 follo9ed $! the 5e9 #3teri3l> ?Sh48 '.+'J Chi5ese
origi53l@; I5 f3ct8 the re"ie9i5g of le3r5i5g is o5e of the three #3Dor ri5ciles of
Co5f4ci35 ed4c3tio5
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; At the $egi55i5g of A53lects8 Co5f4ci4s hi#self 93s <4oted 3s
s3!i5g8 Exue er shi xi zhi) bu yi le hu> QELe3r5i5g 9ith fre<4e5t re"ie9i5g8 9h3t 3
le3s4re this isV>R; This re#3rA 93s ofte5 4sed to e5co4r3ge st4de5ts to e5g3ge i5
ree3ted goi5g:o"er of 9h3t is le3r5t8 this is $ec34se8 thro4gh re"ie98 3 st4de5t c35
5ot o5l! ret3i5 the old8 $4t co#e to 45derst35d the 5e9 ?cf; Lo4ie8 '.-+@; Fro# the
foregoi5g disc4ssio58 it 3e3rs th3t the Co5f4ci35 ed4c3tio5 tr3ditio5 is c4lt4r3ll!
frie5dl! to the eiste#olog! of the Eli5g4istic $e3chhe3d> 45derl!i5g ALM;
!.2.2 Me012i3a/i14 a49 72ea/i<e u3e
I5 3dditio5 to e5etr3ti5g the l35g43ge8 the chief "3l4e i5 #e#oris3tio58 fro# 35
34dioli5g43list "ie9oi5t8 is to ro"ide the st4de5t 9ith E34the5tic se5te5ces th3t he
c35 "3r! 35d e635d 35d e"e5t43ll! 4se i5 #35! sit43tio5s> ?L3do8 '.+)1 +%@; O5 this
"ie98 it is 5ot the 34dioli5g43lists> i5te5tio5 to re5der the st4de5ts 3rrot le3r5ers 9ho
3re #erel! 3$le to i#it3te 35d ree3t 9h3t is #e#orised; I5ste3d8 the 4lti#3te go3l of
#e#oris3tio5 is to e53$le the st4de5ts to 4se the se5te5ce 3tter5s co5t3i5ed i5 the
di3log4es the! co##it to #e#or! i5 3 cre3ti"e #355er; T3Ai5g this logic ste f4rther8
L3do sec4l3tes8
If o4r st4de5ts co4ld #e#orise l3rge 3#o45t of the l35g43ge8 s3! te5 l3!s or
3 f4ll:le5gth 5o"el8 the! #ight $e rett! 3d"35ced i5 the l35g43ge; ?L3do8
'.+)1 +%@
A coroll3r! of this is th3t the <435tit! of #e#oris3tio5 3lso co45ts8 53#el!8 ho9 #4ch
is #e#orised; Follo9i5g this re3so5i5g8 the ALM ersecti"e i#lies th3t 3
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*
The other t9o 3re1 The st4de5ts sho4ld h3"e re"ere5ce for their te3chers 35d the te3cher sho4ld
A5o9 the i5di"id43l ch3r3cteristics of the st4de5ts ?Lo4ie8 '.-+@;
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co5sider3$le 3#o45t of l35g43ge i5st35ces le3r5ed $! he3rt #3! sig5ific35tl! i5cre3se
the ossi$ilit! of $ei5g highl! roficie5t i5 the t3rget l35g43ge;
This 3ss4#tio5 th3t s4$st35ti3l #e#oris3tio5 of l35g43ge e63#les #ight co5tri$4te
to the e"e5t43l cre3ti"e 4se of th3t l35g43ge is 3lso reflected $! 3 9ell:A5o95 Chi5ese
s3!i5g8 EBhe5 o5e #e#orises (&& T35g oe#s8 he is s4re to $e 3$le to co#ose
oe#s of his o95 e"e5 tho4gh he is 5ot 3 oet> ?see sectio5 %;';%;( for #ore rele"35t
disc4ssio5@; This c35 $e see5 3s 3 folA theor! of i#licit le3r5i5g ?cf; Y;:I; 248 %&&(@;
This $elief reflects the t!ic3l Chi5ese 3ttit4de to93rds le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g th3t
Ele3r5ers #4st first #3ster the $3sics 35d o5l! 9he5 this is 3cco#lished 3re the! i5 3
ositio5 to 4se 9h3t the! h3"e #3stered i5 3 cre3ti"e #355er> ?/ricA8 '..'1 '*)@; To
<4ote 3 Chi5ese idio# K EThe loftiest to9ers 3re $4ilt 4 fro# the gro45d;> K if
cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge c35 $e fig4r3ti"el! s3id to $e the loftiest to9er8 it #4st $e
$4ildi5g 4o5 the gro45d of the #3ster! of $3sics8 either it $e l35g43ge $locAs8
disco4rses or 9ritte5 te6ts8 35d #e#oris3tio5 #3! $e the #ost co#fort3$le 93! for
Chi5ese le3r5ers to 3ro3ch s4ch #3ster! for cert3i5 re3so5s ?e;g; c33$le of doi5g
this
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@ $efore e3s! 3lter53ti"es to r3ctice of i5te5si"e #e#oris3tio5 of #3teri3ls 3re
3"3il3$le;
!.2.! Mea4i4g a49 2e:e/i/i14
Bhe5 de3li5g 9ith the iss4e of 4tti5g the #e35i5g 3cross8 L3do offers the follo9i5g
"ie91
No h3r# 9ill res4lt if the st4de5t does 5ot gr3s e"er! det3il of the #e35i5g of
the di3log4e 3s lo5g 3s he c35 s3! it 9ith e3se 35d 3cc4r3c!; The #e35i5g 9ill
$e $ro4ght o4t $! ree3ted 4se of the di3log4e> ?L3do8 '.+)1 +-@;
Th4s8 L3do h3s s4ggested th3t 3cc4r3te rerod4ctio5 of the di3log4e i5 3 roficie5t
#ode is 3r3#o45t; Me35i5g8 if 5ot 45derstood thro4gh cl3ssroo# e6l353tio5
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There 3re st4dies ?e;g; /edell N O6ford8 '..+J Shi8 %&&+@ sho9i5g th3t Chi5ese st4de5ts gi"e
lo9 r35Ai5gs to #e#or! str3tegies for le3r5i5g8 !et h3"e stro5g #e#ories of 4si5g the# ?P3rr!8
'..-J S3"ille:TroiAe8 %&&+@;
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A co55ected di3log4e 3s oosed to isol3ted se5te5ce8 tho4gh #3Aes co5te6t43l se5se8 #3!
i5trod4ce #3teri3l th3t 9o4ld other9ise $e 455ecess3r! 3t 3 gi"e5 oi5t for 3 s!ste#3tic
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co#e o4t 3s 3 res4lt of reetiti"e rehe3rs3l of the di3log4e; Si#il3rl!8 3s descri$ed i5
Ch3ter %8 the Co5f4ci35 tr3ditio5 of le3r5i5g fir#l! $elie"es i5 the role of reetitio5
i5 3ssist35ce 9ith $ri5gi5g o4t 45derst35di5g; For i5st35ce8 Chi5ese le3r5ers #3!
h3"e $ee5 co5"i5ced th3t Ethe #e35i5g #35ifest itself 3fter o5e re3ds o5e h45dred
ti#es> ?shu *u bai bian) qi yi zi xian@
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; The $elief #3! 9ell $e tr3ced $3cA to the
follo9i5g 355ot3tio5 $! 3 f3#o4s hilosoher Sh4 0i ?''(&:'%&&@ i5 So5g D!53st!1
F i5 re3di5g 9e #4st first $eco#e i5ti#3tel! f3#ili3r 9ith the te6t so th3t its
9ords see# to co#e fro# o4r o95 #o4th; Be sho4ld the5 co5ti54e to reflect
o5 it so th3t its ide3s see# to co#e fro# o4r o95 #i5ds; O5l! the5 c35 there
$e re3l 45derst35di5g; ?Tr35sl3tio5 fro# 23rd5er8 '..&1 )(@
Accordi5g to Sh4 0i8 45derst35di5g is dee#ed to $e 3tt3i53$le thro4gh reetiti"e
le3r5i5g le3di5g to #e#oris3tio5; I5 other 9ords8 #e#oris3tio5 c35 recede
45derst35di5g; It is 5ot s4rrisi5g to fi5d th3t so#e Chi5ese le3r5ers #e#orise i5 the
first i5st35ce i5 order to 45derst35d l3ter ?M3rto58 et 3l;8 %&&*@; It is 3 ce5t4r!:old
Chi5ese 3ro3ch to le3r5i5g th3t te6ts8 or e6e#l3rs 9orth! of i#it3tio5 3re le3r5ed
$! he3rt8 E9hose 9ords le3r5ed 5o9 9ill $e cog5iti"el! i5ter53lised 35d l3ter
45derstood K erh3s K i5 3 lo5g 3re5ticeshi 9hich 9ill le3d to 4lti#3te #3ster!>
?Cort377i N Li58 '..+1 '-)@;
As is cle3r fro# the recedi5g disc4ssio58 so#e 3ss4#tio5s 45deri55i5g
A4dioli5g43lis# 3re 353logo4s to the #36i#s of Chi5ese hilosoh! of le3r5i5g; As 3
Bester5 schol3r o$ser"ed8 EQTRhe Chi5ese 3ttit4de to le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g h3s
so#ethi5g i5 co##o5 9ith tr3ditio53l Bester5 3ttit4des> ?/ricA8 '..'1 '*)@;
!.2.& T5e 9e76i4e 1; ALM
Rece5t de"elo#e5t i5 3lied li5g4istics8 s!choli5g4istics 35d cor4s li5g4istics
?see8 e;g; /oli5ger8 '.,*J N; Ellis8 '..(8 %&&'8 %&&%8 %&&(J Fill#ore8 '.,.J 2le3so58
rogressio5 i5 the l35g43ge ?L3do8 '.+)@;
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The s3!i5g ?origi53ll! fro# the history o% the 'hree $ing*om Qsan guo zhiR 34thored $! Che5
Sho4@ $ec3#e the theoretic3l 45deri55i5g of 3 Chi5ese le3r5er>s decisio5 to le3r5 $! he3rt 3ll the
te6ts i5 3ew !on#e4t +nglish ?/ooA % N (@; ?cf; 0; Y48 %&'& @
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'.-%J M!les8 Hooer8 N Mitchell8 '..-J M!les8 Mitchell8 N Hooer8 '...J Si5cl3ir8
'..'J SAeh358 '..-@ h3s led to i5cre3si5g recog5itio5 of the #e#or!:$3sed 3sect of
l35g43ge; Co5se<4e5tl!8 theor! i5 ALM 3s 9ell 3s its ed3gogic3l r3ctice or
i#lic3tio5s i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 93s rece5tl! re3r3ised fro# 35 3lied
s!choli5g4istic ersecti"e 3fter *& !e3rs of e6ile ?see Di5g N Y; Ii8 %&&'J Di5g8
%&&)8 %&&,J N; Ellis8 %&&%J 0; Y48 %&&.8 %&'&8 %&''@; For i5st35ce8 $oth Di5g>s
?%&&,@ <43lit3ti"e st4d! 35d Y4>s ?%&&.@ cl3ssroo# e6eri#e5t3l st4d! rod4ced the
res4lt th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 f3cilit3tes E5otici5g> 35d le3r5i5g ch45As;
Desite 3 fe9 rese3rchers> ?5ot3$l! NicA Ellis@ i5te5tio5 to restore 3 good 53#e for
ALM8 ho9e"er8 it c355ot $e de5ied th3t the er3 of A4dio:Li5g43l s4re#3c! i5
foreig5 l35g43ge i5str4ctio5 93s rel3ti"el! short:li"ed 35d L3do>s ?'.*,8 '.+)@ 9orA
is of little c4rre5t i5fl4e5ce; ALM fell fro# f3"o4r i5 FLT i5 the '.,&s follo9i5g
e"e5t43l re3ctio5 3g3i5st L3do>s i#le#e5t3tio5 of his theor! i5 the ALM8 3ltho4gh it
is too e3rl! to co5cl4de th3t this te3chi5g #ethod h3s died o4t i5 the Bester5 l35g43ge
cl3ssroo#s; I5 35 3tte#t to e6l3i5 9h! ALM $ec3#e 45f3shio53$le8 N; Ellis
?%&&%1 ',,@ co5cl4des 3#o5g other thi5gs
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Desite his QL3do>sR re#ise of l35g43ge le3r5i5g 3s the le3r5i5g of 3tter5s
of e6ressio58 co5te5t8 35d their 3ssoci3tio58 the ALM i5"ol"ed E#i#icr!:
#e#oris3tio5> i5 3tter5 drills i5 9hich the role of 45derst35di5g 93s
#i5i#ised 3s #4ch 3s ossi$le;
2i"e5 this e6lic3tio58 it 9o4ld see# th3t #e#oris3tio5 93s e6te5si"el! 4tilised 3t
the e6e5se of #e35i5g i5 ALM 3s Ethe #3Dor e#h3sis 93s o5 the #ech35ic3l
rod4ctio5 of the 4tter35ce 3s 3 l35g43ge for#> ?N; Ellis8 %&&%1 ',,@; O5e c3"e3t
#3de for ALM is th3t this #ethod8 3t its 9orst8 #3! i5"ol"e E#i5dless reetitio5 35d
#e35i5gless drills> ?i$id@; I5 3 9ord8 the f3ct th3t ALM f3iled to h3"e co5ti54i5g
i5fl4e5ce i5 l35g43ge te3chi5g #ight $e 3ttri$4t3$le to L3do>s oer3tio53li73tio5 of
$eh3"io4rist ri5ciles ?cf; SAi55er8 '.*,@ of le3r5i5g E3t the e6e5se of l35g43ge 35d
the le3r5er> ?N; Ellis8 %&&%1 ',,@; It 93s criticised for $ei5g Efor#4l3ted $! li5g4ists
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A5other o4l3r e6l353tio5 is th3t rogress i5 $eh3"io4rist theories of l35g43ge le3r5i5g
flo45dered follo9i5g Cho#sA!>s highl! i5fl4e5ti3l criti<4e of SAi55er>s <erbal &eha7iour ?N;
Ellis8 %&&%@;
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to s3tisf! the i5terests 35d $eliefs of li5g4ists8 9ith little reg3rd for the i5tellect43l 35d
s!chologic3l #oti"3tio5s of te3chers 35d le3r5ers> ?Scott8 '.-(1 '*@ 35d the
e6cessi"e dee5de5ce o5 #35i4l3tio5 drills of this #ethod E#ost cert3i5l! res4lted
i5 de:h4#35isi5g the te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g of foreig5 l35g43ges> ?Scott8 '.-(1 ',@;
Th4s8 3 #ore h4#35istic 93! of le3r5i5g8 Co##45ic3ti"e L35g43ge Te3chi5g ?CLT@8
c3#e i5to $ei5g 3rtl! 3s 3 re3ctio5 to the deficie5c! of ALM;
!.! ALM a49 CLT i4 C5i4a
I5teresti5gl!8 !et 5ot s4rrisi5gl!8 the i5h4#35 ele#e5ts of ALM see# 5ot to h3"e
c34sed 3 #3Dor ro$le# or 3ro4sed resist35ce i5 ELT i5 Chi53; Altho4gh co5"i5ced of
the sig5ific35ce of #e#orisi5g l3rge 3#o45ts of l35g43ge8 34dioli5g43lists re3lised
th3t to #e#orise #3teri3l i5 3 foreig5 l35g43ge is #4ch #ore diffic4lt th35
#e#orisi5g it i5 the 53ti"e o5e8 therefore t3Ai5g too #4ch ti#e 35d effort ?L3do8
'.+)1 +%@; This t3sA is co5sidered Ehoeless> ?i$id@ $ec34se it is 45derstood th3t the
t3sA of #e#oris3tio5 4s43ll! Ere<4ires ho4rs of tiri5g 9orA8 35d is 5ot re3ll! 35 e3s!
93! o4t> ?Si"ell8 '.-&1 *%@; Ho9e"er8 3 see#i5gl! hoeless t3sA is tho4ght 5ot
i#ossi$le if e5or#o4s effort 35d ti#e is i5"ested i5 the co5te6t of the Chi5ese
c4lt4re of le3r5i5g 9here effort8 deter#i53tio58 ste3df3st5ess of 4rose8
erse"er35ce8 35d 3tie5ce8 r3ther th35 i5tellige5ce 35d 3$ilit!8 3re ge5er3ll! "ie9ed
3s the deter#i535ts of ed4c3tio53l 3chie"e#e5t ?L /iggs8 '..+J Lee8 '..+@; The
e#h3sis o5 effort
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is reco45ted i5 #35! "i"id Chi5ese s3!i5gs or folA stories; For
e63#le8 EA iece of iro5 c35 $e gro45d i5to 3 5eedle 3s lo5g 3s o5e erse"eres i5
doi5g it> ?zi yao gong %u shen) tie bang mo #heng zeng
1=
@ is 3 ho4sehold 3horis# still
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The e#h3sis o5 effort ?3s oosed to i553te 3$ilit!@ is 3g3i5 deri"ed fro# Co5f4ci35
hilosoh!; ECo5f4ci35 93s i5terested i5 3$o"e 3ll i5 the #or3l erfecti$ilit! of #35Ai5d; He
reDected c3tegoris3tio5 of h4#35 $ei5gs 3s good or $3d8 35d stressed the ote5ti3l for i#ro"i5g
#or3l co5d4ct thro4gh the cre3tio5 of f3"o4r3$le e5"iro5#e5t3l co5ditio5s; His "ie9 93s
gr3d43ll! e6te5ded to 3ll 3sects of h4#35 $eh3"io4r; H4#35 $ei5gs 9ere co5sidered to $e
#3lle3$le8 35d liAe cl3!8 s4$Dect to #o4ldi5g $! e"e5ts of e"er!d3! life; Differe5ces 3#o5g
i5di"id43ls i5 i553te 3$ilities 9ere recog5ised8 $4t #ore i#ort35t 93s the degree to 9hich 3
erso5 93s 9illi5g to #36i#ise these 3$ilities thro4gh h3rd 9orA; ?So4rce1 Ste"e5so5 N Stigler8
'..%1 .,@
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The s3!i5g is deri"ed fro# 3 f3#o4s folA stor!1 Li Po8 3 oet 9ho li"ed o"er 3 tho4s35d !e3rs
3go8 93s 93lAi5g $! 3 s#3ll stre3# 35d s39 3 9hite:h3ired old 9o#35 sitti5g $eside 3 rocA
gri5di5g 3 iece of iro5; Perle6ed8 he 3sAed her 9h3t she 93s doi5g; EM3Ai5g 3 5eedle8> she
relied; This 35s9er 93s e"e5 #ore erle6i5g8 35d Li Po 3sAed her ho9 3 iece of iro5 co4ld $e
gro45d i5to 3 5eedle; EAll !o4 5eed is erse"er35ce8> s3id the old 9o#35; EIf !o4 h3"e 3 stro5g
9ill 35d do 5ot fe3r h3rdshi8 3 iece of iro5 c35 $e gro45d i5to 3 5eedle;> Li Po tho4ght 3$o4t her
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4sed to e5co4r3ge childre5 to stri"e their h3rdest; The stor! of EYugong yi san>
?co5cer5i5g 3 #35 c3lled Y4go5g sho9ed his dis$elie"i5g to95sfolA th3t it 93s
ossi$le to #o"e 3 #o45t3i5 if o5e ersisted !e3r 3fter !e3r o5 the roDect@ 93s #ore
ofte5 th35 5ot <4oted i5 offici3l slog35s goi5g #ore or less liAe EBe c35 3chie"e o4r
go3l of F if 9e 4hold the sirit of EYugong yi san>>; Mottoes th3t ortr3! the
rod4cti"e co5se<4e5ces of h3rd 9orA i5cl4de1 EThe rocA c35 $e tr35sfor#ed i5to 3
ge# o5l! thro4gh d3il! olishi5g;> A s4##3r! of the $elief i5 h3rd 9orA c35 $e fo45d
i5 the 9riti5g of the Chi5ese hilosoher Hs45 T741
Achie"e#e5t co5sists of 5e"er gi"i5g 4; F If there is 5o d3rA 35d dogged
9ill8 there 9ill $e 5o shi5i5g 3cco#lish#e5tJ if there is 5o d4ll 35d
deter#i5ed effort8 there 9ill $e 5o $rilli35t 3chie"e#e5t; ?I4oted i5 B3tso58
'.+,1 '-@
The $3sic recet of the 3$o"e <4otes is th3t o5e h3s to $e 9illi5g to 3! 3 gre3t de3l
of ti#e 35d effort o5 st4d!8 e"e5 o5 33re5tl! $ori5g t3sAs if o5e 3sires to high
3c3de#ic 3chie"e#e5t; Th4s8 9he5 it co#es to foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 the
i5"ol"e#e5t of tre#e5do4s ti#e i5"est#e5t 35d 3rd4o4s 9orA 3re t3Ae5 3s 35
o$lig3tor! rice 3id for roficie5c! r3ther th35 3 deficit i5here5t i5 3 3rtic4l3r
le3r5i5g or te3chi5g #ethod;
I5 3dditio5 to $ei5g o"er:de#35di5g o5 ti#e 35d effort8 3 #3Dor "4l5er3$ilit! i5 ALM
lies i5 its 45der:e#h3sis o5 getti5g #e35i5g 3cross; L3do ?'.+)1 +,@ 3d#its th3t
EQIR5 #ost c3ses 4tti5g the #e35i5g 3cross is 3 #i5or 3rt of te3chi5g 3 di3log4e>;
This fl39 is o"erco#e i5 i5ter53tio53l #odels of CLT $! roosi5g 3 Ele3r5 $! 4si5g>
3ro3ch i5 9hich le3r5ers 3re e5co4r3ged to co##45ic3te i5 the t3rget l35g43ge
fro# the "er! $egi55i5g ?cf; H; D; /ro958 %&&'J L; C; Rich3rds N Rodgers8 '.-+@;
Ho9e"er8 this ide3 see#s 5ot to 3ro4se the e5th4si3s# of Chi5ese E5glish le3r5ers
35d te3chers;
35s9er 35d $ec3#e 3sh3#ed; He re3lised th3t so#eo5e liAe hi#self 9o4ld 5e"er #3Ae rogress if
he f3iled to st4d! h3rd8 35d fro# the# o5 he 93s 3 dilige5t st4de5t; ?so4rce1 Ridle!8 2od9i58 N
Dooli58 '.,'1 %+(@
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The ote5ti3l c4lt4r3l root of their rel4ct35ce to e#$r3ce CLT 35d other #e35i5g:
orie5ted #ethods 3g3i5 deri"es fro# ge5er3l Chi5ese ed4c3tio53l c4lt4re; Le3r5i5g
h3s $ee5 tr3ditio53ll! "ie9ed i5 Chi53 #ore 3s 3 rocess of 3cc4#4l3ti5g A5o9ledge
35d re3di5g $ooAs th35 3s 3 r3ctic3l rocess of co5str4cti5g 35d 4si5g A5o9ledge for
i##edi3te 4rose ?H48 %&&%3J C;:C; Y48 '.-)@; The 3cc4#4l3tio5 of A5o9ledge 35d
the 4se of it 3re liAe5ed to s3"i5g #o5e! i5 the $35A 35d se5di5g it l3ter1 EBhe5 !o4
4t !o4r #o5e! i5 the $35A it is 5ot i#ort35t to $e s4re 9h3t !o4 3re goi5g to do
9ith it; /4t 9he5 !o4 do 5eed the #o5e! for so#e e#erge5c!8 it is there for !o4 to
4se> ?C;:C; Y48 '.-)1 (*@; Th3t is s3!8 the A5o9ledge !o4 h3"e le3r5ed #3! 5ot $e of
i##edi3te 4se 3t the #o#e5t8 $4t it is re3d! 3t !o4r disos3l 9he5 !o4 h3"e to 4se it
3t so#e oi5t; The i#ort35ce of 3cc4#4l3ti5g A5o9ledge is s4orted $! the
Chi5ese s3!i5g1 EBhe5 it co#es for !o4 to 4se !o4r A5o9ledge8 !o4 9ill regret
re3di5g too little> ?shu *ao yong shi %ang hen shao@; Tho4gh the i#ort35ce of the
3lic3tio5 of A5o9ledge is co##o5l! recog5ised $! Chi5ese le3r5ers ?cf; M; L;
B35g8 %&&'@8 4si5g A5o9ledge is h3rdl! tho4ght to $e 3 3r3llel rocess to
3cc4#4l3ti5g A5o9ledgeJ r3ther8 this is 3 se<4e5ti3l rocess 9ith the 4se of
A5o9ledge receded $! 3cc4#4l3tio5 of A5o9ledge; Moreo"er8 it is co5sidered th3t
o5e is 45liAel! to $e 3$le to 3l! 9h3t o5e h3s 3lre3d! le3r5ed 9itho4t 3 re3so53$le
3#o45t of 3$sortio5 of A5o9ledge i5"ol"i5g 3 lo5g eriod; Cle3rl!8 the co5cetio5
of Ele3r5 to 4se> does 5ot fit "er! 9ell 9ith the theor! of i##edi3te 5eed 3s the
st3rti5g oi5t i5 le3r5i5g 3s is i5dic3ted $! the ri5cile of Ele3r5 $! 4se> i5 CLT;
If this c4lt4r3l $3cAgro45d e6l3i5s 9h! Chi5ese l35g43ge le3r5ers 3re 5ot d345ted $!
effort:t3Ai5g 35d ti#e:co5s4#i5g $ori5g t3sAs8 Bester5 l35g43ge te3chers h3"e
3l93!s $ee5 erle6ed $! the f3ct th3t the! 3re 453$le to co5"ert the Chi5ese st4de5ts
to 3 co##45ic3ti"e 93! of E5glish le3r5i5g 9hich is Eh4#35istic i5 53t4re> ?H48
%&&%31 .*@; CLT rides itself i5 t3Ai5g the dr4dger! o4t of the le3r5i5g rocess 35d
i5Decti5g ele#e5ts of e5tert3i5#e5t8 s4ch 3s "3rio4s l35g43ge g3#es8 so 3s to #3Ae
l35g43ge le3r5i5g $eco#e 3 light:he3rted 35d le3s35t e6erie5ce; M35! Chi5ese
le3r5ers8 ho9e"er8 feel 45co#fort3$le 9ith this i#orted 3ro3ch; /ro4ght 4 i5 3
co5te6t 9here le3r5i5g is reg3rded 3s 3 serio4s 45dert3Ai5g 9hich is le3st liAel! to $e
3ssoci3ted 9ith light:he3rted5ess8 Chi5ese le3r5ers 53t4r3ll! Ete5d to 3ssoci3te g3#es
35d co##45ic3ti"e 3cti"ities i5 cl3ss 9ith e5tert3i5#e5t e6cl4si"el! 35d 3re scetic3l
of their 4se 3s le3r5i5g tool> ?R3o8 '..+1 )+,@; This is 3ttested $! o5e of #! re"io4s
%*+'
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st4de5ts 9ho co##e5ted1 EIt see#s to $e f45 i5 3 cl3ssroo# f4ll of g3#e:liAe
3cti"ities8 $4t !o4 le3r5 little co#3red to the tr3ditio53l 93! of te3chi5g> ?Sh35fe5g8
erso53l co##45ic3tio58 %&&+@; It is 5ot th3t Chi5ese st4de5ts 3re ge5etic3ll!
differe5t fro# Bester5 st4de5ts i5 ter#s of $ei5g oe5 to e5Do!#e5t 35d le3s4reJ
r3ther8 the! 3re 5ot co5"i5ced of the o"erridi5g i#ort35ce of or3l i5ter3ctio5 i5 the
cl3ssroo#8 eseci3ll!8 3#o5g 3 gro4 of le3r5ers 35d i5 35 e5tert3i5i5g 93!;
As is cle3r fro# the forgoi5g disc4ssio58 9h3t 3re see5 3s serio4s ro$le#s 3ssoci3ted
9ith ALM 3ro3ch to l35g43ge le3r5i5g or te3chi5g fro# the Bester5 oi5t of "ie9
#3! 5ot 5ecess3ril! c34se stro5g re3ctio5s or resist35ce 3#o5g Chi5ese le3r5ers;
LiAe9ise8 9h3t #3Aes i5t4iti"e se5se to #35! l35g43ge te3chi5g seci3lists i5 the
Best is liAel! to e5co45ter sceticis# fro# le3r5ers 35d te3chers i5 3 differe5t
le3r5i5g co5te6t; Bith this i5 #i5d8 9e #3! $e i5 3 $etter ositio5 to 45derst35d 9h!
ALM h3s $ee5 s4ccessf4ll! i5coror3ted i5to ELT i5 Chi53 9hile it fell fro# f3"o4r
i5 the Best cl3ssroo# 35d 9h! te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish cl3sses c35 $e 3rg43$l!
3ssoci3ted 9ith ALM
+'
#ethodologic3ll! desite its i5dige5o4s origi5 i5 the
tr3ditio53l Chi5ese 93! of le3r5i5g cl3ssics; This 3lso e6l3i5s 9h! so#e Chi5ese
E5glish te3chers tho4ght th3t #ore h4#35istic Bester5 3ro3ches to E5glish
te3chi5g8 tho4gh 3d#ittedl! d!53#ic 35d cre3ti"e8 3re diffic4lt to 3l! i5 Chi5ese
c4lt4r3l co5te6t1 EChi5ese do5>t thi5A i5 the 93! #ost Bester5ers thi5A> ?/4r53$! N
S458 '.-.1 %%.@; I5deed8 3 3rtic4l3r #ethodolog!8 5o #3tter ho9 logic3l the
45derl!i5g ri5ciles 3re8 Eoffers 3 ote5ti3l $4t does 5ot i5 itself g43r35tee th3t 3
gi"e5 res4lt 9ill $e o$t3i5ed> ?T4dor8 %&&'1 ,:-@;
O5 the other h35d8 it is <4estio53$le 9hether ELT i5 Chi53 is Eti#e:co5s4#i5g 35d
i5efficie5t> ?L;:I; Li8 %&&(@ gi"e5 the li#ited E5glish cl3ss ti#e ?3$o4t ) cl3ss ho4rs 3
9eeA8 '- 9eeAs 3 ter#8 for '% ter#s i5 high school 35d ) ter#s 3t 45i"ersit!@ 35d the
EFL co5te6t ?9here little E5glish is to $e e5co45tered o4tside the cl3ssroo#@; S4ch 35
3#o45t of cl3ss ti#e #3! $e ED4st e5o4gh to hel st4de5ts 45derst35d ho9 the
l35g43ge 9orAs8 it does 5ot 3llo9 the# to r3ctice 4si5g it> ?Di:Li5; Li48 '..-1 *J see
3lso I; Li8 '..)@; Moreo"er8 3s 3 res4lt of stri5ge5t co5trols o5 3ccess to i5ter53tio53l
#edi3 $! the Chi5ese go"er5#e5t8 the Chi5ese st4de5ts h3"e little e6os4re to 4:to:
+'
+
I5 i5"estig3ti5g ELT r3ctices i5 seco5d3r!:le"el cl3ssroo#s i5 Chi538 H4 ?%&&*1 +)*@
c3tegorises EMe#ori73tio5 of di3log4es N te6ts> i5to ALM;
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%*.,
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%+'&
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d3te i5for#3tio5 directl! fro# E5glish:se3Ai5g co45tries th3t #3! ro"ide 3
l35g43ge #odel for the# to follo9 35d gi"e the# 3 fl3"o4r of the c4lt4re of those
co45tries; Other co5str3i5i5g co5te6t43l f3ctors8 i5cl4di5g l3rge cl3ss si7es8 li#ited
reso4rces 35d e<4i#e5t8 l3cA of co#ete5t te3chers8 35d 3rtic4l3rl! the 3$se5ce of 3
test of or3l E5glish d4e to 3 lo5g:ter# 5eglect of or3l sAills8 #3! ro"ide 3 #ore
re3so53$le 3cco45t of Chi5ese st4de5ts> i5s4fficie5c! i5 co##45ic3ti"e co#ete5ce
th35 their e6erie5ce of #e#orisi5g te6ts;
ELT i5 Chi53 o"er the 3st dec3des is E45do4$tedl! s4ccessf4l i5 its o95 ter#s>
?/4r53$! N S458 '.-.1 %%.@ gi"e5 th3t Chi53 is c4lt4r3ll! 35d geogr3hic3ll! dist35t
fro# the E5glish:se3Ai5g 9orld 35d th3t the Chi5ese l35g43ge is t!ologic3ll!
dist35t fro# E5glish l35g43geJ 3s 9e h3"e see58 ELT h3s 3 "er! short histor! i5
Chi538 9hich h3s $ee5 disr4ted $! olitic3l e"e5ts or 4he3"3ls 35d dec3des of
isol3tio5 fro# 9ester5 co45tries; A5 E5glish #3Dor 9ho h3s o5l! st4died 9ithi5
Chi538 3s o$ser"ed $! 35 A#eric35 e6ert ?Nid38 '.-)J cited i5 Di5g8 '.-,@8 ofte5
h3s 3 $etter co##35d of the l35g43ge th35 the 3"er3ge A#eric35 college gr3d43te h3s
of 3 foreig5 l35g43ge 9hich he or she h3s #3Dored i5 35d st4died o5l! i5 A#eric3;
Chi5ese i5"est#e5t of effort i5 #3ster! of E5glish thro4gh #e#oris3tio58 9hich #3!
gi"e the# 3 se5se of rogress 35d 3chie"e#e5t8 cr4ci3l to #or3le8 #3! 5ot 5ecess3ril!
$e i5 oositio5 to 3 ch35ge to93rds 3 #ore co##45ic3ti"e directio5; To e6l3i5 9h!
e6te5si"e 4se of #e#oris3tio5 i5herited fro# tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g is 5ot
i5co5siste5t 9ith cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge8 i5 the follo9i5g sectio58 I sh3ll co5d4ct 3
ositi"e e"3l43tio5 of cert3i5 rele"35t ri5ciles s3lie5t i5 tr3ditio53l l35g43ge
te3chi5g;
!.& W5a/ 7a4 Be 6ea24 ;210 /2a9i/i14a6 C5i4e3e 6a4guage /ea75i4gD
O5e c3"e3t I h3"e to #e5tio5 rior to roceedi5g f4rther is th3t #! 353l!ses i5 this
sectio5 foc4ses #ore o5 the ositi"e 3sects of tr3ditio53l l35g43ge le3r5i5g th35 o5
the ro$le#s; This #3! #3Ae #e 3e3r o"erl! e5th4si3stic 3$o4t Chi5ese tr3ditio5
35d $li5d to #oder5 "3l4es i5 Bester5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5; Needless to s3!8 there 3re
#35! ro$le#s i5 tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g8 D4st 3s there 3re o$"io4s "irt4es 35d
stre5gths i5 #oder5 Bester5 ed3gogic3l theories; Bith 5o rete5se of offeri5g 3
%+%,
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$3l35ced 3ssess#e5t of the stro5g oi5ts 35d 9e3A5esses of tr3ditio53l Chi5ese 35d
#oder5 Bester5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 theor!8 #! go3l i5 this thesis8 ho9e"er8 is to
e6lore 9h3t esse5ce 9e c35 e6tr3ct fro# tr3ditio53l Chi5ese l35g43ge te3chi5g
9hich c35 $e dr395 o5 3rori3tel! i5 o4r c4rre5t effort to direct o4r foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5g to93rds 9ester5 3ro3ches;

Tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi538 3ccordi5g to S;:2; Sh35g ?'.-(@8 refers to
Ethe sort of l35g43ge te3chi5g co5d4cted i5 Chi53 $et9ee5 the So5g D!53st! ?.+&
A;D;@ 45til the #iddle of the '.
th
ce5t4r!>
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8 th3t is8 the liter3c!:foc4sed te3chi5g of
the wenyan
1>
"ersio5 of Chi5ese; Fro# fr3g#e5t3r! 9ritte5 records 35d historic3l fil#
clis8 9e 3re e3sil! i#ri5ted 9ith the i#ressio5 th3t tr3ditio53l l35g43ge ed4c3tio5
tre3ted st4de5ts liAe #3chi5es 9ho h3d to 3ssi"el! 35d #ech35ic3ll! 3ccet
9h3te"er 93s i5stilled 9itho4t 45derst35di5g; I5deed8 there 3re #35! tr3ditio53l
g4ideli5es or r3ctices 9hich 3re serio4sl! irrele"35t to co5te#or3r! l35g43ge
te3chi5g eseci3ll! those co55ected 9ith the Eeight:legged> ess3! or baguwen
+)
?see
';';';%@; Recog5itio5 of this8 ho9e"er8 sho4ld 5ot $li5d 4s to the f3ct th3t there 9ere
cert3i5l! "3l43$le e6erie5ce i5 35d se5si$le recets 45derl!i5g tr3ditio53l Chi5ese
l35g43ge te3chi5g th3t 3re 9orth i5heriti5g;
First 35d fore#ost8 tr3ditio53l Chi5ese liter3c! ed4c3tio5 5e"er f3iled to e#h3sise
the 3r3#o45t i#ort35ce of 9ide re3di5g; As the Chi5ese s3!i5g goes8 EHe 9ho
re3ds te5 tho4s35d $ooAs thoro4ghl! c35 9orA 9o5ders 9ith his e5;> Q*u shu 4o wan
quan) xia bi ru you shenR It 93s $elie"ed th3t o5l! thro4gh 9ide re3di5g co4ld o5e $e
c33$le of good 9riti5g; I5 3dditio5 to e6te5si"e re3di5g8 i5te5si"e re3di5g 93s 3lso
highl! "3l4ed; I5 order for the st4de5ts to i5ter53lise the l35g43ge #3teri3l8 tr3ditio53l
l35g43ge te3chi5g de#35ded th3t so#e cl3ssic 9riti5gs $e i5te5si"el! st4died 35d
recited to the e6te5t th3t the! co4ld $e rec3lled effortlessl! 3t 35! ti#e; Me359hile8
the i#ort35ce of le5t! of r3ctice 9ith l35g43ge ?e;g; co5st35tl! co#osi5g oe#s8
+%
+
The ti#e s35 is ro4ghl! i5 li5e 9ith the eriod of i#eri3l ci"il ser"ice e63#i53tio5 s!ste#;
+(
+
wenyan is 35 older "ersio5 of 9ritte5 Chi5ese 9hich is dr3stic3ll! differe5t fro# "er53c4l3r
35d or3l:foc4sed baihua "ersio5 4sed tod3!;
+)
+
To <4ote G35g Yo4:Bei8 3 refor#er i5 l3te Ii5g D!53st!8 Ethose 9ho le3r5 baguwen re3d 5o
$ooAs 4$lished 3fter Ii5 35d H35 D!53st!8 A5o9 5othi5g 3$o4t r3ctices i5 foreig5 st3tes F>;
?cited i5 T; Li8 %&&-1 +*@
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"erses or rose@ 93s 5ot 5eglected; So Ere3d le5t! 35d 9rite le5t!>
+*
$ec3#e 35
est3$lished #36i# i5 tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g; I4ite o$"io4sl!8 the Chi5ese
35cestr3l schol3rs> i5siste5ce o5 the co##35d of 3 rich li5g4istic reso4rce thro4gh
3$45d35t e6os4re ?either thro4gh 9ide re3di5g or i5te5si"e #e#oris3tio5@ 35d o5
the e5g3ge#e5t 9ith o4t4t ?9riti5g@ h3s co5sider3$le D4stific3tio5 e"e5 e63#i5ed
45der #oder5 theories of l35g43ge 35d liter3c! de"elo#e5t; More i#ort35tl!8
re3di5g 93s 5ot si#l! st4d! 35d recit3tio5 of te6ts for e63#i53tio5s8 r3ther8
45derst35di5g sho4ld $eco#e 35 i5tegr3l 3rt of #e35i5gf4l re3di5g; As Sh4 0i
?''(&:'%&&@ 4t it8
I5 le3r5i5g 9e h3"e to re3d for o4rsel"es8 so th3t the 45derst35di5g 9e re3ch
is erso53ll! #e35i5gf4l; No93d3!s8 ho9e"er8 eole re3d si#l! for the s3Ae
of the ci"il ser"ice e63#i53tio5s F re3di5g #4st $e 35 e6erie5ce erso53ll!
#e35i5gf4l to the self F ?tr35sl3tio5 fro# 23rd5er8 '..&1 ',8 ')-@
A5other ro#i5e5t "3l4e i5 tr3ditio53l Chi5ese l35g43ge te3chi5g is th3t it 3tt3ched
gre3t i#ort35ce to st4de5ts> Ei5dee5de5t thi5Ai5g 3s 3 re:re<4isite to re3di5g 35d
9riti5g de"elo#e5t> ?S;:2; Sh35g8 '.-(1 -@; This 3ttri$4te h3s lo5g $ee5 ig5ored
$ec34se it 93s #3de "3g4e 35d 3#$ig4o4s $! the 4535i#o4s 3tt3cA o5 the Eeight:
legged> ess3! 35d i#eri3l ci"il ser"ice e63#i53tio5s 3s 9ell 3s o"ere5th4si3stic
9orshi of 34thorit! 9hich ch3r3cterised tr3ditio53l l35g43ge ed4c3tio5; Moreo"er8
res4#3$l! eole $ec3#e te3chers thro4gh 35 3re5ticeshi #odel so th3t there
93s 3 de3rth of s!ste#3tic e6ositio5 35d cohere5t theories of l35g43ge te3chi5g
thro4gho4t the h45dreds of !e3rs;
I5 esse5ce8 there 3re #35! e63#les thro4gho4t 35cie5t Chi5ese liter3t4re of
c4lti"3ti5g i5dee5de5ce of #i5d; Co5f4ci4s8 for e63#le8 3d"ised his st4de5ts to E$e
le3r5ed8 3sA <4estio5s8 thi5A c3ref4ll! 35d discri#i53te> Qboxue) shenwen) zhensi)
mingbianR
++
8 9hich is 33re5tl! 35other e"ide5ce of his 4593"eri5g e#h3sis o5 the
+*
+
Tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g t3Aes 3s its go3l of the i#ro"e#e5t of o5l! re3di5g 35d 9riti5g
?S;:2; Sh35g8 '.-(@8 9hich h3s 3 f3r:re3chi5g i#3ct o5 l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi538 either it
$ei5g Chi5ese or foreig5 l35g43ge;
++
+
The co#lete <4ote goes liAe8 boxue) shenwen) zhensi) mingbian) *uxing ?fro# 'he Do#trine o%
the Mean@? Sh4 0i ?''(&:'%&&@ el3$or3ted e3ch hr3se 3s the roer se<4e5ce of fi"e stes for
le3r5i5g fro# 35! 9orth9hile te6t1 ESt4d! it e6te5si"el!8 <4estio5 its #e35i5g recisel!8 o5der it
9ith f4ll "igil35ce8 scr4ti5i7e its disti5ctio5s 9ith cl3rit! of "isio58 r3ctice it i5 3ll e3r5est5ess>
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i#ort35ce of critic3l thi5Ai5g i5 le3r5i5g ?see sectio5 %;';% for e3rlier disc4ssio5 o5
cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g i5 Co5f4ci35 le3r5i5g theor!@; The Co5f4ci35 se5se of le3r5i5g
i5"ol"ed co5ti54o4s effort of fosteri5g i5dee5de5ce of #i5d 35d 3 9illi5g5ess to
do4$t others> "ie9s 3s 9ell 3s o5e>s o95 reco5cei"ed ide3s1 EI5 re3di5g do5>t force
!o4r ide3s i5 the te6t; Yo4 #4st get rid of !o4r o95 ide3 F>J EF the st4de5t #4st
first of 3ll A5o9 ho9 to do4$t> ?23rd5er8 '..&1 )+@
+,
;
Te3chers8 o5 the other h35d8 9ere s4osed to e53$le the st4de5ts to 3chie"e their
ge54i5e #3ster! $! g4idi5g the st4de5ts to se5se the el4si"e #e35i5g i#lied i5 the
re3di5g #3teri3ls r3ther th35 de#35di5g th3t the! follo9 3rrot:f3shio5 thro4gh rote
#e#oris3tio5; The re:Co5f4ci4s Liji cl3ssic f3#o4sl! li5As E3 good te3cher> 9ith
g4idi5g st4de5ts to thi5A for the#sel"es1
I5 his te3chi5g8 the s4erior #35 F oe5s the 93!8 $4t does 5ot t3Ae the# to
the l3ce; F oe5i5g the 93! 9itho4t le3di5g the st4de5ts to the l3ce #3Aes
the# thi5A for the#sel"es; No9 if the rocess of le3r5i5g is #3de ge5tle 35d
e3s! 35d the st4de5ts 3re e5co4r3ged to thi5A for the#sel"es8 9e #3! c3ll the
#35 3 good te3cher; ?tr35sl3tio5 fro# Li58 '.(-1 %),@
Historic3ll!8 4 to the Mi5g 35d Ii5g eriods8 9riters he3ed scor5 o5 ed35ts 9ho
$li5dl! follo9ed the 3st ?S;:2; Sh35g8 '.-(@; It 93s the dee 45derst35di5g 35d
s!5thesis8 s!ste#is3tio5 or i5tegr3tio5 of the #3teri3l th3t Chi5ese schol3rs #e35t to
3chie"e thro4gh e6te5si"e re3di5g or i5te5si"e #e#oris3tio5; This co5cetio5 is
disl3!ed i5 the e6ressio5 goi5g liAe Eru hu qi nei) #hu hu qi wai> Qliter3ll! #e35i5g
Egoi5g i5to the #3teri3l i5 order to get o4t of it>R; This is to s3!8 45ctilio4s st4d! of
the #3teri3l is 3i#i5g to e"e5t43ll! 3chie"e 3 holistic #3ster! of it;
S4##i5g 48 de"eloi5g 3 rich co##35d of l35g43ge reso4rces thro4gh ersiste5t
3cc4#4l3tio5 35d co5st35t r3ctice see#s to $e 3 ositi"e the#e i5 tr3ditio53l
Chi5ese l35g43ge te3chi5g; More i#ort35tl!8 c4lti"3ti5g st4de5ts> i5dee5de5t or
cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g i5 re3di5g 93s see5 3s esse5ti3l to e53$li5g the# to t3Ae f4ll co5trol
?Pl3As8 %&&(1 )%@;
+,
+
23rde5er is <4oti5g Sh46i ?''(&:'%&&@ here;
%,'-
%,'.
%,%&
%,%'
%,%%
%,%(
%,%)
%,%*
%,%+
%,%,
%,%-
%,%.
%,(&
%,('
%,(%
%,((
%,()
%,(*
%,(+
%,(,
%,(-
%,(.
%,)&
%,)'
%,)%
%,)(
%,))
%,)*
%,)+
%,),
%,)-
%*-
%*.
of the #3teri3l 3"3il3$le for their o95 4se; Cle3rl!8 3#3ssi5g l3rge 3#o45ts of
li5g4istic reso4rces 9itho4t 5eglecti5g i5dee5de5t thi5Ai5g or cre3ti"e reflectio5 is 3
ositi"e e6erie5ce 9hich 9e c35 le3r5 fro#;
U5fort453tel!8 o"er the 3st h45dred !e3rs or so8 so#e r3tio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g
ri5ciles s4ch 3s I h3"e #e5tio5ed 3$o"e h3"e either 5ot recei"ed the 3tte5tio5 the!
deser"e i5 foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 or h3"e $ee5 #is45derstood 35d therefore
#is4sed i5 tr35sferri5g the# to c4rre5t foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g; O5e e63#le is the
tr3ditio53l r3ctice of #e#oris3tio5 of co5te6t43l #3teri3l8 9hich is ofte5 #is4sed i5
foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi53; The st4de5ts #3! $e forced to #e#orise
"er$3ti# 3 te6t desig53ted $! the te3cher si#l! for the 4rose of rerod4ci5g it i5
e63#i53tio5s8 or f4lfilli5g 35 3ssig5#e5t 9itho4t $ei5g 3fforded 3 ch35ce l3ter to 4se
9h3t the! h3"e g3i5ed fro# the 3i5st3Ai5g t3sA; I5 3dditio58 little effort #3! $e #3de
o5 the 3rt of the te3cher to g4ide the st4de5ts to 3reci3te or e5Do! the $e34t! of the
l35g43ge er se; Th4s8 o5 to of $ei5g de#oti"3ted i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8
Chi5ese st4de5ts $eco#e 4sed to 35 i5tro"erted 35d co5ser"3ti"e 3ro3ch to
le3r5i5g8 453$le to 4se E5glish 3s 35 effecti"e co##45ic3ti"e tool8 rel4ct35t to
e5g3ge i5 critic3l or i5dee5de5t thi5Ai5g8 35d h3! to $e 3 3ssi"e recei"ers of
A5o9ledge ?R3o8 '..+@;
Bhe5 so#e restigio4s offici3ls i5 ed4c3tio5 #3de refere5ce o5 ho9 tr3ditio53l
ed4c3tio5 r3ctices disco4r3ge st4de5ts> cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 see#s to
$e 3#o5g the first f3ctors to $e $l3#ed; Borr!i5g 3$o4t $ei5g reg3rded 3s old:
f3shio5ed8 te6t$ooA co#ilers 3re r4de5t i5 3ssig5i5g te6ts for st4de5ts to #e#orise;
For i5st35ce8 le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt is r3rel! #e5tio5ed i5 high school E5glish
te6t$ooAs 35d o5l! occ3sio53ll! re<4ired i5 the e6ercises follo9i5g the te6t i5
Chi5ese l35g43ge te6t$ooAs
+-
; L35g43ge te3chi5g seci3lists 35d rese3rchers 3re
c34tio4s i5 t3lAi5g 3$o4t it res4#3$l! $ec34se the! $elie"e it is dis#issed i5 the
rogressi"e Best 3s ri#iti"e or #isg4ided or $ec34se it h3s 5ot $ee5 e5do9ed 9ith 3
se5si$le theoretic3l D4stific3tio5; F3ci5g the redic3#e5t of f3ili5g to get s3tisf3ctor!
o4tco#e of ELT i5 Chi53 desite e5or#o4s i5"est#e5t8 eseci3ll! 45der the ress4re
+-
+
The te6t$ooA series 45der e63#i53tio5 3re those 4$lished i5 '..& $! Peole>s Ed4c3tio5
Press 3ffili3ted 9ith Mi5istr! of Ed4c3tio5; The! h3"e $ee5 4sed $! 35 o"er9hel#i5g #3Dorit! of
seco5d3r! schools thro4gho4t Chi53;
%,).
%,*&
%,*'
%,*%
%,*(
%,*)
%,**
%,*+
%,*,
%,*-
%,*.
%,+&
%,+'
%,+%
%,+(
%,+)
%,+*
%,++
%,+,
%,+-
%,+.
%,,&
%,,'
%,,%
%,,(
%,,)
%,,*
%,,+
%,,,
%,,-
%,,.
%+&
%+'
%+%
of criticis# fro# go"er5#e5t offici3ls8 Chi5ese ed4c3tors #3! h3ste5 to st3! 393!
fro# 35! le3r5i5g r3ctice i#ri5ted 9ith 3l3$le tr3ditio53l #3rAs;
I5discri#i53ti5gl! deleti5g 3ll le3r5i5g h3$its i5herited fro# tr3ditio53l l35g43ge
ed4c3tio5 c35 $e 3s i5D4rio4s 3s o$sti53tel! cli5gi5g o5 to those l35g43ge te3chi5g
tr3ditio5s 9hich ro"e serio4sl! irrele"35t to #oder5 sit43tio5 ?for e63#le8
o"ere#h3sis o5 the te3chi5g of Cl3ssic3l Chi5ese ?S;:2; Sh35g8 '.-(@@; Be sho4ld
5ot $e $li5d to the f3ct th3t 3 54#$er of rece5t rese3rch st4dies h3"e doc4#e5ted the
4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 $! high:3chie"i5g Chi5ese E5glish le3r5ers ?Di5g8 %&&)8
%&&,J 23o8 %&&,3J Y;:I; 248 %&&(@; Chi5ese st4de5ts> i53de<43c! i5 or3l
co##45ic3tio5 #3! r3ther lie i5 the f3ct th3t or3l sAills h3"e lo5g $ee5 5eglected 35d
3 #3i5 e#h3sis h3s $ee5 l3ced o5 the i#ro"e#e5t of re3di5g 35d 9riti5g ?S;:2;
Sh35g8 '.-(@ th35 i5 the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9hich is 3ss4#ed to stifle the
cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge;
Follo9i5g o5 the foregoi5g disc4ssio58 the c4rre5t rese3rch is 35 3tte#t to ro"ide
35 i5ter"ie9:$3sed e#iric3l st4d! i5 9hich Chi5ese le3r5ers=te3chers> "ie9s of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 3re i5"estig3ted i5 the hoe of sheddi5g light o5 the follo9i5g iss4es1
?'@ Is the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9hich is #e35t to $e 4sed 3s 3 93! of
3cc4#4l3ti5g 35d i5ter53lisi5g li5g4istic reso4rces i5co#3ti$le 9ith cre3ti"e
thi5Ai5g or critic3l 353l!sis of the 3rg4#e5t i5 the te6tH
?%@ If Chi5ese le3r5ers 3re i5deed less cre3ti"e th35 their 9ester5 co45ter3rts8 to 9h3t
e6te5t is te6t #e#oris3tio5 3 #3i5 45derl!i5g c34seH
?(@ To 9h3t e6te5t is te6t #e#oris3tio5 3 #3i5 c34se of Chi5ese le3r5ers> i53de<43te
de"elo#e5t of co##45ic3ti"e co#ete5ce i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5gH
?)@ If te6t #e#oris3tio5 does restrict co##45ic3ti"e co#ete5ce8 is it the r3ctice er
se or the 93! of 4si5g it 9hich sho4ld $e 3ddressedH
!.( C1476u3i14
To co5cl4de the recedi5g disc4ssio58 the Chi5ese 3dotio5 of ALM8 35d cool5ess
to93rds CLT8 h3d dee roots i5 hilosoh!8 c4lt4re 35d $3sic co5cets of ed4c3tio5;
Acc4r3te 353l!sis of tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g is esse5ti3l for 4s to ide5tif! 35d
%,-&
%,-'
%,-%
%,-(
%,-)
%,-*
%,-+
%,-,
%,--
%,-.
%,.&
%,.'
%,.%
%,.(
%,.)
%,.*
%,.+
%,.,
%,.-
%,..
%-&&
%-&'
%-&%
%-&(
%-&)
%-&*
%-&+
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%-&-
%-&.
%-'&
%-''
%-'%
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resect the esse5ce of c4lt4r3l herit3ge 35d 45i<4e5ess 9hich #ight $e t3Ae5
3d"35t3ge of to t3cAle #oder5 ro$le#s i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g;
I5 light of these i5sights8 i5 the follo9i5g ch3ter8 I sh3ll o4tli5e the desig5 for 3
<43lit3ti"e st4d! 9hich secific3ll! sets o4t to i5"estig3te the 93! Chi5ese
le3r5ers=te3chers ercei"e the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 35d the e6te5t to 9hich
c4lt4r3l e6l353tio5 #3! ro"e 4sef4l thro4gh the le5s of te6t #e#oris3tio58 the
e6tre#e c3se of ALM;
%-')
%-'*
%-'+
%-',
%-'-
%-'.
%-%&
%-%'
%-%%
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%-%*
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%-%-
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%-(&
%-('
%-(%
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CHAPTER &------------------------------------------------
AN EMPIRICAL STDY: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDRES
The 4rose of this ch3ter is to descri$e the #ethodologic3l re3r3tio5s for 35
e#iric3l i5"estig3tio5 of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers> $eliefs 35d r3ctices 9ith
resect to the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g; Desite the
f3ct th3t it is Estill 9idel! r3cticed i5 schools thro4gho4t the co45tr! QChi53R> ?Di5g8
%&&)1 .J see 3lso R3o8 '..+@8 te6t #e#oris3tio58 3s h3s $ee5 oi5ted o4t i5 sectio5
';(8 is still e#iric3ll! 45der:i5"estig3ted; Pro$i5g i5to the ercetio5s of Chi5ese
le3r5ers 35d te3chers reg3rdi5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g tool
co5stit4tes the #3Dor go3l of this e#iric3l st4d!; It is hoed th3t the st4d! f4rthers
o4r c4rre5t 45derst35di5g of Chi5ese "ie9s of foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g thro4gh the
le5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9hich is 5ot co##o5l! 4sed i5 other le3r5i5g c4lt4res;
This ch3ter is org35ised 3s follo9s1 );' for#4l3tes rese3rch <4estio5s for the st4d!J
);% de3ls 9ith #ethodologic3l co5sider3tio5sJ );( is de"oted to the disc4ssio5 of the
i5terreti"e 53t4re 35d the "3lidit! of this i5<4ir!J );) det3ils the selectio5 of the
3rtici35ts 35d their $3cAgro45d i5for#3tio5J );* 35d );+ 3re co5cer5ed 9ith the
roced4res of d3t3 collectio5 35d d3t3 353l!sis resecti"el!; The desig5 of the
rese3rch i5str4#e5ts is ro"ided i5 );,;
&.1 Re3ea275 Fue3/i143
The st4d! foc4ses o5 35 353l!sis of Chi5ese EFL le3r5ers=te3chers> "ie9s of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 3s 3 le3r5i5g=te3chi5g de"ice; /ro3dl!8 it sets o4t to rese3rch t9o
<4estio5s1
' Bh3t 3re le3r5ers=te3chers> ercetio5s of the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5
l35g43ge le3r5i5g=te3chi5gH
% Ho9 c35 the e#erged fe3t4res of le3r5ers=te3chers> ercetio5s $e e6l3i5edH To
9h3t e6te5t 3re e6l353tio5s $e!o5d c4lt4r3l "3l4es 3lic3$leH
%-()
%-(*
%-(+
%-(,
%-(-
%-(.
%-)&
%-)'
%-)%
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%-)+
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%-)-
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%-*&
%-*'
%-*%
%-*(
%-*)
%-**
%-*+
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%-*-
%-*.
%-+&
%-+'
%-+%
%-+(
%-+)
%-+*
Secific3ll!8 the st4d! oses the follo9i5g rese3rch <4estio5s8 set o4t i5 ';)8 35d
ree3ted $elo91
Bh3t 3re the #ost co##o5 "ie9s or $eliefs of Chi5ese le3r5ers=te3chers o5
te6t #e#oris3tio5H
Bh3t 3re the ro$le#s ercei"ed or diffic4lties e6erie5ced $! Chi5ese
le3r5ers=te3chers 9ith reg3rd to the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5H
Bh3t 3re the le3r5ers=te3chers> 3ttit4des to93rds the ote5ti3l ro$le#s th3t
#ight $e $ro4ght 3$o4t $! e6te5si"e 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5H
Are there 35! co##o53lities 35d di"ersit! 3cross gro4s 3t differe5t
ed4c3tio53l le"els reg3rdi5g the le3r5ers=te3chers> 4se 35d $eliefs o5 le3r5i5g
te6ts $! he3rtH
&.2 Me/519161gi7a6 7143i9e2a/i143
This rese3rch 3doted t9o 3ro3ches to i5"estig3tio51 s4r"e! 35d i5ter"ie9; The
re3so5s 9h! these t9o field roced4res 9ere chose5 to collect i5for#3tio5 9ill $e
disc4ssed $elo9;
&.2.1 Su2<e8
Ad#i5isteri5g <4estio553ires 93s 3doted for t9o re3so5s ?#3i5l! $3sed o5 /3$$ie8
'..-J /r!#358 %&&'J Dor5!ei8 %&&(@1
?'@ I4estio553ires 3re eco5o#ic i5 ter#s of rese3rch ti#e re<4ired; The! 3re <4icA to
3d#i5ister 35d c35 $e se5t o4t thro4gh E:#3il;
?%@ I4estio553ires ro"ide e3sier 93!s to coll3te 35d 353l!se d3t3 th35 #35! other
#e35s of rese3rch; 2i"e5 th3t <4estio553ires 3re 5or#3ll! co#rised of closed
<4estio5s8 i5 9hich the reso5de5t is 3sAed to select 35 35s9er fro# 3#o5g 3 list
ro"ided $! the rese3rcher8 the! 3fford 3 gre3ter 45ifor#it! of reso5ses 35d 3re #ore
e3sil! rocessed for st3tistic3l 353l!sis;
I5 short8 3 s#3ll:sc3le s4r"e! 93s co5d4cted i5 the c4rre5t rese3rch ri#3ril! for
collecti5g <435tit3ti"e d3t3; The s4r"e! <4estio553ire ?see Ae5di6 ' N %8 P3rt II@
%-++
%-+,
%-+-
%-+.
%-,&
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%-,,
%-,-
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%--'
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%--(
%--)
%--*
%--+
%--,
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%-.&
%-.'
%-.%
%-.(
%-.)
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%-.+
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co5sists of 3 li#ited 54#$er of <4estio5s or ite#s ?( for the le3r5er s4r"e! 35d '& for
the te3cher s4r"e!@ i5te5ded to collect d3t3 s4le#e5t3l to or tri35g4l3ti5g th3t
g3i5ed fro# the <43lit3ti"e i5<4ir!;
&.2.2 I4/e2<ieB
Altho4gh 3 s#3ll:sc3le <4estio553ire s4r"e! is i5cl4ded8 the #ethodologic3l
fr3#e9orA of this e#iric3l i5<4ir! is l3rgel! <43lit3ti"e:i5terret3ti"e;
I5ter"ie9i5g 93s i5iti3ll! decided to $e 4sed for co#le#e5ti5g 3 l3rge:sc3le
<4estio553ire s4r"e!8 9hich #e35s there 9o4ld $e 3 $3l35ced #i6ed desig5 i5
#ethodolog!; It 93s hoed th3t i5ter"ie9s 3cco#35!i5g <4estio553ire res4lts 9o4ld
hel g3i5 3 $etter 45derst35di5g of 9h3t the 54#eric3l reso5ses 3ct43ll! #e35 gi"e5
th3t i5ter"ie9 d3t3 c35 E$oth ill4str3te 35d ill4#i53te <4estio553ire res4lts 35d c35
$ri5g !o4r rese3rch st4d! to life> ?2illh3#8 %&&&1 -%@; Th4s8 i5ter"ie9 93s 3doted
i5iti3ll! #ore 3s 3 follo9:4 to 35other #ethod th35 st35di5g o5 its o95;
Ho9e"er8 3fter iloti5g the 3i5st3Ai5gl! desig5ed <4estio553ire8 I fo45d th3t d3t3
collected i5 this 93! 93s 5ot i5for#3ti"e e5o4gh to 3ddress #! rese3rch <4estio5s
$e!o5d 3 s4erfici3l 93!8 9hich8 #3! 9ell $e 3ttri$4t3$le to the l3cA of 3 #odel of
<4estio553ire desig5 for 35 45der:theorised=i5"estig3ted toic ?Ros3#o5d Mitchell8
erso53l co##45ic3tio58 A4g &)8 %&'&@; Perh3s d4e to #! i5et5ess i5 desig5i5g
the <4estio553ire8 so#e reso5de5ts see#ed to f3il to tre3t the <4estio5s serio4sl! K
the! either i53d"erte5tl! o#itted cert3i5 ite#s or g3"e i5co5siste5t 35s9ers ?for
e63#le8 o5e 3rtici35t i5dic3ted i5 the <4estio553ire th3t he tho4ght te6t
#e#oris3tio5 93s 5ot helf4l 3t 3ll 35d e6tre#el! $ori5g8 $4t 3t the s3#e ti#e chose
to 4se it fre<4e5tl! i5 his f4t4re st4d!
+.
@; I $eg35 to re3lise the $i3ses 35d li#it3tio5s
of the t!e of rese3rch 3ro3ch 3i#i5g to rod4ce d3t3 i5 the for# of 54#$ers8 9he5
i5"estig3ti5g 3 5e9 3re3; O5 the other h35d8 the ilot 35d first st3ge i5ter"ie9 st4d!
rod4ced i5teresti5g 35d i5siri5g d3t38 9hich led #e to $e co5"i5ced th3t the #3Dor
+.
+
More e63#les liAe this i5cl4de 3 3rtici35t 9ho reso5ded th3t he h3d 5ot #e#orised 3
si5gle te6t si5ce he st3rted le3r5i5g E5glish8 $4t he sig5ified th3t he tho4ght te6t #e#oris3tio5
93s "er! helf4l 35d i5teresti5g8 35d 35other 9ho ticAed $oth E$ori5g> 35d Ei5teresti5g> i5
reso5se to the <4estio5 of EHo9 do !o4 see the rocess of te6t #e#oris3tio5H>
%.&&
%.&'
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%.&(
%.&)
%.&*
%.&+
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%.'%
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%.'.
%.%&
%.%'
%.%%
%.%(
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%.%,
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%+(
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%+*
%++
stre5gth of the <43lit3ti"e 3ro3ch is8 Ethe deth to 9hich e6lor3tio5s 3re co5d4cted
F 8 4s43ll! res4lti5g i5 s4fficie5t det3ils for the re3der to gr3s the idios!5cr3cies of
the sit43tio5>?M!ers8 %&&&@;
As 3 res4lt8 it 93s decided th3t 3 <43lit3ti"e 3ro3ch ?i5ter"ie9@ sho4ld l3! 3
do#i535t role i5 35s9eri5g the rese3rch <4estio5s 9hile the <435tit3ti"e d3t3 93s
s3ri5gl! 4sed to $4ttress the <43lit3ti"e fi5di5gs;
Altho4gh i5ter"ie9i5g c35 $e Ecostl!8 ti#e:co5s4#i5g8 35d ofte5 diffic4lt to
3d#i5ister> ?Seliger N Shoh3#!8 '.-.1 '++@8 it c35 $e #ore i5for#3ti"e 35d fle6i$le
i5 the se5se th3t it 3llo9s the i5ter"ie9ers to ch35ge <4estio5s or the 93! of hr3si5g
<4estio5s 3s 9ell 3s 3sAi5g follo9:4 <4estio5s to ro$e i5to f4rther i5for#3tio5; O5
the other h35d8 the reso5de5ts c35 35s9er <4estio5s 3t so#e le5gth i5 their o95
9ords8 35d cl3rif! or e635d the 35s9ers if 5ecess3r!; More i#ort35tl!8 i5ter"ie9i5g
is 4s43ll! i5ter3cti"e i5 53t4re 3s is i5dic3ted i5 the ter# Ei5ter3cti"e i5ter"ie9i5g>
?Neill8 %&&(@;
I5 ositi5g the 4rose of i5ter"ie9i5g8 Seid#35 ?%&&+1 .@ 5otes1
The 4rose of i5:deth i5ter"ie9i5g is 5ot to get 35s9ers to <4estio5s8 5or to
test h!otheses8 35d 5ot to Ee"3l43te> 3s the ter# is 5or#3ll! 4sed; At the root
of i5:deth i5ter"ie9i5g is 35 i5terest i5 45derst35di5g the li"ed e6erie5ce of
other eole 35d the #e35i5g the! #3Ae of th3t e6erie5ce;
Fro# this oi5t of "ie98 i5ter"ie9i5g ser"es 3s 35 ide3l i5str4#e5t i5 eliciti5g the rich
35d thicA d3t3 fro# 35 Ee#ic> ersecti"e; I5 "ie9 of the 53t4re of the c4rre5t
rese3rch8 i;e; to 45derst35d the s4$Decti"e re3lit! of the li"ed e6erie5ce of 3 3rtic4l3r
gro4 of i5di"id43ls8 i5ter"ie9s 9ith i5for#35ts 3$o4t their li"ed le3r5i5g
e6erie5ces see#ed to $e the #ost co5gr4e5t rese3rch str3teg!; I5deed8 t3lAi5g to
le3r5ers 3$o4t l35g43ge le3r5i5g i5 i5ter"ie9s or foc4s gro4 disc4ssio5s 35d
353l!si5g 9h3t the! s3! is 3 t!ic3l rese3rch str3teg! i5 the field of le3r5er $eliefs
?/e5so5 N Lor8 '..-8 '...J Be5de58 '.-+@; More i#ort35tl!8 gi"e5 the 33re5t
c4lt4r3l $e3ri5g o5 the toic 45der i5"estig3tio58 i5ter"ie9i5g Esee#s to $e the #ost
effecti"e 93! of $ri5gi5g the i5sider>s ersecti"e to the 353l!sis8 t3Ai5g 4s 5e3rer to
%.(&
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3 descritio5 of c4lt4r3l r3ctices i5 ter#s of its #e#$ers> 45derst35di5gs> ?H!l35d8
%&&&1 '))@;
I5 ter#s of 3ct43l 3d#i5istr3tio58 35! 3#$ig4ities or #is45derst35di5gs of the
<4estio5s c35 $e cl3rified or corrected o5 the sot d4ri5g i5ter"ie9; As 3 res4lt8 the
reso5de5ts c35 $e e6ected to ro"ide #ore 3cc4r3te i5for#3tio5 th35 i5
<4estio553ires 35d the! 3re 5ot gi"e5 35! ch35ce to i53d"erte5tl! o#it 35! ite#s 3s
#ight h3e5 i5 reso5di5g <4estio553ires;
&.2.! Rea3143 ;12 a 0i.e9 0e/519
Accordi5g to Merte5s ?%&&*@8 #i6ed #ethods h3"e 3rtic4l3r "3l4e 9he5 9e 935t to
e63#i5e 35 iss4e th3t is e#$edded i5 3 co#le6 ed4c3tio53l or soci3l co5te6t; She
3rg4es th3t co#$i5i5g #ethods i5 3 3rtic4l3r roDect 9o4ld $ro3de5 the scoe of the
i5"estig3tio5 35d e5rich the schol3r>s 3$ilit! to dr39 co5cl4sio5s 3$o4t the ro$le#
45der st4d!;
A co#$i5ed 4se of i5ter"ie9 35d <4estio553ire 93s 3doted i5 the c4rre5t st4d!
#3i5l! $ec34se Ei5ter"ie9s c35 ro"ide deth of e6l353tio5 9ithi5 3 3rtic4l3r
co5te6t8 9hile <4estio553ires 3i5t 3 $ro3d tho4gh ossi$l! s4erfici3l ict4re>
?Dre"er8 '..*1 -@; It is hoed th3t 3 f4ller ict4re of Chi5ese co5cetio5s of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 c35 $e g3i5ed thro4gh i5:deth i5ter"ie9 th3t ser"es to c3t4re the
co#le6it! of 3rtici35ts> thi5Ai5g8 roed $! 3 <4estio553ire s4r"e! th3t te5ds to
gi"e 3 s53shot of le3r5ers> $eliefs;
A #i6ed #ethod c35 3lso f4lfil the follo9i5g t9o f45ctio5s ?cf; 2ree58 C3r3celli8 N
2r3h3#8 '.-.@1 I43lit3ti"e 35d <435tit3ti"e #ethods 3re 4sed to #e3s4re o"erl3i5g
$4t differe5t f3cets of 3 he5o#e5o58 !ieldi5g 35 e5riched 45derst35di5g $!
ill4str3tio58 cl3rif!i5g8 or el3$or3ti5g o5 cert3i5 3sects; Res4lts o$t3i5ed $! #4ltile
#ethods do 5ot 3l93!s rod4ce corro$or3ti5g or co#le#e5t3r! res4ltsJ ho9e"er8
di"erge5t res4lts c35 3lso $e ill4#i53ti5g; Therefore8 rese3rchers #3! i5te5tio53ll!
4tilise "3ried #ethods to ge5er3te discre35cies8 3r3do6es8 or co5tr3dictio5s8 9hich
3re #e35t to $e ro"oc3ti"e thro4gh the rec3sti5g of <4estio5s8 le3di5g hoef4ll! to
5e9 ersecti"es ?i$id@; Altho4gh the 4se of #i6ed #ethods i5 #! st4d! ?i5ter"ie9
%.+)
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receded $! <4estio553ire s4r"e!@ 93s 5ot 5ecess3ril! 3i#i5g to ge5er3te
discre35cies8 it i5deed i5cre3sed the ch35ce for i5co5gr4ities to h3e58 9hich
3llo9ed #e to i#ro"ise #e35i5gf4l follo9:4 <4estio5s i5 the i5ter"ie9;
&.! I4/e2:2e/i<i30 a49 Fue3/i143 1; <a6i9i/8
As 93s #e5tio5ed e3rlier8 the #ethodolog! of this e#iric3l i5<4ir! is #3i5l!
<43lit3ti"e:i5terreti"e; I5 #! deli$er3tio5 o5 the i5cl4sio5 of the ter# Ei5terreti"e> I
highlight #! ositio5 th3t i5terreti"istic #ethodolog! c35 h3rdl! $e det3ched fro# 3
<43lit3ti"e o5e1 E2nter4reti7e rese3rch is 3 ter# referred $! EricAso5 9he5 referri5g
to qualitati7e rese3rch F> ?Vr3sid3s8 %&&'1 -'J e#h3sis origi53l@; The 4se of the
ter# Ee#h3si7es i5terret3tio5 35d s4ggests 3 foc4s o5 the #e35i5gs i5 3ctio5 of
3rtici35ts 35d ho9 the rese3rcher 45co"ers 35d i5terrets those #e35i5gs> ?i$id@;
Hollid3! offers the follo9i5g "ie91
It Q<43lit3ti"e $eliefR #3i5t3i5s th3t 9e c35 e6lore8 c3tch gli#ses8 ill4#i53te
35d the5 tr! to i5terret $its of re3lit!; I5terret3tio5 is 3s f3r 3s 9e c35 go;
This l3ces less of 3 $4rde5 of roof o5 <43lit3ti"e rese3rch8 9hich i5ste3d
$4ilds gr3d43l ict4res; The ict4res 3re the#sel"es o5l! i5terret3tio5s K
3ro6i#3tio5s K $3sic 3tte#ts to rerese5t 9h3t is i5 f3ct 3 #4ch co#le6
re3lit! K 3i5ti5gs th3t rerese5t o4r o95 i#ressio5s8 r3ther th35 hotogr3hs
of 9h3t is Ere3ll!> there; The! 3re cre3ted $! collecti5g 3 54#$er of i5st35ces
of soci3l life; ?Hollid3!8 %&&%1 *:+@
2i"e5 the i5terreti"e 53t4re of <43lit3ti"e rese3rch8 I 3sse5t to /rooAs:Le9is ?%&&,1
*.:+&@ th3t E<4estio5s of "3lidit! c35 o5l! $e 3ddressed 9ith the recog5itio5 35d
3cA5o9ledge#e5t of s4$Decti"it! thro4gh the e#$odi#e5t of the i5terreter8 e6osi5g
3s co#letel! 35d disti5ctl! 3s ossi$le th3t erso5>s 3ttit4de 35d o4tlooA>; This
5otio5 h3s $ee5 3#l! disl3!ed i5 #! i5terret3tio5 of rel3ted liter3t4re i5 recedi5g
ch3ters; I 3# #i5df4l of Hollid3!>s ?%&&%1 '(.@ 3lleg3tio5 th3t the rese3rcher does
5ot 5eed to Erete5d to esc3e s4$Decti"it!8 35d #4st therefore 3cco45t for th3t
s4$Decti"it! 9here"er ossi$le>; Bithi5 3 ost:#oder5 <43lit3ti"e rese3rch 3r3dig#8
it is recog5ised th3t the i5"ol"e#e5t of the rese3rcher is 5ot o5l! 453"oid3$le8 $4t EF
3 resour#e8 9hich #4st $e c3it3lised 4o5> ?Hollid3!8 %&&%1 '(,J e#h3sis origi53l@;
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As s4ch 3 reso4rce8 thro4gho4t the i5<4ir! I h3"e e6loited #! f3#ili3rit! 9ith the
toic 45der i5"estig3tio5 3s 9ell 3s the c4lt4r3l 35d ed4c3tio53l setti5gs th3t the
3rtici35ts 3re sit43ted i5;
O5e #3! 3rg4e8 ho9e"er8 th3t 3ltho4gh the rese3rcher>s f3#ili3rit! 9ith the gi"e5
setti5g #3Aes it e3sier to ro"ide 35 i5sider ersecti"e8 it #3! 3lso c34se so#e
diffic4lties i5 t3Ai5g 3 #ore o$Decti"e Eo4tsider> "ie9 ?H3##ersle! N AtAi5so58
'..*@; As 3 res4lt8 so#e sig5ific35t fe3t4res i5 the gi"e5 co5te6t 3re liAel! to $e t3Ae5
for gr35ted 35d the rese3rcher is i5cli5ed to co5fi5e hi#self=herself to the ersecti"es
gi"e5 $! the 3rtici35ts; Bhile 3cA5o9ledgi5g the ro$le#3ti73tio5 of t3Ai5g 3
"3l4e:5e4tr3l or "3l4e:free ositio5 9he5 looAi5g i5to c4lt4r3ll! e#$edded
ed4c3tio53l r3ctices $! rese3rchers 9ho 3re the#sel"es rod4cts of 35 ed4c3tio53l
tr3ditio5 ?I; 248 %&&+@8 it is 3rg4ed here th3t this risA h3s $ee5 offset to so#e e6te5t
i5 this i5<4ir!; As 3 st4de5t i5 li5g4istics 35d 3 l35g43ge te3cher8 9ho h3s for the first
ti#e $ee5 thro95 i5to 3 #4ltic4lt4r3l e5"iro5#e5t8 I h3"e 5e"er f3iled to critic3ll!
reflect o5 the le3r5i5g r3ctices i5 #! ho#e co5te6t 35d disc4ss rele"35t iss4es 9ith
eole fro# 3 "3riet! of c4lt4r3l 35d li5g4istic $3cAgro45ds d4ri5g #! three:!e3r
3c3de#ic st4d! i5 the UG; S4ch 3 self:reflecti"e 3ttit4de e53$les #e8 3s 3 rese3rcher8
to $e 393re of the de"elo#e5t of #! o95 rofessio53l ositio5 35d "ie9s 35d to
$eco#e #ore 3$le to Et3Ae 35 Ee6ter53l> ersecti"e o5 o5eself 3s o5e i5ter3cts 9ith
others8 3s 9ell 3s to 353l!se 35d8 9here desir3$le8 3d3t o5e>s $eh3"io4r 35d the
45derl!i5g "3l4es 35d $eliefs> ?/!r3#8 %&&(1 +&@; Moreo"er8 e3rl! dr3ft ch3ters o5
co5cet43l st4d! 35d reg4l3r reorts o5 the field9orA rese3rch rogress 9ere re3d $!
35d disc4ssed 9ith eole
,&
9ho 3re 3lie5 to the rese3rch co5te6t8 th4s o$t3i5i5g 35
Eo$Decti"e> o4tsider ersecti"e o5 the rese3rch rocess;
Bhe5 9orAi5g fro# the ersecti"e of <43lit3ti"e #ethodolog!8 the co5str4ct of
"3lidit! 3s defi5ed i5 <435tit3ti"e co5te6ts is serio4sl! $eside the oi5t i5so#4ch 3s
EQOR5e c355ot t3lA 3$o4t the "3lidit! of the st4d!8 $4t of the "3lidit! of the 3ssertio5s
35d i5fere5ces o5e #3Aes d4ri5g d3t3 353l!sis; F The rich5ess of descritio5 of d3t3
collectio5 35d 353l!sis 9ill deter#i5e the "3lidit! of i5fere5ces> ?Vr3sid3s8 %&&'1 .)@;
I5 other 9ords8 it is o5l! $! K i5 Hollid3!>s ?%&&%1 ')*@ ter# K Esho9i5g the
,&
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The! i5cl4de #! s4er"isor8 3d"isor 35d the #e#$ers of the 4gr3de 35el;
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9orAi5gs> th3t the rese3rch is 3$le to co##45ic3te the "3lidit! of the 9hole rese3rch
roDect; It is #! 3tte#t i5 this thesis to do #! 4t#ost to oe5 #! #i5d to the re3der
9ith #! i5ce5ti"e i5 45dert3Ai5g this i5<4ir! 35d to 3cco45t for the choice of soci3l
setti5gs8 rese3rch 3cti"ities 35d the#es 35d foc4ses 3s 9ell 3s the dedic3tio5 to 35d
thoro4gh5ess of field9orA8 9hich Hollid3! ?%&&%1 .@ co5siders the so4rces of "3lidit!
of <43lit3ti"e rese3rch;
Altho4gh i5ter"ie9 d3t3 3re see5 3s s4$Decti"it!:$i3sed 3s the! 3re co:co5str4cted $!
the i5ter"ie9er 35d i5ter"ie9ee i5 i5ter3ctio5 ?24$ri4# N Holstei58 %&&%@8 it is
3rg4ed th3t the i5ter"ie9 d3t3 i5 this rese3rch 3re s4fficie5tl! dee5d3$le for the
i5te5ded rese3rch 4rose; As is de#o5str3ted i5 the d3t3 s3#les ?see Ae5di6 *@8
the i5ter"ie9er co5st35tl! i5"ites the i5ter"ie9ees to D4stif! his=her oi5io5s or
co5sider the iss4es fro# 3 differe5t ersecti"e $! 3cti5g 3s 3 ch3lle5ger; The "3lidit!8
or 9h3t Li5col5 N 24$3 ?'.-*@ c3ll Etr4st9orthi5ess> of this <43lit3ti"e i5<4ir! is
$elie"ed to $e f4rther e5h35ced $! 3 54#$er of f3ctors; These f3ctors i5cl4de1 35
e6te5ded eriod of field9orA ?l3sti5g 3$o4t o5e !e3r 35d t9o #o5ths@8 the
i5ter"ie9er>s effort to let the rese3rch 3rtici35t le3d the 93! 9he5e"er ossi$le8 35d
the co#3ti$le res4lts of 35 e6eri#e5t3l st4d! ?0; Y48 %&&.@ 35d 3 c3se st4d! ?0; Y48
%&'&@ co5d4cted resecti"el! $efore 35d i5 3r3llel 9ith the c4rre5t rese3rch; M!
f3#ili3rit! 9ith the co5te6t 45der i5"estig3tio5 35d #! re"io4s erso53l e5g3ge#e5t
9ith the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 ro"ided #e 9ith 35 i5sider ersecti"e 9hich8
co#$i5ed 9ith #! o4tsider role 3s 35 i5dee5de5t rese3rcher8 #3! co5stit4te 3
#ethodologic3l stre5gth of the st4d!;
A5 i#ort35t ele#e5t of "3lidit! i5 <43lit3ti"e st4d! is Etri35g4l3tio5> ?De57i58 '.,&8
'.-.@ i5so#4ch 3s Etri35g4l3tio5 is 5ot 3 tool or 3 str3teg! of "3lid3tio58 $4t 35
3lter53ti"e to "3lid3tio5> ?De57i5 N Li5col58 '..-1 )@; Of "3rio4s for#s of
tri35g4l3tio5
,'
8 I co5sider th3t t9o t!es of tri35g4l3tio5 9ere 3lied i5 the i5<4ir!8
53#el!8 d3t3 tri35g4l3tio5 35d #ethodologic3l tri35g4l3tio5; I5 the i5ter"ie9 st4d!8
d3t3 9ere collected fro# the t9o 3rties to the le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g rocess1 the
le3r5ers 35d the te3chers8 9hose reorts for# 3 t!e of "erific3tio5 fro# t9o
ersecti"es o5 cert3i5 iss4es; T9o 3rtici35ts 9ere i5ter"ie9ed t9ice8 9ith 3 g3 of
,'
,
De57i5 ?'.,&8 '.-.@ disti5g4ishes fo4r t!es of tri35g4l3tio51 d3t3 tri35g4l3tio58 i5"estig3tor
tri35g4l3tio58 theor! tri35g4l3tio5 35d #ethodologic3l tri35g4l3tio5;
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o5e !e3r se3r3ti5g the t9o i5ter"ie9s8 35d #35! of their $eliefs 9ere iter3ted i5 $oth
i5ter"ie9s; A5d the d3t3 elicited fro# the 3rtici35ts i5 the c4rre5t st4d! 9ere
checAed 3g3i5st th3t of 353logo4s re"io4s rese3rch ?e;g; Di5g8 %&&)8 %&&,J 23o8
%&&+J 23o8 %&&,3J Li35g8 %&&-J Li35g N S#ith8 %&&.@ 35d correso5di5g theoretic3l
liter3t4re ?CooA8 '..)J Ste"icA8 '.-%8 '.-.8 '..&@; All this ro"ided 35 ele#e5t of
d3t3 tri35g4l3tio5; The #ethodologic3l tri35g4l3tio5 c35 $e see5 i5 the co#$i5ed 4se
of <4estio553ire s4r"e! 35d i5:deth i5ter"ie9 i5 the rese5t i5<4ir! 3s 9ell 3s other
so4rces of d3t3 ?e;g; the 3rtici35ts> 9ritte5 53rr3ti"es@ th3t 9ere 4sed i5 #! re"io4s
rese3rch ?cf; 0; Y48 %&'&@8 3ltho4gh 5ot i5cl4ded i5 this thesis; Moreo"er8 so#e
3rtici35ts i5 the st4d! 9ere #! re"io4s colle3g4es=frie5ds 35d I h3d 3ct43ll! h3d 3
cert3i5 degree of A5o9ledge8 tho4gh i5 3 fr3g#e5ted #355er8 of their theor! of
foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g ?i5cl4di5g 3ttit4des to93rds #e#oris3tio5@ thro4gh for#3l
or i5for#3l disc4ssio5s o5 "3rio4s occ3sio5s o4tside the rese3rch ?e;g; co4rse
l355i5g #eeti5g@;
A5 3sect of i5terreti"is# th3t #3Aes se5se i5 the c4rre5t e#iric3l i5<4ir! is th3t
i5terreti"e rese3rch 3llo9s the rese3rcher Eto mae the %amiliar strange 35d
i5teresti5g 3g3i5> ?EricAso58 '.-+1 '%'J e#h3sis origi53l@; This is the "er! feeli5g I
h3d 9hilst i5ter3cti5g 9ith the 3rtici35ts d4ri5g 3 series of i5ter"ie9s 35d re3di5g
4 the tr35scrits; Be #ore ofte5 th35 5ot t3Ae for gr35ted #ost 3cti"ities th3t
h3$it43ll! h3e5 to 4s 35d f3il to 5otice 35d 45derst35d the loc3l #e35i5gs cert3i5
3ctio5s h3"e for those i5"ol"ed; It is therefore the rese3rcher>s Do$ to 45co"er those
#e35i5gs 35d lift the "eils to 45r3"el the #4ltile l3!ers of #e35i5gs rerese5ted $!
h4#35 3ctio5 thro4gh 3tte5di5g to 35d doc4#e5ti5g the 3rtic4l3rs of the gi"e5
setti5g ?Vr3sid3s8 %&&'@;
I5 3 se5se8 this i5<4ir! $e3rs #35! fe3t4res of 9h3t so#e schol3rs ?cf; M3rto58 '.-'J
S3lDo8 '.--@ c3ll Ehe5o#e5ogr3h!> i5 ed4c3tio5 rese3rch8 9hich is co5cer5ed 9ith
Ethe #e35i5gs of sit43tio5s 35d the 93!s i5 9hich these #e35i5gs 3re 5egoti3ted $!
3ctors i5"ol"ed> ?L; Cohe58 M35io58 N Morriso58 %&&&@; Theoretic3ll!8
he5o#e5ogr3h! is $3sed o5 the 3ss4#tio5 th3t s4$Decti"e i5terret3tio5s of re3lit!
3re #ore i#ort35t i5 353l!si5g 3ctio5s th35 35! 45derl!i5g o$Decti"e re3lit! ?/e5so5
N Lor8 '...@ 35d th3t co5cetio5s 3re relational r3ther th35 i5here5t <43lities i5 the
#i5ds of the thi5Aer or i5 o$Dects the#sel"es ?S3lDo8 '.--@; Th3t is to s3!8 co5cetio5s
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('%.
c35 h3rdl! $e 45derstood i5dee5de5tl! of the le3r5i5g co5te6t; Moreo"er8 the
o$Decti"e of he5o#e5ogr3hic rese3rch #ore co5cer5s 45derst35di5g the 53t4re of
the co5cetio5s the#sel"es th35 45derst35di5g i5di"id43ls i5 ter#s of the co5cetio5s
the! hold; Methodologic3ll!8 he5o#e5ogr3h! t!ic3ll! 4ses i5ter"ie9s to ro$e
i5for#35ts> co5cetio5s of le3r5i5g ?B3tAi5s N /iggs8 '..+@; Bhile these i5ter"ie9s
3re 4s43ll! highl! foc4sed8 the i5ter"ie9er is 5ot 9holl! dee5de5t o5 reset
<4estio5s8 $4t 4ses the i5ter"ie9ees> o95 reso5ses to e5co4r3ge the# to ro$e
f4rther 35d f4rther i5to their o95 co5cetio5s ?i$id@; Altho4gh <43lit3ti"e rese3rch
follo9i5g he5o#e5ologic3l tr3ditio5 h3s $ee5 criticised for te5di5g to o"erlooA ho9
s4ch #e35i5g 5egoti3tio5s t3Ae l3ce i5 3 9ider co5te6t ?Corso58 '..,@8 this co5cer5
is 5ot co5sidered rele"35t to the c4rre5t i5<4ir! 9hich t3Aes 3s its 45derl!i5g
eiste#olog! the ost#oder5ist co5cetio5 of i5<4ir!1 ENo lo5ger sho4ld 9e see
o4rsel"es 3s seeAi5g to 45co"er 3 re:e6isti5g re3lit!J r3ther 9e 3re i5"ol"ed i5 35
i5ter3cti"e rocess of A5o9ledge #reation> ?/ecA8 '..(1 e#h3sis origi53l@;
Post#oder5ist i5sights 3lso i5sist o5 3 shift i5 o4r 5otio5 of e6ertise i5 th3t1
So:c3lled Oe6ertsP 3re ofte5 he3"il! dee5de5t o5 O5o5:e6ertsP for i54t if
the! 3re to 3rri"e 3t so45d i5sightsJ 35d si5ce e3ch i5di"id43l or gro4>s 5eeds
35d circ4#st35ces 3re differe5t8 Oe6ert A5o9ledgeP c355ot $e si#l!
a44lie*J it #4st $e gre3tl! #odified for 3 3rtic4l3r c3se; ?/ecA8 '..(@
I h3"e i5deed $e5efited i5 #35! 93!s fro# the E5o5:e6ert> t3lA i5 this i5<4ir!8
le3r5i5g #35! thi5gs8 $eco#i5g co5scio4s of #35! others 35d e"e5 $ei5g e5lighte5ed
i5 o5e 93! or 35other8 so to se3A; The field 9orA Do4r5e! I h3"e 53"ig3ted i5 this
rese3rch 5ot o5l! #3de #e e5Do! the rocess of liste5i5g eole>s e6ressio5 35d
defe5ce of their 3ttit4des8 9hich ro"ided #e 9ith l3rge 3#o45ts of fresh i5for#3tio58
$4t 3lso led #e to $e co5"i5ced of the "3l4e of erso53l 53rr3ti"es; N3rr3ti"es h3"e
the stre5gths th3t 3re l3cAi5g i5 9h3t so#e #ight c3ll the Escie5tific> 3ro3ches8
$ec34se the! ro"ide Ethe det3ils8 the i5for#3tio5 3$o4t co5te6ts8 the o9er of 3
co55ected stor! li5e8 the oe55ess 35d cl3rit! 3$o4t #e35i5gs8 the deth of feeli5g8
35d the #odest! of theoretic3l cl3i#s> ?Rose5$l3tt8 %&&'1 ''%@;
&.& I4;120a4/3 a49 3e//i4g3
('(&
('('
('(%
('((
('()
('(*
('(+
('(,
('(-
('(.
(')&
(')'
(')%
(')(
('))
(')*
(')+
('),
(')-
(').
('*&
('*'
('*%
('*(
('*)
('**
('*+
('*,
('*-
('*.
('+&
('+'
('+%
('+(
The 3rtici35ts i5 the rese3rch i5cl4ded $oth le3r5ers 35d te3chers 9ho 9ere le3r5i5g
or te3chi5g E5glish 3t three differe5t ed4c3tio53l le"els8 i;e; D45ior high school8 se5ior
high school 35d college ?see T3$le );'J see 3lso Ae5di6 ( for 3 9hole list of the
3rtici35ts@; The 3rtici35ts 9ere recr4ited l3rgel! o5 35 oort45istic $3sis 3s the
criteri3 for i5cl4sio5 i5 the s3#le 9ere r3ther loose8 i;e; c4rre5tl! 3 f4ll:ti#e st4de5t
or 3 foreig5 l35g43ge te3cher fro# 35! of the 3$o"e #e5tio5ed ed4c3tio53l le"els th3t
h3d the e6erie5ce of #e#orisi5g te6ts; The 3rtici35ts 9ere co5t3cted 3s 3 res4lt of
o5e of the follo9i5g1 ?'@ $ei5g #! 3c<43i5t35ces8 frie5ds or re"io4s colle3g4es
?#ostl! 45i"ersit! te3chers@8 ?%@ $ei5g the st4de5ts of #! re"io4s colle3g4es or
frie5ds 35d ?(@ $ei5g str35gers reco##e5ded $! #! frie5ds or those 9ho 9ere
i5ter"ie9ed e3rlier; Th4s8 this is $3sic3ll! 3 5et9orA s3#le;
T3$le );' O"er"ie9 of the P3rtici35ts> Ed4c3tio53l /3cAgro45d
2ro4 ?N@ Ed4c3tio53l Le"el ?N@ N4#$ers of School=U5i"ersit!
Le3r5ers ?)%@ L45ior High ?'%@ )
Se5ior High ?''@ )
U5i"ersit! ?'.@ )
Te3chers ?%&@ L45ior High ?,@ *
Se5ior High ?*@ *
U5i"ersit! ?-@ (
&.&.1 Lea24e2 i4;120a4/3
All the 3rtici35ts 9ere 45ifor#l! fro# 3 Chi5ese eth5ic $3cAgro45d 9ith M35d3ri5
Chi5ese 3s their 53ti"e l35g43ge; The! 9ere8 therefore8 #o5oli5g43l Chi5ese le3r5ers
st4d!i5g E5glish 3s 3 foreig5 l35g43ge ?EFL@
,%
; Most of the 3rtici35ts i5 this st4d!
h3d 5e"er $ee5 to E5glish:se3Ai5g co45tries 35d 9ere $or5 35d ed4c3ted i5 Chi53;
,%
,
E6cetio5s 9ere 3 college st4de5t De<i35 ?see Ae5di6 (@ 9ho fi5ished her ri#3r!
schooli5g i5 Ho5gGo5g 9here E5glish 93s de3lt 9ith 3s ESL 35d the s#3ll gro4 of 3rtici35ts
i5ter"ie9ed i5 the UG 9ho h3"e soDo4r5ed i5 E5glish se3Ai5g e5"iro5#e5t for 3 short eriod ?3t
#ost three #o5ths@ 3t the ti#e 9he5 the i5ter"ie9s 9ere co5d4cted;
('+)
('+*
('++
('+,
('+-
('+.
(',&
(','
(',%
(',(
(',)
(',*
(',+
(',,
(',-
(',.
('-&
('-'
('-%
('-(
('-)
('-*
('-+
('-,
('--
('-.
('.&
('.'
('.%
('.(
%,&
%,'
%,%
%,(
The! 9ere $et9ee5 the 3ges of '* to %+8 9hich #e35s th3t the! 9ere $or5 i5 the'.-&s
35d '..&s; This is 3ro45d the ti#e 9he5 #ore r3dic3l eco5o#ic refor# 35d 3 f4rther
oe5i5g 4 of Chi53 9ere l345ched 3ll o"er the co45tr!
,(
; As 3 res4lt8 these le3r5ers
h3d e6erie5ced the dr3#3tic3ll! ch35gi5g soci3l sit43tio5 i5 Chi53 si5ce the Eoe5
door> olic! 93s e53cted i5 '.,-; The i#3ct o5 the E5glish le3r5i5g co5te6t #ight
$e th3t 4r$35 Chi5ese le3r5ers ?9ho co5stit4te the "3st #3Dorit! of the 3rtici35ts@
9o4ld $e 3$le to 3ccess #ore #oder5 ed4c3tio53l h3rd93re8 #ore "3ried le3r5i5g
#3teri3ls 35d #ore cre3ti"e le3r5i5g e5"iro5#e5ts th35 9o4ld re"io4sl! h3"e $ee5
3"3il3$le to the#;
The cit! 9here the st4d! 93s co5d4cted is 3 ro"i5ci3l c3it3l cit! i5 i5l35d Chi53;
The fi"e seco5d3r! schools 9here the high school 3rtici35ts st4died 9ere loc3ted i5
t9o ce5tr3l districts i5 this cit!; Bhile the 3rtici35ts fro# high schools 9ere 3ll
reside5ts of the cit!8 the college st4de5ts 9ere fro# differe5t ro"i5ces or cities fro#
3ll o"er Chi53; Therefore8 this gro4 of i5for#35ts 3re #ore rerese5t3ti"e of Chi5ese
le3r5ers 53tio53ll! th35 their high school co45ter3rts;
The college st4de5t 3rtici35ts co#rise t9o gro4s; Most 9ere fo4r:!e3r:degree
co4rse st4de5ts8 3ged $et9ee5 '- 35d %%; The 54#$er of !e3rs the! h3d se5t
le3r5i5g E5glish r35ged fro# + to '%; Th4s8 the! 3ll h3"e le3r5ed E5glish for 3t le3st +
!e3rs rior to their e5tr! i5to the 45i"ersit! st3rti5g fro# the first !e3r of D45ior high;
So#e of the# fro# #3Dor cities h3d st3rted le3r5i5g E5glish fro# the third gr3de or
e"e5 fro# the first gr3de of ri#3r! school; Bith 3$45d35t re"io4s le3r5i5g
e6erie5ce 3t h35d8 these le3r5ers #ight h3"e de"eloed their secific le3r5i5g
str3tegies or $eliefs of E5glish le3r5i5g;
The re#3i5i5g 3rt of the 3rtici35ts 3t the terti3r! le"el 93s #3de of 3 gro4 of
MA=MSc ?9ith the e6cetio5 of o5e first:!e3r PhD@ st4de5ts $egi55i5g their st4dies
3t 3 UG 45i"ersit!; At the ti#e the i5ter"ie9s 9ere co5d4cted8 the! h3d $ee5 i5 the
UG for 3t #ost 5o #ore th35 ) #o5ths; Altho4gh these st4de5ts h3d $rief e6erie5ce
of st4d!i5g 3$ro3d8 the! 9ere i5cl4ded 5ot to co#3re 9ith st4de5ts st4d!i5g i5
,(
,
I5 the sri5g of '..%8 De5g 0i3oi5g #3de 3 historic to4r of So4th Chi538 o4l3rl! A5o95 3s
N35645 or Eso4ther5 to4r>; This to4r h3s si5ce s3rAed off d!53#ic eco5o#ic gro9th i5 Chi53 35d
dr3stic3ll! ch35ged the olitic3l 35d soci3l l35dsc3e of the co45tr! ?Bo5g N She5g8 %&&'1 (@;
('.)
('.*
('.+
('.,
('.-
('..
(%&&
(%&'
(%&%
(%&(
(%&)
(%&*
(%&+
(%&,
(%&-
(%&.
(%'&
(%''
(%'%
(%'(
(%')
(%'*
(%'+
(%',
(%'-
(%'.
(%%&
(%%'
(%%%
(%%(
(%%)
%,)
%,*
%,+
do#estic i5stit4tio5s8 $4t 3s the res4lt of t3Ai5g 3 co5"e5ie5ce s3#le E9here the
rese3rcher t3Aes 3d"35t3ge of 35 3ccessi$le sit43tio5 9hich h3e5s to fit the rese3rch
co5te6t 35d 4rose> ?P45ch8 '..-1 '&*@; The i#3ct of their e6os4re to the UG
3c3de#ic co5te6t o5 their ercetio5 of t3rget toic 93s co5sidered 5ot gre3t gi"e5
the short eriod of their soDo4r5; Most of these st4de5ts c3#e to st4d! i5 the UG
i##edi3tel! 3fter the co#letio5 of their 45dergr3d43te st4d! i5 Chi53; The i5cl4sio5
of this Eseci3l> gro4 of college st4de5ts f4rther i5cre3ses the di"ersit! of the
i5ter"ie9ees> $3cAgro45d;
More det3iled i5for#3tio5 o5 the st4de5t 3rtici35ts c35 $e fo45d i5 Ch3ter *;
&.&.2 Tea75e2 i4;120a4/3
%& foreig5 l35g43ge te3chers
,)
3rtici3ted i5 3 se#i:str4ct4red i5ter"ie9 ?see );* for
det3ils@; All the 45i"ersit! te3chers i5ter"ie9ed #3! $e see5 3s 35 Eoort45istic
s3#le> ?Miles N H4$er#358 '..)@ i5 th3t #ost of the# h3d $ee5 #! colle3g4es
re"io4sl! 35d the rest 9ere #! 3c<43i5t35ces; The te3chers fro# seco5d3r! schools
9ere #ostl! 3ro3ched thro4gh Es5o9:$3lli5g>8 i;e; the te3chers I i5ter"ie9ed
i5iti3ll! i5trod4ced their colle3g4es or frie5ds 3s ote5ti3l i5ter"ie9 3rtici35ts;
All the te3chers 3re 53ti"e Chi5ese $ro4ght 4 i5 Co5f4ci35 Herit3ge C4lt4re ?CHC@;
Bhile #ost of the# h3"e 5e"er $ee5 to E5glish se3Ai5g co45tries8 fo4r of the# h3d
the e6erie5ce of st4d!i5g i5 foreig5 co45tries ?US8 UG 35d R4ssi3@ for o5e or t9o
!e3rs; The! 3re 3ll f4ll:ti#e l35g43ge te3chers 9orAi5g i5 4$lic schools or ri"3te
tr3i5i5g i5stit4tio5s8 35d #ost of the# h3"e 3t le3st * !e3rs> te3chi5g e6erie5ce;
Det3ils of the te3chers> $3cAgro45d 9ill $e rese5ted i5 Ch3ter + 9here te3cher>s
ercetio5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3re reorted;
&.( Da/a 7166e7/i14
&.(.1 P217e9u2e
,)
,
'. of the %& te3chers 3re E5glish te3chers 35d the re#3i5i5g o5e is 3 R4ssi35 te3cher 9ith
E5glish 3s her seco5d foreig5 l35g43ge;
(%%*
(%%+
(%%,
(%%-
(%%.
(%(&
(%('
(%(%
(%((
(%()
(%(*
(%(+
(%(,
(%(-
(%(.
(%)&
(%)'
(%)%
(%)(
(%))
(%)*
(%)+
(%),
(%)-
(%).
(%*&
(%*'
(%*%
(%*(
(%*)
(%**
(%*+
%,,
%,-
The i5ter"ie9s 9ere co5d4cted o"er 3 eriod of #ore th35 o5e !e3r8 fro# (rd
Fe$r43r! %&&. to - M3! %&'&8 d4ri5g t9o field9orA tris
,*
to Chi53; All i5ter"ie9s
9ith le3r5er 3rtici35ts 9ere co5d4cted for#3ll! 3t 3 l3ce co5"e5ie5t to the
i5for#35ts ?for e63#le8 i5 the te3cher>s office i5 their school@; E3ch s4$Dect 93s
i5ter"ie9ed i5di"id43ll! i5 Chi5ese to e5s4re 3 f4ll e6ressio5 of their ide3s
,+
; /efore
e3ch i5ter"ie98 35 i5for#3l e6ch35ge of erso53l i5for#3tio5 or le3s35tries 93s
i5iti3ted to set the i5ter"ie9ees 3t e3se; E3ch i5ter"ie9 l3sted fro# 3ro45d (& #i54tes
to o5e ho4r; Bith the s4$Dects> er#issio5 the i5ter"ie9s 9ere f4ll! recorded 35d
so#e 5otes 9ere t3Ae5 d4ri5g 35d follo9i5g the i5ter"ie9; As for the te3cher
3rtici35ts8 #ost i5ter"ie9s tooA i5 the for# of teleho5e i5ter"ie9s gi"e5 the
r3ctic3l diffic4lties i5 3rr35gi5g f3ce:to:f3ce #eeti5gs o5 the 3rt of the
i5ter"ie9ees; Fi"e i5ter"ie9s 9ere #3de i5 the 3ct43l rese5ce of the i5ter"ie9ees8
either 3t their ho#es or 9orAi5g l3ces;
The ge5er3l <4estio553ire 93s filled o4t $! the 3rtici35ts $efore the i5ter"ie9 either
o5 the sot or thro4gh e#3il ?$! those 9ho 9ere i5ter"ie9ed thro4gh teleho5e@;
&.(.2 E/5i7a6 i33ue3
Thro4gho4t this rese3rch8 I #3de e"er! effort to 3"oid ote5ti3l ethic3l ro$le#s th3t
#ight 3rise fro# the 3ro3ch to s4$Dects or the 93! the rese3rch 93s i#le#e5ted;
First8 I h3d $ee5 ho5est 35d oe5 to the s4$Dects 3$o4t 9ho I 93s8 9h3t I 93s 3$o4t to
do 35d 9h! I de"eloed i5terest i5 this toic; A3rt fro# re"e3li5g the tr4e 4rose
35d 3i#s of the st4d!8 I #3de 35 3tte#t to 3ss4re the s4$Dects of their freedo# of
seech;
I5 3dditio58 I e6l3i5ed cle3rl! i5 the st4d! 9h! their 3rtici3tio5 93s 5ecess3r! for
the c4rre5t st4d! 35d ho9 it 9o4ld $e 4sed o5l! for 3c3de#ic 4roses;
,*
,
The first tri l3sted 3$o4t t9o #o5ths ?fro# Fe$r43r! %&&. to Aril %&&.@ 35d the seco5d o"er
three #o5ths ?fro# Fe$r43r! %&'& to M3! %&'&@;
,+
,
O5e e6cetio5 93s th3t o5e of the 3rtici35ts i5sisted o5 se3Ai5g E5glish i5 the i5ter"ie98
$4t I co5fir#ed his i5te5ded #e35i5gs $! ree3ti5g 3ll the <4estio5s i5 Chi5ese;
(%*,
(%*-
(%*.
(%+&
(%+'
(%+%
(%+(
(%+)
(%+*
(%++
(%+,
(%+-
(%+.
(%,&
(%,'
(%,%
(%,(
(%,)
(%,*
(%,+
(%,,
(%,-
(%,.
(%-&
(%-'
(%-%
(%-(
(%-)
(%-*
(%-+
%,.
%-&
%-'
%-%
Moreo"er8 the field rese3rch 93s co5d4cted o"ertl! 9ith the e6licit 9ritte5 co5se5t
?either i5 3 3er "ersio5 or 35 electro5ic o5e "i3 e#3il@ fro# the 3rtici35ts; All the
3rtici35ts8 eseci3ll! st4de5t 3rtici35ts i5 high schools 9ere i5for#ed of their
right to 9ithdr39 fro# the rese3rch for 35! or 5o re3so5 35d 3t 35! ti#e;
Fi53ll!8 the i5for#35ts 9ere i5for#ed of the high co5fide5ti3lit! of 3ll erso53l d3t3
3s 9ell 3s 35! i5for#3tio5 3$o4t their 3ffili3tio5; The! 9ere 3ss4red th3t 35! 4$lic
re"el3tio5 of the d3t3 for 3c3de#ic 4roses 9ill $e #3de o5l! $ehi5d 3 shield of
35o5!#it!8 i;e; 4si5g se4do5!#s ?See Ae5di6 ,@;
&.$ Da/a a4a683i3
Altho4gh d3t3 353l!sis is to $e det3iled i5 the follo9i5g res4lts ch3ters8 this sectio5
is dedic3ted to the descritio5 of the o"er3ll 3ro3ch to de3li5g 9ith the d3t3
collected fro# 35 e6te5ded eriod of field9orA; Si5ce the 93! i5 9hich d3t3 3re
collected 9ill cert3i5l! res4lt i5 cert3i5 Ai5ds of ossi$le 353l!sis8 so#e
#ethodologists ?e;g; H3##ersle! N AtAi5so58 '..*J G; Rich3rds8 %&&(@ "ie9
co5sider3tio5 of d3t3 353l!sis 3s 3rt of the rese3rch rocess e"e5 i5 the e3rliest
st3ges; Bith the iss4e of d3t3 353l!sis $or5e i5 #i5d 9he5 e5teri5g i5to field8 the
rese3rcher is less liAel! to go off the r3ils i5 c3se of te#or3ril! losi5g co5trol of the
directio5 d4ri5g i5ter3ctio5 9ith i5for#35ts;
Te5t3ti"e 353l!sis of d3t3 collected i5 the ilot st4d! heled #e re3lise the i#ort35ce
of 35 e3rl! st3rt i5 d3t3 353l!sis; A53l!si5g 9hile the field9orA 93s o5goi5g 5ot o5l!
red4ced the ch35ce of $ei5g o"er9hel#ed $! d3t3 o"erlo3d 3t l3ter st3ges8 $4t heled
ide5tif! e#ergi5g the#es8 sig5ific35t e"e5ts or 3re3s of i5terest8 3s 9ell 3s 3re3s
9hich 5eeded f4ller i5"estig3tio5 or h3d $ee5 5eglected ?/3Aer8 %&&.@; Follo9i5g
Miles N H4$er#35>s ?'..)@ s4ggestio58 I e"e5 e5tered the field 9ith 3 co4le of
reco5cei"ed codes rel3ted to the rese3rch foc4s 9hich 9ere s4$st35ti3ll! i5"estig3ted
i5 the co5cet43l st4d!; This ro"ed to seed 4 the rocess of descri$i5g8 str4ct4ri5g
35d i5terreti5g the d3t3 i5 l3ter 353l!sis;
(%-,
(%--
(%-.
(%.&
(%.'
(%.%
(%.(
(%.)
(%.*
(%.+
(%.,
(%.-
(%..
((&&
((&'
((&%
((&(
((&)
((&*
((&+
((&,
((&-
((&.
(('&
((''
(('%
(('(
((')
(('*
(('+
((',
(('-
(('.
The E353l!se:9hile:rese3rchi5g> 3ro3ch res4lted i5 3 seco5d ro45d of field9orA
9hich 93s 5ot origi53ll! l355ed $4t 93s l3ter co5sidered to $e 5ecess3r!; The
seco5d:ti#e:3ro45d "isit ro"ed to $e fr4itf4l 5ot o5l! i5 ter#s of the i5cre3sed
"ol4#e of d3t38 $4t i5 ter#s of the i#ro"ed <43lit! of d3t3 collected; This 93s
3chie"ed $ec34se the reli#i53r! 353l!sis of e3rl! d3t3 ro"ided #e35i5gf4l feed$3cA
to the 5e6t ro45d of d3t3 collectio5 9hich 93s #ore foc4sed o5 iss4es rele"35t to the
rese3rch 35d co4ld dig deeer i5to cert3i5 s4$Dect #3tter;
Here 3re the roced4res t3Ae5 i5 the rocess of 353l!sis; First of 3ll8 I liste5ed to the
recordi5gs ree3tedl! to get 3 glo$3l 45derst35di5g of the i5for#35ts> oi5io5s $efore
tr35scri$i5g the# i5to 3 co#4ter; I co5sidered this ste to $e esse5ti3l $ec34se I
tr35sl3ted Chi5ese i5to E5glish 9hile doi5g the tr35scritio5
,,
8 9hich #ight li#it #!
3tte5tio5 to 3 se5te5ce le"el i5ste3d of disco4rse le"el; After th3t8 I 9e5t thro4gh the
9ritte5 "ersio5 of the tr35scritio5s
,-
35d se3r3ted o4t those co##e5t3ries th3t 9ere
irrele"35t to the 3rtici35ts> r3ctices8 ercetio5s or oi5io5s of the 4se of te6t
#e#oris3tio5; I fo45d this to h3"e occ4rred ri#3ril! i5 the tr35scrit of i5ter"ie9s
9hich l3sted lo5gest ?4s43ll! 3ro45d o5e ho4r@; It 93s $ec34se 3rtici35ts i5 these
i5ter"ie9s 9ere ge5er3ll! t3lA3ti"e 35d occ3sio53ll! led the i5ter"ie9 to the directio5
of their o95 i5terest
,.
; /4t this did 5ot $! 35! #e35s 3ffect the <43lit! of the
re#3i5i5g co##e5t3ries the! #3de 9hich 9ere D4dged rele"35t to the rese3rch
<4estio5s8 35d 9hich for#ed the #3Dorit! of the i5ter"ie9 tr35scrits; Follo9i5g these
reli#i53r! stes I re3d c3ref4ll! e3ch of the tr35scritio5s8 Aeei5g i5 #i5d the
secific rese3rch <4estio5s I h3d defi5ed 35d highlighti5g co##e5t3ries 9hich 9ere
i5teresti5g to #e i5t4iti"el! or fitted 9ell 9ith #! erso53l e6erie5ce; Altho4gh s4ch
co##e5t3ries 9ere loc3ted thro4gho4t the tr35scri$ed records 35d those th3t I chose
,,
,
I did the first se"er3l tr35scritio5s i5 Chi5ese i5iti3ll! 35d the5 tr35sl3ted the# i5to E5glish; I
g3"e 4 this 93! si#l! $ec34se I co4ld5>t 3fford the 3#o45t of ti#e it re<4ired gi"e5 the 54#$er
of i5ter"ie9s ?+% i5 tot3l@ I h3d to 9orA o5;
,-
,
Prosodic fe3t4res 9ere 5ot tr35scri$ed for t9o re3so5s1 First8 the foc4s of the rese3rch 93s o5
the co5te5t of the 3rtici35ts> reso5sesJ therefore8 the i#3ct of the 3$se5ce of rosodic fe3t4re
93s 5ot felt to $e gre3t; Seco5d8 i5cl4sio5 of the rosodic fe3t4res i5 the tr35scritio5 93s 5ot
r3ctic3l 3s it 9o4ld cert3i5l! le3d to the o"erlo3d of tr35scri$i5g 9orA; There 9ere 3 fe9
e6cetio5s i5 the tr35scrit of i5ter"ie9s 9ith !o45ger le3r5ers 9he5 fillers liAe Eer> Eoh> 93s
co5sidered #e35i5gf4l e5o4gh to reflect their i5sti5cti"e re3ctio5 to the i5ter"ie9er>s <4estio5s;
,.
,
For i5st35ce8 o5e t3lAed 3$o4t the differe5ces $et9ee5 e3ster5 35d 9ester5 eole i5 ter#s of
erso53lit!;
((%&
((%'
((%%
((%(
((%)
((%*
((%+
((%,
((%-
((%.
(((&
((('
(((%
((((
((()
(((*
(((+
(((,
(((-
(((.
(()&
(()'
(()%
(()(
(())
%-(
%-)
%-*
%-+
%-,
%--
%-.
%.&
%.'
%.%
%.(
to <4ote i5 #! dr3fts of the res4lt sectio5 9ere i5deed t!ic3l8 I $ec3#e i5cre3si5gl!
45e3s! 9ith the feeli5g th3t the d3t3 9ere 5ot s!ste#3tic3ll! 3ro3ched; This feeli5g
93s co5fir#ed 9he5 #! s4er"isor ree3tedl! e#h3sised the i#ort35ce of
h35dli5g d3t3 i5 3 holistic 35d #ethodic3l 93!; I re3lised th3t $3si5g #! 353l!ses o5
the se3rchi5g of 35s9ers to the iss4es i5trig4i5g to #e 3t th3t #o#e5t co4ld li#it the
ossi$ilities of ide5tif!i5g the i5terrel3tio5shis th3t I h3d 5ot e5"is3ged8 therefore
i5cre3si5g the risA of f3ili5g to Aee 35 oe5 #i5d $! foc4si5g o5 D4stific3tio5 of #!
o95 ide3s;
I 9e5t $3cA thro4gh 3ll the tr35scritio5s 3g3i58 this ti#e o5l! 9ith 3 eriher3l
<4estio5 K 9hich co##e5t3ries 3re rel3ted to the 3rtici35ts> ercetio5s 35d 9hich
3re their 53rr3ti"es of their 3ct43l r3ctices; /! highlighti5g the co##e5t3ries o5 the
r3ctices 9ith 3 differe5t colo4r8 I e6tr3cted 3ll i5for#3tio5 erti5e5t to the
3rtici35ts> ercetio5s or oi5io5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 35d $eg35 the rocess of
353l!sis 3g3i5; It 93s hoed th3t 9ith this holistic or Eto:do95> roced4re of
353l!sis8 3 #ore oe5:e5ded i5terret3tio5 9o4ld $e 3chie"ed; I c3#e 4 9ith 3 set of
codi5g c3tegories i5for#ed $! the rese3rch <4estio5s 35d sig5ific35t iss4es ide5tified
i5 the co5cet43l st4d!8 i5cl4di5g $e5efits of te6t #e#oris3tio5 35d rel3ted iss4es of
45derst35di5g8 cre3ti"it! 35d #oti"3tio58 35d the5 se3rched for the 3rtici35ts>
refere5ces to these reli#i53r! codi5g c3tegories ?Str34ss N Cor$i58 '..-@; Altho4gh
I tooA 3s the st3rti5g oi5t the c3tegories th3t 3rose fro# the i5iti3l set of i5ter"ie9
<4estio5s8 I 93s 3lso oe5 to recodi5g 9he5e"er 5e9 c3tegories #35ifested
the#sel"es; Moreo"er8 35 i5d4cti"e codi5g 353l!sis 93s 3lso 45dert3Ae5 to seeA s4$:
the#es 3#o5g i5ter"ie9 st3te#e5ts th3t 9ere i5iti3ll! c3tegorised thro4gh co5st35t
<4estio5i5g 35d co#3ri5g ?P3tto58 '.-.@; As the field9orA 93s c3rried o4t o"er 35
e6te5ded eriod8 the 353l!sis 93s f4rther i5for#ed $! the 5e9l! rele5ished d3t3 3s
the st4d! #o"ed o5; As 3 res4lt8 the rocess of 353l!sis 93s the o5e of co5st35t re:
e63#i53tio5 35d recodi5g8 #o"i5g $3cA 35d forth $et9ee5 ded4cti"e 35d i5d4cti"e
roced4re;
Additio53ll!8 the soft93re rogr3##e SPSS ', 93s 4sed to store the <435tit3ti"e d3t3
rod4ced $! the s4r"e! st4d! 35d for l3ter st3tistic3l 353l!sis; As for <43lit3ti"e d3t38
3 tr3ditio53l e5:35d:3er ?highlighti5g@ 3ro3ch 93s 4sed to co5d4ct the 353l!sis;
(()*
(()+
((),
(()-
(().
((*&
((*'
((*%
((*(
((*)
((**
((*+
((*,
((*-
((*.
((+&
((+'
((+%
((+(
((+)
((+*
((++
((+,
((+-
((+.
((,&
((,'
((,%
((,(
((,)
((,*
((,+
((,,
I5 the e5d8 ISR N"i"o - 93s 3doted to store the tr35scritio5s of the recorded d3t3
35d to e53$le it to $e 4sed for "3lid3ti5g the co#leted <43lit3ti"e 353l!sis;
L3stl!8 35 o"er3ll ch3lle5ge for #e 3s 3 rese3rcher i5 h35dli5g <43lit3ti"e d3t3 93s
ho9 to #3 the 3rtici35ts> self:reort o5to the holistic sche#e of the rese5t3tio5
35d e6l353tio5 of the d3t38 45co"eri5g 35 e#ic ersecti"e 45derst35di5g of 3
le3r5i5g r3ctice th3t the 3rtici35ts 3re 3ll f3#ili3r 9ith !et seldo# reflect o5; The
93! the i5ter"ie9 d3t3 9ere org35ised or rese5ted 93s s4$Dect to s4ch f3ctors 3s the
rich5ess of d3t3 i5 3 3rtic4l3r c3tegor!8 the sig5ific35ce of 3 the#e i5 rel3tio5 to
rese3rch <4estio5s 35d the ersecti"e I chose to i5terret d3t3; For e63#le8 the iss4e
of #oti"3tio5 93s t3Ae5 3s 3 #3i5 c3tegor! i5 reorti5g o5 te3chers> ercetio5s of
te6t #e#oris3tio5 9hile tre3ted 3s 3 s4$:c3tegor! 45der the the#e of the $e5efits of
the r3ctice i5 rese5ti5g le3r5ers> "ie9s of #e#orisi5g te6ts for foreig5 l35g43ge
le3r5i5g; I5 s4#8 it 93s thro4gh s4ch 3 rocess of 5egoti3tio5 $et9ee5 theorisi5g
rel3tio5shis 3#o5g e#ergi5g c3tegories 35d 3cco##od3ti5g the re3lit! of collected
d3t3 th3t the i5terret3ti"e 3cco45ts i5 Ch3ter *8 + 35d , c3#e i5to $ei5g;
&." De3ig4 1; /5e 2e3ea275 i43/2u0e4/3
It 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t 3ltho4gh $oth <4estio553ire 35d i5ter"ie9i5g 9ere
3doted 3s rese3rch i5str4#e5ts i5 the st4d!8 #4ch #ore i#ort35ce 93s 3tt3ched to
the l3tter i5 "ie9 of the rese3rch <4estio5s 35d the 53t4re of the st4d! ?3s 93s
disc4ssed i5 );%@; As 3 res4lt8 the #3Dorit! of the rese3rch 93s i5ter"ie9:$3sed; A
s4$st35ti3l series of i5ter"ie9s 93s 3i#i5g to hel #e g3i5 35 i5:deth 45derst35di5g
of the i5for#35ts> oi5io5s o5 the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g; EI5ter3cti"e i5ter"ie9i5g> ?Neill8 %&&(@ 93s e6ected to offer
35 oort45it! for 3rtici35ts to f4ll! e6l3i5 35d for #e 3s 3 rese3rcher to tr4l!
45derst35d 9h3t their reso5ses to the <4estio553ire re3ll! #e35t;
A se#i:str4ct4red i5ter"ie9 93s 3doted8 9hich #e35s th3t I set 4 3 ge5er3l
str4ct4re $! decidi5g i5 3d"35ce 9h3t gro45d 93s to $e co"ered 35d 9h3t #3i5
<4estio5s 9ere to $e 3sAed ?Dre"er8 '..*@; This for# of i5ter"ie9 93s e#lo!ed for
t9o re3so5s1 ?'@ Predeter#i5ed <4estio5s 3fford #e 3 degree of o9er 35d co5trol
o"er the co4rse or directio5 of the i5ter"ie9J ?%@ The 53t4re of its 3rti3l
((,-
((,.
((-&
((-'
((-%
((-(
((-)
((-*
((-+
((-,
((--
((-.
((.&
((.'
((.%
((.(
((.)
((.*
((.+
((.,
((.-
((..
()&&
()&'
()&%
()&(
()&)
()&*
()&+
()&,
()&-
()&.
()'&
()''
str4ct4red5ess 3llo9s #e co5sider3$le fle6i$ilit! reg3rdi5g follo9:4 <4estio5s
erti5e5t to the i5ter"ie9ees> 3rtic4l3r e6erie5ces;
Pilot i5ter"ie9s 9ere co5d4cted 9ith 3 s#3ll 54#$er of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers
of E5glish i5 the UG; Reflecti"e thi5Ai5g o5 the i5ter"ie9s 93s s4##3rised 35d
te5t3ti"e 353l!sis of the d3t3 fro# the ilot gro4 93s erfor#ed; This for#ed 35
i#ort35t so4rce th3t 93s 4sed to i5for# the re"isio5 of the i5ter"ie9 <4estio5s;
As there 9ere o5l! 3 li#ited 54#$er of ite#s i5 the <4estio553ire for le3r5ers8 35d the
<4estio553ire for te3chers 93s 3lso 4sed 3s 3rt of the i5ter"ie9 g4ide8 the
<4estio553ires 9ere 4t i5 the s3#e sheet 9ith the i5ter"ie9 sched4les ?see Ae5di6
' N %@; S4ch 3 desig5 3lso #3de it co5"e5ie5t th3t 3 ge5er3l <4estio553ire co#letio5
93s re<4ested fro# the le3r5er 3rtici35ts $efore the i5ter"ie9;
I5 the follo9i5g sectio5s8 the rese3rch i5str4#e5ts for le3r5ers 35d te3chers 3re
descri$ed resecti"el!;

&.".1 Gue3/i144ai2e a49 i4/e2<ieB gui9e ;12 6ea24e23
The rese3rch sched4le for le3r5ers ?see Ae5di6 '@ co5sists of three 3rts; P3rt I is to
est3$lish the st4de5ts> erso53l d3t38 i;e;8 53#e8 3ge8 se68 !e3rs of le3r5i5g E5glish8
E5glish roficie5c! co#3red to eers 35d so o5; P3rt II is 3 ge5er3l <4estio553ire
3i#i5g to collect <435tit3ti"e d3t3 o5 le3r5ers> $eliefs reg3rdi5g the 4se of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 their E5glish le3r5i5g; The <4estio553ire 4tilises 3 se#35tic
differe5ti3l sc3le ?3 se"e5:oi5t r3ti5g sc3le@ to elicit fro# the i5for#35ts their ge5er3l
3ttit4des to93rds te6t #e#oris3tio5; P3rt III is 35 i5ter"ie9 g4ide ce5tri5g o5 t9o
$ro3d c3tegories1 r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 35d $eliefs deri"ed fro# this r3ctice;
More secific3ll!8 the g4idi5g <4estio5s 3re s4osed to hel elicit i5for#3tio5 3s to
?3@ ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is r3ctisedJ ?$@ ho9 4sef4l or helf4l it is ercei"ed $! the
i5for#35tsJ ?c@ 9h3t ro$le#s or diffic4lties 3re fo45d 9ith this r3ctice 35d ?d@ 9h3t
f3ctors i5fl4e5ced the 4se ?or 5o5:4se@ of this r3ctice;
There 3re three $ro3d <4estio5s i5 the i5ter"ie9 g4ide 9ith e3ch follo9ed $! t9o or
three s4$:<4estio5s ser"i5g 3s ro#ts to g4ide the i5for#35ts; For e63#le8 the
()'%
()'(
()')
()'*
()'+
()',
()'-
()'.
()%&
()%'
()%%
()%(
()%)
()%*
()%+
()%,
()%-
()%.
()(&
()('
()(%
()((
()()
()(*
()(+
()(,
()(-
()(.
())&
())'
())%
())(
()))
())*
seco5d <4estio5 goes EBh3t is !o4r o"er3ll oi5io5 o5 te6t #e#oris3tio5H> This is
s4$di"ided i5to fo4r #ore secific <4estio5s1 ?'@ Bh3t>s !o4r co##e5t o5 the
#et3hor Egood #edici5e th3t t3stes $itter> or E3 thor5! rose>; ?%@ To <4ote o5e
st4de5t8 EIf I recited 3ll the te6ts8 I co4ld get good gr3des i5 tests; So reciti5g 93s 35
e3s! 93! to get 3 good gr3de;> Do !o4 3greeH ?(@ Does the r3ctice hel !o4 9ith
!o4r E5glish le3r5i5gH Bh!H ?)@ Do !o4 see 35! ro$le#s 9he5 4si5g the #ethodH
It 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t 3ltho4gh 3ll the <4estio5s i5 the i5ter"ie9 g4ide 9ere
desig5ed $! #!self8 3 fe9 of the# 9ere i5sired $! the fi5di5gs of re"io4s rese3rch
?e;g; Di5g8 %&&)J 23o8 %&&+@8 3s h3s 3lre3d! $ee5 i5dic3ted i5 Ae5di6 ';
&.".2 Gue3/i144ai2e a49 i4/e2<ieB gui9e ;12 /ea75e23
I5 order to ro#t the te3cher i5ter"ie9ees to "er$3lise their $eliefs 35d r3ctices o5
the t3rget toic i5 3 co5str4cted #355er8 I desig5ed 35 i5ter"ie9 sched4le for te3chers
?see Ae5di6 %@; The sched4le co5sists of three 3rts; P3rt I is 3$o4t the erso53l
det3ils of the i5for#35ts ?i;e; 53#e8 se68 3ge8 ed4c3tio53l $3cAgro45d8 te3chi5g
e6erie5ce8 rofessio53l title 35d so o5@;
P3rt II is 3 <4estio553ire co5t3i5i5g '& st3te#e5ts 3$o4t te6t #e#oris3tio5; I5 this
sectio58 the te3cher i5for#35ts 9ere 3sAed to re3d the st3te#e5ts 35d decide if the!
?'@ stro5gl! dis3gree8 ?%@ dis3gree8 ?(@ 5either 3gree 5or dis3gree8 ?)@ 3gree8 or ?*@
stro5gl! 3gree 9ith e3ch st3te#e5t; For e63#le8 the first st3te#e5t is ETe6t
#e#oris3tio5 is 3 "er! 4sef4l r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g;> The
te3chers 9ere i5"ited to i5dic3te to 9h3t e6te5t the! ide5tif! 9ith or dis3ro"e the
3ssertio5; The desig5 of the fi"e:oi5t LiAert sc3le 93s for the 4rose of s4$se<4e5t
<435tit3ti"e st3tistics; These st3te#e5ts 9ere 3lso f45ctio5i5g 3s 35 i5ter"ie9 g4ide
3ccordi5g to 9hich the i5for#35ts 9ere 3sAed to secif! their re3so5s for 3 3rtic4l3r
choice o5 e3ch st3te#e5t; Th3t is to s3!8 the <4estio553ire 35d i5ter"ie9 g4ide 9ere
45ified i5to o5e i5 this desig5; It 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t 3ltho4gh the
<4estio553ire 35d i5ter"ie9 sched4le ce5tred o5 the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 fro# 3
te3chi5g ersecti"e8 the te3chers8 9ho 3re co5sidered to $e 3d"35ced EFL le3r5ers8
9ere 3lso 3sAed to reflect o5 their o95 E5glish le3r5i5g histor! erti5e5t to te6t
#e#oris3tio5;
())+
()),
())-
()).
()*&
()*'
()*%
()*(
()*)
()**
()*+
()*,
()*-
()*.
()+&
()+'
()+%
()+(
()+)
()+*
()++
()+,
()+-
()+.
(),&
(),'
(),%
(),(
(),)
(),*
(),+
(),,
(),-
(),.
P3rt III co5sists of fi"e oe5 <4estio5s co5str4cted to elicit 3rtic4l3r i5for#3tio5
co5cer5i5g te3chers> r3ctices 35d their "ie9s of 4si5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3
te3chi5g de"ice;
&.' Su00a28
To s4##3rise8 this st4d! is 35 e#iric3l i5<4ir! t3rgeti5g foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5ers
35d te3chers 54rt4red i5 the Chi5ese ed4c3tio53l co5te6t 35d co#risi5g d3t3
rod4ced #3i5l! thro4gh se#i:str4ct4red i5ter"ie9s 3ltho4gh <4estio553ires 9ere
3lso 4sed to 3 li#ited e6te5t; For g3i5i5g i5for#3tio5 3s to ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is
r3cticed 35d ercei"ed i5 co5te#or3r! Chi538 this i5<4ir! 9ill e6lore the
i5di"id43l "oices of 3 gro4 of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers fro# differe5t
ed4c3tio53l le"els 35d 9ith 3 "3riet! of $3cAgro45ds;
The follo9i5g three ch3ters 3re dedic3ted to the rese5t3tio5 of the res4lts of the
d3t3 353l!sis 9ith s4$st35ti3l disc4ssio5s o5 the ri5ci3l the#es or c3tegories 9hich
e#erged;
()-&
()-'
()-%
()-(
()-)
()-*
()-+
()-,
()--
()-.
().&
().'
().%
().(
().)
().*
().+
CHAPTER (------------------------------------------------
CHINESE LEARNERS) PERCEPTIONS OF TEXT
MEMORISATION IN FOREIGN LANGAGE LEARNING
I5 this ch3ter8 I 9ill reort o5 fi5di5gs fro# the i5:deth i5ter"ie9s co5ce5tr3ti5g o5
the ercetio5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 93! of le3r5i5g fro# the le3r5ers>
ersecti"e; First8 $! 93! of i5trod4ctio58 I 9ill cl3rif! the 9orAi5g defi5itio5 of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 the c4rre5t st4d! 35d sAetchil! re"ie9 re"io4s 353logo4s st4dies;
The58 I 9ill #o"e o5 to the deli5e3tio5 of the #ethodologic3l 3rtic4l3rs of the
c4rre5t st4d! 9hich 9ere felt to $e #ore re3der:frie5dl! if i5trod4ced 3t this oi5t 35d
the det3ili5g of the $io:i5for#3tio5 of the 3rtici35ts; I5 the sectio5 th3t follo9s8 I
rese5t 35d disc4ss 3t le5gth 3 54#$er of ro#i5e5t iss4es or the#es e#ergi5g fro#
353l!ses of the i5ter"ie9 d3t3; Fi53ll!8 I co5cl4de the ch3ter $! s4##3ril! st3ti5g
the ri#3r! oi5ts i5terreted fro# the 3rtici35ts> ercetio5s or oi5io5s of te6t
#e#oris3tio5;
(.1 De;i4i4g E/e./ 0e012i3a/i14) i4 /5e :2e3e4/ 3/u98
Prior to 3 serio4s i5"estig3tio5 of the tr3ditio53l le3r5i5g r3ctice8 3 cle3r defi5itio5 is
esse5ti3l; Bhile differe5t "ersio5s of defi5itio5 of #e#oris3tio5 c35 $e fo45d i5
"3rio4s st4dies 35d dictio53ries8 I fo45d the follo9i5g 45derst35di5g of #e#oris3tio5
is #ore f3ir or 5e4tr3l1 EMe#orisi5g is the rocess of est3$lishi5g i5for#3tio5 i5
#e#or!; The ter# E#e#orisi5g> 4s43ll! refers to the co5scio4s rocess> ?L; C;
Rich3rds8 Pl3tt8 N Pl3tt8 '..%1 %%+@; /3sed o5 this 45derst35di5g 35d follo9i5g
Ste"icA>s ?'.-%1 +,@ defi5itio5 of E#e#oris3tio5> i5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio58 te6t
#e#oris3tio5 is 45derstood i5 this thesis 3s E9orAi5g o5 3 $od! of Qte6t43lR #3teri3l
45til o5e is 3$le to rerod4ce it 9ord for 9ord o5 de#35d>; A f4rther 45derst35di5g of
te6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 $e fo45d i5 the follo9i5g st3te#e5t 9hich disti5g4ishes
$et9ee5 Ele3r5i5g $! he3rt>
-&
35d Ele3r5i5g $! rote>1
-&
-
The 35cie5t 2reeAs $elie"ed th3t the he3rt8 the #ost 5otice3$le i5ter53l org358 93s the se3t of
i5tellige5ce 35d #e#or! 3s 9ell 3s e#otio5; This $elief 93s 3ssed o5 do95 the 3ges 35d $ec3#e
the $3sis for the E5glish e6ressio5 Ele3r5 $! he3rt>8 9hich is 4sed $! Ch34cer ?'(,)@ 35d #4st
h3"e $ee5 ro"er$i3l lo5g $efore th3t; ETo record> re#i5ds 4s 3g3i5 of this 35cie5t $elief i5 the
he3rt 3s the se3t of the #i5d; Bhe5 9riti5g 93s5>t 3 si#le 3ct8 thi5gs h3d to $e #e#ori7edJ th4s
().,
().-
()..
(*&&
(*&'
(*&%
(*&(
(*&)
(*&*
(*&+
(*&,
(*&-
(*&.
(*'&
(*''
(*'%
(*'(
(*')
(*'*
(*'+
(*',
(*'-
(*'.
(*%&
(*%'
(*%%
(*%(
(*%)
(*%*
(*%+
%.)
%.*
%.+
%.,
%.-
Bhe5 3 st4de5t Ele3r5s $! rote>8 he or she #3! $e 3$le to recite the 9ords8 $4t
#ight 5ot 5ecess3ril! 45derst35d 9h3t the 9ords #e35; A st4de5t 9ho le3r5s
so#ethi5g $! he3rt 45derst35ds the co5cet of the lesso5; The lesso5 is
i5ter53li7ed 35d $eco#es 3rt of the erso5Ws 9orAi5g A5o9ledge;
?He5dricAso58 '..,1 %.@
Bh3t is c3t4red #ore th35 35!thi5g else i5 this <4ot3tio5 is the rel3tio5shi of
#e#oris3tio5 35d 45derst35di5g 9hich h3s 3lre3d! $ee5 el3$or3ted i5 Ch3ter % ?see
eseci3ll! %;%;%;'@; T3Ai5g the ositio5 of Ele3r5i5g $! he3rt> r3ther th35 Ele3r5i5g $!
rote>8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is here defi5ed 3s the 3tte#t to co##it 3 te6t to #e#or!
thro4gh "er$3ti# reetitio5 $3sed o5 the 45derst35di5g of the co5te5t of the te6t; I5
co5te#or3r! school r3ctice i5 Chi538 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 4s43ll! receded $!
te3chers> det3iled e6l353tio5 of the #e35i5g of 35d gr3##3r oi5ts co5t3i5ed i5 the
te6t;
It 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t Ete6ts> le3r5ed $! he3rt $! Chi5ese le3r5ers 3re 5ot
co5fi5ed to te6ts i5 the te6t$ooA or co4rse $ooA8 r3ther8 the! #3! i5cl4de 35! short
ess3!s8 3ss3ges8 di3log4es8 co5te6t43l 3r3gr3hs 35d se5te5ce cl4sters; Moreo"er8
so5g l!rics8 cele$rities> seeches 35d scrits of fil#s 35d TV series i5 E5glish 3re 3ll
i5cl4ded8 9hich 3re i5deed $ei5g t3Ae5 3s 34the5tic #3teri3ls for #e#oris3tio5 $!
Chi5ese le3r5ers;
(.2 P2i12 B12A 14 /5e 7147e:/i143 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14
There is 3 34cit! of rese3rch o5 the co5cetio5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3ltho4gh the
l3st dec3de h3s see5 35 i5cre3si5g 54#$er of e#iric3l st4dies o5 le3r5i5g te6ts $!
he3rt 4$lished i5 Chi53 ?see8 e;g; Di5g8 %&&)J Y;:R; Di5g N Y; Ii8 %&&'J Lo5g N
H435g8 %&&+J S; Y3o8 %&&(@; Here I 9o4ld liAe to #e5tio5 t9o of the#;
As 93s 3lre3d! re"ie9ed i5 ';%;(;'8 Ste"icA ?'.-.@ erfor#ed 3 i5ter"ie9:$3sed c3se
st4d! 9ith 35 L':E5glish le3r5er of Chi5ese 9ho h3d re3ched E35 e6tr3ordi53ril! high
9e h3"e the 9ord Erecord>8 for#ed fro# the L3ti5 Ere>8 E3g3i5>8 35d Ecor>8 Ehe3rt>8 9hich #e35s
e63ctl! the s3#e 3s Ele3r5 $! he3rt>; ?He5dricAso58 '..,@
(*%,
(*%-
(*%.
(*(&
(*('
(*(%
(*((
(*()
(*(*
(*(+
(*(,
(*(-
(*(.
(*)&
(*)'
(*)%
(*)(
(*))
(*)*
(*)+
(*),
(*)-
(*).
(**&
(**'
(**%
(**(
(**)
(***
(**+
(**,
(**-
%..
(&&
le"el of co#ete5ce $oth i5 se3Ai5g 35d i5 re3di5g Chi5ese> ?'.-.1 %'@; The
i5for#35t reorted the 4se of E#e#oris3tio5 of te6ts> 3s 3rt of his le3r5i5g r3ctice;
This E5glish le3r5er of Chi5ese8 tho4gh $ro4ght 4 i5 Bester5 c4lt4re8 93s 5ot
defe5si"e 3$o4t this r3ctice 3t 3ll 35d ree3tedl! s3id it 93s E9ithi5 re3so5>; This
r3ctice8 3s he hi#self 4t it8 Eg3"e !o4 35 i5sti5ct for 9h3t is 3ct43ll! s3id i5 the
l35g43ge M for ho9 se5te5ces 3re 4t together> ?'.-.1 (&@;
I5 3 #ore rece5t st4d!8 Di5g ?%&&,@ reorted i5ter"ie9s 9ith three 45i"ersit! E5glish
#3Dors 9ho h3d 9o5 ri7es i5 53tio59ide E5glish se3Ai5g co#etitio5s 35d de$3te
to4r53#e5ts i5 Chi53; The i5ter"ie9ees reg3rded te6t #e#oris3tio5 35d i#it3tio5 3s
the #ost effecti"e #ethods of le3r5i5g E5glish; The! s3id the r3ctice e53$led the#
to 3tte5d to colloc3tio5s 35d se<4e5ces8 to $orro9 these se<4e5ces for rod4cti"e 4se8
to i#ro"e ro545ci3tio58 35d to de"elo the h3$it of 3tte5di5g to det3ils of l35g43ge;
/3sed o5 these self:reorts8 the 34thor co5cl4des th3t s4ch r3ctice e5h35ces 5otici5g
35d rehe3rs3l 35d he5ce f3cilit3tes seco5d l35g43ge 3c<4isitio5;
Follo9i5g the tr3ditio5 of Egood l35g43ge le3r5er> rese3rch
-'
8 $oth of the 3$o"e
#e5tio5ed st4dies sets o4t to rel3te the high 3chie"e#e5t of the s4ccessf4l foreig5
l35g43ge le3r5ers to the 4se of cert3i5 le3r5i5g str3tegies ?for i5st35ce8 te6t
#e#oris3tio5@; Altho4gh s4ch rese3rch does ro"ide i5sights i5to the Ai5ds of
$eh3"io4r 3ssoci3ted 9ith s4ccessf4l l35g43ge le3r5i5g ?R; Ellis8 '..)@ 35d offer
s4ggestio5s 3s to 9hich str3tegies 3re i#ort35t for l35g43ge de"elo#e5t ?R; Ellis8
%&&&@8 o5e ro$le# i5herited i5 this $od! of st4d! is th3t 9e h3"e diffic4lt! i5
decidi5g 9hether s4ccessf4l le3r5ers e6cel $ec34se the! 4se 3rtic4l3r "3l4ed
str3tegies8 or 9hether the! 4se "3ried str3tegies i5cl4di5g the "3l4ed o5es $ec34se
the! 3re 3lre3d! s4ccessf4l le3r5ers;
To s4##3rise8 3 s#3ll 54#$er of st4dies ?cf; Di5g8 %&&)8 %&&,J Y;:I; 248 %&&(J
Ste"icA8 '.-.@ h3"e reorted the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 $! s4ccessf4l le3r5ersJ the
rese5t st4d!8 ho9e"er8 #3Aes 5o 3tte#t to e"3l43te the effecti"e5ess of te6t
-'
-
I5 order to disco"er 9hich str3tegies 3re i#ort35t for L% le3r5i5g8 this $od! of rese3rch 3i#s
to i5"estig3te ho9 the Egood l35g43ge le3r5er> tries to le3r5 $! Eide5tif!i5g le3r5ers 9ho h3"e
$ee5 s4ccessf4l i5 le3r5i5g 35 L% 35d i5ter"ie9i5g the# to fi5d o4t the str3tegies th3t 9orAed for
the#> ?R; Ellis8 %&&&1 ,,@;
(**.
(*+&
(*+'
(*+%
(*+(
(*+)
(*+*
(*++
(*+,
(*+-
(*+.
(*,&
(*,'
(*,%
(*,(
(*,)
(*,*
(*,+
(*,,
(*,-
(*,.
(*-&
(*-'
(*-%
(*-(
(*-)
(*-*
(*-+
(*-,
(*--
(&'
(&%
(&(
(&)
#e#oris3tio5 3s 3 le3r5i5g str3teg!; R3ther8 it sets o4t to le3r5 3$o4t ho9 the r3ctice
is ercei"ed $! Chi5ese r3ctitio5ers $3sed o5 their o95 e6erie5ce of 4si5g te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 their foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; 2i"e5 the c4lt4r3l secificit! of the
toic 45der disc4ssio58 i5ter"ie9i5g see#s to $e the #ost effecti"e 93! of e6lori5g
the i5sider>s ersecti"e o5 this c4lt4r3l r3ctice i5 ter#s of its #e#$ers>
45derst35di5gs;
(.! T5e 7u22e4/ 3/u98: 0e/519161g8# i4;120a4/3 a49 9a/a a4a683i3
(.!.1 Me/519161g8
T3Ai5g f3ce:to:f3ce i5ter"ie9i5g 3s the #3i5 so4rce of d3t38 I 3# #i5df4l of the
c3"e3t #3de $! Ste"icA1 EF 3ltho4gh I tried "er! h3rd 5ot to le3d the i5ter"ie9ees8
the! still #3! h3"e $ee5 telli5g #e 9h3t the! tho4ght I tho4ght the! sho4ld $e s3!i5g>
?'.-.1 6ii@; I 93s eseci3ll! co5cer5ed 9ith le3r5er 3rtici35ts i5 D45ior high school
9ho #3! 5ot $e #3t4re e5o4gh to 3cc4r3tel! e6ress the#sel"es; I #3de 35 effort to
i5cre3se the tr4st9orthi5ess of #! d3t3 elicited fro# this 3ge gro4 eseci3ll! those i5
the first !e3r of their D45ior high $! i5iti3ti5g 3 c3s43l t3lA 3$o4t their school life
9hich gr3d43ll! led to #! i5te5ded <4estio5s; 2i"e5 the 53t4re of the toic 45der
disc4ssio5 35d #! ide5tit! 3s 35 Eo4tsider> to the#8 it is "er! 45liAel! th3t the! 9o4ld
sho9 their 3ttit4de 9ith hesit3tio5; The reli3$ilit! of #! o"er3ll i5ter"ie9 d3t3 is
f4rther e5h35ced $! t9o f3ctors1 First8 3 54#$er of the i5ter"ie9ees 3re #!
3c<43i5t35ces or 3ssoci3tes8 9ith 9ho# I h3"e lo5g:ter# li3iso5; M! i5ter"ie9s 9ith
this gro4 of 3rtici35ts 9ere i5tegr3ted i5to 53t4r3l co5"ers3tio5s i5 35 i5for#3l
3t#oshere; Seco5d8 #35! i5ter"ie9s l3sted 3ro45d o5e ho4r8 9hich g3"e the
3rtici35ts s4fficie5t ti#e to f4ll! e6ress their oi5io5s 35d8 i5 #35! c3ses8 reiter3te
their $eliefs o"er the ti#e;
It sho4ld $e oi5ted o4t th3t the sAill of i#ro"isi5g follo9:4 <4estio5s is esse5ti3l
to deter#i5i5g the rich5ess 35d <43lit! of the d3t3 to $e elicited; I5 the ilot st4d!8 I
rehe3rsed i5ter"ie9 tech5i<4es $! liste5i5g to i5ter"ie9ees> reso5se for cl4es 3s to
9h3t <4estio5 to 3sA 5e6t8 or 9hether it 93s i#ort35t to ro$e for 3dditio53l
i5for#3tio5 ?M3!A4t N Moreho4se8 '..)@; I fo45d ro$i5g i5to Ecritic3l eisodes>
?Rog35 N de GocA8 %&&*1 +()@ 93s eseci3ll! rod4cti"e $! 3sAi5g i5for#35ts to
(*-.
(*.&
(*.'
(*.%
(*.(
(*.)
(*.*
(*.+
(*.,
(*.-
(*..
(+&&
(+&'
(+&%
(+&(
(+&)
(+&*
(+&+
(+&,
(+&-
(+&.
(+'&
(+''
(+'%
(+'(
(+')
(+'*
(+'+
(+',
(+'-
(+'.
(+%&
(+%'
(+%%
e6l3i5 thi5gs the! #e5tio5ed; I 3# 3lso 393re of the ossi$le i#3ct of the 93! of
hr3si5g <4estio5s o5 the reso5ses of the 3rtici35ts so th3t I $ec3#e c34tio4s
3$o4t the l35g43ge I 4sed; For e63#le8 r3ther th35 3sAi5g the i5ter"ie9ees8 EDo !o4
thi5A it is 3 good r3cticeH>8 I 4sed8 EBh3t do !o4 thi5A of the r3cticeH> or Eho9 do
!o4 e"3l43te the r3cticeH>8 i5ste3d;
Altho4gh the i5ter"ie9 g4ide co#es 9ith 3 re:deter#i5ed set of <4estio5s 35d
<4estio5 order ?see Ae5di6 '@8 the 9ordi5g of <4estio5s 35d the <4estio5 order 93s
3ltered 3ccordi5g to the 5eed of e3ch i5ter"ie9; The l355ed <4estio5s 9ere 3lso
3dD4sted to the 53rr3ti"es of the 3rtici35ts 9he5e"er 5ecess3r!; A cert3i5 3#o45t of
fle6i$ilit! 93s 3lied #3i5l! for 3d3ti5g to the 3rtic4l3r sit43tio5s of differe5t
t!es of i5ter"ie9ees 3s 9ell 3s d4e to 53t4r3l flo9i5g of i5ter"ie9i5g i5ter3ctio5 ?see
Ae5di6 * N + for e63#les@;
(.!.2 I4;120a4/3
As descri$ed i5 Ch3ter )8 3rtici35ts i5 the c4rre5t st4d! 9ere to 3 l3rge e6te5t
Eoort45istic> ?Hollid3!8 %&&%J Miles N H4$er#358 '..)@ i5 53t4re; The first $3tch
of 3rtici35ts 93s sec4red $! t3Ai5g 3d"35t3ge of #! i5tererso53l rel3tio5shi
5et9orA; The! 9ere #3i5l! #! colle3g4es 35d frie5ds 9ho 3re l35g43ge te3chers 3t
seco5d3r! 35d terti3r! le"el; I 3lso 3lied snowball sam4ling) th3t is8 3rtici3ti5g
te3chers i5trod4ced #e to other 9illi5g 3rtici35ts 9ho 9ere either their st4de5ts or
3ssoci3tes; Si5ce there 9ere 5o <435tit3ti"e restrictio5s i5 this i5ter"ie9:$3sed st4d!8
the fi53l 54#$er ?+%@ of the 3rtici35ts reflects the 3"3il3$ilit! of the <43lified
i5for#35ts; There 93s 5o stri5ge5t <43lific3tio5 for 3rtici35ts i5 the c4rre5t st4d! K
o5l! $ei5g ?'@ c4rre5t f4ll:ti#e foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5ers or te3chers 3t seco5d3r! or
terti3r! le"el 35d ?%@ h3"i5g the e6erie5ce of le3r5i5g thro4gh te6t #e#oris3tio5 K so
th3t the i5for#35ts h3d 3 9ide r35ge of 3ges ?r35gi5g fro# '% to +*@8 3ffili3tio5s
?i5cl4di5g 4$lic schools 35d ri"3te tr3i5i5g i5stit4tio5s@8 geogr3hic3l scoe ?fro#
'% ro"i5ces 35d #45ici3lities@ 35d le3r5i5g e6erie5ces ?i5cl4di5g 3 fe9 9ho h3d
soDo4r5ed i5 foreig5 co45tries 3s 9ell 3s those 9ho h3"e 5e"er $ee5 3$ro3d@; I5 #!
oi5io58 the di"ersit! of the $3cAgro45d of the 3rtici35ts 9o4ld $e 3 l4s oi5t i5
ter#s of o$t3i5i5g 3 $ro3der "ist3 i5 the 353l!sis of the d3t3; More i5for#3tio5 3$o4t
the 3rtici35ts is listed i5 T3$le *;' ?see T3$le );' for 3rtici35ts> for#3tio5 i5 ter#s
(+%(
(+%)
(+%*
(+%+
(+%,
(+%-
(+%.
(+(&
(+('
(+(%
(+((
(+()
(+(*
(+(+
(+(,
(+(-
(+(.
(+)&
(+)'
(+)%
(+)(
(+))
(+)*
(+)+
(+),
(+)-
(+).
(+*&
(+*'
(+*%
(+*(
(+*)
(+**
(+*+
of ed4c3tio53l le"els 35d 3ffili3tio5sJ see Ae5di6 ( for origi53l $io:d3t3 of the
3rtici35ts@;
T3$le *;'1 De#ogr3hics of the P3rtici35ts ?Le3r5ers 35d Te3chers@
2ro4?N@ 3ffili3tio5 t!e?N@ geogr3hic3l 3re3
-%
?N@ e6erie5ce of
st4d!i5g 3$ro3d?N@
Le3r5ers foreig5 l35g43ge school co3st3l ro"i5ce ?.@ (:) #o5ths ?.@
?)%@ =E5glish de3rt#e5t
-(
?,=(@ i5l35d ro"i5ce ?((@ 5e"er ?((@
ordi53r! school
=5o5:E5glish de3rt#e5t ?'+='+@
Te3chers 4$lic school ?'+@ co3st3l ro"i5ce ?%@ % !e3rs ?'@
?%&@ ri"3te i5stit4tio5 ?)@ i5l35d ro"i5ce ?'-@ ' !e3r ?%@
( #o5ths ?'@
5e"er ?'+@
As 93s 3lre3d! #e5tio5ed i5 Ch3ter )8 the le3r5er 3rtici35ts 3t terti3r! le"el 9ere
di"ersified i5 ter#s of their ho#e ro"i5ces 9here the! fi5ished their seco5d3r!
ed4c3tio5; De#ogr3hic i5for#3tio5 o5 this gro4 of 3rtici35ts is rese5ted i5
T3$le *;%; Pre"io4s st4dies ?e;g; H48 %&&*@ h3"e s4ggested th3t A4dioli5g43l:fe3t4red
r3ctices liAe re3di5g:3lo4d or #e#oris3tio5 of di3log4es 35d te6ts 3re less 4sed i5
co3st3l ro"i5ces=cities th35 i5l35d ro"i5ces=cities8 35d this is the r3tio53le
45derl!i5g the disti5ctio5 $et9ee5 co3st3l ro"i5ce 35d i5l35d ro"i5ce i5 T3$le *;%;
D3t3 fro# the c4rre5t st4d!8 ho9e"er8 i5dic3tes th3t le3r5ers fro# the t9o 3re3s
sho9ed 5o differe5ce i5 ter#s of ercetio5 of #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3ls;
-%
-
Si5ce the co3st3l ro"i5ces h3"e $ee5 #ore de"eloed i5 the l3st t9o dec3des th35 the i5l35d
ro"i5ces8 it is s3id th3t there is 3 discre35c! $et9ee5 the t9o $ro3d regio5s i5 ter#s of
i5str4ctio53l 35d le3r5i5g r3ctice 9hich Ec35 $e 3ttri$4ted to 3 host of olic!8 eco5o#ic8 soci3l8
35d c4lt4r3l f3ctors> ?H48 %&&*1 +).@; It is 5ot the 4rose of the rese5t st4d! to see 9hether the
ercetio5 of 4se of tr3ditio53l 93! of le3r5i5g liAe te6t #e#oris3tio5 differs $et9ee5 eole
fro# the t9o regio5s8 the di"isio5 of i5for#35ts i5 ter#s of geogr3hic3l origi5 o5l! ser"es to
sho9 the di"ersit! of the 3rtici35ts;
-(
-
The disti5ctio5 $et9ee5 foreig5 l35g43ge school 35d ordi53r! school 93s #3de 3#o5g
seco5d3r! st4de5ts 35d the disti5ctio5 $et9ee5 E5glish de3rt#e5t 35d 5o5:E5glish de3rt#e5t
3#o5g college st4de5ts;
(+*,
(+*-
(+*.
(++&
(++'
(++%
(++(
(++)
(++*
(+++
(++,
(++-
(++.
(+,&
(+,'
(+,%
(+,(
(+,)
(+,*
(+,+
(+,,
(+,-
(+,.
(+-&
(+-'
(+-%
(&*
(&+
(&,
(&-
(&.
('&
(''
('%
('(
(')
It 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t 3ltho4gh this ch3ter is de3li5g 9ith Ele3r5er>s
ercetio5s>8 d3t3 fro# i5ter"ie9 9ith te3chers is 3lso referred to 9he5e"er of
rele"35ce $ec34se te3chers 3re here tre3ted 3s 3d"35ced le3r5ers;
(+-(
(+-)
(+-*
(+-+
T3$le *;% De#ogr3hics of the Le3r5er P3rtici35ts 3t Terti3r! Le"el
-)
Co3st3l ro"i5ce I5l35d ro"i5ceZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
/eiDi5g[ ' ?He!se3@ Cho5g<i5g[ ( ?Te5gDi5gJ EliJ L3Ae@
She57he5[ ' ?Ho93rd@ He535 ' ?Y45e5g@
2435gdo5g % ?0i3ofe5gJ Shi$i3o@ Y45535 ' ?E##3@
Li35gs4 ( ?ShiA3iJ B35shiJ RocA@@ Sich435 % ?04!i5gJ 04Di3@
Sh35do5g ' ?De<i35@ 235s4 ' ?Li6i3@
Ii5gd3o ' ?Ti35ti35@ B4h35 ' ?Leil3@
Ni5g6i3 ' ?0i3odo5g@ZZZZZZZZ
S4$:Tot3l . '&
Tot3l '.
@3ote? '; /eiDi5g 35d Cho5g<i5g 3re #45ici3lities r3ther th35 ro"i5cesJ She57he5
is 3 seci3l 3d#i5istr3ti"e 3re3 r3ther th35 3 ro"i5ce; %; Those st4de5ts 9ho 3re
c4rre5tl! st4d!i5g i5 the UG 3re gi"e5 E5glish se4do5!#s;
(.!.! Da/a a4a683i3
D3t3 353l!sis st3rted 3s the d3t3 collectio5 93s 45der93!; After e3ch i5ter"ie98 I
c3ref4ll! liste5ed to the recordi5g 35d #3de 3 $rief 5ote of the 3rtici35t>s #3i5
"ie9oi5ts for refere5ce 4roses; All i5ter"ie9s 9ere tr35scri$ed i5 E5glish
str3ight393!; I #3de 3 seci3l effort to edit the E5glish tr35sl3tio5 $! liste5i5g to the
Chi5ese origi53l recordi5g ree3tedl! i5 order to reflect 3s closel! 3s ossi$le the
l35g43ge the i5for#35ts the#sel"es 4sed;
The E5glish tr35scrits 9ere 353l!sed $! #o"i5g $3cA 35d forth $et9ee5 the d3t3 35d
c3tegories of #e35i5g 9hich ro4ghl! follo9ed the i5ter"ie9 g4ideli5es; The
i5terret3tio5 of the i5for#35t>s 3cco45t 93s c34tio4sl! tested 3g3i5st the co5te6t of
the 9hole tr35scrit i5 3dditio5 to $ei5g lo!3l to the #e35i5g residi5g i5 the si5gle
se5te5ce; The i5te5ded #e35i5g 93s ofte5 checAed $! cl3rific3tio5 <4estio5s d4ri5g
the i5ter"ie9; I5 other fe9 c3ses8 9he5e"er i5co5siste5c! or 3#$ig4it! 3rose d4ri5g
the rocess of tr35scritio58 I ret4r5ed to the i5ter"ie9ees for "3lid3tio5 3fter the
i5ter"ie9 thro4gh teleho5e co5"ers3tio5s; E#3il e6ch35ges 9ere 3lso occ3sio53ll!
-)
-
The de#3rc3tio5 is $3sed o5 9here the 3rtici35t fi5ished his or her seco5d3r! ed4c3tio5 r3ther
th35 college ed4c3tio5;
(+-,
(+--
(+-.
(+.&
(+.'
(+.%
(+.(
(+.)
(+.*
(+.+
(+.,
(+.-
(+..
(,&&
(,&'
(,&%
(,&(
(,&)
(,&*
(,&+
(,&,
(,&-
(,&.
(,'&
(,''
(,'%
(,'(
(,')
(,'*
(,'+
(,',
(,'-
(,'.
('*
('+
4sed to co5fir# the 3cc4r3c! of #! i5terret3tio5 of le3r5ers> i5ter"ie9 53rr3ti"e
3cco45ts 9he5 there 93s 3 5ecessit!;
A5 esse5ti3l ri5cile follo9ed i5 the 353l!sis of the d3t3 93s th3t the i5for#35ts>
st3te#e5ts 3re 5ot t3Ae5 3s tr4e or f3lse8 $4t r3ther 3s Edisl3!s of their ersecti"es
o5 the iss4e 3t h35d> ?Sil"er#358 %&&'1 ''%@; As 3lre3d! #e5tio5ed8 the foc4s of the
st4d! is 35 e#ic ersecti"e of the e"3l43tio5 of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 le3r5i5g
r3ctice;
(.& Lea24e23) :e27e:/i143 1; /5e u3e 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 E4g6i35 6ea24i4g
This sectio5 is org35ised 3ccordi5g to sig5ific35t the#es 9hich 9ere either i5for#ed
$! the i5ter"ie9 <4estio5s or e#erged fro# the 353l!sis of the d3t3 9ith resect to the
le3r5er:3rtici35ts> ercetio5s of their o95 e6erie5ces of 4si5g te6t #e#oris3tio5
i5 E5glish le3r5i5g; I5 the cit3tio5s I #3Ae of the i5ter"ie9 d3t3 i5 this ch3ter ?35d
thro4gho4t the thesis@8 the codi5g $egi5s 9ith the 3rtici35t>s 53#e ?35o5!#ised i5 3
93! I c35 recog5ise@; The se4do5!# is follo9ed $! the ide5tit! of the 3rtici35t8
i;e; 3 te3cher:3rtici35t ?'8@ or le3r5er:3rtici35t ?L8@ 35d the ed4c3tio53l le"el s=he
93s i5 ?JA for L45ior High8 SA for Se5ior High 35d B for 45i"ersit!@;
(.&.1 Pe27e:/i143 1; :1/e4/ia6 :21=6e03 Bi/5 /e./ 0e012i3a/i14
As 93s re"ie9ed i5 %;%;%;' 35d %;%;%;(8 9ester5 sceticis# 3$o4t the role of
#e#oris3tio5 i5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g #3! l3rgel! $e $3sed o5 the follo9i5g
3ss4#tio5s1 ?'@ #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot differe5t fro# rote:le3r5i5g or rote:
#e#oris3tio5J ?%@ #e#oris3tio5 i#3irs cre3ti"e thi5Ai5g; I5 this sectio58 I e63#i5e
the Chi5ese co5cetio5 of te6t #e#oris3tio5 "is:X:"is these t9o iss4es 3s reflected i5
the e"ide5ce of st3te#e5ts collected fro# i5ter"ie9 3rtici35ts;
(.&.1.1 Te./ 0e012i3a/i14 a49 u49e23/a49i4g
The retrosecti"e d3t3 reg3rdi5g the role of #e#oris3tio5 35d 45derst35di5g sho9s
the 3rtici35ts> 4535i#o4s e#h3sis o5 the 5eed for 45derst35di5g rior to
#e#oris3tio5; The follo9i5g co##e5ts 3re r3ther t!ic3l1
(,%&
(,%'
(,%%
(,%(
(,%)
(,%*
(,%+
(,%,
(,%-
(,%.
(,(&
(,('
(,(%
(,((
(,()
(,(*
(,(+
(,(,
(,(-
(,(.
(,)&
(,)'
(,)%
(,)(
(,))
(,)*
(,)+
(,),
(,)-
(,).
(,*&
(,*'
(,*%
(,*(
2 must un*erstan* the meaning be%ore learning text by heart? : 2 ha7e to %irst
o% all) get to now the meaning? ,Auang4u) L8) JA0
2 ha7e to un*erstan* the meaning o% what 2;ll #ommit to memory be%ore
re#iting 4assages? 2 #annot memorise the text i% 2 *on;t un*erstan* the
meaning? ,Zhibiao) L8) B) in A44en*ix C0
Aow #an one rote.memorise many texts without un*erstan*ing? 2 thin it;s
im4ossible? ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10
It 3e3rs th3t 45derst35di5g is reg3rded 3s 3 5ecess3r! rel4de to #e#oris3tio5 of
te6t8 th4s co5fir#i5g M3rto5 et 3l;>s ?'..+1 ,,@ s4ositio5 th3t Chi5ese st4de5ts #3!
$e E#e#orisi5g 9h3t is 45derstood>; The ict4re of Chi5ese le3r5ers8 ho9e"er8 is f3r
fro# $ei5g this si#le; The 3rtici35ts> 45i"ers3l 5eg3ti"e 3ttit4de to93rds Erote
le3r5i5g> does 5ot #e35 it does 5ot 3lso e6ist i5 their le3r5i5g r3ctice for cert3i5
re3so5s; For e63#le8 o5e 3rtici35t reorted1
2t Drote learningE is not a goo* way) o% #ourse? 2 *o loo the new wor*s u4 in
the glossary at the beginning? &ut when 2 run out o% time) 2 ha7e no #hoi#e but
rote.memorise Dwithout un*erstan*ing the meaning o% the new wor*E?
,Auang4u) L8) JA0
A5other sho9ed his toler35ce of the r3ctice th3t o5e #e#orises first 35d gr3d43ll!
45derst35ds l3ter
-*
; He rel3tes it to the tr3ditio53l Chi5ese liter3c! ed4c3tio51
'hin o% our an#estors learning !hinese #lassi#s lie Sanzijing? At the
beginning) they surely #oul*n;t un*erstan* what they were re#iting
F1
? &ut they
naturally un*erstan* it later an* use it %lexibly? ,Xujia) L8) B0
-*
-
As 93s 3lre3d! #e5tio5ed i5 Ch3ter % ?see %;%;%;'@8 33rt fro# E#e#oris3tio5 th3t s4cceeds
45derst35di5g>8 there 3lso e6ists the t!e of E#e#oris3tio5 th3t recedes 45derst35di5g> 9hich
#e35s8 the le3r5er rote:#e#orise i5 the first i5st35ce i5 order to 45derst35d l3ter ?M3rto58 et 3l;8
%&&*@;
-+
-
It 93s s3id th3t $o!s of 9e3lth! f3#ilies i5 st3rted their liter3c! ed4c3tio5 3s e3rl! 3s the 3ge of
three 4si5g three te6ts $ooAs o5e of 9hich is Sanzijing ?see ';';';'@;
(,*)
(,**
(,*+
(,*,
(,*-
(,*.
(,+&
(,+'
(,+%
(,+(
(,+)
(,+*
(,++
(,+,
(,+-
(,+.
(,,&
(,,'
(,,%
(,,(
(,,)
(,,*
(,,+
(,,,
(,,-
(,,.
(,-&
(,-'
(,-%
(',
('-
('.
(%&
(%'
(%%
These 3cco45ts s4ggest th3t the Chi5ese co5cetio5s of #e#oris3tio5 i5 rel3tio5 to
45derst35di5g 3re co#le6; O5e thi5g th3t is cert3i5 fro# #! d3t38 ho9e"er8 is th3t
#e#oris3tio5 is 5e"er tho4ght #e35i5gf4l 9itho4t $ei5g co55ected to 45derst35di5g8
9hether $efore or 3fter #e#oris3tio5
-,
; Rote le3r5i5g or Esi ji yin bei> i5 the se5se of
Ethe #ere 3ct of #e#orisi5g 9itho4t roer 45derst35di5g> ,9x%or* +nglish
Di#tionary0 is 5e"er "ie9ed ositi"el! $! the 3rtici35ts i5 #! st4d!; This fi5di5g is
5ot s4rrisi5g for 35!o5e 9ho h3d e6erie5ce of $ei5g ed4c3ted i5 Chi53 $ec34se Esi
ji yin bei> Qliter3ll! #e35i5g Ede3d 35d i5fle6i$le #e#oris3tio5>R8 3s 93s 3lre3d!
#e5tio5ed i5 Ch3ter % ?see %;%;%;(@8 is 3 5otorio4sl! deficie5t 35d $3cA93rd le3r5i5g
#ethod 4535i#o4sl! co5de#5ed i5 Chi5ese ed4c3tio5 35d reDected $! high 3chie"i5g
Chi5se st4de5ts 35d te3cher ed4c3tors;
Pre"io4s st4dies o5 Chi5ese le3r5ers8 ho9e"er8 h3"e reorted the fre<4e5t #e5tio5 of
the 4se of Erote le3r5i5g> Qsi ji ying beiR 3s 35 i#ort35t 3rt of #e#oris3tio5 ?Li35g N
S#ith8 %&&.@ 35d ositi"e $eliefs 3$o4t rote le3r5i5g held $! Chi5ese le3r5ers ?0;:P;
Li8 %&&*@; The discre35c! #3! $e 3ttri$4t3$le to the f3ct th3t the re"io4s st4dies
foc4s resecti"el! o5 the Chi5ese le3r5ers> o"er3ll str3teg! 4se 35d "oc3$4l3r!
le3r5i5g str3tegies i5 E5glish le3r5i5g 9hile #! st4d! co5ce5tr3tes e6cl4si"el! o5 the
r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5; Me#orisi5g 3 te6t #3! i5"ol"e <4ite differe5t
tech5i<4es fro# those re<4ired i5 #e#orisi5g i5di"id43l "oc3$4l3r! ite#s; Perh3s8
deri"3tio5 of i5iti3l 45derst35di5g #3Aes te6t #e#oris3tio5 #4ch #ore diffic4lt
th35 "oc3$4l3r! #e#oris3tio5; M35! 3rtici35ts do4$ted the ossi$ilit! of
co##itti5g 3 te6t to #e#or! 9itho4t 3 re3so53$le degree of rior 45derst35di5g; For
i5st35ce8 o5e i5terrog3ted8 GAow #an one learn a text by heart easily without
un*erstan*ing Dits meaningEH; ,Lijia) L8) JA0 A5other si#l! rel3ted his $etter
erfor#35ce i5 #e#orisi5g te6ts to his i5iti3l 45derst35di5g1 E2 #an only *o this
Dmemorising a text e%%i#ientlyE a%ter listening 7ery #are%ully in the #lass an*
un*erstan*ing its meaning an* the grammar in7ol7e* in the text :; ,Yangun) L8) JA)
in A44en*ix C0; This 3lso "3lid3tes the i5ter"ie9 d3t3 fro# 3 re"io4s st4d!1 EReciti5g
3 te6t c35 $e do5e $! firstl! looAi5g thro4gh the o"er3ll str4ct4re 35d i5ter53l li5As of
#e35i5g; This i5iti3l 45derst35di5g #3Aes #e#oris3tio5 #4ch e3sier> ?I5ter"ie9ee %
-,
-
The 3$o"e e6cert e6ressi5g er#issi"e5ess o5 45derst35di5g 3fter #e#oris3tio5 is the o5l!
c3se i5 #! d3t3;
(,-(
(,-)
(,-*
(,-+
(,-,
(,--
(,-.
(,.&
(,.'
(,.%
(,.(
(,.)
(,.*
(,.+
(,.,
(,.-
(,..
(-&&
(-&'
(-&%
(-&(
(-&)
(-&*
(-&+
(-&,
(-&-
(-&.
(-'&
(-''
(-'%
(-'(
(-')
(%(
(%)
<4oted i5 Li35g N S#ith8 %&&.1 %.(@; Th4s8 M3rto5 et 3l;>s ?'..+@ 5otio5 of
45derst35di5g heli5g #e#ori73tio5 is "erified $! the d3t3 i5 this st4d!;
*;);';% Te./ 0e012i3a/i14 a49 72ea/i<i/8
A5 i5teresti5g o$ser"3tio5 #3de is le3r5ers> ercetio5 th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot
i5 35! 93! li5Aed 9ith cre3ti"it!8 3s i5 this reso5se1 GLearning texts by heart
*is#ourages #reati7ityH Does it ha7e something to *o with #reati7ityH; ,Auang4u) L8)
JA0;
The ercetio5 is 5ot 45co##o5 i5 #! d3t3; Cre3ti"it! see#s to $e the l3st thi5g to
$e co55ected to l35g43ge le3r5i5g #ore $ro3dl!1
2 *on;t thin there is as im4ortant an issue o% #reati7ity in language learning
as in other s#ien#e *is#i4lines? You ha7e to ee4 to the rules or i*iomati#
usage o% the language you are learning? You ob7iously #annot #reate a new
rule yoursel%) #an youH ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10
Moreo"er8 le3r5ers $elie"e th3t cre3ti"it! sho4ld 5ot $e 3 $ig co5cer5 i5 le3r5i5g 3
foreig5 l35g43ge $efore 3 co5sider3$le 3#o45t of #e#oris3tio5 h3s $ee5 3chie"ed;
I5ste3d8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is "ie9ed 3s the fo45d3tio5 of cre3ti"it!8 9hich 93s
e6ressed i5 the follo9i5g re#3rAs1
2 thin #reati7ity #an be *e7elo4e* only a%ter you memorise a lot o% stu%%? 2%
you *on;t ha7e anything store* in your min*) where *oes #reati7ity #ome
%romH 2t;s just lie Gthe s4ring without water;? ,Lixia) L8) B0
This #3! ser"e 3s 3 4sef4l st3rti5g oi5t to e6lore Chi5ese 45derst35di5g of
cre3ti"it! i5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; The Chi5ese co5cetio58 3s I i5terret it8 see#s to $e
th3t 3ltho4gh cre3ti"it! does 5ot 5ecess3ril! e#erge fro# 3 l3rge 3#o45t of
#e#oris3tio5 of $3sics8 it c35 5e"er $e 3chie"ed 9itho4t the #3ster! of the l3tter;
Th4s8 $3sic sAill tr3i5i5g is "ie9ed 3s 35 i#ort35t rec4rsor le3di5g to cre3ti"e 4se
of l35g43ge; Me#oris3tio5 of te6ts8 for #35! Chi5ese le3r5ers8 is o5e s4ch Ai5d of
$3sic tr3i5i5g8 9hich #e35s to l3! 3 solid fo45d3tio5 for l3ter fle6i$le 4se of
(-'*
(-'+
(-',
(-'-
(-'.
(-%&
(-%'
(-%%
(-%(
(-%)
(-%*
(-%+
(-%,
(-%-
(-%.
(-(&
(-('
(-(%
(-((
(-()
(-(*
(-(+
(-(,
(-(-
(-(.
(-)&
(-)'
(-)%
(-)(
(-))
(-)*
(-)+
(-),
(-)-
l35g43ge; Reso5di5g to #! <4estio5 3s to 9hether te6t #e#oris3tio5 li#its o5e>s
cre3ti"it!8 3 3rtici35t 3rg4es1
'ext memorisation) in my o4inion) will not limit our #reati7e thining? 2t may
%a#ilitate our #reati7ity instea*? Don;t we !hinese ha7e an i*iom going lie
G#om4etent housewi%e #an be ba%%le* by #ooing without ri#e;H Aow #an she
#oo without ri#e howe7er #om4etent the housewi%e isH : Let me gi7e you an
extreme exam4le? Let;s su44ose there are two 4eo4le) one has just memorise*
the basi#s o% +nglish) the other has memorise* many 4assages? Who *o you
thin is more 4ro%i#ient or #reati7eH 'he latter) o% #ourse? !ertain stu%%
be#omes sub#ons#ious a%ter you memorise many things? Ae may internalise or
systematise all those memorise* materials an* #reate his own senten#es?
,6o#) L8) B0
I5teresti5gl!8 le3r5i5g thro4gh #e#orisi5g te6ts 93s felt to $e f3cilit3ti5g fle6i$le 4se
of l35g43ge1
2 *e7elo4 a in* o% my own %eeling o% language through learning texts by
heart? As a result) 2 #an use +nglish %lexibly an* #reati7ely? 9n the #ontrarily)
the latter way Dlearning grammar an* in*i7i*ual wor*sE la#s %lexibility?
,Lixia) L8) B0
A5other 3rtici35t reDects the 3ss4#tio5 th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 stifles o5e>s cre3ti"e
4se of l35g43ge 3s the r3ctice i#licitl! e5co4r3ges El35g43ge re:4se>
--
1
Learning by heart *oesn;t equate #o4ying other;s stu%%) but imitating them? :
2t shoul* not be #onsi*ere* as *is#ouragement o% the stu*ents; #reati7ity? 2;m
not #o4ying all that 2;7e #ommitte* to memory . it;s ob7iously im4ossible . 2
mae use o% the 4hrases an* ex4ressions to #onstru#t my own senten#es?
,Yangun) L8) JA) in A44en*ix C0
--
-
The ter# El35g43ge re:4se> 93s first 3doted $! Flo9erde9 N Li ?%&&,@ 3s 35 3lter53ti"e to
l3gi3ris# ?here e6cl4si"el! referri5g to the t3Ai5g of others> 9ords8 5ot ide3s@ i5 scie5tific
9riti5g; So#e schol3rs ?e;g; M3t3le5e8 '.-*@ 3ttri$4ted Chi5ese st4de5ts> l35g43ge re:4se to
co5"e5tio5s of Chi5ese tr3ditio53l liter3c! 9here #e#oris3tio5 of cl3ssic 35d #odel te6ts is
stro5gl! e#h3si7ed; This iss4e is8 ho9e"er8 $e!o5d the scoe of disc4ssio5 of the thesis;
(-).
(-*&
(-*'
(-*%
(-*(
(-*)
(-**
(-*+
(-*,
(-*-
(-*.
(-+&
(-+'
(-+%
(-+(
(-+)
(-+*
(-++
(-+,
(-+-
(-+.
(-,&
(-,'
(-,%
(-,(
(-,)
(-,*
(-,+
(-,,
(-,-
(%*
(%+
(%,
(%-
(%.
F4rther 3rg4#e5t for this ide3 is fo45d i5 the follo9i5g co##e5t #3de $! 3 cheerf4l
s4orter of the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g1
My ex4erien#e is that rea*ing or memorising more #an) on the #ontrary)
%a#ilitate your #reati7ity? At the beginning) we o% #ourse) ha7e to imitate
others? Aow #an one be #reati7e at the 7ery beginningH 2t is true in *oing
e7erything? We imitate until we rea#h a #ertain *egree to allow us to #reate?
,Jae) L8) B) in A44en*ix C0
Therefore8 #e#orisi5g te6ts is "ie9ed 3s 3 rocess of i#it3tio5 of r3ise9orth!
#odels 9hich8 9he5 i5ter53lised thro4gh reetitio58 9ill gr3d43ll! 35d e"e5t43ll! 3dd
to the fle6i$ilit! 35d cre3ti"e of l35g43ge 4se; The st3te#e5t8 ho9e"er8 is i#licitl!
$3sed o5 the rere<4isite th3t the le3r5er #e#orises 9ith 3cti"e thi5Ai5g; This is 3tl!
s4##3rised $! 35 i5for#35t1
2t Dthe issue o% #reati7ityE is not a 4roblem #ause* by text memorisation itsel%)
but an issue o% whether you thin or not? My 4oint is that text memorisation is
*e%initely ne#essary) be#ause you ha7e nothing to buil* on or ha7e no
%oun*ation i% you *on;t memorise? &ut the result o% memorisation #an be
*i%%erent between those who now how to Gju yi %an san; DGget three %rom one;
,literal translation0) meaning Gto a44ly the rule learne* %rom one exam4le in
*i%%erent #ir#umstan#es;E an* those who *on;t? Again) it has nothing to *o with
the 4ra#ti#e o% text memorisation) but to *o with your learning habit . thining
or without thining? ,6o#) L8) B0
Si#il3rl!8 35other 3rtici35t "oiced his oi5io5 fro# the "ie9 of oi5t of E3ttit4de>1
??? it also *e4en*s on your own attitu*e? 2% you memorise DtextsEmerely %or the
4ur4ose o% memorisation) it #ertainly limits your #reati7ity? 2t be#omes a
#lose* 4ro#ess i% you only a##umulate an* absorb without releasing Dtrying to
useE it? 'he ey is that we nee* to absorb the goo* sta%% o% others) imitate them
an* e7entually mae use o% them in a #reati7e manner? ,Zhibiao) L8) B0
(-,.
(--&
(--'
(--%
(--(
(--)
(--*
(--+
(--,
(---
(--.
(-.&
(-.'
(-.%
(-.(
(-.)
(-.*
(-.+
(-.,
(-.-
(-..
(.&&
(.&'
(.&%
(.&(
(.&)
(.&*
(.&+
(.&,
(.&-
(.&.
(.'&
(.''
(.'%
It is th4s 45derstood th3t8 i5 ter#s of de"eloi5g cre3ti"it! i5 l35g43ge 4se8 the
le3r5er>s i5iti3ti"e or 3ro3ch to le3r5i5g=#e#orisi5g co45ts 3 gre3t de3l; Te6t
#e#oris3tio5 3s 3 le3r5i5g tool #3! $e #4ch less to $l3#e th35 its 4ser if 35!
45desir3$le res4lt occ4rs; Ho9e"er8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 Eh3s $ee5 #3de 3 9hii5g
$o!8 $ei5g 45ished for 9ro5gs it did 5ot co##it> ?Di5g8 %&&)1 %)@; A 3rtici35t
e6hi$ited 35 i5trig4i5g "ie9oi5t $! s3!i5g1 G2 4re%er text memorisation to grammar
learning be#ause the %ormer maes my use o% language more %lexible; ,Xuying) L8) B0;
A5other 9e5t so f3r 3s to cl3i# th3t G:learning texts by heart is the most %lexible way
o% learning in our non%lexible e*u#ation system; ,Shuhan) L8) SA) in A44en*ix C0?
I5 3dditio5 to the ote5ti3ll! 5eg3ti"e i5fl4e5ce of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 o5 cre3ti"e
4se of l35g43ge8 35other Bester5 9orr! #3! $e this1 Ho9 c35 o5e Aee his=her
i5dee5de5ce of thi5Ai5g si5ce s=he co##its 3 54#$er of te6ts ?9ritte5 $! others@ to
#e#or!H Here is 3 rele"35t co##e5t fro# 35 i5ter"ie9ee1
:2 almost #annot re#all a single text in 3ew !on#e4t +nglish whi#h 2
memorise* be%ore) but 2;m sure 2 still use many stru#tures or ex4ressions 2
learne* %rom the 4ro#ess o% text memorisation? Aow #an 2 #o4y the i*ea sin#e 2
almost %orget the #ontentH +7en i% 2 #an remember the i*eas) 2 *o not
ne#essarily agree with the arguments 4resente* in the arti#le? My 4ur4ose is
to learn the language rather than the author;s i*eas? ,Jae) L8) B0
This ositio5 is ree3tedl! $ro4ght o4t $! other 3rtici35ts; For e63#le8 o5e
3sserted1
Language is the obje#t we are aiming to learn) an* we #onsi*er learning by
heart as a goo* means to hel4 us learn? 2t *oes not suggest that we ha7e to
a##e4t the author;s i*ea when we try to #ommit a text to memory? ,'angming)
'8) JA0
So#e Bester5 schol3rs ?e;g; M3le!8 '.-(@ 3rg4e th3t #35! Chi5ese st4de5ts 9ish to
le3r5 $! he3rt 9h3t $ooAs co5t3i5 $ec34se $ooAs 3re tho4ght of 3s 35 e#$odi#e5t of
A5o9ledge8 9isdo# 35d tr4th; A 3rtici35t reDected the ide3 $! s3!i5g1
(.'(
(.')
(.'*
(.'+
(.',
(.'-
(.'.
(.%&
(.%'
(.%%
(.%(
(.%)
(.%*
(.%+
(.%,
(.%-
(.%.
(.(&
(.('
(.(%
(.((
(.()
(.(*
(.(+
(.(,
(.(-
(.(.
(.)&
(.)'
(.)%
(.)(
(.))
(.)*
(.)+
Learning a text by heart *oesn;t by any means equate to a##e4ting the i*eas
#on7eye* in the text? 'hey are two *i%%erent issues? 'he %ormer is to un*erstan*
how the language is use*? 9% #ourse) 2 may a##e4t those i*eas that 2 i*enti%y
with an* quote them in my writing? Ior those 2 *on;t) there is no reason %or me
to a##e4t them? ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10
Accordi5g to 35other 3rtici35t8 G: learning texts by heart is a#tually a way o%
internalising language? 2t *oes not im4ly that we ha7e to absorb the i*eas or o4inions
ex4resse* in the text; ,Xila) L8) B0? If the te6ts of Co5f4ci4s 3re i5deed st4died for the
hilosohic3l 35d #or3l co5te5t r3ther th35 for their rhetoric3l i5terest ?Ad3#so58
%&&)@ i5 Chi5ese liter3c! ed4c3tio58 the foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5ers> #oti"3tio5 for the
r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 #oder5 sit43tio5s #3! th4s 5eed to $e re:e63#i5ed;
I5 s4#8 for differe5t ote5ti3l ro$le#s 9ith the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 see5
thro4gh 9ester5 sect3cles8 the 3ttit4de of the 3rtici35ts i5 this st4d! is cle3r:c4t;
First8 45liAe 9ord #e#oris3tio58 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot $! 35! #e35s rote:le3r5i5g
3s it is "ie9ed 3s e6tre#el! diffic4lt ?if ossi$le 3t 3ll@ 9itho4t recedi5g
45derst35di5g; Seco5d8 #e#oris3tio5 of co5sider3$le 3#o45t of te6t43l #3teri3ls 9ill
5ot stifle o5e>s cre3ti"it!8 9hether this is 45derstood 3s the origi53l 4se of the
l35g43ge or de"elo#e5t of ide3s;
(.&.2 Pe27e:/i143 1; =e4e;i/3 1; /5e :2a7/i7e 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14
M35! of the le3r5ers> ercetio5s #e5tio5ed 3$o"e 3re 33re5tl! ti5ted 9ith c4lt4r3l
i5fl4e5ce; It sho4ld 5ot $e s4rrisi5g th3t the "3l4es 35d ercetio5s of le3r5i5g of the
#e#$ers of 3 c4lt4re h3"e $ee5 i5fl4e5ced to 3 co5sider3$le e6te5t $! the "3l4es 35d
ercetio5s th3t the! h3"e co##o5l! e6erie5ced 9ithi5 their socioc4lt4r3l gro4
9he5 the! e5ter for#3l ed4c3tio5 ?Little9ood8 '...@; This does 5ot #e358 ho9e"er8
th3t the! h3"e $ee5 3ssi"el! #o4lded $! these "3l4es or co5cetio5s 35d therefore
453$le to #3Ae their o95 D4dge#e5t or reflectio5;
The o"er9hel#i5g #3Dorit! of the 3rtici35ts ?see Ae5di6 )@ e6ressed ositi"e
"ie9s o5 the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish le3r5i5g; The! offered "3rio4s
(.),
(.)-
(.).
(.*&
(.*'
(.*%
(.*(
(.*)
(.**
(.*+
(.*,
(.*-
(.*.
(.+&
(.+'
(.+%
(.+(
(.+)
(.+*
(.++
(.+,
(.+-
(.+.
(.,&
(.,'
(.,%
(.,(
(.,)
(.,*
(.,+
(.,,
(.,-
(.,.
(.-&
re3so5s 9h! the r3ctice h3d $ee5 $e5efici3l to their E5glish le3r5i5g; The first
co5cer5s the c4lti"3tio5 of the so:c3lled Ese5se of l35g43ge>8 3 r3g#3tic
45derst35di5g of 9hich c35 $e fo45d i5 the 3rtici35ts> 3cco45ts1
9ne thing that 2 %elt es4e#ially bene%i#ial %rom learning texts by heart is that 2
#oul* #hoose the right answer in the multi4le.#hoi#e se#tion without se#on*
thought? 2 *i*n;t now why) but 2 just ma*e the right #hoi#e? 'his is the e%%e#t
that #an ne7er be a#hie7e* by a44lying grammati#al analysis? : 2 guess it is
about what 4eo4le o%ten #all Glanguage sense;? ,Xujia) L8) B0
EL35g43ge se5se> is 3 liter3l tr35sl3tio5 of its Chi5ese e<4i"3le5t Eyuguan>; EL35g43ge
se5se> or Efeel for the l35g43ge> is 5ot 3 5e9 ter# for Chi5ese le3r5ers ?cf; Di5g8
%&&,J Li35g N S#ith8 %&&.@ 3ltho4gh the defi5itio5 c35 "3r! fro# erso5 to erso5; It
93s 3lso #e5tio5ed i5 3 rece5t st4d! th3t EF the 3rtici35ts fo45d the#
Q#e#orisi5g te6t$ooA te6ts8 E5glish ess3!s8 seeches 35d so5g l!ricsR 4sef4l $ec34se
the! heled the# i5ter53lise differe5t 93!s of e6ressi5g the#sel"es 35d g3"e the# 3
feel for the E5glish l35g43ge> ?23o8 %&&,31 '&&@; The co5cet origi53tes fro# 3
2er#35 9ord ESr3chgef4hl> 9hose E5glish e6l353tio5 is 3s follo9s ?Webster;s
'hir* 3ew 2nternational Di#tionary@1
?'@ se5si$ilit! to co5for#it! 9ith or di"erge5ce fro# the est3$lished 4s3ge of 3
l35g43ge
?%@ 3 feeli5g for 9h3t is li5g4istic3ll! effecti"e or 3rori3te
I5t35gi$le 3s it #3! 3e3r8 the Ese5se of l35g43ge> #3! $e 5oticed 3t so#e oi5t $!
#ost l35g43ge 4sers; It is 353logo4s to i5t4itio5 i5"oAed i5 de3li5g 9ith
gr3##3tic3lit! D4dg#e5t t3sAs; Altho4gh it is l3rgel! t3cit 35d i53ccessi$le to
co5scio4s5ess8 s4ch se5se h3s to $e $4ilt o5 co5sider3$le l35g43ge e6erie5ces; I5 the
c3se of Chi5ese st4de5ts 9ho cl3i# th3t the! de"elo 3 se5se of l35g43ge thro4gh
le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt8 the s4$tle feeli5g for l35g43ge #ight $e 35 i#licit 3$str3ctio5
35d s!ste#3tis3tio5 of l35g43ge r4les $3sed o5 3 re3so53$le 3#o45t of i54t ?i;e; te6ts
#e#orised@; The gr3d43l de"elo#e5t of l35g43ge se5se i5"ol"es8 <4oti5g 35
i5for#35t8 G4rogressing %rom a quantitati7e #hange to a qualitati7e #hange;
,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10; O5e st4de5t offered 35 i5teresti5g 353log!1 EWhat
(.-'
(.-%
(.-(
(.-)
(.-*
(.-+
(.-,
(.--
(.-.
(..&
(..'
(..%
(..(
(..)
(..*
(..+
(..,
(..-
(...
)&&&
)&&'
)&&%
)&&(
)&&)
)&&*
)&&+
)&&,
)&&-
)&&.
)&'&
)&''
)&'%
)&'(
)&')
we eat is ri#e) but what is trans%orme* is glu#ose> ,Shuhan) L8) SA) in A44en*ix C0;
The c4lti"3tio5 of El35g43ge se5se> thro4gh #e#oris3tio58 3ccordi5g to 3 college
st4de5t8 see#s to $e 3 lo5g:ter# t3sA 9hich sho4ld 5ot $e o#itted e"e5 3t terti3r!
le"el1 G2n #ollege) it is im4ortant to learn many texts by heart as this is essential to
*e7elo4 a sense o% language; ,'engjing) L8) B0;
The seco5d re3so5 gi"e5 $! the le3r5ers is th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 rel3tes to 9h3t the!
c3ll Eforced le3r5i5g>1
2t Dtext memorisationE is a %or#e* learning? You ha7e to #ons#iously 4ut all
stu%% into your min* Dwhen memorising textsE? : 2% you just listen Dto +nglishE
or s4ea to someone Din +nglishE) you may only learn the bits that you #an
remember an* miss out many other use%ul stu%%? When we learn by heart) we
%or#e oursel7es to memorise all senten#es? 2t;s learning with *e%inite 4ur4ose?
,+li) L8) B0
Forced le3r5i5g8 or i5 3c3de#ic ter#s8 Eco5scio4s le3r5i5g> see#s to l3! 35
i#ort35t role i5 3d4lt le3r5i5g ?T3Ae4chi8 %&&(@8 35d this is eseci3ll! tr4e i5 35 FL
co5te6t 9here li5g4istic reso4rces do 5ot co#e 3s e3sil! 3s the! do i5 the SL co5te6t;
O5e #3! 9o5der 9h! #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e stressed 3t 3ll8 gi"e5 o4r e6erie5ce
th3t rete5tio5 co#es 53t4r3ll! 9he5 9e 3re i5"ol"ed i5 the right 93! 9ith e5o4gh
s3#les of the l35g43ge; N3t4r3l rete5tio58 ho9e"er8 El3ces 3 li#it o5 ho9 #4ch the
st4de5t c35 get i5 3 co4rse of fi6ed le5gth> ?Ste"icA8 '.-%1 +-@; Moreo"er8 differe5t
fro# re3l:ti#e co##45ic3tio58 te6t #e#oris3tio5 frees the le3r5ers fro# the ress4re
of so5t35eo4s i5ter3ctio58 9hich #3! e53$le the# to 5otice 5e9 for#s 35d
e"e5t43ll! i5coror3te the# i5to their li5g4istic s!ste#; It h3s $ee5 reorted fro#
rior rese3rch ?Di5g %&&,@ th3t the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 e5h35ces 5otici5g
35d rehe3rs3l8 3 "ie9oi5t 9ith 9hich 35 i5ter"ie9ee sho9ed 3gree#e5t1
You #an learn the *etails o% the language as the text is rea*y at any time an* it
is an o%%.line 4ro#ess? &ut listening Dto +nglish %rom ra*io or '<E #an only
allow you to now the outline or rough i*ea o% what they are taling about?
)&'*
)&'+
)&',
)&'-
)&'.
)&%&
)&%'
)&%%
)&%(
)&%)
)&%*
)&%+
)&%,
)&%-
)&%.
)&(&
)&('
)&(%
)&((
)&()
)&(*
)&(+
)&(,
)&(-
)&(.
)&)&
)&)'
)&)%
)&)(
)&))
)&)*
)&)+
)&),
You ha7e no #han#e to learn the language 4er se in#lu*ing the senten#e
stru#tures they use? A%ter all) we *on;t ha7e the #a4a#ity to snat#h all that we
nee* to now in that short time) an* e7en worse) it is unliely that you now
e7erything they are taling about? ,+li) L8) B0
The third oft:r3ised co##e5t co5cer5s the $4ildi5g of co5fide5ce or 3 se5se of
3chie"e#e5t o9i5g to $ei5g 3$le to le3r5 3 te6t $! he3rt; I fo45d the follo9i5g
53rr3ti"e eseci3ll! i5teresti5g1
2 went to an +nglish #orner on #am4us when 2 was a so4homore? : 9ne *ay) 2
a44roa#he* the most %luent s4eaer who always showe* im4atien#e in taling
with me be#ause o% my hesitating +nglish? 2 o%%ere* to *is#uss with him about
su#h to4i#s as intelle#tual #o4yright an* lai*.o%% worers? Ae was sho#e* by
my in#essant s4eaing with sensible arguments while he was at a loss to %in*
a44ro4riate +nglish wor*s to ex4ress himsel%? : &ut he ne7er new that 2 ha*
just memorise* some e4iso*es %rom !hina Daily
FJ
an* 4oure* them out to him?
,Xiao*ong) L8) B0
D4ri5g the i5ter"ie98 this 3rtici35t 4sed the 9ord Eshuang> ?3 Chi5ese c3tch9ord
3#o5g !o45g eole8 #e35i5g Efeel s4er:good>@ to descri$e his e63lt3tio5 4o5 the
i5cide5t; Be sho4ld 5ot 45deresti#3te the s!chologic3l i#3ct of this dr3#3tic
eisode o5 the le3r5er i5 ter#s of his #oti"3tio5; Le3r5i5g to se3A 3 foreig5
l35g43ge is 3 s!chologic3ll! ch3lle5gi5g rocess8 eseci3ll! for 3d4lt le3r5ers 9ho
3re co5scio4s of their self:i#3ge; This ch3lle5ge is f4rthered 9he5 the le3r5er is
$ro4ght 4 i5 3 soci3l co5te6t 9here loss of f3ce co5stit4tes 3 Ere3l dre3d 3ffecti5g the
5er"o4s s!ste# ego #ore stro5gl! th35 the h!sic3l fe3r> ?H48 '.))1 *&J see 3lso
/ricA 35d Be5 %&&(@1
The! fe3r looAi5g ridic4lo4sJ the! fe3r the fr4str3tio5 co#i5g fro# 3 liste5er>s
$l35A looA8 sho9i5g th3t the! h3"e f3iled to co##45ic3teJ the! fe3r the
d35ger of 5ot $ei5g 3$le to t3Ae c3re of the#sel"esJ the! fe3r the 3lie53tio5 of
-.
-
A5 E5glish 5e9s3er 4$lished i5 Chi53;
)&)-
)&).
)&*&
)&*'
)&*%
)&*(
)&*)
)&**
)&*+
)&*,
)&*-
)&*.
)&+&
)&+'
)&+%
)&+(
)&+)
)&+*
)&++
)&+,
)&+-
)&+.
)&,&
)&,'
)&,%
)&,(
)&,)
)&,*
)&,+
)&,,
)&,-
((&
5ot $ei5g 3$le to co##45ic3te 35d there$! get close to other h4#35 $ei5g;
?/ee$e '.-(1 )&@
These 3$o"e:listed fe3rs 3re ro$3$l! 3ll do95 to 3 feeli5g of i5feriorit! reg3rdi5g
their li5g4istic co#ete5ce; The r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s see5 to hel the
le3r5er to relie"e the se5se of i53de<43c! 35d $4ild self:co5fide5ce1
2 %eel ha44y a%ter 2 memorise something be#ause 2 %eel 4rou* o% mysel% being
able to *o it? 2 es4e#ially 4ossess a sense o% a#hie7ement when 2 4er%orm
better than my #lassmates Din #lassroom intera#tionE? 'he %eeling that 2;m
better than others Din s4eaing +nglishE moti7ates me to learn more texts by
heart? 2 enjoy the 4ro#ess most o% the time be#ause 2 #an get something out o%
it? ,Zhibiao) L8) B) in A44en*ix C0
P4rosef4l #e#oris3tio5 #3! or #3! 5ot e53$le o5e to seed 4 his=her rogress i5
le35i5g8 $4t 3t le3st it #3! hel le3r5ers to Eso45d #ore co5fide5t> ?D4o5g8 %&&+@ or
#3Ae the# feel the! 3re stei5g for93rd 9he5e"er the! h3"e #e#orised 3 $it of
#3teri3l; A se5se of 3tt3i5#e5t or s3tisf3ctio5 is th4s 3chie"ed; This #3! $e t3Ae5 3s
35 3d"35t3ge co#3red 9ith rel!i5g o5l! o5 53t4r3l rete5tio5 3s res4lt of e6os4re to
e5o4gh s3#les of the l35g43ge8 9hich is theoretic3ll! ide3l8 $4t for #35! eole8
eseci3ll! 3d4lt le3r5ers8 3lso #e35s "er! slo9 i#ro"e#e5t 9hich #e35s
disco4r3ge#e5t 35d fr4str3tio5 ?Ste"icA8 '.-%@; Bh3t is #ore8 the s!chologic3l
s3tisf3ctio5 g3i5ed fro# te6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 $e fro# e6ter53l so4rces8 3s i5 the
co##e5t #3de $! 3 !o45ger le3r5er1 G2 *on;t thin it;s boring? 2 %eel #ontente* when
my 4arents 4raise me %or *oing a goo* job Din re#itationE;,Lijia) L8) JA0;
I5 3dditio5 to reorti5g the ge5er3l 93!s i5 9hich te6t #e#oris3tio5 hels8 the
3rtici35ts 3lso offered 3rtic4l3r re3so5s 9h! the r3ctice f3cilit3tes their l35g43ge
le3r5i5g; First 35d fore#ost8 le3r5i5g $! he3rt hels to le3r5 4sef4l hr3ses8
colloc3tio5s8 se5te5ce str4ct4res 35d gr3##3r; The follo9i5g co##e5ts 3re t!ic3l1
2 get to now the senten#e 4atterns through learning texts by heart) there%ore) 2
un*erstan* the grammar : ? ,!heng#heng) L8) JA) in A44en*ix C0
)&,.
)&-&
)&-'
)&-%
)&-(
)&-)
)&-*
)&-+
)&-,
)&--
)&-.
)&.&
)&.'
)&.%
)&.(
)&.)
)&.*
)&.+
)&.,
)&.-
)&..
)'&&
)'&'
)'&%
)'&(
)'&)
)'&*
)'&+
)'&,
)'&-
)'&.
)''&
)'''
)''%
2t hel4s with %ixe* #ollo#ations) 4hrases) senten#e stru#tures an* grammar?
,Xiaoqing) L8) SA0
2t hel4s me learn 4hrases an* senten#e 4atterns? 2t also hel4s with grammar?
,Lixia) L8) B0
It is #! erso53l e6erie5ce th3t it is h3rd to 3cc4r3tel! rec3ll the te6ts 9hich 9ere
#e#orised the other d3!8 let 3lo5e 3 9eeA 3go 35d this 93s 4535i#o4sl! co5fir#ed
$! the 3rtici35ts i5 the i5ter"ie9 st4d!; It is co5cei"3$le th3t the! c35 4s43ll! ret3i5
i5 their #e#or! se5te5ces or #ere hr3ses 35d se5te5ce 3tter5s; This is desite the
33re5tl! co5tr3dictor! f3ct th3t le3r5ers 3re i5iti3ll! i5te5ded to #e#orise the
9hole te6t; Re3lisi5g the f3ct th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 e"e5t43ll! le3ds to the rete5tio5
of set hr3ses8 o5e 3rtici35t r3ised the follo9i5g <4estio51 GWhy *o we bother to
memorise the whole text rather than sim4ly #ommitting to memory 4hrases an*
ex4ressions i% the latter *oes the same jobH; ,Lijia) L8) JA0; M! sec4l3tio5 is1 te6t43l
#3teri3l #3! $e i5 3 $etter ositio5 th35 fr3g#e5ted hr3ses8 $orro9i5g CooA>s
?'..)1 '(-@ 9ords8 to Egi"e the #i5d so#ethi5g to 9orA o58 so th3t gr3d43ll!8 if o5e
9ishes8 the! #3! !ield 4 $oth their gr3##3r 35d their #e35i5g>;
This rocess is reorted $! #35! 3rtici35ts s3!i5g G2t Dtext memorisationE really
hel4s a lot in terms o% grammar an* senten#e stru#ture; ,Yun4eng) L8) B0; A5 e3rl!:
st3ge le3r5er 3lso co##e5ted1 E2 usually re%er the newly.learne* grammar ba# to the
senten#e in the text 2 ha7e memorise* an* try to un*erstan* its usage in the #ontext;
,Yangun) L8) JA) in A44en*ix C0; The r3ctice 93s tho4ght to Ehel4 un*erstan* the
*eli#a#y o% the grammar that has been taught; ,Yange) '8) SA0 $ec34se
9nly through text or *ialogue #an you un*erstan* how %oreigners ex4ress
#ertain i*eas? 2t is useless i% you memorise some *isorganise* stu%% lie
in*i7i*ual wor*s or 4hrases without nowing how they are a#tually use*?
,Yange) '8) SA0
As 3 res4lt8 le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt $eco#es Glearning the whole #ontents an* system;
,Yangun) L8) JA) in A44en*ix C08 3 "ie9 sh3red $! 3 s4ccessf4l Chi5ese le3r5er 9ho
co##e5ted th3t o5ce te6t43l #3teri3ls 3re #e#orised8 EF the! $eco#e 3rt of !o48
)''(
)'')
)''*
)''+
)'',
)''-
)''.
)'%&
)'%'
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)'%(
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the se5te5ce str4ct4res8 the set hr3ses8 35d the 5e9 "oc3$4l3r!> ?Che5 H438 <4oted i5
Y;:I; 248 %&&(1 .)@; Th4s8 the le3r5ers> ercetio5 of te6t #e#oris3tio5 fo45d i5 the
st4d! co5fir#s 353logo4s i5ter"ie9 d3t3 i5 re"io4s rese3rch1 E/! doi5g so ?tr!i5g to
#e#orise te6ts@8 "oc3$4l3r! 35d gr3##3r 9o4ld 5ot $e 3 ro$le#> ?i5ter"ie9ee %+8
<4oted i5 Li35g8 %&&-1 '('@;
Moreo"er8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s ercei"ed to $e eseci3ll! helf4l i5 ter#s of
se3Ai5g 35d=or 9riti5g1
2 %oun* my oral +nglish im4ro7es a%ter memorising texts? ,Yixiao) L8) JA0
2t hel4s with writing besi*es the senten#e stru#ture an* the grammar? You #an
#onstru#t a senten#e by imitating the senten#e stru#ture in the texts? ,Jingyu)
L8) JA0
Learning texts by heart es4e#ially hel4s with s4eaing an* writing? ,Xiao%eng)
L8) B0
'he more texts 2 learn by heart) the more #om%ortable 2 %eel with s4eaing an*
writing? ,Yangun) L8) JA) in A44en*ix C0
2 %oun* my +nglish greatly im4ro7e* a%ter the 4ro#ess Do% text memorisationE)
es4e#ially writing an* s4eaing? ,Jae) L8) B) in A44en*ix C0
It see#s th3t the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 hels the le3r5ers #ost 9ith the
Erod4cti"e> sAills 3s f3r 3s the Efo4r sAills> 3re co5cer5ed; A si#il3r ercetio5 93s
3lso reorted $! other Chi5ese st4de5ts i5 re"io4s rese3rch; For i5st35ce8
co##e5ti5g o5 the role of Ere3di5g 3lo4d> K 35 3cco#35!i5g r3ctice 9ith
#e#orisi5g te6ts 3#o5g Chi5ese le3r5ers8 3 st4de5t st3tes1
Re3di5g 3lo4d fro# #odel ess3!s F f3#ili3rises st4de5ts 9ith the r4les for
co#$i5i5g 9ords i5to se5te5ces 35d 3t l3st i5to 9hole ess3!s F ; The
3esthetic 3tter5s 3$sor$ed fro# 3 lot of re3di5g 9ill 9orA their 93! 53t4r3ll!
i5to st4de5ts> 9riti5g; ?B35g G4i8 <4oted i5 P3rr!8 '..-1 -,:--@
)'),
)')-
)').
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)'*'
)'*%
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)'**
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)'++
)'+,
)'+-
)'+.
)',&
)','
)',%
)',(
)',)
)',*
)',+
)',,
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)',.
)'-&
T9o differe5t 93!s i5 9hich te6t #e#oris3tio5 co5tri$4tes to l35g43ge rod4ctio5
9ere #e5tio5ed i5 #! d3t3; The first is 3$o4t efficie5c! i5 9riti5g 35d se3Ai5g;
Me#orised te6ts 3re ercei"ed to $e ser"i5g 3s 3 so4rce fro# 9hich the re3d!:#3de
#3teri3ls 3re 3"3il3$le for ro#t 4se1
When 2;m translating or writing an arti#le) the senten#es just automati#ally
#ome out o% my min*? ,Lixia) L8) B0
2% you memorise a lot o% stu%%) you may %in* some ex4ressions %low out o% your
mouth? ,6o#) L8) B0
The feeli5g reso53tes 9ith th3t reorted $! the i5ter"ie9ee i5 Ste"icA>s st4d!1 EI D4st
h3"e co45tless 3tter5s sort of s9i##i5g 3ro45d i5 #! he3d> ?/ert8 <4oted i5
Ste"icA8 '.-.1 (&@;
A 3rtici35t f4rther re#3rAed1
they Dmemorise* textsE are store* in your min* an* #an be a##essible
imme*iately in nee*? 'here are many rea*y.ma*e senten#es or ex4ressions
there %or your use? : We #an tae a*7antage o% the memorise* sta%% without
starting %rom s#rat#h? ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10
Th4s8 rior stor3ge of l35g43ge s3#les thro4gh te6t #e#oris3tio5 is co5sidered to
#3Ae for Eeco5o#! of effort> 35d to seed 4 l35g43ge rocessi5g i5 re3l:ti#e
co##45ic3tio5 ?see Si5cl3ir8 '..'J SAeh358 '..- for #ore disc4ssio5 fro# 3
s!choli5g4istic ersecti"e@; O5e #3! 3rg4e th3t #35! se5te5ces i5 #e#orised
#3teri3l 3re #4ch less liAel! to co#e 4 i5 re3l:life co5"ers3tio58 $4t8 3ccordi5g to
sec4l3tio5 $! Ste"icA ?'.-%1 +-@8 the! E#3! still ser"e 3s h35d! #odels for 9h3t
st4de5ts #3! 935t to s3! i5 l3ter !e3rs>1
A st4de5t 9hose #e#or! l3ces 3t his disos3l EC35 !o4 tell #e 9here the
s53cA $3r isH> 9ill $e less liAel! i5 re3l life to s3! the i5correct EC35 !o4 tell
#e 9here is the ost officeH> or the correct $4t 3$r4t EBhere is the ost
)'-'
)'-%
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)%'(
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officeH> A5d he>ll ro$3$l! co#e o4t 9ith EC35 !o4 tell #e 9here the ost
office isH> 3 lot #ore s#oothl! th35 he co4ld h3"e other9ise; ?Ste"icA8 '.-%1
+-@
The seco5d 93! i5 9hich te6t #e#oris3tio5 $e5efits rod4ctio5 is tho4ght to $e the
i5cre3sed 3cc4r3c! i5 o4t4t1 G: borrowing memorise* stru#tures or ex4ressions
Dmeans oneE is less liely to mae grammati#al errors) es4e#ially in real.time oral
#ommuni#ation; ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10; This 5otio5 h3d $ee5 i#licitl!
i5cl4ded i5 Ste"icA>s ?'.-%1 +-@ D4stific3tio5s for the 4se of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 ?3s
oosed to rete5tio5 th3t co#es 53t4r3ll!@ i5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g1
EN3t4r3ll!8 F #e35s i5 the short r45 3t le3st th3t the degree of correct5ess i5 se3Ai5g
35d 9riti5g 9ill $e red4ced>;
A5other re3so5 de3ls 9ith $ei5g 3$le to Gmemorise new wor*s more %irmly; ,Yixiao)
L8) JA0; This is $ec34se #e#orisi5g te6ts e53$les o5e to 45derst35d the #e35i5g of 3
9ord i5 3 3rtic4l3r co5te6t1
A wor* usually has se7eral meanings? You #an easily memorise the 4arti#ular
meaning o% that wor* in that 4arti#ular #ontext an* ee4 it %or a long time? 2%
you memorise the wor* an* its meanings in an isolate* way) you %orget it the
next *ay? ,Auang4u) L8) JA0
Moreo"er8 the 4s3ge of the 5e9 9ord is i5coror3ted i5 the te6t1
2% you only memorise isolate* wor*s) you *on;t now how to use them? 'here is
situation %or you to un*erstan* where an* how wor*s are use* i% you learn
them through text memorisation? ,Jae) L8) B) in A44en*ix C0
This #3! $est e6l3i5 the ercei"ed $e5efit of #e#orisi5g te6ts 3s oosed to
"oc3$4l3r! lists; Te6t #e#oris3tio5 see#ed to $e #ore f3"o4red 3s the o"er3ll
#e35i5g of the te6t 35d the 93! 9ords 3re 4sed i5 3rtic4l3r se5te5ces heled s4st3i5
the #e#or! of the "oc3$4l3r!; It 3lso 3ccords 9ith the d3t3 collected fro# 35other
Chi5ese le3r5er i5 3 re"io4s i5ter"ie9:$3sed st4d!1 EI5 f3ct8 re#e#$eri5g 9ords i5
the te6t #3Aes the# diffic4lt to forget> ?I5ter"ie9ee -8 <4oted i5 Li35g N S#ith8 %&&.1
)%'*
)%'+
)%',
)%'-
)%'.
)%%&
)%%'
)%%%
)%%(
)%%)
)%%*
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)%%.
)%(&
)%('
)%(%
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)%(+
)%(,
)%(-
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)%)&
)%)'
)%)%
)%)(
)%))
)%)*
)%)+
)%),
)%)-
%.%@; This ide3 chi#es i5 9ith 3 Chi5ese li5g4ist>s re#3rA8 cited i5 ';';%;%8 35d
ree3ted $elo91
Le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt is e6tre#el! helf4l to #e; It 9orAs #4ch $etter th35
#e#orisi5g i5di"id43l 9ords i5 the se5se th3t #e#orisi5g o5 the $3sis of
9hole 3ss3ge or 3t le3st 9hole se5te5ce e53$les 4s to $etter 45derst35d 9ord
#e35i5g8 ;;; ?Sh3o8 %&&%1 ''J Chi5ese origi53l@
It is th4s 3greed th3t #e#orisi5g te6t43l #3teri3ls8 9hether di3log4es or #o5olog4es8
3ffords the le3r5er 35 oort45it! to ret3i5 3 9ord or hr3se 3lo5g 9ith the co5te6t i5
9hich it is 4sed so th3t s=he #3! o$t3i5 3 deeer 45derst35di5g of the "oc3$4l3r!
ite#8 r3ther th35 #e#orisi5g it i5 35 isol3ted 93!;
S4##i5g 4 the re3so5s offered $! the 3rtici35ts 9h! the! co5sidered th3t le3r5i5g
te6ts $! he3rt h3d $ee5 helf4l 9ith their foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 the! ce5tred
3ro45d t9o "35t3ge gro45ds; The first is co5cer5ed 9ith the $ro3d 93!s i5 9hich
le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt $e5efits foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; Not3$l!8 the 3rtici35ts
#e5tio5ed the c4lti"3tio5 of El35g43ge se5se>8 the f3cilit3tio5 of co5scio4s le3r5i5g
35d ro#otio5 of self:co5fide5ce 35d 3 se5se of 3chie"e#e5t; The seco5d "35t3ge
gro45d 3ro45d 9hich the disc4ssio5 93s c3rried o4t is o5 secific re3so5s 9h! te6t
#e#oris3tio5 co5tri$4tes to l35g43ge de"elo#e5t; These re3so5s 9ere rel3ted to
three 3sects1 ?'@ Li5g4istic3ll!8 it i#ro"es the le3r5i5g of hr3ses8 se5te5ce
str4ct4res 35d gr3##3rJ ?%@ I5 ter#s of l35g43ge sAills8 it eseci3ll! hels 9ith
9riti5g 35d se3Ai5gJ 35d ?(@ It 3ssists "oc3$4l3r! le3r5i5g $! e5h35ci5g the
45derst35di5g of 5e9 9ords;
*;);( Ge4e2a6 :e27e:/i14
Of 3ll the 3rtici35ts8 o5l! t9o e6ressed dis$elief or 45cert3i5t! 3$o4t the
4sef4l5ess of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; O5e sho9ed her
3"ersio5 to this r3ctice $! s3!i5g8 G2t;s *e%initely rote.learning) nothing *i%%erent %rom
the an#ient system o% im4erial examination; ,Yuting) L8) JA0; P3rt of the re3so5 of her
dist3ste c35 $e fo45d i5 the follo9i5g 3cco45t1
)%).
)%*&
)%*'
)%*%
)%*(
)%*)
)%**
)%*+
)%*,
)%*-
)%*.
)%+&
)%+'
)%+%
)%+(
)%+)
)%+*
)%++
)%+,
)%+-
)%+.
)%,&
)%,'
)%,%
)%,(
)%,)
)%,*
)%,+
)%,,
)%,-
)%,.
)%-&
)%-'
)%-%
2 %eel it Dtext memorisationE really troublesome be#ause 2 *on;t now where 2
shoul* start to as questions? +7en worse) some wor*s are so long that 2;m
unable to 4ronoun#e them 4ro4erly) let alone learning them by heart?
It see#s th3t the diffic4lties she e6erie5ced i5 #e#orisi5g te6t #3de her resist35t to
the r3ctice; The other o5e hesit3ted to s35ctio5 this r3ctice si#l! $ec34se it 93s
o5e of #35! #ethods she h3d tried $riefl! $4t 9hich ro"ed fr4itless1 G2t Dtext
memorisationE seems not woring %or me? : 2 trie* many other metho*s) but they *i*
not wor better?; ,+ma) L8) B0

Desite the "er! fe9 5eg3ti"e "oices8 the 3rtici35ts> ercetio5s of the 4se of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish le3r5i5g 3re o"er9hel#i5gl! ositi"e; The feeli5g 3t ti#es
3e3rs to $e so stro5g th3t it h3s led so#e 3rtici35ts to go so f3r 3s to cl3i#1
2t Dtext memorisationE shoul* be more or less hel4%ul in e7ery as4e#t o%
+nglish learning? 2 #annot thin o% any way in whi#h it *oes not hel4? 2t;s
sim4ly a matter o% *egree? ,!heng#heng) L8) JA) in A44en*ix C0
2t is su#h a goo* metho* that it bene%its me in e7ery as4e#t? ,Yangun) L8) JA)
in A44en*ix C0
E63gger3ted 3s these co##e5ts #3! 3e3r8 the! s4ggest th3t the ide5tific3tio5 9ith
the r3ctice #ight $e re"3le5t 3#o5g Chi5ese le3r5ers8 e"e5 tho4gh the d3t3 9ere
collected fro# 3 rel3ti"el! s#3ll oort45istic s3#le; I 5oticed i5 3 rece5t st4d!
?23o8 %&&,3@ o5 Chi5ese le3r5ers
.&
> str3teg! 4se i5 le3r5i5g E5glish th3t #35!
3rtici35ts #e5tio5ed the 4se of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 35d fo45d it 4sef4l; For
i5st35ce8 o5e reorted1
.&
.
This is 3 gro4 of rel3ti"el! s4ccessf4l le3r5ers 9ho 9ere 4rs4i5g their first degree i5 3
le3di5g E5glish:#edi4# 45i"ersit! i5 Ho5gAo5g 3fter fi5ishi5g their seco5d3r! ed4c3tio5 i5
#3i5l35d Chi53;
)%-(
)%-)
)%-*
)%-+
)%-,
)%--
)%-.
)%.&
)%.'
)%.%
)%.(
)%.)
)%.*
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)%.-
)%..
)(&&
)(&'
)(&%
)(&(
)(&)
)(&*
)(&+
)(&,
)(&-
)(&.
)('&
)(''
(('
((%
(((
Be h3d to #e#orise 35d recite e"er! te6t to hi# Qthe te3cherR; F I thi5A th3t
#e#oris3tio5 93s good $ec34se it Aet !o4 se3Ai5g E5glish 35d re3di5g
E5glish to #3i5t3i5 the feel of E5glish; ?Li48 <4oted i5 23o8 %&&,31 '%(@
I4ite 3 fe9 3rtici35ts i5 #! st4d! e6ressed their co5"ictio5 of the o"er3ll
helf4l5ess of te6t #e#oris3tio5 to E5glish le3r5i5g; T3Ae the follo9i5g e6tr3ct8 for
e63#le1
Sometimes 2 thin 2 nee* someone to 4ush me to *o some memorisation? 2
belie7e i% 2 learn by heart a bit e7ery *ay) 2 #an im4ro7e my +nglish qui#ly? 2
really regret that 2 *i*n;t ee4 on learning by heart in senior high? ,Xiao%eng)
L8) B0
This $elief 93s e"e5 held $! those 9ho do 5ot liAe this r3ctice1
2;* lie to use Gbitter melon; to *es#ribe this metho* Dtext memorisationE? 2
*i*n;t lie bitter melon at all when 2 was a i* be#ause o% its bitter taste? My
gran*ma tol* me that this stu%% #an #ool one;s bo*y? 2 %or#e* mysel% to eat
bitter melon e7ery *ay be#ause my bo*y easily got hot an* 2 o%ten ha* a nose
blee*ing? 2t *i* mira#le e7entually K 2 %oun* mysel% no longer su%%er %rom nose
blee*ing? 2 4re%er to lien learning texts by heart to bitter melon? 2 4ersonally
*on;t lie learning texts by heart) but 2 ne7er *oubt its use%ulness to +nglish
learning? ,Xujia) L8) B0
A #ore e#otio53l descritio5 93s ro"ided $! 3 3rtici35t8 9ho s3id8
2 %elt unha44y when the tea#hers in high s#hool %or#e* us to memorise texts?
&ut now 2 am really grate%ul to them? : My Mom hire* a 4ri7ate +nglish
tea#her %or me an* she require* me to learn texts by heart? She #he#e*
regularly? 2 really hate* her at that time? &ut now 2 shoul* than her %or *oing
so? 2 %oun* many o% the arti#les she %or#e* me to re#ite were 7ery hel4%ul to my
later stu*y) es4e#ially when 2 was taing 4art in some +nglish s4eaing
#ontests? ,Lixia) L8) B0
)('%
)('(
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)()'
)()%
)()(
)())
)()*
These 3rtici35ts g3"e 3 ositi"e r3ti5g to the r3ctice 3ltho4gh the! 3lso e#h3sised
the 3i5f4l rocess the! h3d to e5d4re i5 #e#orisi5g te6t; The #i6ed feeli5g 3$o4t
the E$itter #elo5> e6erie5ce h3s co5fir#ed the res4lt rod4ced $! 3 353logo4s rior
rese3rch ?Di5g8 %&&)@ 9hich t3rgeted 3 gro4 of 3d"35ced le3r5ers of E5glish fro# 3
to 45i"ersit! i5 Chi53; Si#il3rl!8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s co#3red $! 3 3rtici35t i5
Di5g>s st4d! to Egood #edici5e th3t t3stes $itter>8 3 Chi5ese idio# referri5g to h3rd8
3i5f4l e6erie5ce th3t $ri5gs 3 desir3$le o4tco#e; H3"i5g $ee5 co5"i5ced of the
"3l4e of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 Egood #edici5e>8 3l$eit 5ot t3st!8 3 te3cher #3de the
follo9i5g co##e5ts 9hich 3re co5so535t 9ith the st4de5t>s 3cco45t #e5tio5ed
3$o"e1
Sometimes we ha7e to #om4el them to *o this Dlearning texts by heartE? :
Some stu*ents tol* me later) G2% you ha* not %or#e* us to *o this) we #oul* not
ha7e ma*e the 4rogress we ha7e now? 2n retros4e#t) you were *oing the right
thing;? ,Jiean) '8) B0
M35! other 3rtici35ts8 ho9e"er8 see their s!chologic3l e6erie5ce 9ith te6t
#e#oris3tio5 3s $ei5g ch35gi5g or d!53#ic r3ther th35 st3tic; T3Ae the follo9i5g
e6tr3ct for e63#le1
I5ter"ie9er1 Is5>t it 3 $ori5g 35d 3i5f4l e6erie5ceH
Suhan ,L8) SA0L ??? 'he 4ro#ess is 4ain%ul %or some 4eo4le) but not %or others?
Ior me it was 4ain%ul at the beginning be#ause 2 *on;t ha7e a goo* memory?
An* at the initial stage) it is mostly me#hani#al memorisation as you la# %or
basi# nowle*ge o% how that language is use*? &ut it gra*ually taes less time
to memorise as you %in* a sort o% %eeling ??? memorisation is thus ma*e mu#h
easier?
I5ter"ie9er1 So it is Ethor5!> 35!93!H
S4h351 3ot exa#tly? 2t is a 4ro#ess o% e7ol7ing %rom struggle to relaxation? 2t is
not 4ain%ul all the way?
Perh3s the #ost i#ort35t f3ctor i5 deter#i5i5g 9hether eole s4cceed i5 this t3sA
is their 3ttit4de to93rd the 45dert3Ai5g ?Ste"icA8 '.-%@8 3s i5 this co##e5t1
)()+
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)(+.
)(,&
)(,'
)(,%
)(,(
)(,)
)(,*
)(,+
)(,,
)(,-
)(,.
2t D4ersisten#e in text memorisationE *e4en*s on in*i7i*ual #hoi#e? 2% it is a
4ain%ul thing %or you an* you *on;t thin it;s worth *oing) how #an you in7est
so mu#h o% your s4are time *oing thisH An* you ha7e to 4erse7ere in %or three
years? 2t;s ob7iously im4ossible? 2% you see the 7alue o% this a#ti7ity an* thin it
maes sense to you) you #an *o this? 9therwise) 2 bet you #annot 4erse7ere at
this %or three months) let alone three years? ,Zhiai) L8) B0

This 3rtici35t is 35 e5th4si3st of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9ho h3d $ee5 erse"eri5g 3t
le3r5i5g $! he3rt the te6ts i5 3ew !on#e4t +nglish for three !e3rs 35d e"e5t43ll!
e6celled o"er his eers
.'
; He ro$3$l! se3As for those 9ho Eco5sider #e#oris3tio5 to
$e h3rd 9orA8 #ildl! o5ero4s8 $4t so#ethi5g the! c35 do if the! h3"e s4fficie5t
re3so5 to> ?Ste"icA8 '.-%1 +.@;
Altho4gh 3 $ig 3rt of the d3t3 i5 #! st4d! roDect 3 #et3hor of the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 3s E$itter #elo5>8 i#l!i5g the 45e5Do!3$le rocess the! h3"e to
e5d4re8 so#e 3rtici35ts e6ressed 3 differe5t feeli5g 3$o4t the r3ctice; Te6t
#e#oris3tio5 did 5ot $other the# 3t 3ll1
2 *o lots o% DtextE memorisation e7en at #ollege? 2 ne7er %eel the 4ro#ess o% text
memorisation G4ain%ul;? 2 lie +nglish 7ery mu#h? 2t;s not 4ain%ul %or me at all?
: 3o one %or#e* me to *o so? ,Jae) L8) B) in A44en*ix C0
2 *on;t thin learning texts by heart is boring? 9n the #ontrary) it;s 7ery
interesting %or me? ,Yanun) L8) JA) in A44en*ix C0
2 *onMt see it a 4ain%ul 4ro#ess? Maybe 2;m majoring in art an* 2 ha7e goo*
memory? ,Xiao%eng) L8) B0
DAlthough grammar learning has its a*7antage)E 2 still 4re%er text
memorisation whi#h is more interesting an* e%%e#ti7e to me? ,Lixia) L8) B0
.'
.
As 3 #3Dor i5 Fore5sic Scie5ce8 he 3ro"ed hi#self #ore c33$le th35 #35! E5glish #3Dors
i5 ter#s of E5glish l35g43ge 3$ilit!; /! the ti#e he 93s 3t the e5d of his D45ior !e3r8 he h3d the
e6erie5ce of 9orAi5g 3s 35 i5terreter for 35 i5ter53tio53l $4si5ess e6hi$itio5 sho98 35 ed4c3tio5
3ssist35t i5 the ed4c3tio5 sectio5 of /ritish Co45cil8 3 3rt:ti#e E5glish te3cher i5 3 f3#o4s
ri"3te l35g43ge tr3i5i5g i5stit4tio5 35d rece5tl! i5 3 foreig5 ed4c3tio53l coror3te;
)(-&
)(-'
)(-%
)(-(
)(-)
)(-*
)(-+
)(-,
)(--
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)(.&
)(.'
)(.%
)(.(
)(.)
)(.*
)(.+
)(.,
)(.-
)(..
))&&
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))&*
))&+
))&,
))&-
))&.
(()
((*
((+
((,
((-
2;* lie to memorise more goo* arti#les e7en now i% 2 *on;t ha7e so many
tri7ial things to *eal with? 2 %in* it an enjoyable job? ,Wenna) '8) JA) in
A44en*ix 10
It 3e3red th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 5ot o5l! h3s 5ot $othered these 3rtici35ts 3t 3ll8
$4t #3Aes 3 le3s35t e6erie5ce for the#; Recit3tio5 so#eti#es $eco#es the
re3lis3tio5 of the 5eed for s3tisf!i5g erso53l desire1 GSome texts are really beauti%ul
an* #onne#t to me so that 2 just want to memorise them? 'hat;s it?; ,Jiean) '8) B0; This
9o4ld co5fir# the o$ser"3tio5 #3de $! Ste"icA ?'.-%1 +.@1 ESo#e eole fi5d
#e#ori7i5g e3s!8 35d #3! e"e5 do it D4st for f45>; I5deed8 so#e eole E#e#orise
thi5gs ina*7ertently 3fter he3ri5g the# 3 fe9 ti#es> ?i$idJ e#h3sis origi53l@1
'he easier it %eels the more arti#les 2 memorise? 2 naturally memorise it a%ter
rea*ing alou* a %ew times i% it is a short 4aragra4h? ,Jae) L8) B) in A44en*ix
C0
M! i5terret3tio5 of the f3cilit! 9ith te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 felt $! this t!e of le3r5ers
is th3t the! 3re 4s43ll! i5tri5sic3ll! #oti"3ted8 th3t is to s3!8 the! h3"e 3 lo"e 3ff3ir
9ith E5glish; I5 the 9ords of 3 s4ccessf4l Chi5ese le3r5er i5 3 re"io4s st4d!8 ONot
th3t I 935ted to recite the#J the! get #e#orised 3fter !o4 re3d the# 3 fe9 ti#es>
?Che5 H438 <4oted i5 Y;:I; 248 %&&(1 .)@;
A5other 3rtici35t D4st felt th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s 3 93! of le3r5i5g she 93s
co#fort3$le 9ith1
2t Dtext memorisationE maes my +nglish learning easier? 2% 2 inten* to merely
memorise wor*s in a list) they #annot get memorise* e7en a%ter mu#h time is
s4ent? 2% 2 learn the text by heart) the new wor*s are naturally memorise* as
they are all #ontaine* in the text? : 2 %elt it more interesting be#ause it
in7ol7es your rea*ing alou* an* you hear your own 4ronun#iation? ,Xuying)
L8) B0
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))%-
))%.
))(&
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))(-
))(.
)))&
)))'
)))%
This co##e5t 3lso le5ds s4ort to the fi5di5g $! M3rto5 et 3l ?'..+@ th3t Chi5ese
#e#oris3tio5 r3ctices 9ere i5tegr3ted 9ith 45derst35di5g 35d e5Do!#e5t; Altho4gh
these e5th4si3stic r3ctitio5ers of te6t #e#oris3tio5 erh3s rerese5t o5l! 3 s#3ll
#i5orit! of Chi5ese le3r5ers 9ho 3re Aee5 i5 E5glish 35d=or e5do9ed 9ith t3le5t i5
le3r5i5g 3 foreig5 l35g43ge8 their 3ssio53te co##e5ts #3! le3d 4s to reco5sider the
iss4e of 9hether te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 5ecess3ril! 35 35ti:h4#35istic r3ctice8 3s it h3s
$ee5 ortr3!ed $! so#e Bester5 schol3rs; A #ore i#ort35t <4estio5 to 3sA is1 If it
i5deed #3Aes se5se to Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 3rtic4l3r co5te6ts8 ho9 c35 the r3ctice $e
#3de less s!chologic3ll! ch3lle5gi5g fro# 3 h4#35istic "ie9 of le3r5i5gH I fo45d
the follo9i5g co##e5t #3de $! 3 3rtici35t r3ther i5siri5g 35d i5sightf4l1
Stu*ents nee* to be gui*e* to a44re#iate the beauty o% language so that the
4ro#ess o% memorisation be#omes that o% enjoying the *eli#ateness o%
language rather than being %or#e* to en*ure what they may thin is 4ointless?
,+li) L8) B0
Perh3s i5 3dditio5 to co##45ic3tio58 l35g43ge or se3Ai5g f45ctio5s 3s E3 so4rce of
co#fort 35d 35 o4tlet for Do! 35d e64$er35ce> ?CooA8 '..)1 '(-@ 9hich I h3"e 3
stro5g co5"ictio5 i5 35d I $elie"e h3s $ee5 e6erie5ced $! #35! others; This
ersecti"e #3! hel e5co4r3ge 4s ?le3r5ers 35d te3chers@ to co5sider ho9 9e c35
i5coror3te the le3s4r3$le 3sect of se3Ai5g i5to the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5
3s 3 le3r5i5g de"ice;
*;);) Pa2/i7u6a2 :e27e:/i143

Re3lisi5g the li#ited #e#or! c33cit! of o4r h4#35 $r3i58 I h3"e $ee5 9o5deri5g
9h3t the oi5t is of "er$3ti# #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3ls si5ce the! 9ill $e
soo5 forgotte5; Most i5for#35ts $elie"e th3t the #e#oris3tio5 9orA is $! 5o #e35s
#e35i5gless e"e5 if it is i#ossi$le for the te6ts to $e er#35e5tl! ret3i5ed i5 the
$r3i5; This 3ttit4de 93s reflected i5 9h3t 3 3rtici35t reorted1
2 a*mit 2;7e alrea*y %orgotten what has been memorise* so %ar) but 2 still *on;t
thin it;s a waste o% time? 2nstea*) it really hel4s me a lot? 2 learne* my +nglish
mostly %rom learning texts by heart) as it were? : Yes) 2 #annot re#all the
)))(
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)))+
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)))-
))).
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))*'
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))*(
))*)
))**
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))*,
))*-
))*.
))+&
))+'
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)),'
)),%
)),(
)),)
)),*
)),+
inta#t senten#es) but those senten#e 4atterns an* ex4ressions are retaine* in
my brain? ,Yangun) L8) JA) in A44en*ix C0
A5other i5for#35t e6l3i5ed #ore1
Lijia ,L8) JA0L 2 #annot re#all what 2 ha7e memorise* so %ar? 'here are only
some %ragments s#attering in my min*?
I5ter"ie9er1 Is it 3 93ste of ti#e8 the5H
LijiaL 2t hel4s at least with examinations in the short term?
I5ter"ie9er1 Ho9 3$o4t i5 the lo5g ter#H
LijiaL 2t shoul* be hel4%ul as well? Although you #annot re#all the text
7erbatim) there shoul* be something retaine* in your min*?
I5ter"ie9er1 Bh3t is itH
LijiaL 'o quote a !hinese saying) GA trail is le%t when a wil* goose %lies
through;? 'his is also true o% learning texts by heart? 'here shoul* be #ertain
trails? 2% 2 go o7er it) 2;m sure 2 #an 4i# it u4 again qui#ly?
A #ore 3d"35ced le3r5er 9ho 93s 35 e5th4si3stic r3ctitio5er of te6t #e#oris3tio5
#3de it cle3r th3t forgetti5g 9h3t is #e#orised does 5ot c34se 35! ro$le# for hi# 3t
3ll1
2t;s 4ossible %or me to %orget the #ontent) the exa#t senten#e in the text) but the
Ginsi*e stu%% ; has insinuate* in my min*? 'ext memorisation is a 4ro#ess
through whi#h 2 %eel 2 ha7e im4ro7e* my +nglish? 2t has *one its %un#tion or
%ul%ille* its mission K 2 ha7e learne* what 2 was su44ose* to learn through text
memorisation? 2 %oun* my +nglish greatly im4ro7e* a%ter the 4ro#ess)
es4e#ially writing an* s4eaing? : : 2 enlarge* my 7o#abulary) learne*
many senten#e stru#tures an* *e7elo4e* a sense o% language? 2t is in %a#t a
gra*ual 4ro#ess o% a##umulation? 6etaining the texts in our memory is not our
%inal 4ur4ose) im4ro7ing our o7erall +nglish #om4eten#e is? ,Jae) L8) B) in
A44en*ix C0
This c35 $e s3id to $e o5e of the #35! i5teresti5g e6ressio5s of le3r5i5g theories
9hich $e5efited #e i5 o5e 93! or 35other d4ri5g the rocess of 353l!si5g d3t3; Bh3t
)),,
)),-
)),.
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))-'
))-%
))-(
))-)
))-*
))-+
))-,
))--
))-.
)).&
)).'
)).%
)).(
)).)
)).*
)).+
)).,
)).-
))..
)*&&
)*&'
)*&%
)*&(
)*&)
)*&*
)*&+
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)*&-
)*&.
)*'&
striAes #e is 5ot o5l! the i5sightf4l ide3 co5"e!ed i5 the 3cco45t $4t his striAi5g 93!
of e6l3i5i5g the E#issio5> 35d E4rose> of the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5;
A5other ro$le# 9ith te6t #e#oris3tio5 I ide5tified thro4gh #! o95 r3ctice 35d
#35! 3rtici35ts> reorts is th3t of its $ei5g Eti#e:co5s4#i5g>; Ho9e"er8 so#e
3rtici35ts do 5ot see it 3 ro$le# $ec34se Eyou also nee* to s4en* time i% you learn
D+nglishE using other ways; ,Xuying) L8) B@; The follo9i5g 3cco45t is eseci3ll!
3rresti5g for #e1
2 woul* not see it as a 4roblem? You ha7e to in7est time in *oing e7erything?
You #an tae a*7antage o% a brie% time slot in the morning an* 4erse7ere at
*oing it e7ery *ay? You #annot *o the re#itation an* memorisation all *ay long
as you a44arently ha7e many other things to *o? You shoul* not *o re#itation
%or eight hours on one 4arti#ular *ay an* %ail to *o it on other wee*ays? 'he
time shoul* be e7enly *istribute* to e7ery *ay in small amount? So 2 *o not see
this 4ra#ti#e Gtime.#onsuming;? 2t;s not about the 4roblem o% the a#ti7ity o% text
memorisation) but about how to arrange time? ,Jae) L8) B) in A44en*ix C0
The re3di5g of the 3rtici35ts> 3cco45ts e53$led #e to le3r5 #35! thi5gs 35d
$eco#e co5scio4s of #35! others8 $e it cheerf4l 3ccl3i# or critic3l 45derst35di5g;
This 3rtici35t>s reflectio5 93s 3lso 3rtic4l3rl! i#ressi"e for #e1
D'he limitation o% text memorisation is thatE the ratio o% quality an* 4ri#e is
not 7ery high? You may %in* only se7eral senten#es are use%ul %or you a%ter
memorising a whole text? ,Lixia) L8) B0
I 93s i5terested i5 this le3r5er>s fig4r3ti"e #355er of e6l3i5i5g thi5gs; This 93s 3
rel3ti"el! s4ccessf4l
.%
le3r5er 9ho cl3i#ed th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3d co5tri$4ted 3
lot to her 3chie"e#e5t i5 E5glish le3r5i5g 35d she referred this r3ctice to other
93!s of le3r5i5g; Her refere5ce for the r3ctice did 5ot re"e5t her ide5tif!i5g its
li#it3tio5s; This eisode 3lo5g 9ith #35! other i5trig4i5g co##e5ts i5 this i5<4ir!
#3de #e re3lise th3t Chi5ese le3r5ers8 33rt fro# $ei5g Er3g#3tic le3r5ers> ?Y;:I;
.%
.
She got '%* o4t of '*& i5 E5glish #3tric4l3tio5 e63#i53tio5 35d #e5tio5ed her s4ccess i5
E5glish se3Ai5g co5tests;
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)*'%
)*'(
)*')
)*'*
)*'+
)*',
)*'-
)*'.
)*%&
)*%'
)*%%
)*%(
)*%)
)*%*
)*%+
)*%,
)*%-
)*%.
)*(&
)*('
)*(%
)*((
)*()
)*(*
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)*(,
)*(-
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)*)%
((.
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248 %&&(@8 3re reflecti"e $ei5gs 9ith critic3l thi5Ai5g; I5 3dditio5 to co##e5ti5g o5
the stre5gths of the tr3ditio53l r3ctice8 the! 3lso oi5ted o4t its shortf3lls; For
e63#le8 o5e le3r5er K 9hile co##e5di5g the r3ctice K 3lso c3st do4$t o5 the
5ecessit! of "er$3ti# #e#oris3tio5 of e3ch se5te5ce i5 3 te6t1
2;m against that some stu*ents me#hani#ally memorise ea#h senten#e o% a
4assage) in#lu*ing those useless or meaningless to them
J>
? ,6o#) L8) B0
Echoi5g this criti<4e8 35other 3rtici35t s4ggested1
2n or*er to maximise the bene%it o% text memorisation) we;* better in7est more
time an* energy on those senten#es that are intuiti7ely a44ealing to us or the
stru#tures o% whi#h are worth learning? ,Xila) '8) B0
The 3rtici35ts here 3re dr39i5g 3tte5tio5 to the i#ort35ce of choosi5g the right
#3teri3ls to #e#orise8 the disc4ssio5 of 9hich c35 $e fo45d i5 Ch3ter ,;
A5other res4lt of the le3r5ers> critic3l reflectio5 is th3t the r3ctice 93s fo45d 5ot to
$e 3$le to co5tri$4te #4ch to fl4e5c! i5 re3l:ti#e co##45ic3tio5 e"e5 tho4gh #35!
le3r5ers cl3i#ed the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i#ro"es their or3l E5glish ?see
*;);%@; These 3re t9o le3r5ers> co##e5ts o5 this 3sect1
'ext memorisation may be %a#ilitati7e to one;s #ommuni#ati7e #om4eten#e in
#ertain as4e#t) but it #annot be too hel4%ul? ,Xuying) L8) B0
2 *on;t thin it hel4s a lot with natural #ommuni#ation? :You nee* to be 4ut
into 4ra#ti#al situations to learn how to #ommuni#ate? ,Shuhan) L8) SA) in
A44en*ix C0
It is th4s re3lised th3t the r3ctice is 5ot 3 353ce3 i5 site of its 54#ero4s reorted
$e5efits; Altho4gh #35! co5sider te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s Gan in*is4ensable way o%
.(
.
/! E#e35i5gless>8 3ccordi5g to the tr35scritio5 of the i5ter"ie98 the i5for#35t refers to the
se5te5ces 9hose str4ct4res 35d "oc3$4l3r! co5t3i5ed 3re reetiti"e to the o5es th3t h3"e 3lre3d!
$ee5 #e#orised or 3re "er! 45liAel! to $e 4sed l3ter;
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learning +nglish in !hinese #ontext) at least now; ,Jae) L8) B) in A44en*ix C08 so#e
G*o not #onsi*er it the only way o% learning +nglish well ,Lixia) L8) B0# 35d
*eliberately #ombine it with other learning a#ti7ities that ha7e 4ro7e* use%ul;
,Xiao%eng) L8) B0 9hile others e#h3sised the i#ort35ce of cre3ti5g oort45ities to
Guse what has been memorise*; ,+mma) L8) B0; The Ae! oi5t is8 3ccordi5g to 3
3rtici35t8
: we nee* to smartly or e%%i#iently use this metho*? : +7ery metho* has its
strong 4oints an* wea 4oints? 2t;s all *own to the issue o% taing a*7antage o%
the strengths an* a7oi*ing its weanesses? ,6o#) L8) B0
It see#s th3t Chi5ese le3r5ers 3re c3ref4ll! 9eighi5g 4 the 3d"35t3ges 35d
dr39$3cAs of the r3ctice 35d e6ect to #3Ae 9ise 4se of it;
*;* C1476u3i14
If the #ost 9idel! 3cceted "ie9 of le3r5i5g i5 Chi53 is i5deed th3t Eit is #e#or!:
$3sed> ?M3le!8 '.-(1 ..@8 it is f3r fro# $ei5g Eold:f3shio5ed>8 E#isg4ided> or e"e5
Est4id> : 3t le3st co5cer5i5g the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5; Bhile #35! of the
ercetio5s e#ergi5g fro# the i5<4ir! 3re i5deed c4lt4r3ll!:rooted 35d co5te6t:
$o45d8 the $e5efits the le3r5ers feel te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3s $ro4ght to their E5glish
le3r5i5g #3! h3"e co5tri$4ted #4ch to their ositi"e r3ti5g of the r3ctice; The st4d!
s4ggests the 5eed to 3! 3tte5tio5 to 9h3t the Ei5siders> ?i5 this c3se8 the r3ctitio5ers
of te6t #e#oris3tio5@ 3ct43ll! do 35d s3! $efore 3llo9i5g 4s to $e led $! o4r o95
reco5cetio5s; S4ch i5iti3ti"e is e6ected to K eseci3ll! 9he5 t3lAi5g 3$o4t 3
r3ctice of Chi5ese c4lt4r3l herit3ge K hel 4s to #o"e fro# e6cessi"e e#h3sis o5
c4lt4re 9hich #3!8 to so#e e6te5t8 Eres4lt i5 3 dis#issi"e 3ttit4de to93rds Chi5ese
le3r5i5g r3ctice> ?I; 24 N /rooAes8 %&&-1 ((-@;
As is cle3r fro# the recedi5g disc4ssio58 #35! of the co5tri$4tio5s offered $! the
le3r5ers 9ere tho4ghtf4l 35d 9ell:re3so5ed; The Chi5ese le3r5ers h3"e their o95
oi5io5s 35d D4dg#e5t 3$o4t 9hether 35d 9h! the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3d $ee5
$e5efici3l to their foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g i5 3 Chi5ese co5te6t; Bhile it 93s
"ie9ed $! #35! Bester5 schol3rs 3s E45re93rdi5g i5 le3r5i5g ter#s> ?M3le!8 '.-(1
)*,)
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)+&%
)+&(
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'&%@ if 5ot h3r#f4l8 3rtici35ts> ercetio5s of the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5
foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 9ere decidedl! ositi"e; The 3rtici35ts ercei"e te6t
#e#oris3tio5 3s $ei5g $e5efici3l to foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 5ot o5l! $ec34se it
li5g4istic3ll! f3cilit3tes 35d e6edites foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g i5 3 54#$er of 93!s
$4t 3lso $ec34se this r3ctice s!chologic3ll! $4ilds their co5fide5ce 35d 3 se5se of
3chie"e#e5t; It see#s th3t the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 ro$3$l! 9ill 5ot $e
eli#i53ted i5 !e3rs to co#e8 5or 9ill it $e de5ied $! Chi5ese le3r5ers;
I5 the 5e6t ch3ter8 I sh3ll e63#i5e Chi5ese te3chers> ercetio5s of the 4se of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g;
)+&-
)+&.
)+'&
)+''
)+'%
)+'(
)+')
)+'*
)+'+
)+',
CHAPTER $------------------------------------------------
TEACHERS) PERCEPTIONS OF THE SE OF TEXT
MEMORISATION IN FOREIGN LANGAGE TEACHING
I5 this ch3ter8 I 9ill co5ti54e the e#iric3l i5"estig3tio58 3s roosed i5 Ch3ter )8
9ith 3 foc4s o5 te3chers> "ie9s o5 the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 ed3gogic3l
de"ice; There h3s $ee5 3 l3cA of e#iric3l st4d! of ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is
ercei"ed fro# the ersecti"e of te3chi5g8 the rese5t st4d! therefore 3ddresses this
g3 i5 liter3t4re $! 3ccessi5g the "oice of 3 gro4 of Chi5ese te3chers fro# three
ed4c3tio53l le"els;

This ch3ter is str4ct4red 3s follo9s1 +;' P3rtici35ts8 i5str4#e5ts 35d d3t3 353l!sisJ
+;% Fi5di5gsJ 35d +;( Co5cl4sio5; P3rtic4l3r i5for#3tio5 co5cer5i5g #ethodolog!
9ill $e $riefl! i5trod4ced or reiter3ted i5 sectio5 +;' gi"e5 th3t the 3ro3ches to
eliciti5g d3t3 fro# the te3cher 3rtici35ts 3re so#e9h3t differe5t fro# th3t fro#
le3r5er 3rtici35ts ?see Ae5dices ' N %@;
$.1 Pa2/i7i:a4/3# i4/e2<ieB a49 a4a683i3
This sectio5 9ill ro"ide det3iled 3cco45ts of #ethodolog! i5 ter#s of 3rtici35ts8
3ro3ches to i5ter"ie9s 35d d3t3 353l!sis;
$.1.1 Pa2/i7i:a4/3
The 3rtici35ts i5 the te3cher i5ter"ie9 s4r"e! 9ere %& l35g43ge te3chers fro# three
ed4c3tio53l le"els8 i;e; D45ior high school8 se5ior high school 35d college=45i"ersit!;
The! r35ged fro# %) to +* !e3rs i5 3ge 9ith the #3Dorit! i5 their t9e5ties 35d thirtiesJ
the 3"er3ge 3ge 93s (*; Their e6erie5ce i5 te3chi5g E5glish "3ried fro# ' to )(
!e3rs8 9ith 35 3"er3ge of '' !e3rs; At the ti#e of the st4d!8 , 3rtici35ts 9ere
te3chi5g i5 D45ior high schools8 * i5 se5ior high schools 35d the re#3i5i5g - 9ere
fro# 45i"ersities; The , te3chers 3t the D45ior high le"el 9ere sc3ttered i5 + differe5t
schools 35d the * te3chers i5 se5ior high 9ere 3ll fro# differe5t schools8 9hile
45i"ersit! te3chers c3#e fro# three i5stit4tio5s; All i5stit4tio5s 9hich the te3cher
)+'-
)+'.
)+%&
)+%'
)+%%
)+%(
)+%)
)+%*
)+%+
)+%,
)+%-
)+%.
)+(&
)+('
)+(%
)+((
)+()
)+(*
)+(+
)+(,
)+(-
)+(.
)+)&
)+)'
)+)%
)+)(
)+))
)+)*
)+)+
)+),
)+)-
)+).
)+*&
3rtici35ts 9orAed for 3re loc3ted i5 the #45ici3lit! i5 so4th9est Chi53 9here the
st4d! 93s co5d4cted8 9ith the e6cetio5 of three sit43ted i5 three other cities
.)
;
A#o5g 3ll the te3chers8 the "3st #3Dorit! 9ere 9orAi5g i5 4$lic ?st3te:o95ed@
schools or 45i"ersities 35d o5l! ) 9ere te3chi5g i5 ri"3te l35g43ge tr3i5i5g schools
3t differe5t ed4c3tio53l le"els; Al#ost 3ll the schoolte3chers c3#e fro# ge5er3l 4$lic
schools 9here st4de5ts 3re re3red to 4rs4e 3 higher le"el of ed4c3tio5 9ith o5l!
o5e te3chi5g i5 "oc3tio53l school i5 9hich the st4de5ts 3re s4osed to 9orA 3fter
gr3d43tio5; T9o 45i"ersit! te3chers h3d recei"ed their MA i5 foreig5 co45tries ?o5e
fro# R4ssi38 the other fro# the UG@; A5other t9o h3d $ee5 st4d!i5g i5 the US 35d
UG resecti"el! 3s 3 "isiti5g schol3r for o5e !e3r; More det3iled $3cAgro45d
i5for#3tio5 o5 the 3rtici35ts g3thered $! <4estio553ire is rese5ted i5 T3$le +;';
T3$le +;' /3cAgro45d I5for#3tio5 of Te3cher P3rtici35ts
P3rtici35ts
.*
Ed4c3tio53l Age Se6 Te3chi5g e6erie5ce 35d <43lific3tio5ZZZZZZZZZ
Le"el=2r3des Ye3rs T!e of school fi53l degree
Y4li L45ior High:( (* F ') P4$lic t9o:!e3r college
Li3Die L45ior High:' %. F ) P4$lic /A
Be553 L45ior High:' %+ F ) P4$lic /A
Li46i3 L45ior High:'8% %) F ( Pri"3te /A
Y3o<i5g L45ior High:% %, F * P4$lic /A
Li35g!i5g L45ior High:( (- F '* P4$lic /A
T35g#i5g L45ior High:% (+ F '( P4$lic /A
B35gti5g Se5ior High:' (( F '' P4$lic /A
She5gi5g Se5ior High:% (- F '* P4$lic?"oc3tio53l@ /A
Y35gAe Se5ior High:( (- F '* P4$lic /A
Li35g<i5g Se5ior High:% (, F '( P4$lic MA
Yeli Se5ior High:'8% (& F ( Pri"3te /A
Ho5g!i5g 45i"ersit!:'8( (. F * P4$lic MA?R4ssi3@
Peishe5g
.+
45i"ersit!:' +* M (-=* P4$lic=Pri"3te /A
Sh4<io5g 45i"ersit!:% (, F '* P4$lic MA
B35gsh4 45i"ersit!:% (* F , P4$lic MA
Ii5g6i5 45i"ersit!:% (* F + P4$lic MA?UG@
.)
.
The! 3re1 /eih3i i5 2435g6i Pro"i5ce8 Sh35gDi3g35g i5 Li35gs4 Pro"i5ce 35d L357ho4 i5
235s4 Pro"i5ce;
.*
.
All 53#es of the 3rtici35ts 3re se4do5!#s;
.+
.
This 3rtici35t h3d $ee5 te3chi5g i5 3 4$lic 45i"ersit! for (- !e3rs 35d the5 #o"ed to te3ch
i5 3 ri"3te 45i"ersit! i##edi3tel! 3fter his retire#e5t;
)+*'
)+*%
)+*(
)+*)
)+**
)+*+
)+*,
)+*-
)+*.
)++&
)++'
)++%
)++(
)++)
)++*
)+++
)++,
)++-
)++.
)+,&
)+,'
)+,%
)+,(
)+,)
)+,*
)+,+
)+,,
)+,-
)+,.
)+-&
)+-'
)+-%
())
()*
()+
(),
()-
0i3oho5g 45i"ersit!:' )& F ', P4$lic /A
Lie35 45i"ersit!:'8% (* F '( P4$lic MA
L4!i
.,
45i"ersit! %) M ' Pri"3te /A

$.1.2 I43/2u0e4/3
This s4$sectio5 descri$es t9o i5str4#e5ts e#lo!ed i5 the st4d! o5 te3cher gro48
i;e; <4estio553ire 35d i5ter"ie9;
$.1.2.1 Ge4e2a6 Gue3/i144ai2e
After the te3chers 3greed to t3Ae 3rt i5 the rese3rch8 the! 9ere 3sAed to co#lete the
<4estio553ire descri$ed i5 Ch3ter ) ?see Ae5di6 %8 P3rt I 35d II@ i5 electro5ic
"ersio5 35d ret4r5 it "i3 e#3il; This <4estio553ire 93s desig5ed to collect f3ct43l d3t3
o5 the te3chers 35d their o"er3ll 3ttit4de to93rds 3 54#$er of iss4es th3t I co5sidered
to $e of high rele"35ce to the t3rget toic; It therefore co5stit4tes 35 esse5ti3l 3rt of
the fr3#e9orA set for the s4$se<4e5t i5:deth i5ter"ie9; The d3t3 fro# the
<4estio553ire heled #e get 3 ro4gh ide3 of the 3rtici35ts> 3ttit4de $efore
co5d4cti5g i5di"id43l i5ter"ie9s; It 3lso 3llo9ed the 3rtici35ts to se5d ti#e o5 the
#ore 3ttit4di53l di#e5sio5s of the iss4es 3t h35d d4ri5g i5ter"ie9s ?L; Flo9erde98 Li8
N Miller8 '..-@; The <4estio553ire 93s c3ref4ll! desig5ed so th3t it did 5ot $i3s the
3rtici35ts> reso5ses i5 s4$se<4e5t i5ter"ie9s ?see );,;%;%@;
The co#letio5 of the 3$o"e:#e5tio5ed ge5er3l <4estio553ire 3he3d of the 3ct43l
i5ter"ie9 3lso ser"es 3s 3 "3lid3tio5 for 3rtici35ts> s4$se<4e5t ill4str3tio5 of their
ositio5;
$.1.2.2 I4/e2<ieB3
The #3i5 #ethod 4sed i5 eliciti5g te3cher d3t3 93s the i5:deth i5ter"ie9; The
i5ter"ie9 d3t3 9ere collected d4ri5g t9o field9orA tris to Chi538 resecti"el!
$et9ee5 Fe$r43r! to Aril i5 %&&. 35d Fe$r43r! to M3! i5 %&'&; The i5ter"ie9s 9ere
.,
.
This 3rtici35t h3s $ee5 te3chi5g E5glish to st3ff 9orAi5g i5 Doi5t:"e5t4re co#35ies; 2i"e5
th3t the le3r5ers 3re 3ll 45i"ersit! gr3d43tes8 the 3rtici35t is co5sidered to $e te3chi5g 3t
45i"ersit! le"el;
)+-(
)+-)
)+-*
)+-+
)+-,
)+--
)+-.
)+.&
)+.'
)+.%
)+.(
)+.)
)+.*
)+.+
)+.,
)+.-
)+..
),&&
),&'
),&%
),&(
),&)
),&*
),&+
),&,
),&-
),&.
),'&
),''
),'%
),'(
),')
().
(*&
(*'
co5d4cted either thro4gh f3ce:to:f3ce co##45ic3tio5 or $! teleho5e; The l35g43ge
4sed i5 the i5ter"ie9s 93s St35d3rd Chi5ese ?8utonghua@ or the loc3l di3lect soAe5
i5 the cit! 9here the field 9orA 93s c3rried o4t; The ti#e le5gth r35ged fro# (&
#i54tes to 35 ho4r or so8 9ith o5e 3rtici35t $ei5g i5ter"ie9ed t9ice
.-
; All the
i5ter"ie9s e6cet o5e
..
9ere recorded 9ith high <43lit! recorders 35d tr35scri$ed
str3ight393!;
The i5ter"ie9s c35 $e descri$ed 3s 3rti3ll! str4ct4red; I re3red 3 54#$er of
redeter#i5ed <4estio5s I 93s i5terested i58 $4t the 3rtici35ts 9ere 3lso 3llo9ed
co5sider3$le freedo# i5 le3di5g the disc4ssio5 i5 directio5s 9hich the! tho4ght 9ere
rele"35t8 th4s ro"idi5g 3 Ereflecti"e> ?H3##ersle! N AtAi5so58 '..*@ ele#e5t of the
i5ter"ie9s; The <4estio5s reset i5 the i5ter"ie9 g4ide ?see Ae5di6 *@ 35d the 93!
the! ?35d the follo9:4 <4estio5s@ 9ere 3sAed 9ere desig5ed to elicit 3s rich
reso5ses 3s ossi$le ?see Ae5di6 + for d3t3 s3#les de#o5str3ti5g the i5ter3ctio5
$et9ee5 the i5ter"ie9er 35d the i5ter"ie9ees@; P3rtici35ts 9ere e5co4r3ged to
reso5d to the <4estio5s 3t le5gth $! $ei5g i5"ited to D4stif! their oi5io5s 9he5e"er
3rori3te; D4ri5g the i5ter"ie9s8 I osed follo9:4 <4estio5s $! liste5i5g to the
3rtici35ts> reso5se c3ref4ll! for cl4es 3s to 9h3t <4estio5s to 3sA 5e6t8 or 9hether
it 93s i#ort35t to ro$e for 3dditio53l i5for#3tio5 ?M3!A4t N Moreho4se8 '..)@; I5
this reg3rd8 I gre3tl! $e5efited fro# #! o95 re"io4s e6erie5ce of 9orAi5g 3s 3
l35g43ge te3cher i5 $oth high school 35d 45i"ersit!; As the i5ter"ie9er8 I l3!ed the
role of ro"idi5g so#e str4ct4re 35d co5trolli5g the directio5 of the o5goi5g
co5"ers3tio5 so th3t the i5ter"ie9ees co"ered cert3i5 Ae! 3re3s ide5tified i5 #!
re3di5g of the liter3t4re 35d #! reflectio5 o5 #! erso53l le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g
e6erie5ce rel3ted to c4rre5t toic; Thro4gho4t 3ll i5ter"ie9s8 I tried 5ot to i5fl4e5ce
9h3t the i5ter"ie9ees s3id $! c34tio4sl! hr3si5g #! <4estio5s8 $4t offered
cl3rific3tio5 i5 i5st35ces of 3#$ig4it! ?Sr3dle!8 '.,.@
$.1.! A4a683i3
.-
.
The 3rtici35t 93s i5ter"ie9ed for the seco5d ti#e $ec34se the 34thor felt 9he5 tr35scri$i5g
the first:ro45d of i5ter"ie9 th3t 3 fe9 cl3rific3tio5s 5eed to $e #3de 9ith the 3rtici35t 9ho
h3e5ed to $e 3"3il3$le;
..
.
This i5ter"ie9ee ref4sed to h3"e the i5ter"ie9 recorded 35d I #3de 5otes d4ri5g 35d
i##edi3tel! 3fter the i5ter"ie9;
),'*
),'+
),',
),'-
),'.
),%&
),%'
),%%
),%(
),%)
),%*
),%+
),%,
),%-
),%.
),(&
),('
),(%
),((
),()
),(*
),(+
),(,
),(-
),(.
),)&
),)'
),)%
),)(
(*%
(*(
(*)
(**
(*+
Altho4gh the rese5t st4d! is esse5ti3ll! Ei5terreti"e>8 the defi5iti"e the#es 35d
codi5g c3tegories i5 <43lit3ti"e st4d! c35 e#erge o5l! fro# 35 e63#i53tio5 of the
d3t3 r3ther th35 $ei5g f4ll! deter#i5ed $eforeh35d 35d i#osed o5 the d3t3 ?/ogd35
N /iAle58 '..%@; I5 the sirit of 353l!tic i5d4ctio5 ?i$id@8 I ree3tedl! re3d thro4gh
the i5ter"ie9 tr35scrits d4ri5g 35d 3fter the field 9orA i5 order to ide5tif! rec4rre5t
the#es 35d s3lie5t co##e5ts; I st3rted fro# the c3tegories th3t 3rose fro# the gro4
of <4estio5s set o4t i5 the i5ter"ie9 g4ide ?see Ae5di6 *@; Ho9e"er8 3s the
i5ter3ctio5 $et9ee5 the i5ter"ie9er 35d the i5ter"ie9ee de"eloed8 5e9 the#es or
s4$:c3tegories #35ifested the#sel"es8 he5ce the e#erge5ce of 3 l3rge set of ossi$le
c3tegories; L4dged o5 their rele"35ce to the rese3rch <4estio5s 35d the rec4rre5t
fre<4e5c!8 fi"e #3i5 c3tegories 9ere fi53lised 35d $ec3#e the fr3#e9orA for the
Efi5di5gs> sectio5 of this ch3ter ?see T3$le +;%@;
T3$le +;% Fr3#e9orA for A53l!sis o5 I5ter"ie9 D3t3
1. O"er3ll 3ttit4des to93rds the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5
2. Percei"ed stro5g oi5ts of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 te3chi5g de"ice
!. Attit4des to93rds the i#3ct of te6t #e#oris3tio5 o5 cre3ti"it!
&. Attit4des to93rds the i#3ct of te6t #e#oris3tio5 o5 45derst35di5g
(. Attit4des to93rds the i#3ct of te6t #e#oris3tio5 o5 #oti"3tio5


$.2 Fi49i4g3
/efore el3$or3ti5g o5 the 3rtic4l3rs of the ide5tified the#es8 it 9o4ld $e 4sef4l to
h3"e 35 o"er"ie9 of the te3chers> oi5io5s $! 93! of sAetch! s4##3r! 35d this is
sho95 i5 T3$le +;(1
T3$le +;( Te3chers> O"er3ll Oi5io5s of Te6t Me#oris3tio5
N3#e oi5io5 ?4si5g the 3rtici35ts> o95 9ords@
Y4li ?TP8 LH@
),))
),)*
),)+
),),
),)-
),).
),*&
),*'
),*%
),*(
),*)
),**
),*+
),*,
),*-
),*.
),+&
),+'
),+%
),+(
),+)
),+*
),++
),+,
),+-
),+.
),,&
),,'
),,%
),,(
),,)
),,*
7ery e%%e#ti7eN im4ro7e one;s #reati7e thining rather than restraining
itN their Dthe stu*ents;E interest #an be in#rease* as they are a##umulating
more an* more stu%% Dthrough memorising textsEN must be use* in 4rimary an*
high s#hoolN still a44li#able in uni7ersity) but requirements may be lowere*
Li3Die ?TP8 LH@
essential an* in*is4ensable %or beginnersN will not restrain stu*ents; i*ea
*e7elo4mentN shoul* be use* e7en in tertiary le7elN ee4ing stu*ents; interest
is 7ery im4ortant
Be553 ?TP8 LH@
#oul*n;t agree any more Dthat text memorisation is a goo* 4ra#ti#eEN
extremely use%ul i% one tries to thin more an* get hisOher un*erstan*ing
in7ol7e*N Dthe im4a#t on stu*ents; interest an* moti7ationE *e4en*s on the
in*i7i*ual stu*entsN whether one is Gusing hisOher brain; while memorising
really mattersN shoul* be use* in #ollege as well
Li46i3 ?TP8 LH@
7ery goo* metho*N suggest my stu*ents re#ite as many 4assages as 4ossible
Don the #on*ition that it *oes not 4ose a 4sy#hologi#al bur*en %or themEN *on;t
thin it will exert mu#h in%luen#e on the stu*ents; #reati7ity Di% we tea#her
gui*e 4ro4erlyEN usable whether you are in #ollege or in mi**le.ages
Y3o<i5g ?TP8 LH@
use%ul 4ra#ti#eN they Dstu*entsE may be moti7ate* an* ha7e a sense o%
a#hie7ement Dthrough memorising textsEN it is not a waste o% timeN we nee* to
memorise more DtextsE the ol*er we be#ome
Li35g!i5g ?TP8 LH@
ne#essary in #ontext lie !hinese where there is no language en7ironmentN
#an *e7elo4 a sense o% %ul%ilment through re#itationN shoul* not restrain
stu*ents; i*ea *e7elo4ment or #reati7ityN shoul* be hel4%ul to +nglish learning
e7en in tertiary le7el
T35g#i5g ?TP8 LH@
#ertainly be use%ulN a goo* means to hel4 us learn DlanguageEN might be more
interesting %or them Dyounger learnersE as it Dre#itationE in7ol7es the
%un#tioning o% se7eral organs Keyes) mouth) ears an* brainN *on;t thin it is
ne#essarily a goo* way o% learning %or a*ults
B35gti5g ?TP8 SH@
),,+
),,,
),,-
),,.
),-&
),-'
),-%
),-(
),-)
),-*
),-+
),-,
),--
),-.
),.&
),.'
),.%
),.(
),.)
),.*
),.+
),.,
),.-
),..
)-&&
)-&'
)-&%
)-&(
)-&)
)-&*
)-&+
)-&,
)-&-
)-&.
*oes not ha7e mu#h to *o with examsN #an be hel4%ul to some extent in terms
o% *e7elo4ing language senseN useless i% one rote.memorises Dthe textE an*
*oesn;t now how to mae use o% it
She5gi5g ?TP8 SH@
goo* 4ra#ti#eN en#ourage my stu*ents to re#ite more 4assages) but be
sele#ti7e in materials use* %or memorisationN o7eruse may ha7e negati7e
im4a#t on stu*ents; interest) es4e#ially %or 4oor stu*entsN im4a#t on #reati7e
thining *e4en*s on the s4e#i%i# #on*ition o% the in*i7i*ual stu*ent who may
or may not be able to 4ro4erly use what was memorise*N use in #ollege shoul*
*e4en* on 4ersonal interest
Y35gAe ?TP8 SH@
goo* 4ra#ti#eN en#ourage my stu*ents to memorise more texts) at least rea*
alou* %luentlyN will not #ause a 4roblem in terms o% #reati7ity %or stu*ents who
#an learn %lexiblyN *on;t thin it will ill stu*ents; interestN maybe ne#essary
%or %oreign language majors at tertiary le7el
Li35g<i5g ?TP8 SH@
in*is4ensable %or stu*ents either in test.oriente* e*u#ation or use.oriente*
e*u#ationN 4robably raises their Dstu*ents;E interestN %a#ilitate their
Dstu*ents;E #reati7ityN ne#essary to #ontinue the 4ra#ti#e at tertiary le7el
Yeli ?TP8 SH@
rational existen#e in !hinaN es4e#ially hel4%ul at beginning stageN will not
restrain the stu*ents; i*ea *e7elo4ment or #reati7ityN may not ne#essarily
*amage stu*ents; interest i% 4ro4erly use*N whether to use in tertiary le7el
*e4en*s on in*i7i*ual stu*ents an* their 4ur4oses
Ho5g!i5g ?TP8 U@
#ertainly an e%%e#ti7e way o% learning %oreign languageN *on;t thin it limits
one;s #reati7ityN ex#essi7e use might ill stu*ents; interestN o% #ourse ne#essary
to use at tertiary le7el
Peishe5g ?TP8 U@
goo* 4ra#ti#eN ne#essary at beginning stageN will not ne#essarily ill
stu*ents; interest i% memorise a text sele#ti7elyN *oes not ha7e mu#h to *o with
#reati7ity . i% has) #an only be %a#ilitati7e to #reati7ityN ne#essary 4ra#ti#e %or
#ollege stu*ents in %resh year
Sh4<io5g ?TP8 U@
)-'&
)-''
)-'%
)-'(
)-')
)-'*
)-'+
)-',
)-'-
)-'.
)-%&
)-%'
)-%%
)-%(
)-%)
)-%*
)-%+
)-%,
)-%-
)-%.
)-(&
)-('
)-(%
)-((
)-()
)-(*
)-(+
)-(,
)-(-
)-(.
)-)&
)-)'
)-)%
)-)(
beginners nee* to start %rom re#itationN suggest my stu*ents memorise as
many texts as 4ossibleN unsele#ti7e or ina44ro4riate memorisation o% text
might ill stu*ents; interestN shoul* #ontinue to be use* at tertiary stage
B35gsh4 ?TP8 U@
not sure that it is ne#essarily a goo* 4ra#ti#eN may be ne#essary %or
beginners) but not at tertiary le7el
Ii5g6i5 ?TP8 U@
basi# training in %oreign language learningN suggest my stu*ents memorise as
many texts as 4ossibleN shoul* not a%%e#t their Dstu*ents;E #reati7e use o%
languageN
0i3oho5g ?TP8 U@
7ery goo* learning 4ra#ti#eN require my stu*ents to memorise 4aragra4hs
state* in the textboo an* #he# regularlyN shoul* not im4a#t the stu*ents;
#reati7ity an* interest i% 4ro4erly use*
Lie35 ?TP8 U@
a 7ery use%ul 4ra#ti#eN the im4a#t on stu*ents; #reati7ity 7aries %rom 4erson to
4ersonN Dmeans o% learningE has less to *o with stu*ents; interest than other
%a#tors Dlie short.term out#omesEN o% #ourse #an be use* in #ollege)
es4e#ially in the junior gra*es?
L4!i ?TP8 U@
7ery goo* learning a#ti7ityN a ne#essary an* %irst ste4 o% learning +nglish Din
!hinaE) whi#h gra*ually lea*s to #reati7e use o% language through lots o%
4ra#ti#eN there is no issue #on#erning illing stu*ents; interest as it is
7oluntary in uni7ersity
$.2.1 O<e2a66 a//i/u9e3 /1Ba29 /5e :2a7/i7e 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14
O"er3ll8 3s see5 i5 T3$le +;(8 3l#ost 3ll 3rtici35ts tho4ght ositi"el! of the r3ctice
of te6t #e#oris3tio5 35d 3cA5o9ledged its $e5efit for l35g43ge le3r5i5g; Their
3ttit4des i5 this reg3rd differ o5l! i5 ter#s of degree of e5dorse#e5t8 r35gi5g fro#
Gextremely use%ul; ,Wenna) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 10 to Gat least not *etrimental;
)-))
)-)*
)-)+
)-),
)-)-
)-).
)-*&
)-*'
)-*%
)-*(
)-*)
)-**
)-*+
)-*,
)-*-
)-*.
)-+&
)-+'
)-+%
)-+(
)-+)
)-+*
)-++
)-+,
)-+-
)-+.
)-,&
)-,'
)-,%
)-,(
)-,)
)-,*
)-,+
,Yaoqing) '8) JA0; There 9ere8 ho9e"er8 3 co4le of the# 9ho hesit3ted to thi5A
highl! of this r3ctice; O5e t3lAed 3$o4t the iss4e si#l! fro# 3 4tilit3ri35 oi5t of
"ie91
What;s the 4ur4ose o% learning texts by heartH 2t *oesn;t ha7e mu#h to *o with
exams? ,Wangting) '8) SA0
The other e6ressed her disse5t fro# 35other ersecti"e1
2 woul* hesitate to say that it Dtext memorisationE is ne#essarily a goo*
4ra#ti#e in %oreign language learning? 2t *e4en*s on whether the material you
#hoose is 7aluable or not? 2t #an be use%ul i% you memorise some #lassi#
statements or utteran#es by master writers an* try to quote them
a44ro4riately in your own s4ee#h or writing? ,Wangshu) '8) B0
This te3cher>s disse5t 93s8 3s I i5terret it8 #ore $3sed o5 the iss4e of the choice of
#3teri3ls 4sed for #e#oris3tio5 th35 th3t of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 le3r5i5g r3ctice;
/! 353l!si5g the co#lete i5ter"ie9 tr35scrit 9ith the te3cher8 it 93s re"e3led th3t
she 93s 5ot 35 45co#ro#isi5g critic of the r3ctice of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5; Bh3t
93s i#lied i5 her co##e5ts see#s to $e th3t the r3ctice c35 $e $e5efici3l if the te6t
is rightl! chose5 3s she ree3tedl! e#h3sised th3t GD2Et is useless memorising some
textual materials whi#h are not o% mu#h 7alue to the stu*ents; ,Wangshu) '8) B0;
All the other te3chers i5ter"ie9ed 33rt fro# the t9o #e5tio5ed 3$o"e8 o5 the other
h35d8 ercei"ed the r3ctice to $e effecti"e i5 their l35g43ge te3chi5g1
'hose Dstu*entsE who *o a lot o% text memorisation ob7iously 4er%orm better
than those who *on;t either in oral +nglish or grammar? ,Aongying) '8) B) in
A44en*ix 10
Irom my tea#hing ex4erien#e) *oing textual memorisation an* not *oing it
may lea* to *rasti#ally *i%%erent out#ome? ,"inxin) '8) B0
)-,,
)-,-
)-,.
)--&
)--'
)--%
)--(
)--)
)--*
)--+
)--,
)---
)--.
)-.&
)-.'
)-.%
)-.(
)-.)
)-.*
)-.+
)-.,
)-.-
)-..
).&&
).&'
).&%
).&(
).&)
).&*
).&+
).&,
).&-
).&.
'hose Dstu*entsE who *o well in memorising texts write better #om4osition
than those who *on;t? : 'he goo* stu*ents a#tually ha7e taste* the
Gsweetness; o% memorisation Do% textsE? ,Liangying) '8) JA0
'he ex#ellent stu*ents are usually those who are %on* o% rea*ing alou* an*
memorising DtextsE? ,Wenna) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 10
Si#il3rl!8 35other #3de the follo9i5g co##e5ts1
Irom my obser7ation) those who ha7e learne* texts by heart seriousmin*e*ly
really show a big *i%%eren#e in terms o% language sense) 4ronun#iation an*
s4eaing #om4are* to those who *o it remissly? ,Jiajie) '8) JA0
I5teresti5gl!8 3#o5g those 9ho felt stro5gl! 3$o4t the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5
foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi538 there 3re 3 fe9 9ho 3d#itted th3t the! the#sel"es
9ere 5ot Aee5 o5 #e#orisi5g te6ts for cert3i5 re3so5s 9he5 the! 9ere E5glish
le3r5ers8 35d co5se<4e5tl! the! did 5ot feel the! $e5efited 5otice3$l! fro# the
r3ctice1
2 woul* not say that 2 mysel% bene%ite* a lot D%rom this 4ra#ti#eE be#ause our
+nglish tea#hers sel*om require* us to memorise texts in high s#hool? ,Yuli)
'8) JA0
'o tell the truth) 2 *i*n;t *o many text memorisations when 2 was a stu*ent?
'his is 4robably be#ause 2 was lazy? ,Liangqing) '8) SA) in A44en*ix 10
Ho9e"er8 the! 5o9 $elie"ed th3t the! 9o4ld h3"e $eco#e #ore roficie5t i5 E5glish
if the! h3d #e#orised #ore te6t43l #3teri3ls; The $e5efits of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 is8
to <4ote o5e of the#8 Gout o% question; ,Liangqing) '8) SA) in A44en*ix 10 so th3t
#35! of the# ?'+ o4t of %&@
'&&
s3id th3t the! 9o4ld s4ggest to their st4de5ts to
#e#orise 3s #35! te6ts 3s ossi$le Ei% it *oes not 4ose a 4sy#hologi#al bur*en;
,Liuxia) '8) JA0;
'&&
'
See Ae5di6 ) for te3chers> reso5ses to the ite# E2 suggest my stu*ents learn as many texts
by heart as 4ossible?>
).'&
).''
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).'*
).'+
).',
).'-
).'.
).%&
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).%%
).%(
).%)
).%*
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).%,
).%-
).%.
).(&
).('
).(%
).((
).()
).(*
).(+
).(,
).(-
).(.
).)&
).)'
(*,
(*-
A5other i5teresti5g oi5t I 5oticed is th3t 3l#ost 3ll 3rtici35ts i5 their t9e5ties 9ere
those 9ho 3ssio53tel! or 45reser"edl! reco##e5ded the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 ?See Ae5di6 ( N ) for the te3chers> $io:d3t3 35d the res4lt of the
<4estio553ire s4r"e!@; EI54t> theor! see#s to $e f3irl! t!ic3l of 9h3t the! h3d to s3!
to defe5d their $elief1
Ior 4eo4le learning +nglish in !hina) how #an they im4ro7e without
memorising a #ertain amount o% language materialsH Without in4ut) how #an
you 4ro*u#e out4utH ,Luyi) '8) B0
Th4s f3r 9e #3! 3rri"e 3t the co5cl4sio5 th3t the te3cher 3rtici35ts> 3ttit4de to93rd
the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 93s ge5er3ll! ositi"e 3ltho4gh
so#e of the# did 5ot ercei"e the#sel"es 3s $ei5g erso53l $e5efici3ries of the
r3ctice 3s E5glish l35g43ge le3r5ers;
$.2.2 Pe27ei<e9 3/214g :1i4/3 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 a3 a /ea75i4g 9e<i7e
The te3chers offered "3rio4s re3so5s 9h! the! thi5A it is 9orth9hile to i#le#e5t
te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 their l35g43ge te3chi5g; Here I 9o4ld liAe to #e5tio5 the #ost
s3lie5t fo4r; The first is 3$o4t e53$li5g the st4de5ts to i5ter53lise l35g43ge
A5o9ledge1 GSome intri#ate language rules #an gra*ually see4 into the stu*ents; min*
Dthrough memorising textsE? 2t is in %a#t a 4ro#ess o% K in a#a*emi# terms K
Ginternalisation;
-=-
; ,Jiean) '8) B0; This is 3lso #e5tio5ed $! 35other te3cher to
de#o5str3te the 5ecessit! of 4si5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 te3chi5g tool e"e5 i5 #4lti:
#edi3 te3chi5g co5ditio5s ?see Ae5di6 %8 P3rt II8 Ite# )@1
2t is not a 4roblem at all %or us tea#hers to use multi.me*ia equi4ment an* we
#an 4lay +nglish animations or %ilm #li4s as mu#h as we want to? 'he ey
issue is whether the stu*ents are able to absorb the in%ormation or a#quire the
language automati#ally? 2 *o not belie7e the intro*u#tion o% multi.me*ia #an
'&'
'
The 3ct of #3Ai5g ?es; 3 ri5cile or 3 3tter5 of $eh3"io4r@ 3 co5scio4s or 45co5scio4s 3rt
of the self 3s the res4lt of le3r5i5g or ree3ted e6erie5ce; ?3d3ted fro# Longman Di#tionary o%
!ontem4orary +nglish@
).)%
).)(
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).)+
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).).
).*&
).*'
).*%
).*(
).*)
).**
).*+
).*,
).*-
).*.
).+&
).+'
).+%
).+(
).+)
).+*
).++
).+,
).+-
).+.
).,&
).,'
).,%
(*.
(+&
(+'
mae a *i%%eren#e to the stu*ents; learning results be#ause they are) a%ter all)
external #on*itions? &ut learning texts by heart in7ol7es internal e%%ort %rom
the in*i7i*ual) there%ore %a#ilitating the nowle*ge to be internalise*) an*
e7entually be#oming your own stu%% Da%ter synthesising the memorise*
materialsE? ,Yuli) '8) JA0
Bhile 5ot de5!i5g the f3cilit3ti5g role of #4lti:#edi3 s!ste# i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chi5g8 the te3cher 3rtici35ts 3l#ost 4535i#o4sl! i5sist o5 the irrel3ce3$le role
of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 do95:to:e3rth le3r5i5g r3ctice1 G2t Da multi.me*ia
systemE :may mae the a##ess to in%ormation easier an* the way o% learning more
#om%ortable or #on7enient )but the learners; initiati7es #an only be truly ta44e* while
they are engaging in su#h a#ti7ities as textual memorisation; ,Jiean) '8) B0; It is te6t
#e#oris3tio5 th3t ser"es 3s 3 fe3si$le 93! to let so#e delic3c! of l35g43ge i5si543te
i5to o5e>s #i5d1 GA%ter re#iting many arti#les) one gra*ually *e7elo4s an i*ea o% how
that language is use* an* the intri#ate language *etails are internalise* into one;s
own stu%% ; ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10;
The ide3 of e53$li5g st4de5ts to i5ter53lise 9h3t h3s $ee5 le3r5ed thro4gh
#e#oris3tio5 for l3ter 4se #3! 5ot $e 45i<4e to Chi5ese te3chers; A Viet53#ese
te3cher D4o5g ?%&&(8 %&&+@ oi5es th3t it is ide3l for st4de5ts to #e#orise 3s the!
#3! $e 3$le to i5ter53lise 9h3t the! h3"e #e#orised to 3l! to co##45ic3tio5 i5 3
53t4r3l 93!; I5 #! i5terret3tio5 of 9h3t the te3cher 3rtici35ts #e35t $!
Ei5ter53lisi5g i5to o5e>s o95 st4ff>8 I rel3te this ter# Ei5ter53lis3tio5> to CooA>s ?'..)@
co5Dect4re1 EAs the A5o9:$!:he3rt is ree3ted #35! ti#es8 it #3! $egi5 to #3Ae se5se
Its 53ti"e:liAe str4ct4res 35d "oc3$4l3r!8 353l!sed 35d se3r3ted o4t8 $eco#e
3"3il3$le for cre3ti"e 35d origi53l 4se>;
The seco5d de3ls 9ith 34to#3tis3tio5 of the st4de5ts> rod4ctio5 or c4lti"3tio5 of
their l35g43ge h3$it1
You must *e7elo4 a DnewE habit be#ause the %ormat imbe**e* in your mother
language is totally *i%%erent %rom that o% se#on* language? : Language habit
nee*s to be *e7elo4e* through 4ur4ose%ul training? 6e#itation is an im4ortant
).,(
).,)
).,*
).,+
).,,
).,-
).,.
).-&
).-'
).-%
).-(
).-)
).-*
).-+
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)..'
)..%
)..(
)..)
)..*
)..+
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)..-
)...
*&&&
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*&&%
*&&(
*&&)
*&&*
way o% su#h training; 2t is through re#itation that #ertain language %orms o%
ex4ressions be#ome a habit o% #ommuni#ation? ,Jiean) '8) B0
Thro4gh #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3ls8 it is $elie"ed th3t GD'Ehe stu*ents will %in*
some senten#e 4atterns an* ex4ressions be#ome 4art o% their own language
un#ons#iously a%ter re#iting the text o7er an* o7er; ,Xiaohong) '8) B0; This reflects 3
t!ic3l str3teg! of the 34dioli5g43l s!ste# i5 9hich the #3teri3ls 3re o"erle3r5ed;
EO"erle3r5i5g>8 3ccordi5g to Ste"icA ?'.-%1 ,&@ E#e35s 5ot #erel! #e#orisi5gJ it
#e35s #e#orisi5g so thoro4ghl! th3t o5e is 3$le to recite the 9hole "er! r3idl!
3l#ost 9itho4t thi5Ai5g 3$o4t it>; EO"erle3r5i5g> K i5 other 9ords K 3$sol4te #3ster!
of so#e $3sic l35g43ge s3#les 3i#s to #3Ae the# 3ccessi$le 34to#3tic3ll! 9he5 i5
5eed i5 ge54i5e or si#4l3ted co##45ic3tio5; Re3l:ti#e co##45ic3tio5 is 3l93!s 3
stressf4l sit43tio58 eseci3ll! for less roficie5t le3r5ers 9ho do 5ot h3"e #4ch
li5g4istic reso4rces 3t their disos3l; For those 9ho h3"e 3chie"ed thoro4ghgoi5g
#e#oris3tio5 of so#e $3sic di3log4es8 the stress c35 $e relie"ed to 3 cert3i5 e6te5t if
3rt of their seech is re3d!:#3de 35d i##edi3tel! 3"3il3$le for their 4se;
I5 reso5di5g to the st3te#e5t EH3"i5g le3r5ed 3 te6t $! he3rt is <43lit3ti"el!
differe5t fro# $ei5g fl4e5t i5 re3di5g 3lo4d 3 te6t> ?see Ae5di6 %8 P3rt II8 Ite# .@8
#ost of the te3chers sho9ed stro5g 3gree#e5t; The 3rg4#e5t the! c3#e 4 9ith i5
i5ter"ie9s is th3t1 G'he %ormer ob7iously im4rints mu#h *ee4er in the min* than the
latter; ,Wenna) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 10 so th3t Gsome stu%% may internalise into your
own; ,Jiean) '8) B0;; More i#ort35tl!8 Ethorough memorisation enables the stu*ents
to ha7e ex4ressions %lowing out o% their mouth when s4eaing +nglish) but being
%luent in rea*ing alou* #annot se#ure the e%%e#t; ,Luyi) '8) B0; Th4s8 the Chi5ese 93!
of i5te5sified #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts thro4gh #3ssed reetitio5 3e3rs to $e #ore i5
li5e 9ith the sirit of A4dioli5g43lis# th35 for the 4rose of #ere i5te5si"e re3di5g
$! Es<4ee7i5g e3ch te6t dr!> ?M3le!8 '.-(1 .-@; Te6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 $e s3id to $e
35 el3$or3tio5 of the #i#icr!:#e#oris3tio5
'&%
8 the #ost 9idel! 4sed tech5i<4e i5 the
A4dioli5g43l 3ro3ch8 i5 9hich the st4de5ts 9ere i#it3ti5g 35d #e#ori7i5g $3sic
co5"ers3tio53l se5te5ces 3s soAe5 $! 53ti"e se3Aers 45til the! co4ld r3ttle off the
'&%
'
Ste"icA ?'.-%1 ,&:,%@ offered 3 det3iled el3$or3tio5 o5 ho9 the te3chers c35 4se the st35d3rd
34dioli5g43l tech5i<4e of EMi#icr!:Me#oris3tio5> to #o"e 5e9 #3teri3l fro# STM to LTM;
*&&+
*&&,
*&&-
*&&.
*&'&
*&''
*&'%
*&'(
*&')
*&'*
*&'+
*&',
*&'-
*&'.
*&%&
*&%'
*&%%
*&%(
*&%)
*&%*
*&%+
*&%,
*&%-
*&%.
*&(&
*&('
*&(%
*&((
*&()
*&(*
*&(+
(+%
(+(
di3log4es 9ith e3se ?L3do8 '.+)@; S4ch 3 rocess 93s co##e5ted o5 $! 3 te3cher i5
the follo9i5g #355er1
'he #orre#t senten#e stru#tures or ex4ressions are out there %or their
imme*iate use i% the stu*ents memorize thoroughly enough? 2t;s as
straight%orwar* as a G#on*itione* re%lex; whi#h 2 thin is the highest state o%
language learning; ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10
The third re3so5 $ro4ght 4 $! the te3chers is th3t #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3ls
ser"es 3s 3 co#rehe5si"e e6ercise for the st4de5ts; For i5st35ce8 o5e te3cher
co##e5ted1
+ngaging the stu*ents in memorising texts 4ro7es 7ery e%%e#ti7e in my
tea#hing as it is in %a#t a multi.*imensional training %or stu*ents? 'hey
a#hie7e a mastery o% almost e7erything through learning texts by heart
in#lu*ing 7o#abulary) senten#es 4atterns an* grammar? ,Yuli) '8) JA0
Echoi5g this "ie98 35other te3cher "ie9ed te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s Ejibengong; Q3
Chi5ese hr3se #e35i5g Ea basi# training that means to lay a %oun*ation %or %uture
learning;E ,"inxin) '8) B0 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g? Si#il3r co##e5t is 5ot
45co##o5 i5 the d3t31 G9ne o% the ways Do% *e7elo4ing basi# trainingE is text
memorisation; ,Jiean) '8) B0;
The te3chers fro# foreig5 l35g43ge schools 9here E5glish is #ore e#h3sised th35
ordi53r! high schools
'&(
8 4s43ll! #e5tio5ed their co5cer5 for heli5g the st4de5ts to
est3$lish 3ccet3$le ro545ci3tio5 thro4gh recit3tio51
'&(
'
E5glish ed4c3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge schools is #ore i5te5si"e th35 ordi53r! schools; The
cl3sses 3re 4s43ll! co5d4cted $! loc3l 35d foreig5 te3chers 9ith o"erse3s l35g43ge te6t$ooAs;
St4de5ts 3t foreig5 l35g43ge schools therefore 3tt3i5 3 high le"el of foreig5 l35g43ge sAill 4o5
gr3d43tio5; The first $3tch of se"e5 foreig5 l35g43ge schools i5 Chi53 9ere est3$lished d4ri5g
'.+(:'.+) 45der the s4er"isio5 of Pre#ier Sho4 E5l3i; ?so4rce1 TList of foreig5 l35g43ge
schools i5 Chi538T %&'&@ The school 9ith 9hich Jiajie ,'8) JA0 is 3ffili3ted 93s o5e of the#;
*&(,
*&(-
*&(.
*&)&
*&)'
*&)%
*&)(
*&))
*&)*
*&)+
*&),
*&)-
*&).
*&*&
*&*'
*&*%
*&*(
*&*)
*&**
*&*+
*&*,
*&*-
*&*.
*&+&
*&+'
*&+%
*&+(
(+)
(+*
(++
(+,
(+-
(+.
We worry about the stu*ents; 4ronun#iation an* intonation? 2 insist on
#he#ing the stu*ents; re#itation one by one in or*er that their errors in
4ronun#iation #an be #orre#te* in time ,Jiajie) '8) JA0?
E"e5 i5 ordi53r! high schools8 the r3ctice of ro545ci3tio5 35d i5to53tio5 is
so#eti#es i5coror3ted i5 recit3tio5 of te6t1
We e7er trie* maing the stu*ents re#ite the text with the ta4e.re#or*er being
4laye* on a low 7olume? 'his requires them not only to #at#h u4 with the
s4ee* o% the re#or*ing but to imitate its 4roso*i# %eatures an* so on?
,Liangying) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 10
Th4s8 recit3tio5 of te6t ro"ides the ch35ce of i5to53tio5 r3ctice 9hich is 3$se5t i5
re3di5g; Recit3tio5 of te6t c35 $e erfor#ed 9ith the 3i# of r3isi5g 393re5ess of
rosodic fe3t4res 35d r3ctisi5g the# so th3t Ethe 9ords flo9 i5 3s 53t4r3l:so45di5g 3
#355er 3s ossi$le> ?2i$so58 %&&-1('@;
Bh3t the te3chers #e35 $! Eco#rehe5si"e tr3i5i5g> 3lso i5cl4des r3isi5g the
st4de5ts> 393re5ess of l35g43ge 4se 3t te6t43l le"el1
2t may bene%it the stu*ents in terms o% the layout o% a *is#ourse? 'hrough
textual memorisation) the stu*ents #an learn how to 4resent an argument in a
logi#al way? 'hey also get to now how #ohesi7e *e7i#es shoul* be use* to
#reate a natural %low o% writing? ,Xiaohong) '8) B0
Co5str4ctio5 of l35g43ge o5 disco4rse le"el c35 $e se5sed $ec34se 3t le3st G:text
4ro7i*es a language situation %or *ialogue an* a theme %or monologue; ,Liangying)
'8) JA0; The $e5efit of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3t disco4rse le"el is roosed $! 3
3rtici35t to e6l3i5 her theor! of le3r5i5g i5 rel3tio5 to l35g43ge f45ctio51
+a#h way o% learning re4resents an inter4retation o% language %un#tion %rom a
unique 4ers4e#ti7e? : Learning through text memorisation may be
em4hasising the writing 4ur4ose o% language be#ause it enables the learners
to now how argumentations are arrange* in a *is#ourse? ,Yeli) '8) SA0
*&+)
*&+*
*&++
*&+,
*&+-
*&+.
*&,&
*&,'
*&,%
*&,(
*&,)
*&,*
*&,+
*&,,
*&,-
*&,.
*&-&
*&-'
*&-%
*&-(
*&-)
*&-*
*&-+
*&-,
*&--
*&-.
*&.&
*&.'
*&.%
*&.(
*&.)
*&.*
*&.+
*&.,
Fo4rthl!8 #35! te3chers 3gree th3t e5g3gi5g the st4de5ts i5 te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5
#35! 93!s seeds 4 le3r5i5g; Altho4gh the! 3cA5o9ledge the d!53#ic 35d cre3ti"e
3sect of Bester5 3ro3ches ch3r3cterised $! i5ter3cti"e or3l 3cti"ities8 3l#ost 5o
o5e ercei"es these 3cti"ities 3lo5e 3s $ei5g e5o4gh; O5e 3rtici35t r3ised the iss4e
of cost:effecti"e5ess i5 ter#s of ti#e1
2t;s all *own to the issue o% time? : 2t is not una##e4table to let the stu*ents to
master Dnowle*geE through #ommuni#ati7e a#ti7ities i% time 4ermits) but the
Gamount; is too little? Ior exam4le) the stu*ents in 4rimary #an learn only one
senten#e stru#ture Dusing #ommuni#ati7e a#ti7itiesE *uring one wee? : 'he
7olume #a4a#ity is 7ery limite*? ,Yange) '8) SA0
Le3r5i5g thro4gh i5ter3cti"e or3l 3cti"ities is tho4ght to $e less efficie5t co#3red to
le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt8 the re3so5 $ei5g1
2t may tae hal% a #lass to 4ra#ti#e only a #ou4le o% senten#e stru#tures
through 4er%orman#es lie role 4lay) but the number *oubles or tri4les i% the
same amount o% time is *e7ote* to 4re4are the stu*ents to #ommit the text to
memory? :2n a sense) text memorisation #an qui#en the learning 4ro#ess?
,Xiaohong) '8) B0
Co5scio4s #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3l is th4s ercei"ed to $e 3cceler3ti5g the
le3r5i5g rocess; This is 5ot 3 5o"el ide3 3s Ste"icA ?'.-%@ fo45d th3t the 4se of
tech5i<4es for #e#oris3tio5 of di3log4es8 3r3dig#s 35d #o5ologs h3d $ee5
s4ccessf4l i5 his cl3ssroo#s; He re3lised th3t o5e #3Dor 9e3A5ess of 53t4r3l rete5tio5
3s oosed to i5te5tio53l #e#oris3tio5 is this1 3ltho4gh Erete5tio5 co#es 53t4r3ll!
9he5 3 st4de5t is i5"ol"ed i5 the right 93! 9ith e5o4gh s3#les of the l35g43ge>
?'.-%1 +-@8 53t4r3ll! ofte5 #e35s Eslo9l!> 9hich l3ces 3 li#it o5 ho9 #4ch the
st4de5t c35 get i5 3 co4rse of fi6ed le5gth; The CLT 3ss4#tio5 th3t E$! $ridgi5g 3
series of i5for#3tio5 g3s8 le3r5ers 9ill E53t4r3ll!> de"elo their li5g4istic A5o9ledge
35d sAills> ?Cor$ett8 %&&(1 '@ 93s reDected $! the Chi5ese te3chers1
*&.-
*&..
*'&&
*'&'
*'&%
*'&(
*'&)
*'&*
*'&+
*'&,
*'&-
*'&.
*''&
*'''
*''%
*''(
*'')
*''*
*''+
*'',
*''-
*''.
*'%&
*'%'
*'%%
*'%(
*'%)
*'%*
*'%+
*'%,
*'%-
*'%.
*'(&
'he !L' is not a #ure.all although it has its a*7antages? 'he a##ura#y o% the
stu*ents; language may be#ome a big 4roblem? Aow mu#h the stu*ents #an get
%rom the #ommuni#ati7e a#ti7ities is also a question mar? ,Xiaohong) '8) B0
S4ch 35 oi5io5 is co5"e!ed $! 35other 3rtici35t d4ri5g the i5ter"ie91
I5ter"ie9er1 Yo4 s3id th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3ct43ll! 3 93! of
3cc4#4l3tio5; C35>t the st4de5ts 3cc4#4l3te thro4gh re3di5g 3 9ide r35ge of
te6ts8 I #e358 e6te5si"e re3di5gH
Luyi,'8) B0L +xtensi7e rea*ing is o% #ourse ne#essary) but learning by heart is
also in*is4ensable as the latter enables the stu*ents learn more than they #an
get %rom the %ormer?
I5ter"ie9er1 Bh! soH
LuyiL +xtensi7e rea*ing is usually su4er%i#ial an* limite* in terms o% language
learning be#ause the stu*ents ha7e no time or no nee* to now e7erything in
the text? Learning by heart) howe7er) is in.*e4th learning? 2t enables the
stu*ents to atten* to many *etails o% language?
The oi5t $ro4ght 4 $! Luyi is i5 3gree#e5t 9ith the cl3i# $! Di5g ?%&&,1 %,,@
st3ti5g th3t Er3ctice of te6t #e#ori73tio5 F c35 hel de"elo 3 h3$it of 3tte5di5g to
det3ils of l35g43ge>;
Fi53ll!8 the te3chers ree3tedl! referred to E3 se5se of 3chie"e#e5t> the r3ctice of
te6t #e#oris3tio5 $ri5gs to the st4de5ts8 9hich echoes the st4de5ts> reort th3t the
r3ctice h3s $4ilt their co5fide5ce ?see *;);'@; The te3chers> co##e5ts see#ed to $e
#ore #3t4re 35d dis3ssio53te1
2 thin the 4sy#hologi#al stimulus it Dtext memorisationE brings to the stu*ents
#onstitutes one o% the most im4ortant as4e#ts in whi#h it bene%its +nglish
learning? 2 ne7er belie7e that one signi%i#antly im4ro7es hisOher +nglish
o7ernight be#ause sOhe is able to re#ite a %ew +nglish arti#les? &ut sOhe %eels
that hisOher +nglish im4ro7es) whi#h not only buil*s hisOher #on%i*en#e but
maintains hisOher enthusiasm in learning? ,Luyi) '8) B0
*'('
*'(%
*'((
*'()
*'(*
*'(+
*'(,
*'(-
*'(.
*')&
*')'
*')%
*')(
*'))
*')*
*')+
*'),
*')-
*').
*'*&
*'*'
*'*%
*'*(
*'*)
*'**
*'*+
*'*,
*'*-
*'*.
*'+&
*'+'
*'+%
*'+(
*'+)
It h3s lo5g $ee5 recog5ised th3t EF 5o s4ccessf4l cog5iti"e or 3ffecti"e 3cti"ities c35
$e c3rried o4t 9itho4t so#e degree of self:estee#8 self:co5fide5ce8 A5o9ledge of
!o4rself8 35d $elief i5 !o4r o95 c33$ilities for th3t 3cti"it!> ?H; D; /ro958 '.-,1
'&'@; Bhile self:co5fide5ce is cr4ci3l i5 3ll le3r5i5g 3cti"ities8 it see#s #ore so i5
foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 3s it Eh3s #ore ote5ti3l for st4de5ts to e#$3rr3ss
the#sel"es8 to fr4str3te their self:e6ressio58 35d to ch3lle5ge their self:estee# F
th35 3l#ost 35! other le3r5i5g 3cti"it!> ?M3cl5t!re8 '...1 ((@; The c4lti"3tio5 of the
le3r5ers> co5fide5ce th4s 36io#3tic3ll! $eco#es 35 i5se3r3$le 3rt of l35g43ge
te3chi5g; Te6t #e#oris3tio5 #ight $e e#lo!ed for s4ch 4rose; Here is 3 te3cher>s
testi#o5!1
Liangying ,'8) JA0L Many o% my stu*ents ha7e taste* the Gsweetness; through
memorising texts?
I5ter"ie9er1 The! h3"e i5cre3sed their scores i5 e63#sH
LiangyingL 3ot really? 2t;s more that they %eel they ha7e im4ro7e* their
language ability?

$.2.! A//i/u9e3 /1Ba293 /5e i0:a7/ 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 14 72ea/i<i/8
O5e ro#i5e5t iss4e rel3ted to te6t #e#oris3tio5 is cre3ti"it!8 9hich 93s
s4$st35ti3ll! disc4ssed i5 Ch3ter % ?see %;';% 35d %;%;%;(@ i5 ge5er3l ed4c3tio5 35d
l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 resecti"el!; Bhe5 3sAed 9hether the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 #3! li#it the st4de5ts> cre3ti"it!8 so#e 3rtici35ts see#ed to $e e"e5
477led $! the <4estio5 $ei5g 3sAed1
2 *on;t thin there exists the issue o% #reati7ity Din %oreign language learningE?
,Liangqing) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 10;
2t Dtext memorisationE *oesn;t relate mu#h to #reati7ity? ,8eisheng) '8) B0
This is $ec34se l35g43ge le3r5i5g is tho4ght to $e #ore 3$o4t i#it3tio5 th35
cre3ti"it!8 3t le3st i5 the e3rl! st3ge1
*'+*
*'++
*'+,
*'+-
*'+.
*',&
*','
*',%
*',(
*',)
*',*
*',+
*',,
*',-
*',.
*'-&
*'-'
*'-%
*'-(
*'-)
*'-*
*'-+
*'-,
*'--
*'-.
*'.&
*'.'
*'.%
*'.(
*'.)
*'.*
*'.+
*'.,
Language learning is a 4ro#ess o% imitation? We are su44ose* to imitate
other;s language rather than #reating a language? 2t;s ob7iously im4ossible to
#reate other;s language? Learning language is #on#e4tually an* qualitati7ely
*i%%erent %rom learning other s#ien#e subje#ts? ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix
10
Language DlearningE is not as #om4lex as we imagine be#ause mu#h o% it #an
be a#hie7e* through imitation? ,'angming) '8) JA0
2mitation must be a44lie* be%ore #reati7ity #an be a#hie7e*? ,Liangying) '8)
B0
I co5sider the gre3t i#ort35ce 3tt3ched to i#it3tio5 i5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d the
393re5ess of the secificit! of l35g43ge le3r5i5g 3s $ei5g o5e of the fo45d3tio5s for
#4ch of 9h3t 3rtici35ts s3id 3$o4t the ositi"e i#3ct of te6t #e#oris3tio5 o5
cre3ti"it!; A 3rtici35t 4t the rel3tio5shi of #e#oris3tio5 35d cre3ti"it!
fig4r3ti"el!1
Without initial imitation an* memorisation) #reati7ity is lie a s4ring without
water? ,Yuli) '8) JA0
She i5sisted o5 the f3cilit3ti"e role of #e#oris3tio5 i5 the de"elo#e5t of st4de5ts>
cre3ti"it!1
'he more one memorises) the wi*er horizon sOhe has a7ailable to himOher?
Aa7ing a great store o% materials in one;s min*) as 2 see it) #an only hel4
*e7elo4 hisOher #reati7e thining rather than restraining it? ,Yuli) '8) JA0
A si#il3r ide3 93s sh3red $! #ost of the 3rtici35ts8 o5e of 9ho# 4sed 35 353log!1
Aow shoul* one be able to wal without ha7ing learne* to how to #rawlH
,Xiaohong) '8) B0
A5other 3rtici35t #3de 3 deeer 353l!sis $! rel3ti5g to le3r5i5g Chi5ese l35g43ge1
*'.-
*'..
*%&&
*%&'
*%&%
*%&(
*%&)
*%&*
*%&+
*%&,
*%&-
*%&.
*%'&
*%''
*%'%
*%'(
*%')
*%'*
*%'+
*%',
*%'-
*%'.
*%%&
*%%'
*%%%
*%%(
*%%)
*%%*
*%%+
*%%,
*%%-
*%%.
*%(&
*%('
3ot *i%%erent %rom learning !hinese) only through sto#4iling #ertain amount
o% materials #an one lay the %oun*ation %or %lexible use later? Language
learning is a 4ro#ess o% a##umulation? 2% one *oesn;t memorise the G*ea*;
stu%%s) it woul* be 7ery *i%%i#ult %or himOher to tae #omman* o% %lexible ones? 2
remember we ha* a senior 4resi*ent in #ollege who a*7o#ates Gsi qu huo lai;
Dmeaning Gin%lexibility #omes be%ore %lexibility;E in %oreign language learning?
What he means is that the %irst ste4 is to learn by heart Dthe language
materialsE) an* then learn to use them %lexibly? ,Jiajie) '8) JA0
The Efo45d3tio5:l3!i5g> ersecti"e of te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s i5deed 3 co##o5
refere5ce i5 #! d3t31
Language has some basi# stu%%? : Without the basi# %ormat or 4lat%orm) you
ha7e no way to mae #reati7e use Do% languageE? 'hat is to say) you nee* to
lay a %oun*ation be%ore being able to use language #reati7ely? 2t Dtext
memorisationE is sim4ly a way o% buil*ing su#h a %oun*ation? ,Jiean) '8) B0
These co##e5ts erh3s rerese5t the t!ic3l Chi5ese 3ttit4de to le3r5i5g 35d
te3chi5g1 ELe3r5ers #4st 3t le3st #3ster the $3sics 35d o5l! 9he5 this is 3cco#lished
3re the! i5 3 ositio5 to 4se 9h3t the! h3"e #3stered i5 3 cre3ti"e #355er> ?/ricA8
'..'1 '*)@; If this li5e of thi5Ai5g #ight 5ot $e i5co#rehe5si$le e"e5 fro# the
Bester5 ersecti"e8 3 #ore co5crete iss4e 3s to ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 #3Ae
ossi$le the cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge does c34se erle6it! 3#o5g Bester5 schol3rs
9ho h3"e $ee5 t34ght to $elie"e th3t EF it Q#e#oris3tio5 of te6tsR co4ld 5e"er le3d to
rod4cti"e8 origi53l l35g43ge 4se> ?Pe55!cooA8 '..+1 %&%@; For Chi5ese te3chers8
ho9e"er8 it is 5ot i#ossi$le to 3chie"e cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge if s4fficie5t <435tit!
of te6t43l #3teri3ls is co##itted to #e#or!1
Aasn;t it been sai* that GAe who has memorise* >== 'ang 4oems be#omes a
4oet himsel% ;H 'his im4lies that one #an e7entually %igure out how that
language wors on the basis o% long.term a##umulation through textual
memorisation although the time it taes may 7ary %rom 4erson to 4erson?
,Liangqing) '8) SA) in A44en*ix 10
*%(%
*%((
*%()
*%(*
*%(+
*%(,
*%(-
*%(.
*%)&
*%)'
*%)%
*%)(
*%))
*%)*
*%)+
*%),
*%)-
*%).
*%*&
*%*'
*%*%
*%*(
*%*)
*%**
*%*+
*%*,
*%*-
*%*.
*%+&
*%+'
*%+%
*%+(
*%+)
*%+*
Here 9e see th3t the Chi5ese 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 93! of le3r5i5g 3 foreig5
l35g43ge #ight $e tr3ced $3cA to the folA theor! of i#licit le3r5i5g i#lied i5 the
s3!i5g th3t o5e #3! e"e5t43ll! h3"e 3 co##35d of 3 l35g43ge 3fter #e#orisi5g 3
co5sider3$le 3#o45t of s3#les ?te6ts@ of th3t l35g43ge; E"e5 if 5ot co5"i5ced th3t 3
l3rge 3#o45t of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 9ill 5ecess3ril! le3d to origi53l 4se of 3 foreig5
l35g43ge8 the r3ctice 93s 5ot see5 to li#it the ote5ti3l of 4si5g th3t l35g43ge i5 3
cre3ti"e #355er1
2t Dtext memorisationE is sim4ly a way o% buil*ing su#h a %oun*ation) but is not
meant to #on%ine you to it? : Similar to #onstru#ting a buil*ing) it Dtext
memorisationE just 4ro7i*es you with materials lie bri#s or stones to allow
you to #onstru#t Dthe buil*ingE) but ne7er means to tra4 you somewhere to
4re7ent you %rom #reating something? ,Jiean) '8) B0
O5e 3rtici35t #3de 3 si#il3r oi5t $! s3!i5g1
We in*ee* memorise others; stu%%) but it *oesn;t mean that we mean to #o4y
them or we *on;t nee* to re4ro#ess them by a**ing our own stu%%? A%ter all) we
just inten* to use the bits o% goo* or i*iomati# use o% language? 2t also
*e4en*s on the in*i7i*ual stu*ents? Ior those ex#ellent stu*ents) they absorb
more as they memorise more so that they be#ome more a#ti7e in their thining
an* more #reati7e in language at a later stage? 2 mean) they are able to a** in
their own i*eas an* ex4ress themsel7es by maing use o% what they;7e
memorise*? ,Wenna) '8) JA0
This "ie9 3e3rs to reso45d 9ith 9h3t so#e Viet53#ese te3chers 35d st4de5ts c3ll
Egood #e#oris3tio5>8 i;e; #e#orisi5g i5 3 selecti"e 35d fle6i$le #355er 3s 9ell 3s the
c33cit! to 3l! 9h3t h3s $ee5 le3r5ed i5 re3l 4se for co##45ic3tio5 4rose ?cf;
D4o5g8 %&&+@;
Other 3rtici35ts c35didl! 3ddressed the iss4e of cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge i5 rel3tio5
to te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 35 453ffected #355er; O5e 3rtici35t re3lised there is 3 lo5g
93! still to $e tr3"elled e"e5 if o5e h3s co##itted #35! te6ts to #e#or!1
*%++
*%+,
*%+-
*%+.
*%,&
*%,'
*%,%
*%,(
*%,)
*%,*
*%,+
*%,,
*%,-
*%,.
*%-&
*%-'
*%-%
*%-(
*%-)
*%-*
*%-+
*%-,
*%--
*%-.
*%.&
*%.'
*%.%
*%.(
*%.)
*%.*
*%.+
*%.,
*%.-
*%..
: it is by no means to say that on#e you ha7e learne* by heart many arti#les)
you ne#essarily stan* out in terms o% %ree ex4ression o% onesel% or in other
as4e#ts? 'here is still a long way to go? 'here are many things to *o
a%terwar*s? ,Luyi) '8) B0
E"e5 tho4gh this 3rtici35t recog5ised th3t #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts is 5ot o#5iote5t8
he 5e"er do4$ts the ote5ti3l of this r3ctice i5 re3ri5g the le3r5er to 3chie"e #ore
$! dr39i5g o5 his o95 firsth35d i5sight1
Learning by heart is the %irst ste4 %or us who are learning in a non.+nglish
en7ironment? 2t is a ste4 whi#h #annot be si44e*? : When 2 was in
Ameri#a
-=/
) many 4eo4le ase* me why 2 #oul* s4ea su#h goo* +nglish? 2
woul* not say it was ne#essarily be#ause 2 memorise* three boos o% 3ew
!on#e4t +nglish) but it ob7iously ga7e me an a*7antage in a#hie7ing what 2
#an *o now? ,Luyi) '8) B0
A si#il3r ide3 93s echoed i5 the follo9i5g re#3rA $! 35other 3rtici35t1
2 a*mit that the language learne* through text memorisation may soun*
somewhat sti%% at %irst? &ut 2 belie7e K i% the stu*ents lay a 7ery goo*
%oun*ation through large amount o% re#itation K one *ay when they go abroa*)
they #an qui#ly a*a4t themsel7es to new language habits or ways o%
ex4ression? ,Jiajie) '8) B0
It is th4s 45derstood th3t #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts is ge5er3ll! co5sidered 3 4sef4l K if
5ot 35 i5dise5s3$le K r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g i5 35
3d"erse co5te6t 9here there is 5o8 i5 #ost 3rtici35ts> 9ords8 El35g43ge
e5"iro5#e5t>; Its 4sef4l5ess i5cl4des its ro"isio5 of the 5ecess3r! gro45d9orA
9hich the le3r5ers 5eed to re3re the# for cre3ti"it! i5 l35g43ge 4se; Bhile the
Chi5ese 3ttit4de to le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g 3e3rs to 3! little 3tte5tio5 to cre3ti"it!8 it
9o4ld $e #ore 3rori3te to s3! th3t gre3ter i#ort35ce is 3tt3ched to $3sic tr3i5i5g
'&)
'
The 3rtici35t soDo4r5ed i5 the USA i5 %&&. for three #o5ths i5 35 e6ch35ge rogr3##e;
*(&&
*(&'
*(&%
*(&(
*(&)
*(&*
*(&+
*(&,
*(&-
*(&.
*('&
*(''
*('%
*('(
*(')
*('*
*('+
*(',
*('-
*('.
*(%&
*(%'
*(%%
*(%(
*(%)
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th35 to cre3ti"it!8 9hich is $elie"ed to co#e 3fter 35d $4ild o5 the for#er; I5 the c3se
of l35g43ge ed4c3tio58 #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3ls co5stit4tes o5e of the $3sic
tr3i5i5gs th3t 3t le3st 3ffords the ote5ti3l to 3chie"e e"e5t43l origi53lit! i5 l35g43ge
4se; For th3t re3so58 the 5eg3ti"e i#3ct of te6t #e#oris3tio5 o5 st4de5ts> cre3ti"it!
93s ge5er3ll! reDected 3ltho4gh #35! 3dded the rere<4isite th3t G: we tea#hers
a44ro4riately #ontrol the extent to whi#h an* the way text memorisation is use*;
,Jiajie) '8) JA0;
$.2.& A//i/u9e3 /1Ba293 /5e i0:a7/ 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 14 u49e23/a49i4g
The rel3tio5shi $et9ee5 #e#orisi5g 35d 45derst35di5g 93s 3ddressed i5 the 3tte#t
to sol"e the 3r3do6 of Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 Ch3ter % ?see %;%;%;'@; O5e Ae! 3sect of
sol"i5g the 3r3do6 is th3t Chi5ese le3r5ers te5d to #e#orise 9h3t is 45derstood 35d
45derst35d thro4gh #e#oris3tio5 ?F; M3rto58 et 3l;8 '..+@ r3ther th35 #e#orisi5g
#ech35ic3ll! 9itho4t 45derst35di5g; Bhile this fi5di5g 93s deri"ed fro# rese3rch
9ith Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 the co5te6t of ge5er3l ed4c3tio58 it 93s "erified $! the d3t3
fro# i5ter"ie9s 9ith Chi5ese le3r5ers of E5glish co5d4cted i5 this rese3rch ?see
*;);%;' 3$o"e@; The $elief held $! le3r5ers i5 45derst35di5g 3s 3 re#ise of
#e#oris3tio5 of te6t is 3lso sh3red $! the Chi5ese te3chers1
2t is out o% question that you ha7e to un*erstan* be%ore you memorise Din any
subje#tE? 2t is the same in %oreign language learning K you nee* to un*erstan*
Dthe textE be%ore you are able to memorise it? !learly) you #an not a#hie7e the
memorisation Do% textE without 4rior un*erstan*ing? ,8eishen) '8) B0
At the s3#e ti#e8 to #e#orise is co5sidered to $e f3cilit3ti5g 45derst35di5g 3s Ethe
4ro#ess o% memorisation is that o% un*erstan*ing; ,8eishen) '8) B0? As 3 res4lt8
When sOhe Dthe stu*entE rerea*s the text sOhe has memorise* be%ore) sOhe
#ertainly has a *ee4er un*erstan*ing o% it than i% sOhe has not? ,Liangying) '8)
JA0
This ide3 #ight $e i5fl4e5ced $! the tr3ditio53l r3ctice of Eree3ted re3di5g for
45derst35di5g>8 3s reflected i5 the follo9i5g <4ote fro# Sh4 0i ?''(&:'%&&@1
*((%
*(((
*(()
*((*
*((+
*((,
*((-
*((.
*()&
*()'
*()%
*()(
*())
*()*
*()+
*(),
*()-
*().
*(*&
*(*'
*(*%
*(*(
*(*)
*(**
*(*+
*(*,
*(*-
*(*.
*(+&
*(+'
*(+%
*(+(
*(+)
*(+*
I5 re3di5g 9e #4st first $eco#e i5ti#3tel! f3#ili3r 9ith the te6t so th3t its
9ords see# to co#e fro# o4r o95 #o4ths; Be sho4ld the5 co5ti54e to reflect
o5 it so th3t its ide3s see# to co#e fro# o95 #i5ds; O5l! the5 c35 there $e
re3l 45derst35di5g; ?23rd5er8 '..&1 )(@
Th4s8 the Chi5ese 93! of E45derst35di5g thro4gh #e#oris3tio5> ?F; M3rto58 et 3l;8
'..+1 ,,J disc4ssed i5 %;%;%;'@ 93s e6e#lified i5 #! d3t3; Me#oris3tio5 #3! $e the
$est 93! to $eco#e f3#ili3r 9ith 3 te6t for Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 the se5se th3t it is D4st
3 st3ge i5 the le3r5i5g rocess8 recedi5g 45derst35di5g r3ther th35 stoi5g 3t rote
le3r5i5g ?Lee8 '..+@;
The <4estio5 3sAed $! #35! st4de5ts GAow #an one learn a text by heart easily
without un*erstan*ing Dits meaningEH; ,Lijia) L8) JA0 is echoed $! te3chers1
9nly a%ter you un*erstan* the arti#le are you able to #ommit it to memory?
,"ingxin) '8) B0
3ormally) sOhe un*erstan*s Dthe #ontentE i% sOhe is able to re#ite Dthe textE)
es4e#ially %or longer texts? ,Liangying) '8) JA0
I5teresti5gl!8 #35! te3chers e"e5 $elie"e th3t the le"el of 45derst35di5g c35 $e8 to
so#e e6te5t8 D4dged $! ho9 9ell the st4de5t erfor#s the recit3tio51
I5ter"ie9er1 Are !o4 3ss4#i5g th3t o5e 5ecess3ril! h3s 3chie"ed 3 good
45derst35di5g if s=he c35 #e#orise 3 te6tH
Liangqing ,'8) JA) in A44en*ix 101 As 2 see it) i% one #an re#ite well an* 4ause
a44ro4riately between an* in senten#es) heOshe must ha7e un*erstoo* the text?
A tiny number o% stu*ents *o 4ause ina44ro4riately in the 4ro#ess o%
re#itation? 2t;s a44arently rote.memorisation?
The 45derl!i5g re3so5i5g c35 $e see5 i5 the follo9i5g 3cco45t $! 35other 3rtici35t1

*(++
*(+,
*(+-
*(+.
*(,&
*(,'
*(,%
*(,(
*(,)
*(,*
*(,+
*(,,
*(,-
*(,.
*(-&
*(-'
*(-%
*(-(
*(-)
*(-*
*(-+
*(-,
*(--
*(-.
*(.&
*(.'
*(.%
*(.(
*(.)
*(.*
*(.+
*(.,
*(.-
We o%ten ha7e long senten#es in the texts in senior high s#hool? 'hey Dthe
stu*entsE #ome a#ross attributi7e #lauses or something e7erywhere? 9nly
when sOhe un*erstan*s Dthe grammarE an* learns how to 4ause #orre#tly in
senten#e) #an sOhe re#ite smoothly? ,Yange) '8) SA0
This co5c4rs 9ith the 3ssertio5 $! U5derhill ?'..)@ 9he5 t3lAi5g 3$o4t re3di5g 3lo4d8
35 3cco#35!i5g r3ctice 5or#3ll! erfor#ed $! Chi5ese st4de5ts e5g3gi5g i5 te6t
#e#oris3tio51 Re3di5g 3lo4d c35 $e 3 o9erf4l tool for di3g5osi5g 3 st4de5t>s
co#rehe5sio5 of the te6t; The i5to53tio5 the st4de5t 4ses c35 i5dic3te 9here
45derst35di5g is 5ot co#lete; Vie9ed i5 this light8 recit3tio5 of te6t see#s to $e 3$le
to f45ctio5 3s 35 i5dic3tor of the st4de5t> 45derst35di5g of 9h3t s=he h3s #e#orised; I
9o4ld th4s s4ggest th3t the te3cher 4se it 3s 35 3ssessi5g tool
'&*
i5 3dditio5 to 3
di3g5ostic de"ice;
$.2.( A//i/u9e3 /1Ba293 /5e i0:a7/ 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 14 01/i<a/i14
A5 i#ort35t iss4e 9hich 93s e6lored i5 i5ter"ie9 is the i#3ct of the #e#oris3tio5
of te6t o5 le3r5ers> #oti"3tio5; I 93s 393re th3t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 rocess 3t 9hich
differe5t eole h3"e differe5t degrees of 3$ilit! 35d to93rd 9hich eole>s 3ttit4de
#3! "3r! tre#e5do4sl! ?Ste"icA8 '.-%@; I 93s eseci3ll! co5cer5ed 3$o4t le3r5ers i5
seco5d3r! schools 9here te6t #e#oris3tio58 if 35!8 is 4s43ll! #35d3tor! r3ther th35
otio53l; Bhe5 I 3sAed 9hether the r3ctice co4ld d3#e5 do95 their i5terest i5
le3r5i5g8 #35! te3chers> reso5se 93s 35 45e<4i"oc3l ENo>; O5e 3rtici35t reDected
the ide3 th3t there is 3 direct c34s3l rel3tio5shi $et9ee5 3 cert3i5 93! of le3r5i5g 3
foreig5 l35g43ge 35d the le3r5ers> i5terest8 eseci3ll! for 3d4lt le3r5ers1
Irom my Dtea#hingE ex4erien#e) most o% those stu*ents who lose interest in
learning a D%oreignE language %it in the #ase that they %eel they ha7e not ma*e
goo* 4rogress a%ter learning %or a while? : 2t is not that a 4arti#ular means o%
learning maes them lose interest? 2t is Dthat they %ail to seeE short.term
out#omes? ,Jiean) '8) B0
'&*
'
It 5eeds to $e oi5ted o4t th3t re3di5g 3lo4d h3d $ee5 4sed 3s 35 3ssessi5g tool i5 foreig5
l35g43ge testi5g i5 the UG 45til e3rl! '.-&s; It h3d $ee5 s4r"i"i5g for 3s lo5g 3s ,& !e3rs si5ce
re3di5g 3lo4d 93s i5trod4ced i5 l35g43ge testi5g i5 '.&( ?Beir8 %&'&@;
*(..
*)&&
*)&'
*)&%
*)&(
*)&)
*)&*
*)&+
*)&,
*)&-
*)&.
*)'&
*)''
*)'%
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*)')
*)'*
*)'+
*)',
*)'-
*)'.
*)%&
*)%'
*)%%
*)%(
*)%)
*)%*
*)%+
*)%,
*)%-
*)%.
(,'
(,%
(,(
I5teresti5gl!8 te6t #e#oris3tio5 93s see5 3s 3 #e35s 9hich #3! hel the st4de5ts
e3sil! see the rod4ct the! rod4ced8 therefore sti#4l3ti5g their i5terest i5 le3r5i5g1
2nstea* o% illing their interest) the 4ra#ti#e 4robably raises their interest? 2%
they %in* that they #an s4ea out some senten#es %luently or write some goo*
ex4ressions in their #om4osition) they will ha7e a sense o% a#hie7ement? Irom
this 4oint o% 7iew) the 4ra#ti#e maes them more moti7ate* in learning?
,Liangqing) '8) SA) in A44en*ix 10
Si#il3r co##e5ts 3re 5ot 45co##o5 3#o5g the te3cher 3rtici35ts1
My %eeling is that the more %luently sOhe #an re#ite Dthe textE) the more
a##om4lishe* sOhe %eels) an* the more sOhe lies it D+nglishE? ,Yange) '8) SA0
'he stu*ents ha7e a#tually *e7elo4e* a sense o% a#hie7ement through
re#itation? 2 ha7e some stu*ents who #an e7en memorise the text that 2 ha7en;t
taught yet? : 2% sOhe tastes the sweetness D%rom the 4ra#ti#eE) it shoul* not %eel
*istaste%ul? ,Liangying) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 10
Most stu*ents are %or#e* to Dmemorise textsE at the beginning? &ut gra*ually
they %in* this metho* #an hel4 them im4ro7e their 4er%orman#e in the exam?
'heir interest may in#rease? ,Yuli) '8) JA0
'hey be#ome more moti7ate* as they memorise more K so mu#h so that K they
begin to enjoy it? ,Wenna) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 10
It is 3lso i5teresti5g to 5otice i5 the 3$o"e co##e5ts th3t the te3chers te5d to
3ro3ch the iss4e of le3r5er>s #oti"3tio5 fro# the ositi"e 4shot of #e#oris3tio5
of te6ts; A co##o5 ter# 4sed i5 the 3$o"e <4otes is the Ese5se of 3chie"e#e5t>; More
i5teresti5gl!8 the "ie9 echoes th3t of 3 college st4de5t1
2 belie7e that interest #an be #ulti7ate* gra*ually i% you *e7elo4 a sense o%
a#hie7ement through text memorisation? 2 %eel terri%i# when 2 #an use what 2
*)(&
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*)((
*)()
*)(*
*)(+
*)(,
*)(-
*)(.
*))&
*))'
*))%
*))(
*)))
*))*
*))+
*)),
*))-
*)).
*)*&
*)*'
*)*%
*)*(
*)*)
*)**
*)*+
*)*,
*)*-
*)*.
*)+&
*)+'
*)+%
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ha7e memorise*? 'he sense o% a#hie7ement *e%initely im4ro7es your interest?
'his is ob7iously a 7irtuous #ir#le? ,Xujia) L8) B0
Moreo"er8 it is 3lso $elie"ed th3t it is the te3cher ?eseci3ll! those 9orAi5g i5
seco5d3r! schools@ 9ho l3!s 3 do#i535t role i5 393Ae5i5g 35d #3i5t3i5i5g the
st4de5ts> i5terest1
2t *e4en*s on the tea#her? 2 thin the tea#her shoul* 4lay a 7ery im4ortant
4art in the 4ro#ess? We tea#hers must 4lay the role o% gui*e sin#e we now it
Dthe 4ra#ti#eE is bene%i#ial to them? : As tea#hers) we may en#ourage them
by gi7ing them stimulus in or*er to interest them an* gi7e them a sense o%
a#hie7ement? 2 thin this is something we tea#hers #an a#hie7e? ,'angming)
'8) JA0
A si#il3r 3ttit4de is #35ifested i5 35other te3cher>s co##e5t1
2t;s u4 to the tea#hers who a*o4t *i%%erent ways o% stimulus? : 2t 7ery mu#h
*e4en*s on the tea#her;s a*a4tation o% gui*ing metho*s to arouse stu*ents;
interest Din *oing text memorisationE? : 'he tea#her shoul* gi7e them
gui*an#e lie tea#hing them how to memorise more e%%i#iently? : so that they
may %eel easier? ,Liangying) '8) JA0
I i5terret these co##e5t3ries 3s i#l!i5g th3t the le3r5ers> i5terest c35 $e 54rt4red if
the te3cher is sAilf4l e5o4gh to cre3te the 5ecess3r! co5ditio5s : #3Ai5g the# feel
f4lfilled8 for i5st35ce; Ret4r5i5g to the iss4e of 9hether the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5
i5 te3chi5g c34ses d3#3ge to le3r5ers> i5terest8 the te3chers> 35s9er : 3ccordi5g to
their co##e5ts : see#s to $e th3t the r3ctice #3!8 o5 the co5tr3r!8 get the le3r5ers to
$eco#e #oti"3ted if the te3cher 4tilises it 3rori3tel!;
Altho4gh I felt there is 3 oi5t i5 #4ch of 9h3t the te3chers s3id8 I 93s still left 9ith
35 i#ressio5 th3t the te3chers 9ere ge5er3ll! 5ot "er! se5siti"e to the le3r5ers 3s the
st4de5ts> 3ttit4de to93rds the r3ctice 93s sh455ed $! 3"oidi5g t3lAi5g 3$o4t it
directl!8 co5scio4sl! or 5ot; The i#lied 3ttit4de8 3s I i5terret it8 #ight $e co5gr4e5t
9ith 9h3t is co5"e!ed i5 3 3rtici35t>s re#3rA1
*)+)
*)+*
*)++
*)+,
*)+-
*)+.
*),&
*),'
*),%
*),(
*),)
*),*
*),+
*),,
*),-
*),.
*)-&
*)-'
*)-%
*)-(
*)-)
*)-*
*)-+
*)-,
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*)-.
*).&
*).'
*).%
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*).)
*).*
*).+
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2t Dlanguage learningE is similar to #hil*ren 4laying musi#al instruments?
'hey ha7e to *o a lot o% me#hani#al exer#ises at the beginning? 'ae 4laying
4iano as an exam4le) the i*s ha7e to *o mu#h 4ra#ti#e on musi#al s#ale
whi#h is not %un an* e7en boring? &ut #an you si4 this stageH 2% you omit this
stage an* mo7e *ire#tly to 4laying musi#al 4ie#es) the #onsequen#e woul* be
ob7ious? ,'angming) '8) JA0
Bh3t is 3ll4ded to i5 the 353log!8 I 9o4ld s4ggest8 is th3t th3t i5terest is 5ot the #3i5
re3so5 for doi5g 3 cert3i5 r3ctice; Bhe5 it co#es to te6t #e#oris3tio58 e"e5 if it is
5ot to so#e le3r5ers> t3ste8 it c355ot $e left o4t if the te3cher h3s e5o4gh e6erie5ce
35d co5fide5ce to 3ssess the "3l4e of the r3ctice to le3r5ers 3t 3 gi"e5 st3ge1
2 belie7e it Dtext memorisationE is 7ery im4ortant %or stu*ents at the beginning
stage? : 2 thin it is bene%i#ial to #hil*ren? So why not use itH ,'angming) '8)
JA0
2t Dtextural memorisationE a44arently *oes goo* to #hil*ren? Irom the %irst
gra*e in 4rimary s#hool 2 require* my son to memorise some texts both in
!hinese an* +nglish learning? ,Yange) '8) SA0
Bhile 3cA5o9ledgi5g th3t #35! 3d4lts 3re i5 3 good ositio5 to ide5tif! Eed4c3ti"e
e6erie5ce>
'&+
for !o45ger st4de5ts $ec34se the! h3"e #ore e6erie5ce th35 the l3tter
?De9e!8 '.(-@8 I 9o5dered ho9 the Chi5ese te3chers of E5glish K 9ho 3re s3id to $e
E#ore liAel! to 3ccet 5e9 thi5gs i5cl4di5g so#e 9ester5 ide3s>
'&,
K reso5ded to
Bester5 co5cer5 3$o4t the s!chologic3l i#3ct of te6t #e#oris3tio5 o5 !o45g
le3r5ers; The follo9i5g is ho9 3 te3cher #3de her oi5t1
'&+
'
De9e!>s ?'.(-@ criteri3 for 35 ed4c3ti"e e6erie5ce i5cl4de8 to 53#e 3 fe9 1 ?3@ 9orth9hileJ
?$@ch35ges the o5e 9ho 3cts 35d 45dergoes the e6erie5ceJ ?c@ 3ffects the <43lit! of s4$se<4e5t
e6erie5ceJ ?d@ for#s 3ttit4des th3t 3re $oth e#otio53l 35d i5tellect43l 35d ?e@ the o5e i5 9hich 3
erso5 feels the! 3re gro9i5g i5tellect43ll!8 e#otio53ll!8 35d =or #or3ll!;
'&,
'
This is <4oted fro# 3 Chi5ese E5glish te3cher i5ter"ie9ed $! B35g ?%&&-@;
*).-
*)..
**&&
**&'
**&%
**&(
**&)
**&*
**&+
**&,
**&-
**&.
**'&
**''
**'%
**'(
**')
**'*
**'+
**',
**'-
**'.
**%&
**%'
**%%
**%(
**%)
**%*
(,)
(,*
(,+
(,,
(,-
'he DWestern e*u#ationE #on#e4t itsel% is goo*? 2 thin it is goo* %or a*ults)
but not 7ery suitable %or #hil*ren be#ause the #hil*ren ha7e limite* ability to
#hoose? : 'hey DWesternersE ha7e a *i%%erent #on#e4t o% e*u#ation? 'hey
belie7e in %ree*om an* letting the #hil*ren #hoose themsel7es? When the i*s
are not equi44e* with the ability to #hoose) we a*ults ha7e the obligation to
mae a right #hoi#e %or them? : 'hey em4hasize the %un as4e#t o% learning?
'he #on#e4t o% e*u#ation is re%le#te* in the mo*e o% tea#hing? 2n %a#t) their
e*u#ation also has their *e%i#ien#ies? Iirst) their i*s %ail to lay a soli*
%oun*ation? Se#on*) #hil*ren;s la# o% ortho*ox training may lea* to 4roblems
in #ertain as4e#ts in later learning? 2 thin the i*eal way is the #ombination o%
the two Do% !hinese an* Western tra*itionE? ,'angming) '8) JA0
I 93s i#ressed 9ith ho9 c35didl! 35d i5cisi"el! this te3cher 3ddressed the
discre35c! $et9ee5 t9o ideologic3ll!:dist35t ed4c3tio5 s!ste#s; Altho4gh the
te3cher 93s se3Ai5g 3$o4t ed4c3tio5 i5 ge5er3l8 l thi5A 9h3t she s3id is 3lso
3lic3$le to foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g; It is i#ort35t for foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tors
35d te3chers to 45derst35d8 resect 35d le3r5 fro#8 if 5ecess3r!8 the ed4c3tio53l
co5cetio5s fro# 3 differe5t c4lt4re; The redefi5itio5 of EChi5ese5ess> K 9hich h3s
$ee5 i5 effect defi5ed i5 ter#s of de"i35ce fro# Bester5 5or#s8 35d ge5er3ll! 3s
$ei5g i5teresti5gl! differe5t fro# the 9orld defi5ed $! 35d co5str4cted 9ithi5
#3i5stre3#8 th3t is Bester58 s!cholog! ?B; C; Ch35g8 %&&&@ K #3! 5eed to $e
3ddressed i5 $oth ge5er3l ed4c3tio5 35d foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5;
$.! C1476u3i14
The #ost striAi5g oi5t 3risi5g fro# this i5ter"ie9 K $3sed st4d! is th3t the te3chers>
co##e5ts reg3rdi5g the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge see# to $e
Eo"er:ositi"e>; It sho4ld $e 5oted8 3ccordi5g to seco5d3r! school te3chers8 th3t Etext
memorisation was ne7er a 4ra#ti#e state* or sti4ulate* in the textboo or #urri#ulum>
,Yange) '8) SA08 $4t #3! h3"e $ee5 Ga long.stan*ing tra*ition; ,Jiajie) '8) JA0 i5
foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g; Bith o5l! t9o e6cetio5s ?Wangshu ,'8) B0) Wangting
,'8) SA0@8 the te3chers 3rg4ed th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 te3chi5g de"ice h3s 3
54#$er of 3ssets ?9hich e"e5 the rogressi"e 9ester5 #oder5 #ethods c355ot
rel3ce@ 35d the ote5ti3l ro$le#s 9ith the r3ctice K 9hich #3! $e i5t4iti"e to
**%+
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**).
***&
***'
***%
***(
***)
****
***+
***,
***-
***.
9ester5 schol3rs K see#ed 5ot to $e co5for#i5g to their 93! of thi5Ai5g ?i5 rel3tio5
to cre3ti"it!8 45derst35di5g 35d le3r5ers> #oti"3tio5@8 35d 3s s4ch it sho4ld $e
ret3i5ed 3s 3 3rt of le3r5ers> r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g;
Moreo"er8 #35! of the 3rtici35ts ?'* o4t of %&@
'&-
s39 the 5ecessit! of 4si5g the
r3ctice 3t terti3r! le"el or i5 3d4lt le3r5i5g; For e63#le8 o5e co##e5ted1
Whether you are in #ollege or in mi**le age) you may also nee* to learn by
heart some textual materials) whi#h 2 belie7e will bene%it you a lot in %oreign
language learning? ,Liu Xia) '8) JA0
A #3Dor 3rg4#e5t offered $! these te3chers 93s1
2n se#on*ary s#hool) your ha7e a #ertain *egree o% limitation in terms o%
thining an* un*erstan*ing? You #ertainly arri7e at a higher le7el in #ollege in
this res4e#t? Irom this 4ers4e#ti7e) we may bene%it more %rom memorisation o%
text in #ollege? ,Wenna) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 10
T9o te3chers ?Aongying,'8) B0) Xiaohong,'8) B0@ reorted th3t the! 9ere still 4si5g
the r3ctice erso53ll! for #3i5t3i5i5g or e5h35ci5g their foreig5 l35g43ge le"el
9hile o5e ?Wenna) '8) JA) in A44en*ix 1@ e6ressed her desire to Ememorise more
goo* arti#les e7en now;;
O5 the other h35d8 the te3chers> stro5g feeli5g 3$o4t the r3ctice so#eti#es
co5tr3dicted the f3ct th3t fe9 3rtici35ts f3"o4r test:orie5ted ed4c3tio5 9hich 93s
$elie"ed ?e6licitl! e6ressed $! Liangying ,'8) JA0 35d Yange ,'8) SA0@ to so#e
e6te5t to h3"e e5co4r3ged the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5; This 3#$i"3le5ce #3!
9ell $e rel3ted to the d43l f45ctio5s of the r3ctice8 3s e6ressed i5 the follo9i5g
co##e5ts1
2 thin it Dtext memorisationE is in*is4ensable %or stu*ents either in test.
oriente* e*u#ation or use.oriente* e*u#ation? : As %or the use.oriente*
'&-
'
See Ae5di6 ) for te3chers> reso5ses to the ite# ELearning texts by heart shoul* #ontinue
to be use* in #ollege?;
**+&
**+'
**+%
**+(
**+)
**+*
**++
**+,
**+-
**+.
**,&
**,'
**,%
**,(
**,)
**,*
**,+
**,,
**,-
**,.
**-&
**-'
**-%
**-(
**-)
**-*
**-+
**-,
**--
**-.
**.&
**.'
(,.
(-&
e*u#ation in whi#h use an* s4eaing is em4hasise*) it is also bene%i#ial to the
stu*ents? ,Liangqing) '8) SA) in A44en*ix 10
A oi5t #3de8 e6licitl! or i#licitl!8 $! #35! of the 3rtici35ts is #ore or less
rerese5ted i5 the follo9i5g 3cco45t1
+nglish #an ne7er be learne* only through the interesting oral a#ti7ities or
gamesN instea*) it nee*s 4ainstaing har* wor? We must in7est real $ung%u
,#olloquialism0? ,Jiajie) '8) JA0
This "ie9 echoes th3t of so#e Chi5ese schol3rs ?e;g; Di5g8 %&&,@ i5 the liter3t4re 9ho
oi5ted o4t th3t le3r5i5g 3 foreig5 l35g43ge is h3rd 9orA 35d the st4de5ts #3! 5eed to
$e e5co4r3ged to #eet the ch3lle5ge of h3rdshi;
Altho4gh it is 5ot ossi$le to rese5t 3 co5cl4si"e s4##3r! of the 3rtici35ts> "ie9
gi"e5 the di"ersified $3cAgro45d of the 3rtici35ts8 the follo9i5g co##e5t #3de $!
3 Chi5ese rofessor of E5glish te3chi5g reflects the ge5er3l tre5d of the te3chers>
"ie9s i5 the st4d!1
QIR5 the co5te6t de"oid of l35g43ge e6os4re8 foreig5 l35g43ge c35 5e"er $e
3c<4ired8 $4t o5l! $e le3r5ed; H3rd 9orA is 3 #4st; I h3"e 3l93!s $ee5 35
3d"oc3te of te6t #e#oris3tio5; This r3ctice sho4ld 5ot $e li#ited to childre58
3d4lts 3re s4osed to do #ore #e#oris3tio5; ?L; Che58 '...1 'J Chi5ese
origi53l@
It 93s th4s h3rdl! s4rrisi5g th3t the te3chers> reso5se to the <4estio5 of 9hether
E'ext memorisation shoul* be aban*one* as mo*ern multi.me*ia te#hnology an* new
tea#hing metho*s are intro*u#e* in %oreign language tea#hing; 93s 3 reso45di5g ENo>
?see Ae5di6 %8 P3rt II8 Ite# )@; Most te3chers g3"e 35s9ers of si#il3r effect to the
follo9i5g <4ote8 tho4gh "3r!i5g i5 to5e 35d e6ressio51

Why *o we ha7e to aban*on Dtext memorisationEH Why #annot we #ombine it
with other metho*sH : 2 #annot see any reason why we nee* to *ro4 a
**.%
**.(
**.)
**.*
**.+
**.,
**.-
**..
*+&&
*+&'
*+&%
*+&(
*+&)
*+&*
*+&+
*+&,
*+&-
*+&.
*+'&
*+''
*+'%
*+'(
*+')
*+'*
*+'+
*+',
*+'-
*+'.
*+%&
*+%'
*+%%
*+%(
*+%)
4ra#ti#e that 4ro7es ha7ing its a*7antage an* has stoo* the test o% time?
,Xiaohong) '8) B0
Th4s8 the o"er3ll fi5di5g of the st4d! see#s to $e this1 #ost te3chers i5sist o5 the 4se
of te6t #e#oris3tio5; Ho9e"er8 the! 3re critic3l 3$o4t e63#:orie5ted ed4c3tio5 9hich
#3! e5co4r3ge the r3ctice; Bhile c4lt4r3l i5fl4e5ce 93s 3cA5o9ledged 3s 3 t3cit
ter#8 the ercei"ed $e5efits of the 4si5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 te3chi5g de"ice
$ec3#e 3 #ore ro5o45ced e6l353tio5 gi"e5 $! the te3chers; More i#ort35tl!8
#35! of the oi5ts $ro4ght 4 $! the te3cher 3rtici35ts either co5c4rs 9ith SLA
le3r5i5g theories or h3"e co5sider3$le D4stific3tio5; M35! e"e5 s4ort the
co5ti543tio5 of the r3ctice 9ith 3d4lt le3r5ers 3t terti3r! le"el 35d $e!o5d;
*+%*
*+%+
*+%,
*+%-
*+%.
*+(&
*+('
*+(%
*+((
*+()
*+(*
CHAPTER "------------------------------------------------
PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES OF TEXT MEMORISATION
ACROSS EDCATIONAL LEVELS: COMMONALITIES AND
DIVERSITIES
I5 the re"io4s t9o ch3ters8 I reorted o5 fi5di5gs fro# i5:deth i5ter"ie9s
reg3rdi5g ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is ercei"ed $! Chi5ese le3r5ers=te3chers 3s 3
9hole; I5 this ch3ter8 I 9ill rese5t #! d3t3 9ith 3 "ie9 to del"i5g i5to so#e
co##o53lities 35d di"ersities of the Chi5ese le3r5ers=te3chers> r3ctices 35d
ercetio5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3cross three ed4c3tio53l le"els i5 35 3tte#t to
3ddress the l3st secific <4estio5 set o4t 3t the o5set of the st4d! ?see ';) 35d );'@;
D3t3 ro"ided i5 this ch3ter 9ere dr395 fro# $oth the i5ter"ie9s 35d <4estio553ire
s4r"e!s; I43lit3ti"e 53rr3ti"es fro# the i5ter"ie9 d3t3 9ill $e $4ttressed $!
<435tit3ti"e descritio5; I 9ill $egi5 this ch3ter $! e63#i5i5g the le3r5ers>
ercetio5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3cross the differe5t ed4c3tio53l le"els8 35d the58
co5ti54e the disc4ssio5 9ith 3 foc4s o5 the te3cher gro4; Fi53ll!8 $! 93! of
co5cl4sio58 I 9ill s4##3rise the fi5di5gs th3t e#erged fro# the e63#i53tio5 of the
differe5t ed4c3tio53l le"els;
".1 Pe27e:/i143 a72133 /52ee e9u7a/i14a6 6e<e63: 3/u9e4/ g21u:
This sectio5 reorts the res4lts of re:e63#i53tio5 of d3t3 3cross three ed4c3tio53l
le"els 9ith 3 foc4s o5 st4de5t 3rtici35ts;
".1.1 A//i/u9e3 /1Ba293 /5e u3e 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 E4g6i35 6ea24i4g
The le3r5ers> o"er3ll 3ttit4des to93rds the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 their E5glish
le3r5i5g8 3s e6ressed i5 reso5ses to <4estio553ire ite# No;' ?see Ae5di6 '8 P3rt
II@8 3re rese5ted i5 Fig4re ,;' i5 the for# of $3r ch3rts; A $re3Ado95 of the le3r5ers>
3ttit4des $! ed4c3tio53l le"el is disl3!ed i5 T3$le ,;' 35d Fig4re ,;%; 2i"e5 th3t the
9hole rese3rch is 5ot i5te5ded to $e <435tit3ti"e8 the <435tit3ti"e descritio5 i5 this
ch3ter #erel! ser"es to gi"e so#e i5dic3tio5 of the er"3si"e5ess of the "3rio4s
*+(+
*+(,
*+(-
*+(.
*+)&
*+)'
*+)%
*+)(
*+))
*+)*
*+)+
*+),
*+)-
*+).
*+*&
*+*'
*+*%
*+*(
*+*)
*+**
*+*+
*+*,
*+*-
*+*.
*++&
*++'
*++%
*++(
*++)
*++*
*+++
*++,
*++-
3ttit4des i5 order to descri$e 35d co#3re cross:ed4c3tio53l gro4 tre5ds 3s 9ell 3s
f3cilit3ti5g the 45derst35di5g of the i5ter"ie9 d3t3 r3ther th35 tr!i5g to #3Ae 35!
ge5er3lis3tio5;
Fig4re ,;' St4de5ts> Attit4des to93rds the Use of Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish
Le3r5i5g ?Reso5ses to I4estio553ire Ite# ' i5 Ae5di6 '8 P3rt II@
Note
'&.
; ,C"er! helf4lJ + or *Cso#e9h3t helf4lJ )Cof 3"er3ge helJ %C5ot too
helf4l
As sho95 i5 Fig4re ,;'8 the le3r5ers> o"er3ll reso5ses to the se"e5:oi5t se#35tic
differe5ti3l sc3le 4sed for le3r5er <4estio553ire ite# ' ?fro# E5ot 3t 3ll> to E"er!
#4ch>J see Ae5di6 '8 P3rt II@ te5d to93rds r3ti5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 4sef4l
le3r5i5g r3ctice; If there is 35! differe5ce $et9ee5 the le3r5ers> 3ttit4des to93rds te6t
'&.
'
The le3r5ers> 3ttit4des 9ere co5"erted to the l3$els listed i5 the first col4#5 of the t3$le
3ccordi5g to their reso5ses to the <4estio5 EHo9 #4ch does le3r5i5g te6t $! he3rt hel i5 !o4r
E5glish le3r5i5gH> ?see Ae5di6 '8 P3rt II8 <4estio553ire ite# No;'@ o5 3 se"e5:oi5t r3ti5g sc3le
r35gi5g fro# ENot 3t 3ll> to EVer! #4ch>?see Ae5di6 '8 P3rt II@; I #3de the follo9i5g co5"erti5g
st35d3rd i5 coll3$or3tio5 9ith the 3rtici35ts> 53rr3ti"es i5 i5ter"ie9 d3t31 , C "er! helf4lJ * or
+ C so#e9h3t helf4lJ )Cof 3"er3ge helJ % or ( C 5ot too helf4lJ 'C 5ot helf4l 3t 3ll;
*++.
*+,&
*+,'
*+,%
*+,(
*+,)
*+,*
*+,+
*+,,
*+,-
*+,.
*+-&
*+-'
*+-%
(-'
(-%
(-(
(-)
(-*
(-+
#e#oris3tio5 3cross ed4c3tio53l le"els8 this h3s to do 9ith the erce5t3ge of
3rtici35ts 9ho ercei"ed the r3ctice 3s $ei5g "er! 4sef4l ?see T3$le ,;'@; It see#s
th3t college st4de5ts ?(,U@ 3re #ore 9illi5g to r3te te6t #e#oris3tio5 3t this ositi"e
e6tre#e th35 their co45ter3rts i5 D45ior high ?',U@ 35d se5ior high ?%,U@; The res4lt
reso53tes to the reort ?23o8 %&&,3@
''&
o5 Chi5ese le3r5ers> o"er3ll str3teg! 4se8
#e5tio5i5g th3t #35! 3rtici35ts fo45d the #e#oris3tio5 of te6t43l #3teri3l ?either
i5 the for# of E5glish ess3!s8 seeches or so5g l!rics@ 4sef4l; For e63#le8 o5e of
23o>s 3rtici35t co##e5ted1 EI reflect o5 the f3ct th3t I h3d recited so #35! E5glish
te6ts; I thi5A th3t it hels i#ro"e #! li5g4istic sAills F> ?Shi64358 <4oted i5 23o8
%&&,31 '&'@; O5e of the ossi$le re3so5s 9h! the 3rtici35ts $eco#e #ore
f3"o4r3$le 9ith the r3ctice 3s the! gro9 older #ight $e d4e to their #3t4rit! 35d
le3r5i5g 34to5o#! ?see #ore disc4ssio5 i5 the follo9i5g sectio5@;
T3$le ,;' St4de5ts> Attit4des to93rds the Use of Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish
Le3r5i5g ?NC)%@
Attit4de N4#$er of le3r5ers e6ressi5g 3ttit4de
L45ior High?'%@ Se5ior High?''@ College?'.@
Ver! helf4l % ( ,
So#e9h3t helf4l + * -
Of 3"er3ge hel ( ( (
Not too helf4l ' & &
Not s4re
'''
& & '
Fig4re ,;% St4de5ts> Attit4des to93rds the Helf4l5ess of Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5
E5glish Le3r5i5g1 Across:Ed4c3tio53l Le"el Co#3riso5 ?Reso5ses to
I4estio553ire Ite# No;' i5 Ae5di6 '8 P3rt II@

''&
'
I5 this lo5git4di53l eth5ogr3hic i5<4ir! i5to #3i5l35d Chi5ese 45dergr3d43tes> shifti5g
str3tegic e5g3ge#e5t i5 3c<4iri5g E5glish co#ete5ce o5 the Chi5ese #3i5l35d 35d Ho5gAo5g8
t9e5t! t9o #3i5l35d Chi5ese st4de5ts 9ere i5ter"ie9ed 3$o4t their l35g43ge le3r5i5g e6erie5ces
o5 the Chi5ese #3i5l35d8 i##edi3tel! 3fter their 3rri"3l i5 Ho5gAo5g; The 3rtici35ts 9ere 3
gro4 of rel3ti"el! s4ccessf4l or Eelite> Chi5ese le3r5ers fro# 3 #iddle:cl3ss f3#il! $3cAgro45d;
'''
'
O5e 3rtici35t ?+mma8 L8) B@ e6ressed her i5decisio5 o5 the <4estio58 he5ce the l3$el ENot
s4re>; For this re3so58 this 3rtici35t 93s co45ted i5 9he5 rod4ci5g Fig4re ,;' 35d Fig4re ,;%;
*+-(
*+-)
*+-*
*+-+
*+-,
*+--
*+-.
*+.&
*+.'
*+.%
*+.(
*+.)
*+.*
*+.+
*+.,
*+.-
*+..
*,&&
*,&'
*,&%
*,&(
*,&)
*,&*
*,&+
*,&,
*,&-
*,&.
(-,
(--
(-.
(.&
(.'
(.%
(.(
(.)
Note; ,C"er! helf4lJ + or *Cso#e9h3t helf4lJ )Cof 3"er3ge helJ %C5ot too helf4l
".1.2 +e4e;i/3 1; /5e u3e 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 E4g6i35 6ea24i4g
I de#o5str3ted i5 Ch3ter * ?see *;);'@ th3t le3r5ers offered "3rio4s re3so5s 9h! the
r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3d $ee5 $e5efici3l to their E5glish le3r5i5g; Here8
ho9e"er8 I 9o4ld liAe to foc4s o5 co5tr3sts $et9ee5 st4de5t gro4s 3cross ed4c3tio53l
le"els;
T3$le ,;% Le3r5ers> Reorted /e5efits of the Use of Te6t Me#oris3tio5 ?NC)%@
/e5efit N4#$er of le3r5ers #e5tio5i5g re3so5
L45ior High?'%@ Se5ior High?''@ College?'.@
E63#i53tio5 '% ?'&&U@ * ?)+U@ * ?%+U@
O"er3ll l35g43ge i#ro"e#e5t % ?',U@ ) ?(+U@ '% ?+(U@
/4ildi5g co5fide5ce & ?&U@ & ?&U@ . ?),U@
*,'&
*,''
*,'%
*,'(
*,')
*,'*
*,'+
*,',
*,'-
*,'.
*,%&
*,%'
*,%%
*,%(
*,%)
*,%*
*,%+
T3$le ,;% lists the 54#$ers 35d erce5t3ges of 3rtici35ts i5 e3ch gro4 #e5tio5i5g
three c3tegories of $e5efits 3s 3 res4lt of the 353l!sis of i5ter"ie9 d3t3; Fro# this
t3$le8 it c35 $e see5 th3t st4de5ts i5 D45ior high school 4535i#o4sl! ?'&&U@ rel3ted
the $e5efits of r3ctisi5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 to e63#s; O5e le3r5er i5 this gro4
reorted1 E2 learn texts by heart ex#lusi7ely %or the exams; ,Aang4u) L8) JA0; Altho4gh
the !o45g le3r5ers 3lso #e5tio5ed the i5tri5sic "3l4e of te6t #e#oris3tio58 e63#s
33re5tl! 9ere the #ost i#ort35t e6ter53l #oti"3tor for !o45ger le3r5ers8 3s see5 i5
the follo9i5g e6tr3ct1
I5ter"ie9er1 Bill !o4 do te6t #e#oris3tio5 if there 3re 5o e63#sH
Yixiao,L8) JA01 3o examsH +m: 2 will *o it i% the tea#her requires us to *o
this?
I5ter"ie9er1 Let 4s s4ose8 the te3cher h3s 5o ti#e to checA !o4r recit3tio5
9he5 i5 2r3de % or 2r3de (; Bill !o4 co5ti54e to do thisH
Yixiao1 2 will *o it i% it is teste* in the exam?
It see#s th3t !o45g Chi5ese le3r5ers 3re i5deed Er3g#3tic le3r5ers> ?Y;:I; 248 %&&(1
.,@; A5d le3r5i5g thro4gh #e#orisi5g te6ts #3! 9orA 9ell i5 e63#s i5 e3rl!
seco5d3r! schooli5g i5 Chi538 3s 93s "erified i5 the testi#o5!1 G2 got higher s#ores
a%ter memorisation Do% textsE; ,Yixiao) L8) JA0; This #3! $e rel3ted to the f3ct th3t G:
some testing items in the exam are #loze tests using texts in the text boo? An* there
are oral examinations 4art o% whi#h is on text memorisation; ,Yixiao) L8) JA0; The
#e#oris3tio5 of te6ts for e63#s 93s 3lso reorted $! 3 Chi5ese le3r5er i5 3 re"io4s
i5ter"ie9:$3sed st4d!1 EIf I recited 3ll the te6ts8 I co4ld get good gr3des i5 tests; So
reciti5g 93s 35 e3s! 93! to get 3 good gr3de> ?23o8 %&&+1 +(@;
Ho9e"er8 the erce5t3ge of 3rtici35ts #e5tio5i5g e63#i53tio5s decre3ses i5 se5ior
high school ?)+U@ 35d college ?%+U@; It see#s th3t st4de5ts 3t higher le"els of
ed4c3tio5 ?eseci3ll! those i5 college@ 3re less liAel! to co55ect the r3ctice to
re3ri5g for e63#s; The #ost ro$3$le re3so5s #3! i5cl4de8 tho4gh 5ot 5ecess3ril!
$e li#ited to8 the f3ct th3t e63#s i5 se5ior high school 3re #o"i5g to93rds #e3s4ri5g
the st4de5ts> i5tegr3ted li5g4istic co#ete5ce 35d 3re therefore less co55ected to the
te6t$ooA te6ts8 3s see5 i5 the co##e5t $! 3 te3cher 3rtici35t i5 the c4rre5t st4d!1
G6ea*ing #om4rehension an* #loze tests Din senior high s#hool +nglish examsE test
*,%,
*,%-
*,%.
*,(&
*,('
*,(%
*,((
*,()
*,(*
*,(+
*,(,
*,(-
*,(.
*,)&
*,)'
*,)%
*,)(
*,))
*,)*
*,)+
*,),
*,)-
*,).
*,*&
*,*'
*,*%
*,*(
*,*)
*,**
*,*+
*,*,
*,*-
*,*.
*,+&
the integrate* ability rather than the stu%% in the texts; ,Wangting) '8) SA0? This is #3!
$e e"e5 #ore 3lic3$le to e63#i53tio5s 3t terti3r! le"el1 EYou #annot get high s#ores
merely through learning texts by heart be#ause the original texts are ne7er teste* in
the exam; ,Xiao%eng) L8) B0?
A s4rrisi5g fi5di5g 93s th3t so#e se5ior high school st4de5ts cl3i#ed th3t their
#e#oris3tio5 of te6ts 93s 5ot e6cl4si"el! for 4tilit3ri35 4roses1
I5ter"ie9er1 Do !o4 do this #3i5l! for e63#sH
Suhan,L8) SA0L We are aware that it *oes not ha7e mu#h to *o with exams?
I5ter"ie9er1 The #e#orised st4ff does5>t hel i5 the e63#sH
SuhanL Well) it #an be more or less hel4%ul? &ut we *o this not mainly %or
exams?
This 3rtici35t8 i5ste3d8 tooA #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts 3s Ea 4ro#ess o% a##umulation by
Gtaing a*7antage o% Gothers; language; ,Suhan) L8) SA0; A si#il3r ide3 93s sh3red $!
35other se5ior high st4de5t 9ho reorted to h3"e se5t #ore ti#e o5 #e#orisi5g
te6ts i5 se5ior high school th35 D45ior high 3ltho4gh her E5glish te3cher h3d 5ot set
s4ch 3 re<4ire#e5t
''%
; She e6l3i5ed her choice $! s3!i5g8 G2 realise that +nglish
learning nee*s a large amount o% a##umulation Do% language sam4lesE? 9nly a%ter
%amiliarising with the language #an we mae better use o% it; ,Shuanglu) L8) SA0;
As for the college st4de5ts8 their li#ited reorts of #e#orisi5g te6ts for e63#s #3!
$e rel3ted to the f3ct th3t the! 3re rele3sed fro# the i5te5si"e re3r3tio5 for the
N3tio53l College E5tr35ce E63#i53tio5; More i#ort35tl!8 their gro9i5g #3t4rit!
#3Aes it ossi$le for the# to t3Ae reso5si$ilit! for #ore of their o95 le3r5i5g; As 3
res4lt8 #35! of the 3rtici35ts t3lAed 3$o4t the r3ctice fro# the ersecti"e of lo5g:
ter# $e5efits i5 3 #ore #3t4re #355er8 3s i5 this co##e5t1
2 thin it Dtext memorisationE im4ro7es one;s all.aroun* language ability? 2%
you only aim to get better s#ores in the exam) you #an a#hie7e it through
''%
'
She 93s o5e the st4de5ts of Wangting ,'8) SA0 9ho 93s 5ot 35 3d"oc3te of te6t
#e#oris3tio5;
*,+'
*,+%
*,+(
*,+)
*,+*
*,++
*,+,
*,+-
*,+.
*,,&
*,,'
*,,%
*,,(
*,,)
*,,*
*,,+
*,,,
*,,-
*,,.
*,-&
*,-'
*,-%
*,-(
*,-)
*,-*
*,-+
*,-,
*,--
*,-.
*,.&
*,.'
(.*
(.+
*oing more simulation exer#ises? : We shoul*n;t use learning texts by heart
%or mere utilitarian 4ur4ose? ,Xiao%eng) L8) B0
I5 co5tr3st8 the erce5t3ge of 3rtici35ts referri5g to the $e5efit of o"er3ll l35g43ge
i#ro"e#e5t see#s to ositi"el! correl3te to ed4c3tio53l le"el1 ',U i5 D45ior high8
(+U i5 se5ior high 35d +(U i5 college; Th3t is to s3!8 the #ore e6erie5ced st4de5ts
te5d to e"3l43te the r3ctice fro# the oi5t of "ie9 of its i5tri5sic "3l4e r3ther th35 its
short:ter# effect; This reso53tes 9ith the fi5di5g of 3 re"io4s st4d! ?Di5g8 %&&,@
th3t Chi5ese le3r5ers h3d $ee5 i5iti3ll! forced to #e#orise te6t43l #3teri3ls $4t
gr3d43ll! c3#e to 3reci3te the r3ctice; I5 35other st4d! ?23o8 %&&,3@ of Chi5ese
st4de5ts> str3teg! 4se i5 E5glish le3r5i5g8 so#e ?'% o4t of %'@ rel3ti"el! s4ccessf4l
st4de5ts reorted the 4se of #e#orisi5g 35d reciti5g te6ts 3s 3 93! of le3r5i5g
E5glish 3s either 35 o$lig3tor! or "ol45t3r! r3ctice i5 their seco5d3r! ed4c3tio5;
I5teresti5gl!8 t9o of the# co5ti54ed to E#e#orise l!rics 35d E5glish ess3!s> ?%&&,31
'&&@ 9he5 e63# ress4re 93s lifted 35d #ore reorted their effort to E#e#orise
E5glish te6ts=l!rics=se5te5ces> ?%&&,31 '*.@ e"e5 9he5 the! 9ere st4d!i5g i5 3
le3di5g E5glish #edi4# 45i"ersit! i5 Ho5gAo5g;
Aside fro# the #e5tio5 of o"er3ll l35g43ge i#ro"e#e5t8 so#e college st4de5ts i5
this st4d! 3lso referred to the co5fide5ce 9hich the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3d
$ro4ght the#8 9here3s this 93s 3$se5t i5 the i5ter"ie9s 9ith st4de5ts fro# seco5d3r!
school; A college st4de5t 9ho reorted th3t he h3d le3r5ed his E5glish ri#3ril!
thro4gh le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt 35d e"e5t43ll! e6celled o"er his eers
''(
reflected1
Looing ba# on my ex4erien#e o% learning +nglish Dthrough text
memorisationE) the best bene%it 2 ha7e rea4e* might be my #on%i*en#e 2 ha7e
built through this 4ra#ti#e? ,Zhiai) L8) B0
A5other co##e5ted si#il3rl!8 3s follo9s1
:it wors won*ers a%ter ee4ing *oing it Dtext memorisationE %or a long time?
You %in* su**enly one *ay that you #an s4ea in +nglish without 4re4aration?
''(
'
The 3rtici35t8 tho4gh 3 5o5:E5glish #3Dor8 93s recr4ited 3s 3 3rt:ti#e E5glish te3cher $! 3
f3#o4s ri"3te foreig5 l35g43ge tr3i5i5g school i5 Chi53 9he5 he 93s still 3 D45ior;
*,.%
*,.(
*,.)
*,.*
*,.+
*,.,
*,.-
*,..
*-&&
*-&'
*-&%
*-&(
*-&)
*-&*
*-&+
*-&,
*-&-
*-&.
*-'&
*-''
*-'%
*-'(
*-')
*-'*
*-'+
*-',
*-'-
*-'.
*-%&
*-%'
*-%%
*-%(
(.,
(.-
'his gi7es you a sense o% a#hie7ement an* you naturally be#ome #on%i*ent
about your ability? ,Xiao%eng) L8) B0
Therefore8 the college st4de5ts> 3reci3tio5 of the r3ctice co#es 5ot o5l! fro#
li5g4istic $e5efits $4t fro# the self:co5fide5ce the! #3! deri"e fro# 3 se5se of
3chie"e#e5t;
".1.! Lea24e23) :21=6e03 i4 u3i4g /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 E4g6i35 6ea24i4g
T3$le ,;( Le3r5ers> Pro$le#s i5 Usi5g Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish Le3r5i5g
?NC)%@
Pro$le# N4#$er of le3r5ers #e5tio5i5g ro$le#
L45ior High?'%@ Se5ior High?''@ College?'.@
/ori5g * ?)%U@ * ?)*U@ ( ?'+U@
Choice of #3teri3l & ?&U@ % ?'-U@ '% ?+(U@
Cost:effecti"e5ess & ?&U@ & ?&U@ - ?)%U@
*-%)
*-%*
*-%+
*-%,
*-%-
*-%.
*-(&
*-('
*-(%
*-((
*-()
*-(*
*-(+
*-(,
*-(-
*-(.
*-)&
*-)'
Fig4re ,;( St4de5ts> Attit4des to93rds the Use of Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish
Le3r5i5g1 Across:Ed4c3tio53l Le"el Co#3riso5 ?Reso5ses to I4estio553ire Ite#
No;% i5 Ae5di6 '8 P3rt II@
Note
'')
; ,C"er! i5teresti5gJ + or *Cso#e9h3t i5teresti5gJ )C5either i5teresti5g 5or
$ori5gJ ( or %Cso#e9h3t $ori5gJ 'C"er! $ori5g
Altho4gh le3r5ers ge5er3ll! 3cA5o9ledged the helf4l5ess of te6t #e#oris3tio5 to
their E5glish le3r5i5g8 the! 3lso e6ressed the diffic4lties the! e5co45tered i5
r3ctic3l le3r5i5g i5 i5ter"ie9s ?see T3$le ,;( for 54#$ers 35d erce5t3ges of
3rtici35ts i5 three gro4s #e5tio5i5g three c3tegories of ro$le#s 3s 3 res4lt of the
353l!sis of i5ter"ie9 d3t3@; A ro$le# #e5tio5ed $! so#e #e#$ers of 3ll three
'')
'
The le3r5ers> 3ttit4des 9ere co5"erted to the l3$els listed $elo9 3ccordi5g to their reso5ses
to the <4estio5 EHo9 do !o4 see the rocess of le3r5i5g te6t $! he3rtH> o5 3 se"e5:oi5t r3ti5g
sc3le r35gi5g fro# E/ori5g> to EI5teresti5g> ?see Ae5di6 '8 P3rt II8 ite# No;%@; I #3de the
follo9i5g co5"erti5g st35d3rd i5 coll3$or3tio5 9ith the 3rtici35ts> 53rr3ti"es i5 i5ter"ie9 d3t31 ,
C "er! i5teresti5gJ * or + C so#e9h3t i5teresti5gJ )C5either i5teresti5g 5or $ori5gJ % or ( C
so#e9h3t $ori5gJ 'C 5ot i5teresti5g 3t 3ll;
*-)%
*-)(
*-))
*-)*
*-)+
*-),
*-)-
*-).
*-*&
*-*'
*-*%
*-*(
*-*)
*-**
(..
)&&
)&'
)&%
)&(
)&)
le3r5er gro4s is th3t the r3ctice is 5ot 35 e5Do!3$le e6erie5ce; Co#3r3ti"el!8 the
erce5t3ge of college st4de5ts ?'+U@ #e5tio5i5g this ro$le# is #4ch lo9er th35 th3t
of st4de5ts i5 D45ior high ?)%U@ 35d se5ior high ?)*U@; This is 3lso co5fir#ed $!
<4estio553ire fi5di5gs o5 the st4de5ts> ercetio5s of the rocess of #e#orisi5g te6ts
?See Fig4re ,;( for 3 gr3hic disl3!@; I co5sider there 3re t9o re3so5s for this
differe5ce; First8 #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts is #35d3tor! i5 #35! c3ses for st4de5ts i5
seco5d3r! schools 35d the te6ts to $e #e#orised 3re 5or#3ll! chose5 fro# te6t$ooAs8
9here3s i5 college the r3ctice of te6t43l #3teri3l is of erso53l choice 35d the
st4de5ts 3re free to choose 9h3te"er te6t the! 935t to co##it to #e#or!; For
i5st35ce8 3 se5ior high st4de5t co#l3i5ed1
2t is in*ee* boring) 7ery boring? Why *o we ha7e to re#ite texts in the text
booH We #an memorise some 4oems) *ialogues an* e7en joes? : 2 may
enjoy it i% 2 memorise what 2 lo7e to now? ,!henming) L8) JA0
Seco5d8 3s 93s #e5tio5ed i5 the re"io4s sectio58 college st4de5ts te5d to see #ore
i5tri5sic "3l4e i5 te6t #e#oris3tio5 so th3t the! #3! $e #ore toler35t or o$li"io4s to
35! 5eg3ti"e s!chologic3l e6erie5ce the r3ctice h3s $ro4ght to the#; This is
reflected i5 the follo9i5g oi5io51
8ersonally 2 *on;t see any 4roblems or obsta#les Din *oing text memorisationE.
2% 2 ha7e to say one) 2 woul* say it;s a boring 4ro#ess? 2% you #annot
#on#entrate or #alm *own) you #annot memorise e%%e#ti7ely? You;* %eel
%rustrate*? ,Lixia) L8) B0
The co##e5t th3t follo9s s4ggests college st4de5ts> 3#$i"3le5t feeli5gs1

'he 4roblem is that it is 7ery boring when we starte* memorising texts? You
#annot use it Dwhat you ha7e memorise*E an* #annot see any 7isible e%%e#ts
an* there%ore you be#ome less moti7ate*? &ut 2;m sure that it bene%its us a lot
in the long term i% we 4erse7ere in *oing this? 2t may be#ome less 4ain%ul as
we %orm a habit o% *oing this an* memorise more texts? ,Xujia) L8) B0
*-*+
*-*,
*-*-
*-*.
*-+&
*-+'
*-+%
*-+(
*-+)
*-+*
*-++
*-+,
*-+-
*-+.
*-,&
*-,'
*-,%
*-,(
*-,)
*-,*
*-,+
*-,,
*-,-
*-,.
*--&
*--'
*--%
*--(
*--)
*--*
*--+
*--,
*---
Si5ce the r3ctice of te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 is l3rgel! oer3ti5g o5 "ol45t3r! $3sis 3t
terti3r! le"el8 the choice of #3teri3l $eco#es 35 iss4e for the#; O5e 3rtici35t e"e5
3sAed the i5ter"ie9er for s4ggestio5s 3t the e5d of the i5ter"ie91
2 want to as a question about learning texts by heart? Ior 4eo4le lie me
whose +nglish is not 7ery goo*) what in* o% texts shoul* 2 use to re#iteH 3ew
!on#e4t +nglish) texts in the textboo or othersH ,Xujia) L8) B0
The te6t43l #3teri3l chose5 to #e#orise is i#ort35t $ec34se8 3ccordi5g to o5e
3rtici35t8 it 3ffects ho9 #4ch she c35 get fro# s4ch 35 effortf4l t3sA1
2n the worst #ase) you may %in* only se7eral senten#es are use%ul %or you a%ter
re#iting a whole text? ,Lixia) L8) B0
I5 s4ch 3 c3se8 GD'Ehe ratio o% quality an* 4ri#e is not 7ery high; ,Lixia) L8) B0? The
choice of #3teri3l th4s h3s direct i#3ct o5 the efficie5c! of the r3ctice8 35other
r3g#3tic iss4e #e5tio5ed $! so#e college st4de5ts; A5other 3rtici35t offered 35
i5trig4i5g "ie9oi5t o5 this iss4e1
We usually #hoose the %oo* to eat whi#h tastes best %or us) but it is not
ne#essarily the most nutritious one? 2t a44lies to #hoosing texts as well? 2n
or*er to maximise the bene%it o% text memorisation) we nee* to #hoose those
Darti#lesE whi#h #ontains a 7ariety o% senten#e stru#tures an* 7o#abulary?
'here might be a #on%li#t? Some arti#les ha7e many #om4li#ate* senten#es
whi#h mae the 4ro#ess o% memorisation more *i%%i#ult an* %rustrating? &ut
sometimes it is these senten#es whose stru#tures are exa#tly what we nee* to
learn? ,+li) L8) B0
Ag3i58 the college st4de5ts> #ore #3t4re 35d dis3ssio53te 3ttit4de 93s reflected i5
this co##e5t; I5deed8 the 3fore#e5tio5ed ro$le#s 3re 3ll do95 to the choice of
#3teri3l for #e#oris3tio5; A 3rtici35t i5 the rese3rch of 23o ?%&&,3@ fo45d the
#e#oris3tio5 of so5g l!rics helf4l 9ith her E5glish le3r5i5g8 3 t!e of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 9hich 93s 5ot #e5tio5ed $! 35! of the 3rtici35ts i5 #! st4d!1
*--.
*-.&
*-.'
*-.%
*-.(
*-.)
*-.*
*-.+
*-.,
*-.-
*-..
*.&&
*.&'
*.&%
*.&(
*.&)
*.&*
*.&+
*.&,
*.&-
*.&.
*.'&
*.''
*.'%
*.'(
*.')
*.'*
*.'+
*.',
*.'-
*.'.
*.%&
*.%'
*.%%
I h3"e tried to #e#orise so5g l!rics; The! 9ere 3ct43ll! <4ite si#le8 $4t the!
heled #e e6ress dee feeli5gs; F I le3r5t to e6ress the s3#e thi5g i5 #35!
differe5t 93!s; ?Li5g8 <4oted i5 23o8 %&&,31 '&&@
Re3lisi5g the $e5efits of te6t #e#oris3tio5 for their foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8
Chi5ese le3r5ers see# to $e serio4sl! e6lori5g 9h3t sho4ld $e #e#orised8 3s i5 the
follo9i5g co##e5t ?#3de $! 3 college st4de5t@ reorted i5 23o>s ?%&&,3@ st4d!1
It is i#ort35t for #e to #e#orise cert3i5 E5glish te6ts; /4t I c355ot
#e#orise e"er!thi5g8 th3t is 9h! I 5eed to do so#e rese3rch to A5o9 9h3t
sho4ld $e #e#orised; ?Shi64358 <4oted i5 23o8 %&&,31 %'(@
The iss4e of choosi5g #3teri3ls for #e#oris3tio5 3lso co5cer5s te3chers i5 ter#s of
ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e i#le#e5ted $! i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g ?see
,;%;( i5 the follo9i5g sectio5 for te3cher 3rtici35ts> co##e5ts@;
".2 Pe27e:/i143 a72133 /52ee e9u7a/i14a6 6e<e63: /ea75e2 g21u:
This sectio5 #o"es o5 to reort the res4lts of cross:ed4c3tio53l le"el e63#i53tio5 of
d3t3 elicited fro# te3cher 3rtici35ts;
".2.1 A//i/u9e3 /1Ba293 /5e u3e 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 ;12eig4 6a4guage /ea75i4g
The te3chers> o"er3ll 3ttit4des to93rds the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 their E5glish
te3chi5g8 3s e6ressed i5 reso5ses to <4estio553ire ite# No;' ?see Ae5di6 %8 P3rt
II@8 3re gr3hic3ll! disl3!ed i5 Fig4re ,;); More det3iled c3tegoris3tio5 of the
te3chers> 3ttit4des $! ed4c3tio53l le"el c35 $e fo45d i5 T3$le ,;) 35d Fig4re ,;*;
*.%(
*.%)
*.%*
*.%+
*.%,
*.%-
*.%.
*.(&
*.('
*.(%
*.((
*.()
*.(*
*.(+
*.(,
*.(-
*.(.
*.)&
*.)'
*.)%
*.)(
*.))
*.)*
*.)+
*.),
*.)-
*.).
*.*&
Fig4re ,;) Te3chers> Attit4des to93rds the Usef4l5ess of Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5
te3chi5g ?Reso5ses to I4estio553ire Ite# No;' i5 Ae5di6 %8 P3rt II@
Note
''*
; *C"er! 4sef4lJ )Crel3ti"el! 4sef4lJ (C5ot s4reJ %C5ot too 4sef4l
T3$le ,;) Te3chers> Attit4des to93rds the Use of Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5 Foreig5
L35g43ge Te3chi5g ?NC%&@
Attit4de N4#$er of le3r5ers e6ressi5g 3ttit4de
L45ior High?,@ Se5ior High?*@ College?-@
Ver! 4sef4l * ?,'U@ ( ?+&U@ ) ?*&U@
Moder3tel! 4sef4l % ?%.U@ ' ?%&U@ ( ?(-U@
Not s4re & ?&U@ & ?&U@ ' ?'%U@
Not too 4sef4l & ?&U@ ' ?%&U@ & ?&U@
''*
'
The te3chers> 3ttit4des 9ere co5"erted to the l3$els listed i5 the first col4#5 of the t3$le
3ccordi5g to their reso5ses to the st3te#e5t ETe6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 4sef4l r3ctice i5 foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g> ?see Ae5di6 %8 P3rt II8 <4estio553ire ite# No;'@; Th3t is to s3!8
* ?stro5gl! 3gree@ C "er! 4sef4l8 ) ?3gree@ C #oder3tel! 4sef4l8 ( ?5either 3gree 5or dis3gree@ C
5ot s4re8 % ?dis3gree@ C 5ot too 4sef4l8 ' ?stro5gl! dis3gree@ C 5ot 4sef4l 3t 3ll;
*.*'
*.*%
*.*(
*.*)
*.**
*.*+
*.*,
*.*-
*.*.
*.+&
*.+'
*.+%
*.+(
*.+)
)&*
)&+
)&,
)&-
)&.
Fig4re ,;* Te3chers> Attit4des to93rds the Use of Te6t Me#oris3tio51 Across:
Ed4c3tio53l Le"el Co#3riso5 ?Reso5ses to I4estio553ire Ite# No;' i5 Ae5di6 %8
P3rt II@


Note; *C"er! 4sef4lJ )C#oder3tel! 4sef4lJ (C5ot s4reJ %C5ot too 4sef4l
The 54#$ers sho9 th3t the gre3t #3Dorit! of te3chers ositi"el! "ie9 te6t
#e#oris3tio5 35d $3cA the 4se of it i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; Ho9e"er8 there
9ere t9o te3chers 9ho hesit3ted to gi"e this r3ctice 3 ositi"e r3ti5g; O5e 93s
te3chi5g i5 se5ior high school 9ho t3lAed 3$o4t the iss4e r3ther r3g#3tic3ll!1
2 *on;t require my stu*ents to re#ite texts) but as them to memorise use%ul
4hrases an* senten#es? 'he texts in senior high s#hool are usually long so that
it is not 7ery 4ra#ti#al Dto memorise textsE? An* the ey issue isL What;s the
*.+*
*.++
*.+,
*.+-
*.+.
*.,&
*.,'
*.,%
*.,(
*.,)
*.,*
*.,+
*.,,
*.,-
*.,.
*.-&
*.-'
4ur4ose o% learning texts by heartH 2t *oesn;t ha7e mu#h to *o with exams?
,Wangting) '8) SA0
The other 5o5co5for#ist is 3 45i"ersit! te3cher 9ho ree3tedl! 4sed the e6ressio5
Git *e4en*s; ,Wangshu) '8) B0 $! 9hich she 3ct43ll! e#h3sised th3t #3teri3ls
chose5 for #e#oris3tio5 re3ll! #3tter1
'o let the stu*ents memorise texts in the textboo is not 7ery meaning%ul K they
%orget next wee i% they memorise this wee? : 'hey shoul* learn by heart
some #lassi# stu%% written by masters K better those that are #on#ise in wor*s
an* 4ro%oun* in meaning so that they #an quote it somewhere in their own
writing i% a44ro4riate? ,Wangshu) '8) B0
Altho4gh this 3rtici35t chose ENot s4re> for the st3te#e5t ETe6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3
"er! 4sef4l r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g> i5 <4estio553ire
s4r"e! ?see Ae5di6 %8 P3rt II8 Ite# No;'@8 she did s3! the follo9i5g 3t the $egi55i5g
of the i5ter"ie91 G'ext memorisation as a way o% learning is a*7antageous an* has
something to *o with Dsu##ess%ulE %oreign language learning; ,Wangshu) '8) B0?
Bhile the o"er3ll 3ttit4des of te3cher 3rtici35ts fro# the three ed4c3tio53l le"els
9ere "er! si#il3r8 the te3chers i5 D45ior high schools see# to $e #ost e5th4si3stic
3$o4t the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 th3t 3ll of the# r3te it ositi"el! 35d o"er ,&U
of the# ercei"e it to $e E"er! 4sef4l> ?see T3$le ,;) 35d Fig4re ,;)@; This is
co5siste5t 9ith 35 3l#ost 4535i#o4s ercetio5 e#ergi5g fro# the i5ter"ie9 d3t31
:it is absolutely ne#essary %or stu*ents to *o this Dtext memorisationE at the
beginning stage; ,Jiajie) '8) JA0
F re#itation is something essential in %oreign language learning) es4e#ially
%or beginners? ,Shuqiong) '8) B0
".2.2 Rea3143 ;12 /5e u3e 1; /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 ;12eig4 6a4guage /ea75i4g i4
C5i4a
*.-%
*.-(
*.-)
*.-*
*.-+
*.-,
*.--
*.-.
*..&
*..'
*..%
*..(
*..)
*..*
*..+
*..,
*..-
*...
+&&&
+&&'
+&&%
+&&(
+&&)
+&&*
+&&+
+&&,
+&&-
+&&.
+&'&
+&''
+&'%
+&'(
+&')
+&'*
Te3chers D4stified their ositi"e r3ti5g of the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5g 9ith 3 54#$er of stro5gl! 3rg4ed oi5ts ?see +;(;% i5 Ch3ter +@;
Altho4gh their D4stific3tio5s 9ere #3i5l! fro# 3 s4$Decti"e ersecti"e8 the! 3lso
#e5tio5ed 3 fe9 o$Decti"e re3so5s 9h! the r3ctice h3s $ee5 i5 e6iste5ce i5 foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi53; These co5te6t:co5str3i5ed re3so5s h3"e $ee5 listed i5
T3$le ,;* 9ith the 54#$er of 3rtici35ts referri5g to the# fro# e3ch te3cher gro4;
The <435tit3ti"e t3ll!8 ho9e"er8 5eeds to $e tre3ted 9ith c34tio5; These re3so5s 9ere
3ll #e5tio5ed i5 3ssi5g $! the 3rtici35ts 9he5 the! 9ere reso5di5g to 3 set of
redeter#i5ed <4estio5s or #! so5t35eo4s follo9:4 <4estio5s; The f3ct th3t so#e
te3chers did 5ot #e5tio5 3 3rtic4l3r re3so5 does 5ot 5ecess3ril! #e35 th3t the! did
5ot sh3re it8 $4t it #3! i5dic3te it is 5ot of gre3t sig5ific35ce or co5cer5 to the#;
T3$le ,;* Te3chers> Re3so5s for the Use of Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5 Foreig5 L35g43ge
Te3chi5g ?NC%&@
Re3so5 N4#$er of le3r5ers #e5tio5i5g re3so5
L45ior High?,@ Se5ior High?*@ College?-@
No l35g43ge e5"iro5#e5t
''+
, ) ,
Test:orie5ted ed4c3tio5
'',
* % &
C4lt4re of le3r5i5g
''-
% ' '
All of the te3chers s4orti5g the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chi5g defe5ded their "ie9 9ith refere5ce to the l3cA of 3 53t4r3l seco5d l35g43ge
e5"iro5#e5t i5 Chi531
Ior most !hinese) we *on;t ha7e a language en7ironment so that we ha7e to
learn through imitating others? ,Yange) '8) SA0
A%ter all) we *on;t ha7e natural language in4ut? ,Shuqiong) '8) B0
''+
'
This re3so5 93s #e5tio5ed $! 3ll 3rtici35ts e6cet t9o ?Wangting,'8)SA0 35d Wangshu,'8)B@@
9ho 3re 5ot "er! s4orti"e of the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g;
'',
'
The te3chers #e5tio5i5g the re3so5s 3re1 ?L45ior High@ Yuli) Jiajie) Yaoqing) Liangying)
'angmingJ ?Se5ior High@ Liangqing) Yange;
''-
'
The te3chers #e5tio5i5g the re3so5s 3re1 ?L45ior High@ WennaJ LiangyingN ?Se5ior High@ YeliJ
?College@ Aongying;
+&'+
+&',
+&'-
+&'.
+&%&
+&%'
+&%%
+&%(
+&%)
+&%*
+&%+
+&%,
+&%-
+&%.
+&(&
+&('
+&(%
+&((
+&()
+&(*
+&(+
+&(,
+&(-
+&(.
+&)&
+&)'
+&)%
+&)(
)'&
)''
)'%
)'(
)')
)'*
Bnlie in %oreign #ountries) we *on;t ha7e that goo* #on*ition Din terms o%
language en7ironmentE? ,Luyi) '8) B0
These te3chers see# to $e s4ggesti5g th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 is o5e of the $est
r3ctices the! c35 choose to coe 9ith 35 3d"erse l35g43ge le3r5i5g co5te6t 9here
Ethe li#ited e6os4re to E5glish $e!o5d the cl3ssroo# is 3 str4ct4r3l co5ditio5 for
e"er! le3r5er 35d te3cher to e5d4re 35d o"erco#e> ?23o8 %&&,$1 %+'@; As o5e te3cher
s4##3ri7ed1
2t;s all *own to the *i%%erent language en7ironment? : Although our %oreign
tea#her ne7er thins it is ne#essary %or stu*ents to memorise texts) 2 still
belie7e it is in*is4ensable in our !hinese #on*ition? ,Liangying) '8) JA0
I5teresti5gl!8 9hile 5ot h3"i5g 3 53t4r3l seco5d l35g43ge 3c<4isitio5 e5"iro5#e5t is 3
45i"ers3l D4stific3tio5 3#o5g the 3rtici35ts for the e6iste5ce of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5
Chi538 o5l! fo4r te3chers rel3ted the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 to tr3ditio53l
Chi5ese liter3c! ed4c3tio5; O5e s3id8
2t is similar to our tra*itional way o% !hinese learning? 2n a**ition to
extensi7e rea*ing) some #lassi# texts are require* to be re#ite*? A%ter all) both
are about learning a language? ,Liangying) '8) JA0
Altho4gh te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 93! of le3r5i5g Chi5ese 93s r3rel! 4sed $! the
3rtici35ts to defe5d their 4se of it i5 le3r5i5g E5glish8 their $elief i5 the i#ort35ce
of te6t #e#oris3tio5 #ight $e i5fl4e5ced $! their re"io4s e6erie5ce of le3r5i5g
Chi5ese; As o5e st4de5t 3rtici35t #e5tio5ed i5 3ssi5g1 EWe e7en *o this Dtext
memorisationE when learning our mother tongue? We were require* to memorise
some texts in !hinese textboos; ,Shuhan) L8) SA0? Pre"io4s rese3rch 3lso
doc4#e5ted 3 le3r5er>s rel3tio5 of #other to5g4e ?Chi5ese@ le3r5i5g 9ith E5glish
le3r5i5g1 EIt is i#ort35t for 3 l35g43ge le3r5er to #e#orise 9he5 le3r5i5g his or her
#other to5g4e; It is 3lso i#ort35t for #e to #e#orise cert3i5 E5glish te6ts>
?Shi64358 <4oted i5 23o8 %&&,31 %'(@;
+&))
+&)*
+&)+
+&),
+&)-
+&).
+&*&
+&*'
+&*%
+&*(
+&*)
+&**
+&*+
+&*,
+&*-
+&*.
+&+&
+&+'
+&+%
+&+(
+&+)
+&+*
+&++
+&+,
+&+-
+&+.
+&,&
+&,'
+&,%
+&,(
+&,)
+&,*
+&,+
+&,,
A5other te3cher referred to 3 Ec4lt4re of le3r5i5g> ?Cort377i N Li58 '..+@1
'his DmemorisationE is a tra*itional way o% learning whi#h is more liely to be
a##e4table to !hinese? When we start learning something) we ten* to #ommit
them to memory? 2t be#omes a mo*e o% entry into learning) whi#h is not
ne#essarily ba*? :'here is an issue o% learning habit? 'here is also something
to *o with !hinese #ulture o% learning? ,Yeli) '8) SA0
The Ec4lt4re of le3r5i5g> is 45do4$tedl! 3 t3cit 3r3#eter of #35! of the 3ttit4des or
$eliefs held $! the te3chers i5so#4ch 3s E35! 3rtic4l3r c4lt4re of le3r5i5g 9ill h3"e
its roots i5 the ed4c3tio53l8 35d8 #ore $ro3dl!8 c4lt4r3l tr3ditio5s of the co##45it! or
societ! i5 9hich it is loc3ted> ?Cort377i N Li58 '..+1 '+.@; Ho9e"er8 the r3ctice of
te6t #e#oris3tio5 is r3rel! t3lAed 3$o4t 9ith the 393re5ess of c4lt4r3l secificit!; The
Et3Ae:for:gr35ted> co5cet is e"ide5t i5 3 fe9 te3chers> 4tter35ce1 G2 *on;t belie7e the
%oreigners ne7er memorise something when they are learning a language; ,Aongying)
'8) B0; It see#s th3t c4lt4r3l disco4rse h3s $ee5 e3sil! o$liter3ted $! 393re5ess of
co5te6t43l co5str3i5ts s4ch 3s the 3c<4isitio5:oor foreig5 l35g43ge e5"iro5#e5t 35d
e63#:orie5ted le3r5i5g; Bhile 3cA5o9ledgi5g the i5deli$le c4lt4r3l #3rA left o5
#35! of the co##e5ts #3de $! the 3rtici35ts8 it is 3rg4ed here th3t the! hold
ositi"e $eliefs 3$o4t te6t #e#oris3tio5 5ot 5ecess3ril! $ec34se the! co5sider it to $e
co5siste5t 9ith tr3ditio53l Chi5ese c4lt4re 35d "3l4es8 3s 93s i5dic3ted i5 so#e
re"io4s rese3rch
''.
?cf; 0;:P; Li8 %&&*@8 $4t #ore liAel! $ec34se the! tho4ght Gthere
is rationality %or its existen#e in a !hinese #ontext; ,Yeli) '8) SA0;
The #ost striAi5g differe5ce $et9ee5 te3chers fro# the three ed4c3tio53l le"els i5
ter#s of the co5te6t43l re3so5s for the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chi5g 93s the #e5tio5 of test:orie5ted ed4c3tio5 th3t Chi53 is f3#o4s for; It is 5ot
s4rrisi5g th3t this toic 93s i5iti3ted $! #ost seco5d3r! school te3chers i5ter"ie9ed8
$4t 5ot $! the te3chers i5 college8 si5ce seco5d3r! schools 3re 45der the gre3t
''.
'
This rese3rch differs fro# the rese5t st4d! i5 th3t it i5"estig3tes Chi5ese EFL le3r5ersW
$eliefs 3$o4t the role of rote le3r5i5g i5 "oc3$4l3r! le3r5i5g str3tegies;
+&,-
+&,.
+&-&
+&-'
+&-%
+&-(
+&-)
+&-*
+&-+
+&-,
+&--
+&-.
+&.&
+&.'
+&.%
+&.(
+&.)
+&.*
+&.+
+&.,
+&.-
+&..
+'&&
+'&'
+'&%
+'&(
+'&)
+'&*
+'&+
+'&,
)'+
)',
ress4re fro# Sho5gA3o
'%&
35d 23oA3o
'%'
8 t9o high:st3Aes e63#i53tio5s i5 Chi53;
Bh3t 93s s4rrisi5g 93s the i5co5siste5c! 3#o5g the te3chers> co##e5ts o5 te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 rel3tio5 to test:orie5ted ed4c3tio5; So#e seco5d3r! te3chers8
eseci3ll! se5ior high school te3chers "ie9ed the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3rti3ll!
$ei5g 3 res4lt of test:orie5ted ed4c3tio5; For e63#le1
Learning texts by heart is %or their Dthe stu*ents;E better #omman* o%
grammar an* there%ore has more to *o with exams? We *o text memorisation
mainly K 4robably P=Q in *egree K %or #o4ing with (aoao? ,Yange) '8) SA0
Ho9e"er8 o5e te3cher K the o5l! o5e 9ho cl3i#ed to h3"e 5ot 4sed te6t #e#oris3tio5
i5 te3chi5g 3#o5g 3ll seco5d3r! school te3chers i5ter"ie9ed K st3ted th3t she o#itted
the r3ctice $ec34se she tho4ght it co4ld 5ot effect i##edi3te 35d o$"io4s $e5efit i5
ter#s of i#ro"i5g the st4de5ts> erfor#35ce i5 e63#s1
6ea*ing #om4rehension an* #loze tests Din the +nglish examE test the
integrate* ability rather than the stu%% in the texts? : Although learning some
texts by heart is better than not) the #han#e o% #onsi*erably raising the s#ores
in exams Dthrough memorising textsE is 7ery slim; ,Wangting) '8) SA0
Bhile the sc3le 93s $3l35ced o5 the iss4e of 9hether the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5
93s 35 i5dic3tio5 of the $3cA93sh effect of high:st3Aes e63#i53tio5s8 the te3chers
3l#ost 4535i#o4sl! 3cA5o9ledged the i5tri5sic "3l4e of the r3ctice o5 to of its
4tilit3ri35 "3l4e1
9% #ourse) *uring the #ourse o% #o4ing with (aoao Dthrough memorising
textsE) you naturally im4ro7e your ora#y an* other as4e#ts Do% language
abilityE? ,Yange) '8) SA0
The oi5io5 93s f4rther ill4str3ted $! o5e 3rtici35t 3s follo9s1
'%&
'
A Chi5ese 3cro5!# for Se5ior High School E5tr35ce E63#i53tio5;
'%'
'
A Chi5ese 3cro5!# for N3tio53l College E5tr35ce E63#i53tio58 35 3c3de#ic e63#i53tio5
held 35543ll! i5 the #3i5l35d of the Peole>s Re4$lic of Chi53; This e63#i53tio5 is 3
rere<4isite for e5tr35ce i5to 3l#ost 3ll higher ed4c3tio5 i5stit4tio5s 3t the 45dergr3d43te le"el;
+'&.
+''&
+'''
+''%
+''(
+'')
+''*
+''+
+'',
+''-
+''.
+'%&
+'%'
+'%%
+'%(
+'%)
+'%*
+'%+
+'%,
+'%-
+'%.
+'(&
+'('
+'(%
+'((
+'()
+'(*
+'(+
+'(,
+'(-
)'-
)'.
)%&
)%'
2 thin it Dtext memorisationE is in*is4ensable %or stu*ents either in test.
oriente* e*u#ation or use.oriente* e*u#ation? : As %or the use.oriente*
e*u#ation in whi#h use an* s4eaing is em4hasise*) it is also bene%i#ial to the
stu*ents? : 2 thin we shoul* use more text memorisation in su#h
#ir#umstan#es? Let me gi7e you an exam4le? We usually ha7e 4arallel #lasses
an* a*7an#e* #lasses in !hina? You #an only ha7e #ommuni#ati7e a#ti7ities
su##ess%ully #arrie* out in a*7an#e* #lasses) but ne7er in 4arallel #lasses?
'his is be#ause the stu*ents in a*7an#e* #lasses ha7e a##umulate* more an*
memorise* more? ,Liangqing) '8) SA) in A44en*ix 10
I5 s4##3r!8 the EL45ior High> gro4 35d ESe5ior High> gro48 co#3r3ti"el!8 h3d
#ore correso5de5ce 9ith e3ch other th35 9ith the ECollege> gro4 i5 th3t the! $oth
co5st35tl! rel3ted the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 to e63#s;
".2.! P21=6e03 i4 u3i4g /e./ 0e012i3a/i14 i4 ;12eig4 6a4guage /ea75i4g a49
/ea75e23) 71u4/e20ea3u2e3
O"er3ll8 the te3cher 3rtici35ts held 35 o"er9hel#i5gl! ositi"e 3ttit4de to93rds the
4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g; Ho9e"er8 it does 5ot #e35 th3t
the! did 5ot e6erie5ce diffic4lties or ro$le#s i5 3l!i5g this r3ctice i5 r3ctic3l
te3chi5g; Three s3lie5t ro$le#s reorted $! te3chers 3re listed i5 T3$le ,;+ $elo9;
Fro# the re3di5g of the t3$le8 9e c35 see th3t 3ll listed ro$le#s 9ere #e5tio5ed $!
seco5d3r! te3chers; The re3so5 9h! college te3chers did 5ot reort 35! ro$le#s
co5cer5i5g the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 te3chi5g de"ice #3! 9ell $e d4e to the
f3ct th3t8 3s #e5tio5ed i5 ,;';(8 #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts is 4s43ll! #35d3tor! i5
seco5d3r! schools ?eseci3ll! i5 D45ior high schools@8 $4t 5or#3ll! oer3tes o5
"ol45t3r! $3sis 3t terti3r! le"el
'%%
;
'%%
'
This co5cl4sio5 is $3sed o5 $oth the <43lit3ti"e d3t3 of the c4rre5t st4d! 35d #! erso53l
le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g e6erie5ce i5 Chi53; For i5st35ce8 o5e 3rtici35t reorted8 G2 ase* my
%rien*s in 3o?-) > an* 5J Mi**le S#hool an* Dthey tol* me thatE their tea#hers also require them
to memorise texts; ,8englin) L8) SA0;
+'(.
+')&
+')'
+')%
+')(
+'))
+')*
+')+
+'),
+')-
+').
+'*&
+'*'
+'*%
+'*(
+'*)
+'**
+'*+
+'*,
+'*-
+'*.
+'+&
+'+'
+'+%
+'+(
+'+)
+'+*
+'++
+'+,
)%%
)%(
)%)
)%*
T3$le ,;+ Te3chers> Pro$le#s i5 Usi5g Te6t Me#oris3tio5 i5 Foreig5 L35g43ge
Te3chi5g ?NC%&@
Pro$le# N4#$er of le3r5ers #e5tio5i5g ro$le#
L45ior High?,@ Se5ior High?*@ College?-@
Li#ited ti#e ( ) &
Gee st4de5ts> i5terest * ' &
Differe5ti3tio5 + ( &
/efore e#$3rAi5g o5 #! disc4ssio58 I 3lso 5eed to re#i5d the re3der th3t 3ltho4gh
this sectio5 co5cer5s te3chers> ercei"ed ro$le#s i5 4si5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 their
foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g8 I 9ill 3lso descri$e so#e of the te3chers> ositi"e
ed3gogic decisio5s 35d r3ctices i5 t3cAli5g #e5tio5ed ro$le#s8 9hich e#erged 3s
35 i5teresti5g the#e fro# the 353l!sis of the i5ter"ie9 d3t3;
The #ost fre<4e5tl! #e5tio5ed ro$le# $! seco5d3r! te3chers 93s the l3cA of ti#e1
: be#ause time *oes not allow us to *o this Dmemorising all textsE?
,'angming) '8) JA0
'he stu*ents ha7e limite* time as they ha7e loa*s o% assignments in other
subje#ts? ,Jiajie) '8) JA0
2n %a#t) they Dstu*entsE ha7e 7ery limite* time to *o text memorisation?
,Liangqing) '8) SA) in A44en*ix 10
I5 coi5g 9ith the iss4e of li#ited ti#e8 the te3chers 4s43ll! chose to red4ce the
3#o45t of #e#oris3tio5 t3sA1
:we tea#hers *on;t require them to memorise the whole text or 7ery long
4aragra4hs:? ,Liangqing) '8) SA) in A44en*ix 10
: we *o it Dtext memorisationE sele#ti7ely? 2 suggest that the stu*ents
memorise more 4aragra4hs an* senten#es? ,'amgming) '8) JA0
+'+-
+'+.
+',&
+','
+',%
+',(
+',)
+',*
+',+
+',,
+',-
+',.
+'-&
+'-'
+'-%
+'-(
+'-)
+'-*
+'-+
+'-,
+'--
+'-.
+'.&
+'.'
+'.%
+'.(
+'.)
+'.*
+'.+
+'.,
+'.-
+'..
+%&&
So#e te3chers 3lso 4sed 3lter53ti"es to te6t #e#oris3tio51
2t is #om4letely im4ra#ti#al to require stu*ents to memorise long arti#les:? 2n
this #ase) 2 will as them to retell the text in their own wor*s) but at the same
time) using the new stru#tures learne* in the text? ,'angming) '8) JA0
The seco5d iss4e ofte5 #e5tio5ed $! #ost seco5d3r! te3chers is th3t of st4de5ts>
toler35ce or i5terest i5 doi5g the r3ctice8 eseci3ll! 9he5 it co#es to !o45g le3r5ers;
It 93s ge5er3ll! 3cA5o9ledged th3t Gee4ing stu*ents; interest is 7ery im4ortant;
,Jiajie) '8) JA0 35d the e5co4r3ge#e5t of #ore te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e o5 the
re#ise th3t G: it *oes not 4ose a 4sy#hologi#al bur*en Dto the stu*entsE; ,Liuxia) '8)
JA0; The choice of #3teri3l therefore $eco#es of "it3l i#ort35ce1
'he #hoi#e o% the texts %or memorisation is ob7iously im4ortant? 'hey shoul*
not be too long an* too boring? ,Yuli) '8) JA0
:we nee* to #hoose materials that mae sense to the stu*ents or interest them
in a##or*an#e with their ages? ,Liuxia) '8) JA0
O5e te3cher s4ggested1
: the stu*ents may well be gi7en the right to #hoose one they lie among a
short list o% arti#les #hosen by the tea#her be#ause e7eryone has *i%%erent
interests? 'hey are more liely to be Gusing their heart; i% they are memorising
stu%% they are intereste* in? 'hey will not be 7ery willinghearte* i% they are
%or#e* to re#ite an arti#le they *on;t lie at all? ,Wenna) '8) JA) in A44en*ix
10
A5other te3cher 4sed the sche#e of ti#e 3lloc3tio5 to e3se the st4de5ts> s!chologic3l
$4rde51
We #an in#rease the %requen#y o% memorisation but *e#rease the amount ea#h
time? 2t;s similar to ha7ing more meals but smaller 4ortions? 2n this way) the
+%&'
+%&%
+%&(
+%&)
+%&*
+%&+
+%&,
+%&-
+%&.
+%'&
+%''
+%'%
+%'(
+%')
+%'*
+%'+
+%',
+%'-
+%'.
+%%&
+%%'
+%%%
+%%(
+%%)
+%%*
+%%+
+%%,
+%%-
+%%.
+%(&
+%('
+%(%
+%((
+%()
stu*ents may %eel less bore* an* more easily gain a sense o% a#hie7ement?
,Liuxia) '8) JA0
It is ge5er3ll! 3greed 3#o5g the te3chers th3t te3chers> co5trol o"er the <43lit! 3s 9ell
3s <435tit! of the #3teri3l for st4de5ts to #e#orise is cr4ci3l i5 #36i#isi5g the
$e5efits 35d #i5i#ise the side:effects of the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5;
A5other iss4e the te3chers 5eed to t3cAle 93s differe5ti3tio5 i5 4si5g te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g; There 3re t9o 3sects of de3li5g 9ith the
ro$le#1 o5e is 3$o4t h3"i5g differe5t st4de5ts #eet differe5t st35d3rds or
re<4ire#e5ts8 the other is co5cer5ed 9ith 3d3ti5g the st35d3rd of r3ctici5g te6t
#e#oris3tio5; I5 the first c3se8 the r3tio53le $ehi5d the te3chers> #e3s4re 93s
str3ightfor93rdJ 53#el!8 to 3cco##od3te the #e#oris3tio5 3ssig5#e5t to the
st4de5ts> 3$ilit!1
We require the ex#ellent stu*ents to re#ite the whole text an* the a7erage the
sele#te* 4aragra4hs? As %or the 4oorest grou4) they only nee* to be able to
rea* the text alou* in an a##e4table manner? ,Liangying) '8) JA0
Re3di5g the te6t 3lo4d 3s 3 s4$stit4tio5 for le3r5i5g $! he3rt8 tho4gh co5sidered $!
#35! te3chers 3s <43lit3ti"el! differe5t fro# the l3tter
'%(
8 #ight $e fe3si$le for those
9ho fi5d the t3sA too de#35di5g; Accordi5g to 3 3rtici35t8 Ebeing %luent in rea*ing
alou* is the %irst ste4 Do% learning by heartE; ,'angming) '8) JA0? A si#il3r r3ctice
93s reorted i5 re"io4s st4d! $! 3 Chi5ese le3r5er1 EIt 93s diffic4lt to #e#ori7e the
te6t $4t I i5ste3d re3d it 3lo4d 3t le3st (& ti#es;> ?I5ter"ie9ee %+8 <4oted i5 Li35g8
%&&-1 '('@; Re3di5g 3lo4d8 3 le3r5i5g $eh3"io4r th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 5or#3ll!
i5"ol"es8 is Estill 9idel! 4sed i5 Chi53 3t e"er! st3ge of liter3c! 3c<4isitio5> ?P3rr!8
'..-1 +*J see 3lso Cort377i N Li58 %&'&@; Altho4gh ge5er3l ELT #ethodolog!
liter3t4re does 5ot reco##e5d this r3ctice ?see8 ho9e"er8 2i$so58 %&&- for 3
differe5t 3rg4#e5t@8 i5ter"ie9 d3t3 i5 the rese5t st4d! de#o5str3te 3 ositi"e
reso5se fro# #! 3rtici35ts1
'%(
'
'+ 3rtici35ts o4t of %& reso5ded ositi"el! to the ite# EH3"i5g le3r5ed 3 te6t $! he3rt is
<43lit3ti"el! differe5t fro# $ei5g fl4e5t i5 re3di5g 3lo4d 3 te6t; ?see Ae5di6 %8 P3rt II8 Ite#
No;.@;
+%(*
+%(+
+%(,
+%(-
+%(.
+%)&
+%)'
+%)%
+%)(
+%))
+%)*
+%)+
+%),
+%)-
+%).
+%*&
+%*'
+%*%
+%*(
+%*)
+%**
+%*+
+%*,
+%*-
+%*.
+%+&
+%+'
+%+%
+%+(
+%+)
+%+*
)%+
)%,
)%-
2 enjoy rea*ing a text alou*? 2 %eel #om%ortable when 2 hear my own 7oi#e
while 2 say alou* DtextsE %or memorisation? ,Xuying) L8) B0
Sometimes) 2 rea* alou* an +nglish news4a4er with 7arying tones? 2 %eel
#om%ortable in *oing so? ,Yun4eng) L8) B0
2n %a#t) the best way to memorise Da textE is through rea*ing alou* using your
mouth? : Memorising through silent rea*ing is mu#h less e%%e#ti7e than
rea*ing alou*? ,Aongying) '8) B) in A44en*ix 10
These d3t3 3lso echo the follo9i5g reort $! Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 re"io4s rese3rch1
I thi5A th3t it hels i#ro"e #! li5g4istic sAills 9he5 re3di5g these te6ts 3lo4d
for #e#oris3tio5; For i5st35ce8 I co4ld i#ro"e #! i5to53tio5 F I thi5A it is
i#ort35t to recite; Recit3tio5 is i#ort35t 9he5 le3r5i5g 3 l35g43ge;
?Shi64358 <4oted i5 23o8 %&&,31 '&'@;
As for the seco5d oi5t8 the rigid r3ctice of "er$3ti# #e#oris3tio5 3s i5 Chi5ese
liter3c! ed4c3tio5 93s see5 3s 5ot 3$sol4tel! 5ecess3r! 3s the te3chers 3re 393re of
the diffic4lties the st4de5ts 3re e6erie5ci5g1
2 noti#e* the in#reasing *i%%i#ulties the stu*ents en#ounter when the texts
be#ome more #om4lex? Ior exam4le) the stu*ents #om4lain that some wor*s o%
the same meaning a44ear in a text re4eate*ly lie Go%ten;) Gusually; an*
Galways;? 2t is har* %or them to a##urately re#all whi#h one is in whi#h
senten#e? 2 be#ame more tolerant in su#h #ases? 2 allow them to use these
wor*s inter#hangeably? F We *on;t nee* to require the stu*ents to re#ite
7erbatim without any #hange whi#h is insigni%i#ant? ,Jiajie) '8) JA0
As #e5tio5ed e3rlier8 the 3fore#e5tio5ed ro$le#s ?li#ited ti#e 35d Aeei5g
st4de5ts> i5terest 35d differe5ti3tio5@ 9ere 5ot fo45d i5 45i"ersit! te3chers>
co##e5ts; U5liAe i5 seco5d3r! school8 #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts is 5o lo5ger 3
#35d3tor! 3ssig5#e5t i5 college 35d therefore the te3chers h3"e #4ch less co5trol
+%++
+%+,
+%+-
+%+.
+%,&
+%,'
+%,%
+%,(
+%,)
+%,*
+%,+
+%,,
+%,-
+%,.
+%-&
+%-'
+%-%
+%-(
+%-)
+%-*
+%-+
+%-,
+%--
+%-.
+%.&
+%.'
+%.%
+%.(
+%.)
+%.*
+%.+
+%.,
+%.-
+%..
o"er the st4de5ts> 3ct43l r3ctice; The 3ttit4de e6ressed i5 the follo9i5g 3cco45t is
5ot 3t!ic3l 3#o5g college te3chers1
'o memorise DtextsE or not is a matter o% their Dstu*ents;E own #hoi#e? 'hey
may not lie this metho*) or they *on;t see the nee* to use it be#ause they are
alrea*y goo* enough? As a tea#her) 2 woul* suggest them to use this metho* as
2 now it shoul* be bene%i#ial to them i% they really un*erstan* the 4ur4ose o%
the 4ra#ti#e an* 4erse7ere at *oing it? ,"inxin) '8) B0
The f3ct th3t 45i"ersit! te3chers 3re 5or#3ll! #4ch less i5"ol"ed i5 the #o5itori5g
rocess of st4de5ts> #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts does 5ot #e35 th3t this r3ctice is 5ot
e#h3sised i5stit4tio53ll! 3t terti3r! le"el; College st4de5ts 3re still e6ected to
#e#orise 3 cert3i5 3#o45t of te6ts to i#ro"e their li5g4istic co#ete5ce8 3s is
de#o5str3ted i5 the follo9i5g 3cco45t1
Ior %oun*ation.laying mo*ules lie 2ntegrate* +nglish an* A*7an#e* +nglish)
whi#h are *esigne* to im4ro7e Dstu*ents;E linguisti# #om4eten#e) there are
#hosen texts %or stu*ents to memorise in ea#h unit? 'he le#turers in #harge o%
these mo*ules #o.*e#i*e* whi#h texts are sele#te* %or memorisation? : 9ne o%
these texts will be teste* in the %inal term examination? ,Jiean) '8) B0
Bhile this te3cher is t3lAi5g 3$o4t the c3se of te3chi5g st4de5ts #3Dori5g i5 E5glish8
the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3lso e5co4r3ged 3#o5g 5o5:E5glish #3Dors i5
so#e colleges1
2n the textboo D!ollege +nglish K 2ntegrate* !ourse ,Y?.A? Li) et al?) 5==-0E
we are using) there is a regular assignment o% learning by heart se7eral
4aragra4hs in the main text in ea#h unit? 2n or*er to urge stu*ents to *o this)
we ha7e a s4e#ial se#tion #alle* G#loze test; in the %inal examination 4a4er?
Stu*ents are require* to %ill in the missing wor*s or 4hrases in one or two
4aragra4hs #hosen %rom those they are ex4e#te* to memorise? ,Xiaohong) '8)
B0
".! C1476u3i14
+(&&
+(&'
+(&%
+(&(
+(&)
+(&*
+(&+
+(&,
+(&-
+(&.
+('&
+(''
+('%
+('(
+(')
+('*
+('+
+(',
+('-
+('.
+(%&
+(%'
+(%%
+(%(
+(%)
+(%*
+(%+
+(%,
+(%-
+(%.
+((&
+(('
+((%
+(((
I5 the re"io4s sectio5s fi5di5gs 35d disc4ssio5s h3"e $ee5 rese5ted th3t 3ddress o5e
of the rese3rch <4estio5s i5 the st4d!8 th3t is8 9hether there 3re 35! co##o53lities
35d differe5ces 3cross ed4c3tio53l le"el reg3rdi5g the le3r5ers 35d te3chers> 4se 35d
$eliefs o5 le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt; 2i"e5 the rel3ti"el! s#3ll si7e of the s3#le 35d the
di"ersit! of the 3rtici35ts> $3cAgro45d8 I h3"e 5ot $ee5 3$le to rese5t 3 co5cl4si"e
s4##3r! of the 3rtici35ts> "ie9s; Ho9e"er8 it is cle3r th3t i5 $oth le3r5er 35d
te3cher gro4s8 the 4sef4l5ess of the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 to foreig5 l35g43ge
le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g is ge5er3ll! 3cA5o9ledged8 tho4gh8 to "3r!i5g degrees;
I5 ter#s of di"ersit! i5 the le3r5er gro48 the #ost striAi5g 3sect e#ergi5g fro# the
353l!sis of d3t3 is th3t the #ore e6erie5ced le3r5ers ?5ot3$l! college st4de5ts@ 3re
3$le to ercei"e the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 fro# the oi5t of "ie9 of its i5tri5sic
"3l4e 9hile the le3r5ers 3t $egi55i5g st3ges ?eseci3ll! D45ior high st4de5ts@ te5d to
foc4s o5 the 4tilit3ri35 "3l4e of the r3ctice; As reg3rds the te3cher gro48 the
di"ersit! rel3tes to the r3ctic3l 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 te3chi5g 9hich 93s #4ch
#ore fre<4e5tl! reorted $! seco5d3r! te3chers ?eseci3ll! D45ior high school
te3chers@ th35 their 45i"ersit! co45ter3rts; Moreo"er8 seco5d3r! te3chers 3re fo45d
to $e i##e5sel! i5"ol"ed i5 the r3ctice 9here3s the 45i"ersit! te3chers o5l! ser"e 3s
35 3d"isor; This #3! $e i5 li5e 9ith the i5stit4tio53l r3ctice th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 is
i5 #ost c3ses 35 o$lig3tor! 3ssig5#e5t i5 seco5d3r! schools8 eseci3ll! i5 D45ior high
schools8 $4t 3 "ol45t3r! choice 3t terti3r! le"el;
If the rel3ti"el! s#3ll s3#le 4sed i5 this st4d! c35 $e t3Ae5 3s i5dic3ti"e8 it 9o4ld
3e3r th3t the co5te#or3r! ed3gogic r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 Chi53 is
st3rti5g to $e3r so#e $3sic ositi"e fe3t4res s4ch 3s differe5ti3ti5g t3sAs to s4it
st4de5ts> 3$ilit! 35d choosi5g te6ts to c3ter for st4de5ts> i5terest; Chi5ese te3chers
see# to $e c3ref4ll! st4d!i5g this tr3ditio53l r3ctice8 #3Ai5g ch35ges echoi5g 9h3t
co5stit4tes 3 h4#35istic "ie9 of le3r5i5g;
+(()
+((*
+((+
+((,
+((-
+((.
+()&
+()'
+()%
+()(
+())
+()*
+()+
+(),
+()-
+().
+(*&
+(*'
+(*%
+(*(
+(*)
+(**
+(*+
+(*,
+(*-
+(*.
+(+&
+(+'
+(+%
+(+(
+(+)
+(+*
+(++
+(+,
+(+-
+(+.
+(,&
+(,'
+(,%
+(,(
+(,)
+(,*
+(,+
+(,,
CHAPTER '------------------------------------------------
SMMARY AND CONCLSIONS
The 3i#s of this dissert3tio58 3s set o4t i5 Ch3ter '8 3re 3s follo9s1
' to e6lore rele"35t liter3t4re i5 order to offer 3 s!ste#3tic 353l!sis of the role of
#e#ori73tio5 i5 ?l35g43ge@ ed4c3tio5 i5 ge5er3l 35d i5 rel3tio5 to Chi5ese
le3r5ers i5 3rtic4l3rJ 35d
% to reort o5 3 i5ter"ie9:$3sed e#iric3l st4d! 9hich i5"estig3tes the Chi5ese
$eliefs 35d r3ctices reg3rdi5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3 le3r5i5g=te3chi5g de"ice $!
3ccessi5g i5di"id43l "oices of 3 gro4 of le3r5ers 35d te3chers;
To $e secific8 the st4d! 93s co5d4cted 9ith the follo9i5g o$Decti"es i5 #i5d1
' to f4rther the 45derst35di5g of the "3l4es of tr3ditio53l Chi5ese ed4c3tio5
r3ctices 35d Chi5ese ercetio5 of le3r5i5g thro4gh the le5s of te6t
#e#oris3tio5J
% to ro"ide 3 ote5ti3l rei5terret3tio5 of the Co5f4ci35 hilosoh! of
le3r5i5g 35d tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g r3ctices i5 Chi53 i5 order to <4er!
to 9h3t e6te5t the! 3re rele"35t to #oder5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5J
( to #o"e $e!o5d stereot!ed 35d s4erfici3l i5terret3tio5 of Chi5ese 93!s
of le3r5i5g $! co5d4cti5g i5:deth i5ter"ie9s 9ith 3 gro4 of Chi5ese le3r5ers
35d te3chers fro# differe5t ed4c3tio53l le"elsJ
) to offer he4ristics th3t c35 !ield g4id35ce to do#estic foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chers 3s 9ell 3s 9ester5:origi5 EFL=ESL te3chers=rese3rchers 9ho 3re or
9ill $e 9orAi5g 9ith Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 3 i5terc4lt4r3l co##45ic3tio5
co5te6ts;
I5 this co5cl4di5g ch3ter8 I 9ill s4##3rise 9h3t h3s $ee5 3tte#ted 35d 3chie"ed 3s
f3r 3s these go3ls 3re co5cer5ed8 follo9ed $! disc4ssio5s of ed3gogic3l i#lic3tio5s
35d s4ggestio5s for f4t4re rese3rch;
'.1 Su00a28
+(,-
+(,.
+(-&
+(-'
+(-%
+(-(
+(-)
+(-*
+(-+
+(-,
+(--
+(-.
+(.&
+(.'
+(.%
+(.(
+(.)
+(.*
+(.+
+(.,
+(.-
+(..
+)&&
+)&'
+)&%
+)&(
+)&)
+)&*
+)&+
+)&,
+)&-
+)&.
+)'&
The s4##3r! of the thesis is i5 t9o 3rts1 the re"ie9 of the liter3t4re o5 ?te6t@
#e#oris3tio5 35d the e#iric3l i5"estig3tio5;
'.1.1 Li/e2a/u2e 2e<ieB
The re"ie9 of the liter3t4re 93s org35ised 3ro45d three "35t3ge:oi5ts; The first is the
historic3l o"er"ie9 of the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 $oth i5 Chi53 35d o4tside
Chi53; /4ildi5g 4o5 3 stocA of records 9hich I h3"e so f3r 3ccessed8 I h3"e 4shed
for the follo9i5g #ess3ge1 Te6t #e#oris3tio5 is $! 5o #e35s 45i<4e to Co5f4ci35
herit3ge Chi53; I5 effect8 ?te6t@ #e#oris3tio5 h3d $ee5 ce5tr3l i5 A5gloho5e 9ester5
ed4c3tio5 4 to the rece5t 3st; I5 3dditio58 there 93s 5o de3rth of ositi"e "oices for
te6t #e#oris3tio5 fro# Bester5 schol3rs 3ltho4gh it h3s $ee5 serio4sl! 3tt3cAed i5
#3i5stre3# ed4c3tio5 i5 the #oder5 Best; The f3ct 93rr35ts e6lic3tio5 th3t te6t
#e#oris3tio5 h3s s4r"i"ed i5 Chi53 35d is still $ei5g e6te5si"el! r3cticed i5 foreig5
l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g;
The seco5d "35t3ge:oi5t I h3"e t3Ae5 is to e63#i5e the co5cet of #e#oris3tio5 i5
rel3tio5 to Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d Co5f4ci35 hilosoh! of le3r5i5g; I5 this sectio58 3
s4$st35ti3l s4r"e! 93s co5d4cted follo9i5g three str35ds1 ?'@ #e#oris3tio5 35d
le3r5i5gJ ?%@ #e#oris3tio5 35d Chi5ese le3r5ersJ 35d ?(@ the rele"35ce of Co5f4ci35
tho4ght o5 ed4c3tio5 to co5te#or3r! ed4c3tio5;
I5 4rs4i5g e3ch of the 3$o"e i5<4iries8 I h3"e 3tte#ted to 4t 3cross #! o95
tho4ghts; The first li5e of i5<4isitio5 is directed 3t t9o <4estio5s ce5tr3l to o4r
45derst35di5g of the rel3tio5shi $et9ee5 #e#oris3tio5 35d le3r5i5g1 ?3@ Is
#e#oris3tio5 legiti#3te i5 le3r5i5gH ?$@ Is #e#oris3tio5 doo#ed to $e i5co#3ti$le
9ith critic3l thi5Ai5gH /! #3Ai5g 3 critic3l re"ie9 of Freire>s i5terret3tio5 of
A5o9ledge 35d dr39i5g i5sights fro# De9e!>s 5otio5 of le3r5i5g8 I 3rg4ed th3t
#e#oris3tio5 35d rete5tio5 of re3d!:#3de A5o9ledge is 5ot o5l! legiti#3te i5 $4t 35
i5dise5s3$le co#o5e5t of le3r5i5g; More i#ort35tl!8 #e#oris3tio5 #3! 5ot
5ecess3ril! $e i5co#3ti$le 9ith critic3l thi5Ai5g;
+)''
+)'%
+)'(
+)')
+)'*
+)'+
+)',
+)'-
+)'.
+)%&
+)%'
+)%%
+)%(
+)%)
+)%*
+)%+
+)%,
+)%-
+)%.
+)(&
+)('
+)(%
+)((
+)()
+)(*
+)(+
+)(,
+)(-
+)(.
+))&
+))'
+))%
+))(
I5 reg3rd to the seco5d li5e of i5<4ir!8 I h3"e tried to sol"e the 3r3do6 of Chi5ese
le3r5ers $! dr39i5g o5 the i5sights i5 the e6isti5g liter3t4re; The Chi5ese co5cetio5
of #e#oris3tio5 is e6o45ded i5 rel3tio5 to 45derst35di5g8 reetitio5 35d cre3ti"it!;
S4ch c4lt4re:orie5ted 353l!sis le3ds to the co5cl4sio5 th3t Chi5ese le3r5ers> r3ctice
35d "ie9 of #e#oris3tio5 #3! $e $est 45derstood fro# the ersecti"e of Co5f4ci35
recets for le3r5i5g;
The third "35t3ge:oi5t I oted for 45derst35di5g #e#oris3tio5 93s 3 co5cet43l
e6lor3tio5 of A4dioli5g43lis# 9hich the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 fits i5to
#ethodologic3ll!; T3Ai5g the rel3tio5shi $et9ee5 #e#oris3tio5 35d A4dioli5g43lis#
3s 3 oi5t of de3rt4re8 I h3"e oi5ted o4t th3t #e#oris3tio5 is he3"il! e#h3sised i5
ALM desite its 9ester5 origi5; It h3s the5 $ee5 3rg4ed th3t the #ethodologic3l
ri5ciles 45derl!i5g ALM coi5cide 9ith the #e#ori73tio5:e#h3sised Chi5ese
c4lt4re of le3r5i5g; 24ided $! this co5cetio58 I h3"e $ee5 3$le to e6l3i5 9h! ALM8
3s oosed to CLT8 93s s4ccessf4ll! i5tegr3ted i5to ELT i5 Chi53 9hile it fell fro#
f3"o4r i5 the Best 3s e3rl! 3s h3lf 3 ce5t4r! 3go; A ce5tr3l #ess3ge th3t I h3"e
3tte#ted to co5"e! here is th3t ro$le#s 9ith the ALM ide5tified thro4gh the le5s of
9ester5 c4lt4re see# to h3"e 5ot co5stit4ted i5s4r#o45t3$le $3rriers i5 the e!es of
le3r5ers $red i5 Chi5ese c4lt4re; Fi53ll! disc4ssed i5 this ch3ter 9ere the stre5gths
of tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi53 ?5ot3$l! the r3ctice of #e#oris3tio5 of
te6t43l #3teri3ls@ 35d ho9 9e c35 e6loit the# i5 #oder5 sit43tio5s;
U to this oi5t8 I $elie"e the first of the t9o 3i#s I set for the thesis h3s $ee5
3chie"ed8 53#el!1
to offer 3 s!ste#3tic 353l!sis of the role of #e#ori73tio5 i5 ?l35g43ge@ ed4c3tio5
i5 ge5er3l 35d i5 rel3tio5 to Chi5ese le3r5ers i5 3rtic4l3r;
'.1.2 T5e e0:i2i7a6 i4<e3/iga/i14
The seco5d go3l of this dissert3tio5 is8 to ree3t1
+)))
+))*
+))+
+)),
+))-
+)).
+)*&
+)*'
+)*%
+)*(
+)*)
+)**
+)*+
+)*,
+)*-
+)*.
+)+&
+)+'
+)+%
+)+(
+)+)
+)+*
+)++
+)+,
+)+-
+)+.
+),&
+),'
+),%
+),(
+),)
+),*
+),+
to i5"estig3te Chi5ese $eliefs 35d r3ctices reg3rdi5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s 3
le3r5i5g=te3chi5g de"ice $! 3ccessi5g i5di"id43l "oices of 3 gro4 of
Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers;
Dr39i5g 4o5 i5sights fro# the re"ie9 of #e#ori73tio5 i5 the co5cet43l st4d!8 35
e#iric3l st4d! 93s roosed; The st4d! set the follo9i5g 3s its go3ls1
' to e6lore Chi5ese "ie9s of foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g thro4gh the le5s of
te6t #e#ori73tio5 9hich is 5ot co##o5l! 4sed i5 other le3r5i5g c4lt4resJ 35d
% to 45derst35d the "3l4es of te6t #e#oris3tio5 ercei"ed $! Chi5ese
le3r5ers=te3chers;
To th3t e5d8 it set o4t to rese3rch t9o <4estio5s1
' Bh3t 3re Chi5ese le3r5ers=te3chers> r3ctices 35d ercetio5s of the 4se of
te6t #e#ori73tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g=te3chi5gH
% Ho9 c35 the e#erged fe3t4res of the le3r5ers=te3chers> ercetio5s $e
e6l3i5edH
D3t3 9ere collected thro4gh 3 series of i5:deth i5ter"ie9s 35d 3 s#3ll:sc3le s4r"e!;
A gro4 of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers of E5glish ?9ith o5l! o5e e6cetio5 of 3
R4ssi35 te3cher@ ser"ed 3s i5for#35ts; The! 9ere chose5 fro# three ed4c3tio53l
le"els 9hich co5stit4te the #3i5 3rt of the E5glish ed4c3tio5 s!ste# 35d 3ffect the
l3rgest 54#$er of E5glish l35g43ge le3r5ers i5 Chi53; Bhile co#3riso5 93s #3de
3cross ed4c3tio53l le"els8 there is 5o 3tte#t to co#3re the le3r5er gro4 35d te3cher
gro4; P3rt of the d3t3 fro# i5ter"ie9s 9ith te3chers 93s 3lso i5coror3ted i5to the
disc4ssio5 of le3r5ers> ercetio5s i5 Ch3ter * 9here the te3chers 9ere see5 3s
3d"35ced le3r5ers;
The i5"estig3tio5 $eg35 $! looAi5g 3t 9h3t Chi5ese le3r5ers h3"e to s3! 3$o4t the
r3ctice of te6t #e#ori73tio5; I5 light of the co5cet43l iss4es disc4ssed i5 Ch3ters
% 35d (8 the i5ter"ie9 g4ide ?see Ae5di6 '@ 93s desig5ed to e6lore1
+),,
+),-
+),.
+)-&
+)-'
+)-%
+)-(
+)-)
+)-*
+)-+
+)-,
+)--
+)-.
+).&
+).'
+).%
+).(
+).)
+).*
+).+
+).,
+).-
+)..
+*&&
+*&'
+*&%
+*&(
+*&)
+*&*
+*&+
+*&,
+*&-
+*&.
'@ 9hether 35d 9h! le3r5ers co5sider te6t #e#ori73tio5 h3s $ee5 $e5efici3l
to their foreig5 le3r5i5g e6erie5ceJ
%@ 9h3t diffic4lties the! h3"e e6erie5ced i5 4si5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 their
E5glish le3r5i5gJ 35d
(@ ho9 the! ercei"e the ote5ti3l ro$le#s th3t #ight $e $ro4ght 3$o4t $!
he3"! 4se of te6t #e#ori73tio5;
The d3t3 collected i5 the st4d! sho9 th3t le3r5ers> reso5se to their e6erie5ce of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 93s o"er9hel#i5gl! ositi"e i5 ter#s of its helf4l5ess to their E5glish
le3r5i5g 3ltho4gh 3 fe9 li#it3tio5s of the r3ctice 9ere 3lso reorted; The fi5di5g
co5fir#s the 45derst35di5g re3ched $! e3rlier rese3rch ?e;g; Di5g8 %&&)J Di5g8 %&&,@;
Bhile the re"io4s 353logo4s st4d! ?Di5g8 %&&)@ 93s foc4sed o5 3 s#3ll gro4
?5C%%@ of s4ccessf4l Chi5ese terti3r! E5glish #3Dors 4si5g Do4r53l e5tries 3s 3
rese3rch tool8 the c4rre5t st4d!8 #3i5l! $3sed o5 i5:deth i5ter"ie9s8 dre9 o5 3 $igger
s3#le of Chi5ese le3r5ers ?5C+%@ 9ith 3 di"ersified $3cAgro45d i5 3ge8 ed4c3tio53l
le"el8 l35g43ge roficie5c! 35d the t!e of 3ffili3ted i5stit4tio5; I43lit3ti"e 353l!ses
of the d3t3 led to 3 54#$er of fi5di5gs; First8 the #3i5 re3so5s ro"ided $! the
3rtici35ts 3s to 9h! the! co5sidered the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 h3d
co5tri$4ted to their foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 9ere1 c4lti"3ti5g the so:c3lled
El35g43ge se5se>8 f3cilit3ti5g co5scio4s le3r5i5g 35d de"eloi5g 3 se5se of
3chie"e#e5t 35d therefore $4ildi5g self:co5fide5ce; The r3ctice 93s th4s ercei"ed
to $e $e5efici3l to foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 5ot o5l! $ec34se it li5g4istic3ll! 3ssists
35d seeds 4 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g i5 o5e 93! or 35other8 $4t 3lso $ec34se it
3ffords the le3r5ers s!chologic3l s3tisf3ctio5 $4ilt o5 their se5se of 3chie"e#e5t 35d
co5fide5ce; Seco5d8 it 93s 3l#ost 4535i#o4sl! 3greed 3#o5g the 3rtici35ts th3t
te6t #e#oris3tio5 is f3r fro# $ei5g rote:#e#oris3tio5 3s it is tho4ght to $e
e6ceedi5gl! diffic4lt8 if ossi$le 3t 3ll8 to #e#orise #3teri3l 9itho4t recedi5g
45derst35di5g of 9h3t is to $e #e#orised; Third8 #e#oris3tio5 of 3 co5sider3$le
3#o45t of te6ts is $elie"ed to e"e5t43ll! le3d to origi53l or cre3ti"e 4se of the
l35g43ge 35d f3cilit3te ide3 de"elo#e5t8 if s4ch #e#oris3tio5 is i5 co#$i53tio5 9ith
3cti"e thi5Ai5g;
+*'&
+*''
+*'%
+*'(
+*')
+*'*
+*'+
+*',
+*'-
+*'.
+*%&
+*%'
+*%%
+*%(
+*%)
+*%*
+*%+
+*%,
+*%-
+*%.
+*(&
+*('
+*(%
+*((
+*()
+*(*
+*(+
+*(,
+*(-
+*(.
+*)&
+*)'
I5 order to e6lore the Chi5ese te3chers> ercetio5s of the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5
3s 3 te3chi5g de"ice8 I set o4t the follo9i5g <4estio5s to g4ide the co5str4ctio5 of the
i5ter"ie9 sched4le1
'@ Bhether 35d 9h! the te3chers 4se te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 their foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5gH
%@ Bhether te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e 3$35do5ed i5 #oder5 #4lti:#edi3
te3chi5g co5ditio5sH
(@ Bhether te6t #e#oris3tio5 li#its st4de5ts> cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge 35d=or
ide3 de"elo#e5tH
)@ Bhether te6t #e#oris3tio5 Aills st4de5ts> i5terest i5 le3r5i5gH
I5terret3tio5s of the i5ter"ie9 d3t3 h3"e led to the fi5di5gs th3t the o"er9hel#i5g
#3Dorit! of the te3chers i5ter"ie9ed feel stro5gl! 3$o4t the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 35d i5sist th3t it $e ret3i5ed 3s 3 3rt of le3r5ers> r3ctice i5 Chi5ese
foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; The te3chers> ositi"e 3ttit4des to93rds the r3ctice 3rise
fro# 3 54#$er of f3ctors1 the! do 5ot "ie9 the r3ctice 3s detri#e5t3l to le3r5i5g i5
ter#s of le3r5ers> de"elo#e5t i5 cre3ti"it! co5cer5i5g l35g43ge 4se or ide3
de"elo#e5t 35d 5either 3re the! co5"i5ced th3t the r3ctice 5ecess3ril! h3s 3
5eg3ti"e i#3ct o5 st4de5ts> #oti"3tio5; O5 the co5tr3r!8 the! see #35! stro5g oi5ts
of the r3ctice i5cl4di5g i5ter53lisi5g l35g43ge A5o9ledge8 34to#3tisi5g rod4ctio58
e6editi5g le3r5i5g8 $4ildi5g 3 se5se of 3chie"e#e5t 35d ser"i5g 3s 35 o"er3ll
tr3i5i5g for the le3r5er; It is the te3chers> co##o5 3cA5o9ledge#e5t th3t te6t
#e#oris3tio5 c35 $e 3 "3l43$le te3chi5g de"ice i5 the EFL co5te6t liAe Chi53 if the
st4de5ts> toler35ce 35d the <43lit! of #3teri3ls to $e #e#orised 3re t3Ae5 i5to
3cco45t;
The <43lit3ti"e d3t3 fro# the i5:deth i5ter"ie9s descri$ed i5 Ch3ters * 35d + 9ere
the5 re:e63#i5ed 3lo5g 9ith <435tit3ti"e d3t3 fro# the s#3ll:sc3le s4r"e! i5 35
3tte#t to ide5tif! differe5ces i5 le3r5ers=te3chers> co5cetio5s 3cross three
ed4c3tio53l le"els ?see Ch3ter ,@; The 353l!ses sho9ed th3t the #ore e6erie5ced
le3r5ers ?5ot3$l! college st4de5ts@ 3re 3$le to 3reci3te the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5
fro# the oi5t of "ie9 of its i5tri5sic "3l4e ?e;g; i#ro"i5g o"er3ll li5g4istic
co#ete5ce@ 9hile the le3r5ers 3t $egi55i5g st3ges ?eseci3ll! D45ior high school
+*)%
+*)(
+*))
+*)*
+*)+
+*),
+*)-
+*).
+**&
+**'
+**%
+**(
+**)
+***
+**+
+**,
+**-
+**.
+*+&
+*+'
+*+%
+*+(
+*+)
+*+*
+*++
+*+,
+*+-
+*+.
+*,&
+*,'
+*,%
+*,(
+*,)
+*,*
st4de5ts@ te5d to foc4s o5 the 4tilit3ri35 "3l4e of the r3ctice ?i;e; e5h35ci5g
e63#i53tio5 erfor#35ce@; It 93s 3lso disco"ered th3t seco5d3r! school te3chers
reorted #4ch #ore i5"ol"e#e5t i5 35d co5trol o"er the st4de5ts> r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 th35 their 45i"ersit! co45ter3rts;
Th4s i5 this e#iric3l i5<4ir!8 I 5ot o5l! i5"estig3ted the Chi5ese le3r5ers> reso5ses
to their e6erie5ces i5 #e#orisi5g te6ts i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 $4t 3lso #3de
35 3tte#t to 45derst35d te3chers> ercetio5s reg3rdi5g the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5
3s 3 te3chi5g de"ice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g8 9hich8 to #! A5o9ledge8 h3s 5ot
$ee5 disc4ssed i5 the liter3t4re $efore; Fi5di5gs h3"e $ee5 rese5ted th3t 3ddress the
t9o rese3rch <4estio5s osited 3t the o4tset of the st4d!8 th3t is8 ho9 the 4se of te6t
#e#ori73tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g is ercei"ed 35d r3ctised $!
Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers8 35d ho9 the e#erged fe3t4res of their co5cetio5s c35
$e e6l3i5ed;
2i"e5 the rel3ti"el! s#3ll si7e of the s3#le8 ge5er3lised co5cl4sio5s of the
3rtici35ts> "ie9s see# to $e i#ossi$le8 t3Ai5g 3cco45t of the di"ersit! of the
3rtici35ts> $3cAgro45d; O5e thi5g th3t is cle3r8 ho9e"er8 is th3t 3l#ost 3ll
3rtici35ts co5sider the 4se of te6t #e#ori73tio5 co5d4ci"e to their foreig5 l35g43ge
le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g to so#e e6te5t 3ltho4gh li#it3tio5s of the r3ctice 9ere 3lso
3cA5o9ledged; I5 3dditio58 3rtici35ts i5 the st4d! disti5g4ish $et9ee5 3cti"e or
fle6i$le #e#ori73tio5 35d 3ssi"e or rote #e#ori73tio5 ?cf; Wgood #e#ori73tio5W 35d
W$3d #e#ori73tio5W i5 D4o5g8 %&&+@ 9ith the l3tter $ei5g 45i"ers3ll! "ie9ed
5eg3ti"el! 9here3s the for#er is tho4ght 5ot i5co#3ti$le 9ith 45derst35di5g 35d
cre3ti"it!; A5d the 3ct43l 4se of te6t #e#ori73tio5 $! te3chers st3rted to $e3r so#e
$3sic fe3t4res of good ed3gogic r3ctice8 disl3!i5g fle6i$ilit! 35d 3ccli#3ti73tio5 to
co5te#or3r! co5ditio5s of foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi53; Bhile so#e $eliefs
e#ergi5g fro# the d3t3 3re 3scri$3$le to the co#$i5ed i5fl4e5ce of Chi5ese
co5cetio5s of le3r5i5g 35d tr3ditio53l schooli5g 35d liter3c! r3ctice i5 Chi53 ?Y;:I;
248 %&&(@8 #35! of the oi5ts $ro4ght 4 $! the i5for#35ts either co5c4r 9ith SLA
theories or h3"e co5sider3$le D4stific3tio5 i5 ge5er3l ed4c3tio5 theor!8 3s 93s
de#o5str3ted i5 re"io4s ch3ters; The 3rtici35ts> ositi"e ercetio5s 3$o4t te6t
#e#ori73tio5 #ight $e #ore 3ttri$4t3$le to their e6erie5ce:$3sed $elief o5 the
$e5efits 35d r3ctic3lit! of the r3ctice i5 35 EFL co5te6t liAe Chi53 th35 th3t the!
+*,+
+*,,
+*,-
+*,.
+*-&
+*-'
+*-%
+*-(
+*-)
+*-*
+*-+
+*-,
+*--
+*-.
+*.&
+*.'
+*.%
+*.(
+*.)
+*.*
+*.+
+*.,
+*.-
+*..
++&&
++&'
++&%
++&(
++&)
++&*
++&+
++&,
++&-
++&.
co5sider the r3ctice to $e co5siste5t 9ith tr3ditio53l Chi5ese c4lt4re ?cf; 0;:P; Li8
%&&*@; These fi5di5gs s4ort the ch3r3cteri73tio5 of Chi5ese le3r5ers 3s "3l4i5g
3cti"e 35d reflecti"e thi5Ai5g8 oe5 #i5ded5ess 35d 3 sirit of i5<4ir! ?Che5g8 %&&&J
Lee8 '..+@;
'.2 I0:6i7a/i143 ;12 ;12eig4 6a4guage /ea75i4g
I5 this sectio58 I e6lore 9h3t i#lic3tio5s the fi5di5gs of the c4rre5t st4d! hold for
ed3gogic3l r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5;
It h3s $ee5 doc4#e5ted i5 liter3t4re th3t #35! Chi5ese st4de5ts h3"e st4d! h3$its th3t
9o4ld 33l Bester5 EFL #ethodologists 35d te3chers; Bhile cert3i5 st4d! h3$its
35d co5cetio5s of le3r5i5g h3"e i5deed ro"e5 to $e o$st3cles to li5g4istic
de"elo#e5t or serio4sl! irrele"35t to #oder5 foreig5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio58 so#e #3!
$e so#e9h3t effect43l i5 Chi5ese co5te6t if the! 3re t3Ae5 to good 4se; Methods #4st
$e e63#i5ed 35d the "3l4e of e3ch 3scert3i5ed8 dee5di5g o5 their #erit i5 the
Chi5ese setti5g ?L;:Y; B48 '.-(@; T9e5t!:fi"e !e3rs 3go8 H3r"e! ?'.-*1 '-+@
re#i5ded Bester5 EFL seci3lists 35d te3chers 9ho 9ere scor5f4l of #e#oris3tio5
#ethods of le3r5i5g1
The EBeW"e got it right> 3ttit4de is 3 93ste of ti#e i5 Chi53; E"e5 if it is tr4e8
5o$od! 935ts to he3r it8 e6cet ossi$l! those 9ho h3"e little or 5othi5g to
do 9ith te3chi5g;
The c4rre5t st4d! de#o5str3tes th3t differe5ce i5 c4lt4r3l tr3ditio5s did l3! 3 role i5
sh3i5g #35! Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers> ercetio5s of the r3ctice of te6t
#e#oris3tio5; Ne"ertheless8 it re#3i5s oe5 to disc4ssio5 9hether 3ll the Chi5ese
c4lt4r3l 35d ed4c3tio53l "3l4es 3re 5ecess3ril! i5ferior to 9ester5 co5cetio5s;
Bester5 #ethodologists 35d te3chers erh3s 5eed to $e re#i5ded 3g3i5 th3t their
c4lt4re is 5ot the o5l! right o5e ?2riffi58 '...@; The st4d! 3lso s4ggests th3t o"er:
si#lified 3ttri$4tio5 of Chi5ese r3ctices to 53tio53l c4lt4re or o"ere#h3sis o5 the
c4lt4r3l e6l353tio5 9itho4t oe5:#i5ded5ess 35d 9illi5g5ess to 45derst35d 9h3t the
r3ctitio5ers 3ct43ll! do 35d s3! #3! res4lt i5 3 dis#issi"e 3ttit4de to93rds Chi5ese
le3r5ers 3s 9ell 3s Chi5ese le3r5i5g r3ctices; Chi5ese le3r5ers8 3s the st4d! sho9s8
++'&
++''
++'%
++'(
++')
++'*
++'+
++',
++'-
++'.
++%&
++%'
++%%
++%(
++%)
++%*
++%+
++%,
++%-
++%.
++(&
++('
++(%
++((
++()
++(*
++(+
++(,
++(-
++(.
++)&
++)'
++)%
++)(
3re thi5Ai5g 35d reflecti"e $ei5gs 9ho 3re 3$le to e"3l43te their le3r5i5g e6erie5ces
dis3ssio53tel! i5 #ost c3ses 35d 3re e6ected to #3Ae 9ise decisio5s $! 9eighi5g
4 ros 35d co5s of 3 cert3i5 r3ctices;
A5 irresisti$le tre5d i5 l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 tod3! is 3 le3r5er:ce5tred #355er of
te3chi5g8 9hich c3lls for the i5cl4sio5 of 35d resect for the le3r5er ?/rooAs:Le9is8
%&&.@; Bhile t3Ai5g Ee6ert t3lA> serio4sl!8 9e sho4ld 5ot ig5ore the "oices fro#
those 9ho 3re 3ct43ll! e5g3ged i5 le3r5i5g 3 foreig5 l35g43ge; I5deed8 c3lli5g for
#ore s3ce gi"e5 to the ersecti"es of le3r5ers is f3r fro# $ei5g 3 5e9 ide3J foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5g is 3 rocess 9hich E3i#s to e#o9er le3r5ers $! 4tti5g their
e6erie5ces 35d A5o9ledge 3t the ce5tre of the ed3gogic3l rocess> ?Tollefso5 %&&&1
')+J cited i5 /rooAs:Le9is8 %&&.@; 2i"e5 th3t l35g43ge le3r5i5g is 3 Eli"ed e6erie5ce
i5ti#3tel! i5"ol"ed 9ith eole>s se5se of 9orth 35d ide5tit!> ?CooA8 %&&(@8 for
eole 9ho co5sider te6t #e#oris3tio5 E3 le3r5i5g 3cti"it! 9hich gre3tl! e6edites
the Ai5ds of e6erie5ce 9hich ro#ote 3c<4isitio5> ?Ste"icA8 '.-%1 +-@8 35d eole
9ho h3"e other s4fficie5t re3so5s to do it ?e"e5 if the le3r5er si#l! desires 3 feeli5g
of 3cco#lish#e5t@ or do 5ot #i5d doi5g it 3t 3ll8 the te3cher #ight $e e5co4r3ged to
e6lore tech5i<4es 3s to #36i#ise the $e5efits 35d #i5i#ise the side:effects of the
r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g;
As the res4lt of the st4d! i5dic3tes8 #ost le3r5ers 9ere 453$le to e5Do! the rocess of
#e#orisi5g te6ts8 9hich the!8 5e"ertheless8 tho4ght to $e $e5efici3l i5 o5e 93! or
35other to their foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g; I5 the co5te6t of #3i5l35d Chi53 9here the
r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 so#eti#es $eco#es #35d3tor! for foreig5 l35g43ge
$egi55ers i5 so#e schools8 it is the te3cher>s reso5si$ilit! to 5ot o5l! $e 393re of the
h3rdshi the st4de5ts 3re goi5g thro4gh8 $4t hel the# t3Ae f4ll 3d"35t3ge of the
r3ctice 9hile #3Ai5g the rocess less s!chologic3ll! ch3lle5gi5g; I 9o4ld liAe to
i5"ite te3chers to co5sider the follo9i5g t9o s4ggestio5s1 First8 le3r5ers sho4ld $e
gi"e5 3 cert3i5 degree of freedo# to choose the #3teri3ls th3t #3Ae se5se to the#
?e;g; rele"35t to the st4de5ts> d3il! life8 i5terests 35d 5eeds@ 45der the g4id35ce of
te3chers 9ho t3Ae co5trol o"er the le5gth 35d li5g4istic co#le6it! of the te6ts to $e
#e#orised; Seco5d8 te3chers sho4ld e5co4r3ge le3r5ers 35d cre3te ch35ces for the#
to 3d3t 9h3t the! h3"e #e#orised for their o95 4se; For i5st35ce8 fro# EAsA 5ot
++))
++)*
++)+
++),
++)-
++).
++*&
++*'
++*%
++*(
++*)
++**
++*+
++*,
++*-
++*.
+++&
+++'
+++%
+++(
+++)
+++*
++++
+++,
+++-
+++.
++,&
++,'
++,%
++,(
++,)
++,*
++,+
9h3t !o4r co45tr! c35 do for !o4J 3sA 9h3t !o4 c35 do for !o4r co45tr!>
'%)
8 the
le3r5ers c35 $e g4ided to co5str4ct se5te5ce liAe EAsA 5ot 9h3t !o4r te3cher c35 do
for !o4J 3sA 9h3t !o4 c35 do for !o4rself>; I5 $rief8 the rocess of le3r5i5g te6ts $!
he3rt sho4ld $e #3de #ore 3 le3s4re th35 3 $4rde5; This8 of co4rse8 relies o5 o4r
l35g43ge te3chers> rofessio53l co##it#e5t to s!#3thisi5g 9ith o4r st4de5ts i5 the
le3r5i5g rocess 35d tr35sfor#i5g their s!chologic3l e6erie5ces 9ith f4ll
recog5itio5 of the h4#35istic "3l4e of foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g;
Ho9e"er8 h4#35is# i5 the field of l35g43ge te3chi5g sho4ld 5ot $e t3Ae5 to the
e6tre#e th3t 9e 3re o$li"io4s to the 36io#s i5 l35g43ge 3c<4isitio5 ree3tedl! ro"ed
$! h4#35 e6erie5ce; Cor5eli4s ?'.*(1 '(%@ 5oted th3t Est4de5ts c355ot $e e6ected
to F 4se the foreig5 l35g43ge 9itho4t first h3"i5g le3r5ed F thro4gh o$ser"3tio58
i#it3tio58 35d co5ti54ed reetitio5>; Fro# the f3ct th3t o"er3ll le3r5ers ?either i5 the
rese5t st4d! or re"io4s 353logo4s rese3rch@ reso5ded ositi"el! to the helf4l5ess
of #e#orisi5g te6t43l #3teri3ls 9ith their foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g8 I #3! th4s
"e5t4re to s4ggest th3t reetitio5 35d le3r5i5g $! he3rt $e i5trod4ced i5 foreig5
l35g43ge te3chi5g 3t cert3i5 oi5ts for cert3i5 4roses e"e5 i5 the 5o5:Co5f4ci35
herit3ge c4lt4re co5te6ts8 e"e5 if it is 45liAel! to E3g3i5 for# 3 s4$st35ti3l 3rt of the
l35g43ge le3r5i5g rocess> ?CooA8 '..)1 '(.@; I c355ot see 35! re3so5 9h!
#e#oris3tio5 sho4ld 5ot $e e6loited effecti"el!8 if it is #3de 35 e6erie5ce
erso53ll! #e35i5gf4l to the le3r5er;
Altho4gh the rese3rch ill4str3tes th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 #3!8 to 3 cert3i5 degree8 l3!
3 ositi"e role i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g i5 Chi538 it $! 5o #e35s
s4ggests th3t Chi5ese resist35ce to Bester5 ed3gogic3l i#orts ?H48 %&&'8 %&&%3J
Si#so58 %&&-@ is D4stifi3$le; M35! 3rtici35ts i5 the st4d! 3cA5o9ledged the
stre5gths of #oder5 Bester5 #ethodolog!8 $4t 3t the s3#e ti#e r3ised co5cer5 3$o4t
directl! tr35sl3ti5g Bester5 3ro3ches liAe CLT to Chi5ese co5te6t; Perh3s8 9e #3!
5eed to $e re3listic e5o4gh to $e 393re of the co5te6t43l co5str3i5ts1 First8 9hile CLT
is ri#3ril! 3ss4#es 35 E5glish 3s 3 se#on* l35g43ge ?ESL@ co5te6t8 Chi53 is 35
E5glish 3s 3 %oreign l35g43ge le3r5i5g co5te6t ?Si#so58 %&&-1 (-)J see 3lso D;: L;
Li48 '..-@; Ho9e"er8 s4ch co5te6t43lis3tio5 is ofte5 ig5ored i5 Bester5 3cco45ts of
'%)
'
A f3#o4s se5te5ce i5 the i534g4r3l 3ddress $! Loh5 F; Ge55ed!8 the (*
th
A#eric35 reside5t;
++,,
++,-
++,.
++-&
++-'
++-%
++-(
++-)
++-*
++-+
++-,
++--
++-.
++.&
++.'
++.%
++.(
++.)
++.*
++.+
++.,
++.-
++..
+,&&
+,&'
+,&%
+,&(
+,&)
+,&*
+,&+
+,&,
+,&-
)%.
ELT i5 Chi53; Seco5d8 i5 the c4rre5t Chi5ese e63#i53tio5 s!ste#8 tests h3"e $ee5
4sed 3s g3teAeeers to s4ccess #ore th35 3ssessors of s4ccess ?H358 '..%@ 35d the
desig5 of l3rge:sc3le E5glish e63#s is $3sed o5 str4ct4r3lis# ?Y;:A; B48 %&&'@;
Ass4#i5g th3t effecti"e ch35ge is 45liAel! to $e #353ged 45less the e63# s!ste#
ch35ges ?Cort377i N Li58 '..+@8 35d if co5ditio5s for testi5g co##45ic3ti"e 3$ilit!
re#3i5s 45i#ro"ed8 CLT #3! $e doo#ed to f3il4re i5 Chi53;
2i"e5 these str4ct4r3l co5strictio5s 35d 3cA5o9ledgi5g th3t le3r5ers> str3teg! 4se is
ofte5 3 choice #3de ossi$le $! le3r5i5g co5te6ts ?cf; 23o8 %&&,3@8 3 $otto#:4
rocess of rogressio58 i;e; st3rti5g fro# 9h3t 9e 3lre3d! h3"e 3t h35d8 t3Ai5g the $est
of 9h3t 9orAs 35d 4si5g it 9here 35d 9he5 it 9orAs ?Hird8 '..*@ 35d 3t the s3#e
ti#e8 r3isi5g $oth the te3chers 35d st4de5ts> 393re5ess of Bester5 ed4c3tio53l ide3ls
9o4ld $e 3 #ore r3g#3tic ste to93rds ch35ge th35 h3stil! e5forci5g 3 r3dic3l to:
to95 refor# $! tr35sl35ti5g Bester5 scie5tific te3chi5g tech5i<4es 3t 3 he3"! cost; It
is th4s s4ggested here th3t 9e $egi5 9ith 3 rel3ti"el! #oder3te 3ro3ch th3t 9ill
c34se iece#e3l he3lth! ch35ges to c4rre5t ed3gogic3l str4ct4re 35d Eth3t 9ill cost
little to i#le#e5t> ?D; T35g N A$s3lo#8 '..-1 '%- @; Perh3s i5 3dditio5 to 3sAi5g
ho9 co##45ic3ti"e 3ro3ches c35 $e 4sed for ELT i5 Chi538 9e 5eed to 3lso 3sA
ho9 the Co5f4ci35 herit3ge c35 $e #3de good 4se of for le3r5i5g E5glish8 i;e; ho9
reetitio58 recit3tio58 #i#icr! 35d #e#orisi5g #3! $e s<43red 9ith #ore 3cti"e 35d
3rtici3tor! 3ro3ches to de"elo co##45ic3ti"e sAills ?B3tAi5s N /iggs8 '..+@;
'.! Li0i/a/i143 a49 3ugge3/i143 ;12 ;u/u2e 2e3ea275
As 35 e6lor3tor! st4d!8 the c4rre5t i5<4ir!8 5eedless to s3!8 h3s 3 54#$er of
#ethodologic3l li#it3tio5s8 i5cl4di5g the li#ited 54#$er 35d oort45istic 53t4re of
the 3rtici35t s3#le8 9hich #3Aes ge5er3lis3tio5s diffic4lt; I5 3dditio58 the c4rre5t
st4d! relied he3"il! o5 the i5for#35ts> self:reort foc4si5g o5 s4$Dects> o95 "ie9s
35d i5terret3tio5s of $eh3"io4r8 e"e5ts 35d sit43tio5s; Altho4gh the tr4st9orthi5ess
of the d3t3 h3s $ee5 D4stified ?see );(@8 the co5te5t of self:reort is ofte5 5ot directl!
o$ser"3$le 35d therefore h3s $ee5 criticised for $ei5g 5ot o$Decti"el! "erifi3$le $!
scie5tific st35d3rds ?3ssi# the #ethodologic3l liter3t4re@; 2i"e5 th3t so#e of the
3rtici35ts 3re i##3t4re st4de5ts 3t the 3ge of '' or '% ?see Ae5di6 (@8 the
shortco#i5g of self:reort $eco#es #ore 5otice3$le; O5e co5sic4o4s ro$le# I
+,&.
+,'&
+,''
+,'%
+,'(
+,')
+,'*
+,'+
+,',
+,'-
+,'.
+,%&
+,%'
+,%%
+,%(
+,%)
+,%*
+,%+
+,%,
+,%-
+,%.
+,(&
+,('
+,(%
+,((
+,()
+,(*
+,(+
+,(,
+,(-
+,(.
+,)&
+,)'
+,)%
re3lised d4ri5g the field9orA 93s th3t cert3i5 redeter#i5ed i5ter"ie9 <4estio5s 9ere
5ot "er! s4it3$le for !o45ger le3r5ers; The follo9i5g eisode ser"es 3s 35 e63#le8
I5ter"ie9er1 Do !o4 thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 9ill li#it o5e>s cre3ti"it!H
Yixiao ,L8) JA0L 3o) not at all?
I5ter"ie9er1 Bh! do !o4 thi5A soH
Yixiao ,L8) JA0L 2 *on;t now? 2 ha7e memorise* many texts) but 2;m still
#reati7e? 'his is me?
Desite the foregoi5g li#it3tio5s8 35d the reli#i53r! st3t4s of the fi5di5gs8 the st4d!
is i5te5ded 3s 3 co5tri$4tio5 to the 45derst35di5g of te6t #e#ori73tio5 ?3s 3 le3r5i5g
35d te3chi5g de"ice@ i5 its o95 right 3s 9ell 3s of 9h3t it #e35s to Chi5ese l35g43ge
le3r5ers 35d te3chers; Te6t #e#ori73tio58 3 l35g43ge r3ctice 9hich is r3rel! fo45d i5
5o5:Chi5ese c4lt4res tod3!8 93rr35ts #ore rese3rch efforts th35 h3s $ee5 so f3r
i5"ested gi"e5 its e6te5si"e 4se 3#o5g Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers; There 3re 3 fe9
93!s th3t f4t4re rese3rch #3! e6te5d the c4rre5t i5<4ir!;
First of 3ll8 there is 3 5eed to A5o9 #ore 3$o4t to 9h3t e6te5t 35d ho9 te6t
#e#oris3tio5 is r3cticed i5 Chi5ese schools 35d i5stit4tio5s 3t "3rio4s le"els; Si5ce
E5glish h3s $eco#e 35 o$lig3tor! s4$Dect i5 ri#3r! schools i5 4r$35 3re3s8 f4t4re
rese3rch #3! t3rget !o45ger le3r5ers 35d their te3chers 9ith 3 foc4s o5 direct
o$ser"3tio5 of the r3ctice 3s 9ell the i5siders> reso5se to their e6erie5ce; I5
3dditio58 co#3r3ti"e st4dies 3re 5eeded o5 the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5
socioeco5o#ic3ll! de"eloed regio5s 35d less de"eloed 3re3s to fi5d o4t 9hether
there 3re regio53l differe5ces i5 ter#s of ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is r3cticed 35d
ercei"ed; Co#3riso5 c35 3lso $e #3de $et9ee5 E5glish le3r5ers=te3chers 9ho 3re
3ffili3ted to foreig5 l35g43ge schools 35d ordi53r! schools 3t seco5d3r! le"el or
$et9ee5 those 9ho 3re le3r5i5g E5glish 3s 3 #3Dor 35d those 9ho 3re le3r5i5g
E5glish 9hile #3Dori5g 35other s4$Dect 3t terti3r! le"el; Moreo"er8 3ctio5 rese3rch
3i#i5g to e6lore r3g#3tic 93!s to i5coror3te i5to CLT so#e ositi"e ele#e5ts of
te6t43l #e#oris3tio5 ide5tified i5 the c4rre5t st4d! sho4ld $e 3 9elco#e directio5 of
f4rther i5<4ir!; Fi53ll!8 f4t4re rese3rch #3! resort to other #ethodologies for f4rther
i#ro"e#e5t i5 45derst35di5g the c4rre5t toic; I 9o4ld here liAe to s4ggest 3 c3se
st4d! for e6lori5g s4ch iss4es ?9hich 9ere 5ot 3ddressed i5 the c4rre5t i5<4ir!@ 3s to
+,)(
+,))
+,)*
+,)+
+,),
+,)-
+,).
+,*&
+,*'
+,*%
+,*(
+,*)
+,**
+,*+
+,*,
+,*-
+,*.
+,+&
+,+'
+,+%
+,+(
+,+)
+,+*
+,++
+,+,
+,+-
+,+.
+,,&
+,,'
+,,%
+,,(
+,,)
+,,*
+,,+
ho9 te6t #e#oris3tio5 is co#$i5ed 9ith other le3r5i5g r3ctices i5 E5glish te3chi5g
35d le3r5i5g si5ce 3 c3se st4d! ote5ti3ll! 3llo9s for "3ried rese3rch 35gles
?C3s353"e8 %&&(J L; Flo9erde98 %&&%@; I5 ter#s of tools of i5"estig3tio58 9hile i5:
deth i5ter"ie9s ?9hich ro"ed effecti"e i5 the c4rre5t st4d!@ c35 co5ti54e to $e 4sed
i5 f4t4re rese3rch8 rese3rchers 3re e5co4r3ged to co5sider 3 "3riet! of other tools of
i5<4ir! 9hich #3! i5cl4de o$ser"3tio58 thi5A:3lo4d rotocols 35d di3r! or Do4r53l
e5tr!;
'.& I4 7613i4g
Te6t #e#ori73tio58 3 tr3ditio53l Chi5ese 93! of 3c<4iri5g liter3c! 35d cl3ssics8 h3s
$ee5 9idel! r3cticed i5 ELT i5 Chi53; Prior to l345chi5g 35! #e35i5gf4l
ed3gogic3l refor#s i5 3 co45tr! liAe Chi53 9hose tr3ditio53l "3l4es h3"e ersisted i5
ed4c3tio53l r3ctice8 l35g43ge olic! #3Aers 35d #ethodologists sho4ld $e i5for#ed
$! the "oices fro# le3r5ers 35d te3chers 9ho 9orA i5 the fro5tli5e of foreig5
l35g43ge ed4c3tio5 co5cer5i5g their o95 e6erie5ces 9ith s4ch tr3ditio53l r3ctice 3s
te6t #e#ori73tio5;
This i5<4ir! is re"e3li5g 3$o4t Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers> ercetio5s 35d
r3ctices co5cer5i5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g8 35d
3s s4ch ser"es 3s 3 $3sis to o4r 45derst35di5g of its co5ti54i5g e6iste5ce; I h3"e
3tte#ted to 45derst35d Chi5ese co5cetio5s of l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g
thro4gh the le5s of te6t #e#oris3tio5 $oth 3s 35 i5sider 35d 35 o4tsider; /ei5g 35
i5sider K 3 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5er 35d te3cher 9ho h3d recei"ed 3ll #! ed4c3tio58
9ith the e6cetio5 of #! PhD st4d!8 i5 Chi53 35d 9orAed 9ith Chi5ese le3r5ers for 3
dec3de K I h3"e $ro4ght high degree of f3#ili3rit! 9ith the rese3rch toic 35d the
sit43tio5 it is to $e co5str4ed; /ei5g 35 o4tsider K 3 st4de5t rese3rcher 9ho h3s $ee5
i##ersed i5 /ritish ed4c3tio5 e5"iro5#e5t for o"er three !e3rs K h3s 3fforded #e 3
ersecti"e to critic3ll! reflect o5 the "3l4es 35d $eliefs rooted i5 #! ho#e c4lt4re
th3t 45derlie the "isi$le le3r5i5g $eh3"io4rs; I h3"e 3sired i5 this thesis to ortr3! the
r3ctice 35d co5cetio5s of Chi5ese le3r5ers 35d te3chers reg3rdi5g their 4se of te6t
#e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d te3chi5g i5 35 ho5est 35d oe5 #355er
9hile co5"e!i5g the 9o5der 35d s4rrise th3t I 93s ri"ileged to e6erie5ce 9ith #!
#i6ed $3cAgro45d thro4gho4t this i5<4ir!;
+,,,
+,,-
+,,.
+,-&
+,-'
+,-%
+,-(
+,-)
+,-*
+,-+
+,-,
+,--
+,-.
+,.&
+,.'
+,.%
+,.(
+,.)
+,.*
+,.+
+,.,
+,.-
+,..
+-&&
+-&'
+-&%
+-&(
+-&)
+-&*
+-&+
+-&,
+-&-
+-&.
+-'&
/oth tr3ditio53l Chi5ese l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d Bester5 #ethodolog! h3"e their o95
stre5gths 35d deficie5cies; A h!$rid of the t9o 9o4ld $e #! s4ggestio5 9hich is
#e35t to qu #hang bu *uan Q3 Chi5ese idio#8 #e35i5g Ele3r5 fro# others> stro5g
oi5ts to offset o5e>s 9e3A5esses>R; This $3l35ced 3ttit4de is f4ll! e6ressed i5 3
Chi5ese e6ressio51
(u wei jin yong) yang wei zhong yong?
M3Ae the 3st ser"e the rese5t 35d foreig5 thi5gs ser"e Chi53;
It #3! $e 3 9iser choice to #3Ae 5o 455ecess3r! $o45d3ries $et9ee5 Chi5ese 35d
Best8 tr3ditio53l 35d #oder5 r3ctice o5l! if it ro"es 4sef4l to the de"elo#e5t of
the le3r5ers> le3r5i5g ote5ti3l to 3 degree;
T3Ai5g 3s the 5or# the eiste#olog! 45derl!i5g the #oder5 Bester5 l35g43ge
ed4c3tio5 theories8 the e6isti5g liter3t4re seldo# doc4#e5ts ho9 cert3i5 r3ctices
9hich le3r5ers fro# 5o5:A5gloho5e $3cAgro45d h3"e i5herited fro# their o95
c4lt4res 3re 3reci3ted 35d #3de good 4se of; This rese3rch ill4str3tes the oi5t th3t
the tr3ditio53l r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 #3! 9ell $e 9ro5gl! 3cc4sed of $ei5g 35
Eo4tl39> 35d deser"es to reco"er its gr3ce 35d dr39 3tte5tio5 fro# 3c<4isitio5 35d
ed3gogic theorists; I5 #3Ai5g this oi5t8 the i5<4ir! ro$le#3ti7es the 45critic3l
3ss4#tio5 th3t 3ll tr3ditio53l r3ctices eseci3ll! those fro# eriher3l c4lt4res 3re
5ecess3ril! irrele"35t to co5te#or3r! l35g43ge ed4c3tio5; It is therefore esse5ti3l
th3t 9e go $e!o5d 3 si5gle c4lt4r3l ersecti"e 35d
F le3r5 to i5"ite 35d to liste5 to the E#4ltile "oices> 35d ersecti"es th3t
c35 e5lighte5 o4r 45derst35di5g of these Q5o5:Bester5 ed4c3tio53lR
tr3ditio5s8 D4st 9e #4st le3r5 to recog5ise th3t differe5t gro4s #3!8 3s 3
co5se<4e5ce of their socioc4lt4r3l co5te6ts 35d $3cAgro45ds8 ossess E93!
of A5o9i5g> th3t8 3ltho4gh differe5t fro# o4r o958 #3! $e e"er! $it 3s
"3l43$le 35d 9orth9hile 3s those to 9hich 9e 3re 3cc4sto#ed; ?Re3g358
%&&&1 %@
+-''
+-'%
+-'(
+-')
+-'*
+-'+
+-',
+-'-
+-'.
+-%&
+-%'
+-%%
+-%(
+-%)
+-%*
+-%+
+-%,
+-%-
+-%.
+-(&
+-('
+-(%
+-((
+-()
+-(*
+-(+
+-(,
+-(-
+-(.
+-)&
+-)'
+-)%
APPENDICES
A::e49i. 1 Ge4e2a6 Gue3/i144ai2e a49 I4/e2<ieB S75e9u6e
;12 Lea24e23
Pa2/ I +a7Ag21u49 i4;120a/i14
'; N3#e1 ZZZZJ AgeZZZZZZJ Se6ZZZZZJ Ye3rs of le3r5i5g E5glishZZZZZZZZZZZZ
%; Ho#e Pro"i5ce 35d Cit!ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
(; E5glish Scores o5 Fi53l e63#s l3st ter# ZZZZZZZ=ZZZZZZZ
); E5glish Score o5 Se5ior High School E5tr35ce E63#i53tio5 ?if
3lic3$le@ZZZZZZZ=ZZZZZZZ
*; E5glish Score o5 N3tio53l E5glish M3tric4l3tio5 test ?if 3lic3$le@
ZZZZZZZ=ZZZZZZZ
+; E5glish Scores o5 IELTS ?if 3lic3$le@ ZZZZZZZ=ZZZZZZZ
,; Ho9 do !o4 r3te !o4r E5glish roficie5c! 3s co#3red 9ith the roficie5c! of
other st4de5ts i5 !o4r cl3ssH 2ood F3ir Poor
-; Teleho5e1 ZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
E#3il1 ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
Pa2/ II Gue3/i144ai2e ?P6ea3e 0a2A /5e 4u0=e2 B5i75 =e3/ i49i7a/e3 81u2 /2ue
;ee6i4g.@
'; Ho9 #4ch does te6t #e#oris3tio5 hel i5 !o4r E5glish le3r5i5gH
Not 3t 3ll ' % ( ) * + , Ver! #4ch
%; Ho9 do !o4 see the rocess of te6t #e#oris3tio5H
/ori5g ' % ( ) * + , I5teresti5g
(; Is it 5ecess3r! for te6t #e#oris3tio5 to co5ti54e to $e r3cticed i5 E5glish le3r5i5g
i5 Chi53H
A$sol4tel! 5ot 5ecess3r! ' % ( ) * + , 3$sol4tel! 5ecess3r!
Pa2/ III I4/e2<ieB gui9e
+-)(
+-))
+-)*
+-)+
+-),
+-)-
+-).
+-*&
+-*'
+-*%
+-*(
+-*)
+-**
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'; Co4ld !o4 rec3ll !o4r e6erie5ce of le3r5i5g E5glish thro4gh te6t
#e#oris3tio5H
\Bhe5 35d ho9 did !o4 $egi5 to 4se te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish le3r5i5gH
\Did !o4 co5ti54e to 4se it 3fter93rdsH
%; Bh3t is !o4r o"er3ll oi5io5 o5 te6t #e#oris3tio5H
\Bh3t is !o4r co##e5t o5 the #et3hor Egood #edici5e th3t t3stes $itter> or
E3 thor5! rose> ?<4oted i5 Di5g8 %&&)@H
\To <4ote o5e st4de5ts8 EIf I recited 3ll the te6ts8 I co4ld get good gr3des i5
tests; So reciti5g 93s 35 e3s! 93! to get 3 good gr3de;> ?<4oted i5 23o8 %&&+@
Do !o4 3greeH
\Does the r3ctice hel !o4 9ith !o4r E5glish le3r5i5gH Bh!H
\Do !o4 see 35! ro$le#s 9he5 4si5g this #ethod ?e;g; boring) time.
#onsuming) easily %orget what has been memorise*@H
(; Do !o4 thi5A this #ethod li#its !o4r cre3ti"e thi5Ai5gH
\Is it ossi$le th3t there 3re fe9 ide3s of !o4r o95 9he5 !o4 9rite E5glish
co#ositio5H
\Is it ossi$le th3t !o4 3re i5cli5ed to 4se #35! clichYs or trite ter#s i5 !o4r
se3Ai5g 35d 9riti5g 3s 3 res4lt of te6t #e#oris3tio5H
\C35 !o4 i#ro"e !o4r co##45ic3ti"e co#ete5ce $! 4si5g te6t
#e#oris3tio5H
+-,*
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A::e49i. 2 Ge4e2a6 Gue3/i144ai2e a49 I4/e2<ieB S75e9u6e
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Pa2/ I =a7Ag21u49 i4;120a/i14
'; N3#eZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZJ Se6ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZJ AgeZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZJ
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%; Co4rse?s@ !o4 3re 5o9 te3chi5gZZZZZZZZZZZZZZJ 2r3de i5 9hich !o4r st4de5ts 3re
ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZJ
%; Ye3rs of te3chi5gZZZZZZZZZZJ
(; Fi53l degreeZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZJ ); Professio53l titleZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
Pa2/ II Ge4e2a6 Gue3/i144ai2e ?B12Ai4g 3/2u7/u2e 1; i4/e2<ieB gui9e@
/elo9 there 3re so#e $eliefs th3t other EFL te3chers h3"e 3$o4t the r3ctice of
le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt; Ple3se circle the 54#$er 9hich $est i5dic3tes !o4r oi5io5 3t
the e5d of e3ch st3te#e5t; The 54#$ers st35d for the follo9i5g reso5ses1
'C I stro5gl! dis3gree 9ith this st3te#e5t
%C I dis3gree 9ith this st3te#e5t
(C I 5either 3gree 5or dis3gree 9ith this st3te#e5t
)C I 3gree 9ith this st3te#e5t
*C I stro5gl! 3gree 9ith this st3te#e5t
No; Ite# descritio5 Choice
'; Te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 "er! 4sef4l r3ctice i5 foreig5 ' % ( ) *
l35g43ge te3chi5g 35d le3r5i5g;
%; I #!self $e5efited 3 lot fro# te6t #e#oris3tio5 9he5 ' % ( ) *
I 93s le3r5i5g E5glish;
(; I s4ggest #! st4de5ts le3r5 3s #35! te6ts $! he3rt 3s ' % ( ) *
ossi$le;
); Te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e 3$35do5ed 3s #oder5 ' % ( ) *
+.&*
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+.&,
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+.',
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#4lti:#edi3 tech5olog! 35d 5e9 te3chi5g #ethods
3re i5trod4ced i5 foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g;
*; He3"! 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 restr3i5s st4de5ts> ' % ( ) *
ide3 de"elo#e5t;
+; He3"! 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5hi$its st4de5ts> ' % ( ) *
cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43ge;
,; Te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e 4sed i5 the e3rlier st3ges ' % ( ) *
of E5glish le3r5i5g liAe i5 ri#3r! 35d seco5d3r! school;
-; Le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt sho4ld co5ti54e to $e 4sed i5 college; ' % ( ) *
.; H3"i5g le3r5ed 3 te6t $! he3rt is <43lit3ti"el! differe5t fro# ' % ( ) *
$ei5g fl4e5t i5 re3di5g 3lo4d 3 te6t;
'&; Te6t #e#oris3tio5 Aills st4de5ts> i5terest i5 le3r5i5g; ' % ( ) *
Pa2/ T52ee O:e4 Fue3/i143
'; Do !o4 re<4ire !o4r st4de5ts to #e#orise te6tsH Bh! or 9h! 5otH
%; If !o4 h3"e e"er 4sed te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 !o4r te3chi5g8 le3se secif! 9h3t
!o4 did;
(; Bh3t 3re the diffic4lties !o4 h3"e e5co45tered or !o4 thi5A !o4 #ight h3"e
9he5 4si5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 3s te3chi5g de"iceH ?st4de5ts> cooer3tio58 5o
ti#e to checA etc;@
); Ho9 do !o4 ercei"e so#e of the i5tri5sic ro$le#s 9ith te6t #e#oris3tio5H
?$ori5g8 ti#e:co5s4#i5g8 3i5st3Ai5g etc;@
*; Bh3t 3re !o4r s4ggestio5s for 3 $etter 4se of this r3ctice i5 l35g43ge
te3chi5gH
+.(-
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+.)&
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A::e49i. ! Li3/ 1; I4/e2<ieB Pa2/i7i:a4/3
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Hu4i12 Hig5 ?12@

Yi6i3o M '% 2ood ?')-='*&@ 2r3de ' CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School
Li5!4 F '' F3ir ?''.='*&@ 2r3de ' CI Li356i5 Middle School
MeiD45 F '% 2ood ?')*='*&@ 2r3de ' CI No;'- Middle School
Geh35 M '' F3ir ?'%&='*&@ 2r3de ' CI /3sh4 Middle School
Y45!o4 M '% oor ?.&='*&@ 2r3de ' CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School
S3iD45 F '% 2ood ?'(.='*&@ 2r3de % CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School
Y4ti5g F ') F3ir ?''+='*&@ 2r3de ( CI No; '- Middle School
Che5gche5g M '* Poor ?.'='*&@ 2r3de ( CI No; '- Middle School
Y35gA45 M '* 2ood ?'%(='*&@ 2r3de ( CI No; '- Middle School
LiDi3 F '* 2ood ?'(-='*&@ 2r3de ( CI No; '- Middle School
Li5g!4 F ') Poor ?-+='*&@ 2r3de ( CI No; '- Middle School
H435g4 M '* F3ir ?.'='*&@ 2r3de ( CI No; '- Middle School
Se4i12 Hig5 ?11@
Pi5gDi5g F '* F3ir ?'&,='*&@ 2r3de ' CI No;+ Middle School
Sh435gl4 F '* 2ood ?'%%='*&@ 2r3de ' CI No;+ Middle School
0i3o!4 F '+ Poor ?-*='*&@ 2r3de ' CI /3sh4 Middle School
Ii5gl35 F '+ Poor ?.%='*&@ 2r3de ' CI /3sh4 Middle School
Sh35gAe F ', F3ir ?''&='*&@ 2r3de % CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School
Sh4h35 F ', 2ood ?'(&='*&@ 2r3de % CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School
B356i3 F ', 2ood ?'(%='*&@ 2r3de % CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School
Che5#i5g F '+ 2ood ?'%*='*&@ 2r3de % CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School
0i3o<i5g F '- 2ood ?'%&='*&@ 2r3de ( CI No;( Middle School
0i3o#35 F '- F3ir ?'&-='*&@ 2r3de ( CI No;( Middle School
'%*
'
The listed i5for#3tio5 i5 e3ch li5e ?fro# left to right@ is1 53#e ?se4do5!#@8 se68 3ge8
E5glish roficie5c! ?score i5 the l3test for#3l E5glish e63#@8 gr3de i5 e3ch ed4c3tio53l le"el8 35d
3ffili3tio5; For college st4de5ts8 the 53#e of their ho#e ro"i5ce 9here the! co#leted their
seco5d3r! ed4c3tio5 is ro"ided i5 the $r3cAet 3t the e5d of e3ch li5e;
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Pe5gli5 M ', F3ir ?'&%='*&@ 2r3de % CI /3sh4 Middle School
C166ege?1*@
]8arti#i4ants in !hina
Li6i3 F 2ood ?'%*='*&@ 2r3de ' SBUPL ?235s4 ro"i5ce@
De<i35
'%+
F F3ir ?''*='*&@ 2r3de ' SBUPL ?Sh35do5g ro"i5ce@
0i3ofe5g F F3ir ?''*='*&@ 2r3de ' SBUPL ?2435gdo5g ro"i5ce@
04Di3 M F3ir ?'&,='*&@ 2r3de ' SBUPL ?Sich435 ro"i5ce@
Shi$i3o M F3ir ?''-='*&@ 2r3de ' SBUPL ?2435gdo5g ro"i5ce@
Te5gDi5g F 2ood ?'((='*&@ 2r3de ' SBUPL ?Cho5g<i5g@
Y45e5g M 2ood ?'%,='*&@ 2r3de ' SBUPL ?He535 ro"i5ce@
ShiA3i M 2ood ?'%*='*&@ 2r3de % SBUPL ?Li35gs4 ro"i5ce@
B35shi F 2ood ?'(&='*&@ 2r3de ( SBUPL ?Li35gs4 ro"i5ce@
04!i5g F 2ood ?'%-='*&@ 2r3de ( SISU ?Sich435 ro"i5ce@
Ti35ti35 F 2ood ?'(&='*&@ 2r3de ) SBUPL ?Sh35do5g ro"i5ce@
0i3odo5g M 2ood ?'(*='*&@ 2r3de ) UI/E ?Ni5g6i3 ro"i5ce@
R8arti#i4ants in the B$
-5P

E##3 F %, Poor ?*@ MA Alied li5g4istics ):#o5th
?Y45535@
Eli M %+ F3ir ?+@ MSc Che#istr! (:#o5th
?Cho5g<i5g@
RocA M %, Poor ?*@ MSc M3riti#e E5gi5eeri5g ):#o5th
?Li35gs4@
L3Ae M %( 2ood ?,
'%-
@ PhD Shi E5gi5eeri5g ):#o5th
?Cho5g<i5g@
Leil3 F %( 2ood ?+;*@ MSc Electro5ic E5gi5eeri5g (:#o5th
?H4$ei@
'%+
'
This 3rtici35t is 3 Ho5gGo5g citi7e5 35d co#leted her ri#3r! ed4c3tio5 i5 Ho5gAo5g;
'%,
'
The listed i5for#3tio5 for this seci3l gro4 i5 e3ch li5e ?fro# left to right@ is1 53#e
?se4do5!#@8 se68 3ge8 E5glish roficie5c! ?score i5 IELTS@8 degree of st4d!8 seci3lit!8 ti#e
le5gth of st3! i5 the UG 35d their ho#e ro"i5ce i5 Chi53;
'%-
'
This 3rtici35t tooA TOEFL 35d the IELTS score rese5ted here 93s 3 co5"erted e<4i"3le5t
to TOEFL;
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?/eiDi5g@
Ho93rd M %( 2ood ?+;*@ MSc Electro5ic E5gi5eeri5g (:#o5th
?She57he5@
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Hu4i12 Hig5 ?"@
Y4li F () /A CI No; '- Middle School '*
Be553 F %+ /A CD Foreig5 L35g43ge School )
Li46i3 F %) /A O"e5 E5glish Tr3i5i5g School?P@ (
Y3o<i5g F %, /A CI /3sh4 Middle School *
Li35g!i5g F (- /A CI No;'- Middle School '*
T35g#i5g F (+ /A CI No;( Middle School '(
Li3Die F %. /A CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School )
Se4i12 Hig5 ?(@
B35gti5g F (( /A CI No;+ Middle School '&
She5gi5g F (- /A CI B4lidi35 Voc3tio53l School '*
Y35gAe F (- /A CI Shis4i Middle School '*
Li35g<i5g F (, /A Cho5g<i5g No; '- Middle School '(
Yeli F (& /A Lo5g#35 L35g43ge Tr3i5i5g School (

C166ege ?'@
0i3oho5g F )& /A SBUPL ?Lect4rer@ ',
Ho5g!i5g F (- MA?R4ssi3@ SBUPL ?Lect4rer@ +
Peishe5 M +* /A SBUPL ?Associ3te rofessor@ )'
Sh4<io5g F (, MA SBUPL ?Associ3te rofessor@ ')
B35gsh4 F (* MA SBUPL ?Lect4rer@ ,
Ii56i5 F (* MA?UG@ SBUPL ?Le7/u2e2@ +
L4!i M %) /A O5l! Ed4c3tio5 '
'%.
'
The listed i5for#3tio5 i5 e3ch li5e ?fro# left to right@ is1 53#e ?se4do5!#@8 se68 3ge8 fi53l
degree8 3ffili3tio5 ?se4do5!#@ 35d !e3rs of te3chi5g;
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S/u9e4/3) 2e3:143e3 /1 /5e Fue3/i143 i4 Fue3/i144ai2e 3u2<e8:
-? Aow mu#h *oes learning text by heart hel4 in your +nglish learningH
3ot at all - 5 > / C 1 P <ery mu#h
L45ior High Se5ior High College
Y4ti5g % Pi5gDi5g ) Li6i3 +
Che5gche5
g ) Sh35gl4 * De<i35 )
Y35gA45 , 0i3o<i5g , 0i3ofe5g +
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Li5g!4 * Pe5gli5 + Shi$i3o +
H435g4 ) 0i3o!4 ) Te5gDi5g *
S3iD45 + Ii5gl35 ) Y45e5g )
Yi6i3o + Sh35gAe + ShiA3i ,
Li5!4 * Sh4h35 , B35shi +
MeiD45 , B356i3 , 04!i5g ,
Geh35 *
Che5#i5
g + Ti35ti35 *
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E##3
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s4re
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RocA )
L3Ae ,
Leil3 ,
He!se3 ,
Ho93rd +
5? Aow *o you see the 4ro#ess o% learning text by heartH
&oring - 5 > / C 1 P 2nteresting
L45ior High Se5ior High College
Y4ti5g ' Pi5gDi5g ' Li6i3 (
Che5gche5
g ( Sh35gl4 ) De<i35 )
Y35gA45 , 0i3o<i5g * 0i3ofe5g *
LiDi3 + 0i3o#35 ) 04Di3 (
Li5g!4 * Pe5gli5 ( Shi$i3o *
H435g4 % 0i3o!4 ( Te5gDi5g %
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MeiD45 * B356i3 , 04!i5g ,
Geh35 )
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Y45!o4 % 0i3odo5g *
E##3 )
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L3Ae ,
Leil3 +
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Ho93rd *
>? 2s it ne#essary %or text memorisation to #ontinue to be 4ra#ti#e* in +nglish
learning in !hinaH Absolutely not ne#essary - 5 > / C 1 P absolutely ne#essary
Y4ti5g ( Pi5gDi5g + Li6i3 )
Che5gche5
g ) Sh35gl4 * De<i35 *
Y35gA45 , 0i3o<i5g + 0i3ofe5g *
LiDi3 ) 0i3o#35 + 04Di3 *
Li5g!4 ) Pe5gli5 * Shi$i3o +
H435g4 ) 0i3o!4 * Te5gDi5g (
S3iD45 + Ii5gl35 ) Y45e5g *
Yi6i3o ) Sh35gAe , ShiA3i ,
Li5!4 * Sh4h35 , B35shi +
MeiD45 + B356i3 , 04!i5g ,
Geh35 *
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Leil3 +
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Tea75e23) 2e3:143e3 /1 /5e i/e03 i4 Fue3/i144ai2e 3u2<e8:
'C I stro5gl! dis3gree 9ith this st3te#e5t
%C I dis3gree 9ith this st3te#e5t
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)C I 3gree 9ith this st3te#e5t
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-? 'ext memorisation is a 7ery use%ul 4ra#ti#e in %oreign language tea#hing an*
learning? - 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
Y4li * B35gti5g % 0i3oho5g )
Be553 *
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g )
Ho5g!i5
g *
Li46i3 * Y35gAe * Peishe5 )
Y3o<i5g ) Li35g<i5g * Sh4<io5g *
Li35g!i5
g * Yeli * B35gsh4 (
T35g#i5g ) Ii56i5 )
Li3Die * L4!i *
Lie35 *
5? 2 mysel% bene%ite* a lot %rom text memorisation when 2 was learning +nglish?
- 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
Y4li ( B35gti5g ( 0i3oho5g )
Be553 *
She5gi5
g )
Ho5g!i5
g *
Li46i3 * Y35gAe ( Peishe5 )
Y3o<i5g ) Li35g<i5g ( Sh4<io5g *
Li35g!i5
g ( Yeli ) B35gsh4 (
T35g#i5g ) Ii56i5 (
Li3Die * L4!i *
Lie35 (
>? 2 suggest my stu*ents learn as many texts by heart as 4ossible? - 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
Y4li * B35gti5g ' 0i3oho5g *
Be553 *
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/? 'ext memorisation shoul* be aban*one* as mo*ern multi.me*ia te#hnology an*
new tea#hing metho*s are intro*u#e* in %oreign language tea#hing? - 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
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Be553 '
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g %
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g '
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Li3Die ' L4!i '
Lie35 '

C? Aea7y use o% text memorisation restrains stu*ents; i*ea *e7elo4ment?
- 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
Y4li ' B35gti5g ( 0i3oho5g '
Be553 '
She5gi5
g %
Ho5g!i5
g '
Li46i3 % Y35gAe % Peishe5 '
Y3o<i5g ' Li35g<i5g % Sh4<io5g '
Li35g!i5
g % Yeli ' B35gsh4 %
T35g#i5g ' Ii56i5 '
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Lie35 %

1? Aea7y use o% text memorisation inhibits stu*ents; #reati7e use o% language?
- 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
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P? 'ext memorisation shoul* be use* in the earlier stages o% +nglish learning lie in
4rimary an* se#on*ary s#hool? - 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
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F? Learning texts by heart shoul* #ontinue to be use* in #ollege? - 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
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J? Aa7ing learne* a text by heart is qualitati7ely *i%%erent %rom being %luent in rea*ing
alou* a text? - 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
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-=? 'ext memorisation ills stu*ents; interest in learning? - 5 > / C
L45ior High Se5ior High College
Y4li ' B35gti5g ( 0i3oho5g '
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Le"el1 L45ior High8 Se5ior High 35d College@
Sa0:6e 1 ?Hu4i12 Hig5# P112@
Ve54e of i5ter"ie91 The #3i5 te3chi5g $4ildi5g8 CI No; '- Middle School
D3te of i5ter"ie91 '% M3rch %&&.
Ti#e le5gth of recordi5g1 %. #i5s (' secs
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1 So#e st4de5ts liAe5 le3r5i5g $! he3rt to Egood #edici5e th3t t3stes $itter> or E3
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1 'he se#on* one Gthorny rose; is what 2 lie to use to ex4ress my %eeling? 2t really
maes me annoye* be#ause it;s too *i%%i#ult? 2 always #annot remember? 2 %orget the
4re7ious senten#e a%ter 2;7e memorise* the next one?
R1 Bh! c355ot !o4 re#e#$erH H3"e !o4 e"er tho4ght of itH
!L Why #annot 2 rememberH 2t;s sim4ly 7ery har* %or me?
R1 So#e st4de5ts s3! th3t le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt is 3 shortc4t for getti5g high scores
i5 the e63#s; Do !o4 3greeH
C1 3o) 2 *on;t agree? 2t;s 4ointless without nowing how to use them e7en i% you
memorise the text? 2 mean) rote.memorisation is useless?
R1 Ho9 3$o4t #e#orisi5g te6ts o5 the $3sis of 45derst35di5gH
C1 2t shoul* be hel4%ul) 2 guess) but 2 *on;t ha7e enough time? Sometimes 2 learn texts
by heart a%ter un*erstan*ing an* listening to the re#or*ing? 2 %eel better in this way?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A Le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt restr3i5 the st4de5ts> cre3ti"e thi5Ai5gH
C1 2t will not restrain our #reati7e thining? We just memorise the senten#e 4atterns
an* the #ontents o% the text? 2t;s not that we #o4y the whole senten#e when we use the
language?
R1 Bh3t 3sect does te6t #e#oris3tio5 hel 9ith !o4r E5glish le3r5i5g if there is
35!H
C1 Ior instan#e) grammar) wor*s an* set 4hrases?
R1 Bh! does it hel 9ith gr3##3rH
C1 When you #ommuni#ate with others) it;s less liely to mae mistaes i% you
memorise the senten#e 4atterns through learning texts by heart? An* i% you memorise
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many texts in the text boo) you are a*7antage* when you are taing exams)
es4e#ially in the grammar se#tion?
R1 H3"e !o4 e"er co#e 3cross 35! origi53l se5te5ces i5 the te6t i5 e63#sH
C1 <ery rare) but we *o o##asionally?
R1 Si5ce there is r3rel! origi53l se5te5ce i5"ol"ed i5 the e63#8 9h! does le3r5i5g
te6ts $! he3rt hel 9ith the e63#H
C1 As 2 sai* just now) I get to know the sentence patterns through learning texts by
heart, therefore, I understand the grammar
1!2
an* 2 #an #hoose the right answer?
R1 C35 !o4 list 35! 3sect th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 does 5ot helH
C1 It should be more or less helpful in every aspect of English learning. I cannot
think of any respect in which it does not help. Its simply a matter of degree. Ior
me) it hel4s most with wor* memorisation?
R1 Do !o4 e5co45ter 35! diffic4lties 9he5 le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rtH
C1 'he biggest 4roblem %or me is that 2 almost %orget all that 2;7e memorise* the *ay
be%ore a%ter a night slee4ing? 2 ha7e to go o7er them again %or se7eral times? 2t;s really
har* %or me to *o this job be#ause sometimes 2 #annot e7en rea* through a whole
senten#e when there are long wor*s in it? 2t;s a boring 4ro#ess %or me as well?
R1 It>s 3lso ti#e:co5s4#i5g8 is5>t itH
C1 Yes) it;s time.#onsuming) but 2 *on;t thin it;s a waste o% time?
R1 Ho5g lo5g does it t3Ae !o4 to #e#orise 3 t!ic3l te6t i5 the te6t$ooAH
C1 9ne hour or so?
R1 Be 5or#3ll! forget the te6ts 9e>"e #e#orised soo5;
C1 Yes) it;s 7ery easy %or me to %orget what 2 ha7e memorise*? 'his is be#ause there
are so many things to memorise?
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R1 Ho9 #35! te6ts c35 !o4 rec3ll of 3ll the te6ts #e#orised so f3rH
C1 3othing) not e7en a senten#e? &ut i% 2;m gi7en a little bit time to re7iew) 2 #an
regain them or 4i# them u4 again soon?
R1 Ho9 does le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt differ fro# gr3##3r e6ercises l4s #e#oris3tio5
of i5di"id43l 9ordsH Bhich o5e do !o4 refer 35d 9h!H
C1 2 4re%er grammar instru#tion 4lus memorisation o% wor*s an* ex4ressions?
Learning texts by heart seems to me a big system whi#h 2 am unable to #ontrol? 2 ha7e
no 4arti#ular goal to a#hie7e while learning texts by heart? As %or grammar learning)
2 ha7e 7ery #lear goal whi#h is to un*erstan* the grammar rules?
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Sa0:6e 2 ?Hu4i12 Hig5# G119@
Ve54e of i5ter"ie91 The #3i5 te3chi5g $4ildi5g8 CI No; '- Middle School
D3te of i5ter"ie91 '% M3rch %&&.
Ti#e le5gth of recordi5g1 %* #i5s (& secs
/3cAgro45d i5for#3tio5 3$o4t the i5ter"ie9ee1
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E5glish roficie5c! co#3red 9ith eers1 2ood ?'%(='*&@
Affili3tio51 CI No; '- Middle School8 P;R;Chi53
R1 So#e st4de5ts liAe5 le3r5i5g $! he3rt to Egood #edici5e th3t t3stes $itter> or E3
thor5!> rose; Do !o4 3greeH Or do !o4 h3"e !o4r o95 #et3horH
Y1 2 *onMt ha7e any meta4hor to *es#ribe it) but 2 *o ha7e my own i*ea on this to4i#? 2
thin we shoul* tae e%%i#ien#y into a##ount when taing a*7antage o% this 4ra#ti#e?
Irom my ex4erien#e) learning by heart se7eral texts intensi7ely is more e%%e#ti7e than
memorising many texts extensi7ely? My ex4erien#e is to learn well those best %ew by
heart an* then mo7e on to other texts?
R1 So#e st4de5ts s3! th3t le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt is 3 shortc4t for getti5g high scores
i5 the e63#s; Do !o4 3greeH
Y1 2t #an be sai* so? Learning +nglish texts by heart) similar to learning !hinese
texts) is just learning the whole contents and system? 2 thin this metho* hel4s an
aw%ul lot) at least to me? 2 got ->CDout o% -C=E in the simulation test? &ut 2 ha7e to
a*mit that 2 *o not ha7e a goo* #omman* o% grammar?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A Le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt restr3i5 the st4de5ts> cre3ti"e thi5Ai5gH
Y1 2 *on;t thin so? earning by heart doesnt e!uate copying others stuff, but
imitating them. 2t;s a goo* way o% learning +nglish? It should not be considered as
discouragement of the students creativity. Im not copying all that Ive committed
to memory " its obviously impossible " but make use of the phrases and expressions
to make my own sentences.
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R1 Bh3t 3rtic4l3r 3sect does te6t #e#oris3tio5 hel 9ith !o4r E5glish le3r5i5gH
Y1 2t hel4s a lot in terms o% wor*s an* 4hrases? 2t also hel4s in the way o% thining? &y
way o% thining) 2 mean +nglish way o% thining? #he more texts I learn by heart, the
more comfortable I feel with speaking and writing.
R1 So#e eole c3ll it Ethe feeli5g for the l35g43ge>;
Y1 Yes) yes) Gthe %eel %or the language;? 2 #annot state why it shoul* be use* in this
way) but 2 %eel it is the way it shoul* be s4oen? As %or grammar) it shoul* be use%ul as
well? &ut 2 ha7en;t learne* grammar 7ery well?
R1 Ho9 3$o4t ro545ci3tio5H
Y1 2% you are learning texts by heart a%ter re#or*ing) it naturally hel4s in this res4e#t?
R1 C35 !o4 list 35! 3sects th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 does 5ot helH
Y1 2 #annot thin o% any as4e#t that learning texts by heart *oes not hel4? It is such a
good method that it benefits me in every aspect.
R1 H3"e !o4 e5co45tered 35! diffic4lties 9he5 le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rtH
Y1 'he biggest 4roblem is the new wor*s in the text?
R1 H3s5>t the te3cher t34ght itH
Y1 2 woul* %orget them?
R1 Ho9 do !o4 sol"e the ro$le#H
Y1 Loo it u4 in the *i#tionary or as the tea#her?
R1 A5! other ro$le#sH Are !o4 $othered $! the r3cticeH Is it $ori5gH
Y1 I dont think learning texts by heart is boring. $n the contrary, its very
interesting for me.
R1 The st4de5t I i5ter"ie9ed D4st 5o9 co5siders it 3 "er! $ori5g r3ctice8 $4t !o4 see
it i5teresti5g; Bh! do !o4 thi5A !o4 h3"e differe5t feeli5gsH
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Y1 Iirst o% all) 2;m een in +nglish) but she is not? Se#on*) she is 4oor in this subje#t?
As a result) she is unwilling to *o the 4ra#ti#e?
R1 Bh! do !o4 liAe E5glishH
Y1 2 starte* liing this subje#t sin#e Junior Aigh be#ause 2 lie my +nglish tea#her?
R1 Is5>t it ti#e:co5s4#i5gH
Y1 2t is a subje#t in the s#hool? 2 ha7e to learn it e7en i% it;s time.#onsuming? 2 #an
un*erstan* grammar rules through the tea#her;s grammar ex4lanation an* *oing
grammar exer#ises? 2 #an *eal with examinations) but not *aily #ommuni#ations in
real situation? (rammar learning #annot sol7e the 4roblem o% %lexible use o% +nglish?
R1 Ho5g lo5g does it t3Ae !o4 to #e#orise 3 t!ic3l te6t i5 the te6t$ooAH
Y1 2 #an %inish re#iting a short 4assage within -= minutes? I can only do this after
listening very carefully in the class and understanding its meaning and the
grammar involved in the text an* memorising all the new wor*s an* ex4ressions? 2
#annot ha7e a thorough un*erstan*ing o% the #ontents e7en in this way? 2t;s only a
su4er%i#ial memorisation?
R1 Bh! do !o4 thi5A !o4 c35 do the Do$ so <4icAl!H
Y1 'here are two reasonsL Iirst) 2 un*erstan* the meaning o% the text an* the
grammar in7ol7e*? Se#on*) 2 ha7e lai* a goo* %oun*ation on the basi#s through
4re7ious text memorisation?
R1 Is5>t it th3t 9e forget 9h3t is #e#orised soo5H
Y1 Iorget what is memorise*H 'rue? &ut 2 #an soon re#all it a%ter a qui# re7iew?
R1 Bh3t>s the oi5t of le3r5i5g $! he3rt si5ce it>s e3s! to forgetH
YL I admit Ive already forgotten what has been memorised so far, but I still dont
think its a waste of time. Instead, it really helps me a lot. I learned my English
mostly from learning texts by heart, as it were. I usually refer the grammar back to
the sentence in the text I have memorised and try to understand its usage in the
context. 2 also attem4t to mae my own senten#e using the stru#tures learne*? %es, I
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cannot recall the intact sentences, but those sentence patterns are retained in my
brain.
R1 Ho9 does le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt differ fro# gr3##3r e6ercises l4s #e#oris3tio5
of i5di"id43l 9ordsH Bhich o5e do !o4 refer 35d 9h!H
Y1 2 4re%er learning texts by heart? 2% we use the latter metho*) we;ll %in* it *i%%i#ult to
use +nglish %lexibly an* #reati7ely? 'ea#her;s ex4lanation #ertainly hel4s) but
learning texts by heart hel4s mu#h more? $nowle*ge #an only be #hange* into
#a4ability or something o% your own in this way?
R1 Bill !o4 4se te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 !o4r f4t4re E5glish st4d!H
YL 2 woul* #ertainly use it as this metho* #an not only better my 4er%orman#e in the
exam) but im4ro7e my genuine language ability?
R1 A5!thi5g to s4le#e5tH
YL We are require* to memorise texts by the tea#her? &ut 7ery %ew stu*ents *o it sin#e
(ra*e 'wo in Junior Aigh?
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E5glish roficie5c! co#3red 9ith eers1 2ood ?'(%='*&@
Affili3tio51 CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School8 P;R;Chi53
R1 Bhe5 did !o4 st3rt #e#orisi5g te6tsH
S1 Irom the beginning o% Junior Aigh) not in the 4rimary s#hool?
R1 Did the te3cher re<4ire !o4 to #e#orise e3ch te6t i5 the te6t$ooAH
S1 Almost so? 'he texts in the junior high are mostly short *ialogues) not long
4aragra4hs so that 2 %elt it rather easy to memorise them?
R1 C35 !o4 see the oi5t of doi5g thisH
S1 2t;s mainly %or #ulti7ating the ability to mae basi# grammati#al ju*gement? 2 %eel
lie somewhat o% laying a %oun*ation?
R1 Did the do te6t #e#oris3tio5 fro# 2r3de ' to 2r3de ( co5sec4ti"el!H
S1 3ot in (ra*e > be#ause we ha* to go o7er what we ha* learne*) 4re4aring the
entran#e examination %or Senior Aigh S#hool?
R1 Ho9 do !o4 e"3l43te te6t #e#oris3tio5 fro# !o4r le3r5i5g e6erie5ceH Does it
hel !o4r E5glish le3r5i5gH
S1 Absolutely? Sin#e you *on;t ha7e the DlanguageE en7ironment) you ha7e to *o this
to get to now the language an* get #loser to the language en7ironment? 2t also hel4s
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*e7elo4 a sense o% language? 2 thin this is a #hoi#e we ha7e to mae un*er the
#urrent #ir#umstan#e o% !hina?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A it>s the $est 93! of le3r5i5gH
S1 Well) it shoul* be? As 2;7e alrea*y mentione*) we #an;t mae us li7e in an +nglish.
s4eaing en7ironment) so we ha7e to learn in this way?
R1 Yo4 #e5tio5ed D4st 5o9 th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 hels de"elo 3 se5se of l35g43ge;
Are there 35! other 93!s it hels le3r5i5gH
S1 2t hel4s with %lexible use o% wor*s? You now how to use it only when you memorise
a new wor* in a text? 2% you memorise it se4arately %rom a text) you en* u4 still being
4uzzle* about how it shoul* be use* K whether it is a transiti7e 7erb or intransiti7e
7erb) %or instan#e? 2% you memorise it in the text) you naturally ha7e a sense o% how it
is use* an* you #an har*ly mae it wrong e7en i% you ha7en;t *eliberately trie* to
memorise whether a 7erb is transiti7e or intransiti7e? 2n %a#t) learning texts by heart
is the most flexible way of learning in an inflexible educational system.
R1 Bho is this s3id $!H
S1 2t;s my %eeling?
R1 So#e st4de5ts see the #e#oris3tio5 of te6t 3s E3 good #edici5e th3t t3stes $itter>
or E3 thor5! rose>; Bh3t do !o4 thi5A if itH
S1 2 *on;t thin there is an issue o% Gbitter; or not? We e7en *o this when learning our
mother tongue? We were require* to memorise some texts in !hinese textboos? 2t is a
#ulti7ation o% language a##rual? We usually mistaenly learn +nglish as a %oreign
language) a subje#t) but it is in %a#t only a tool o% #ommuni#ation? 'hin o% our
!hinese learning? We ne7er %orget it be#ause we s4ea the language e7ery *ay an*
thin in that language e7ery moment? We #on#ei7e the learning o% +nglish 7ery
*i%%erent %rom that o% !hinese) whi#h maes the whole thing in#reasingly #om4li#ate*?
2 *on;t #onsi*er it a44ro4riate that we mae text memorisation as a s4e#ial
requirement? 2 see it a ne#essity o% getting to now a new language? 'ae !hinese
learning %or exam4le again) nobo*y #onsi*ers memorising !hinese texts ri*i#ulous?
You learn how to mae senten#es an* *is4ose wor*s through learning %rom other;s
ex4erien#e? We learne* how to s4ea !hinese not %rom learning su#h nowle*ge as
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subje#t) 4re*i#ate an* obje#t? We ma*e it %rom learning %rom the ex4erien#e o% others
through rea*ing many arti#les? 2t also a44lies to +nglish learning? So there *oes not
exist an issue o% Gthorny; or not? We shoul* regulate our mentality) taing the
memorisation o% texts as a 4ro#ess o% a##umulation by Gtaing a*7antage o% ; others;
language?
R: I34)/ i/ a =12i4g a49 :ai4;u6 e.:e2ie47eD
S: 9% #ourse) you memorise an* %orget) an* then re4eat again? #he process is painful
for some people, but not for others. &or me it was painful at the beginning because
I dont have a good memory. 'nd at the initial stage, it is mostly mechanical
memorisation as you lack for basic knowledge of how that language is used. (ut it
gradually takes less time to memorise as you find a sort of feeling K you now the
rough meaning an* #an ex4ress in your own wor*s) memorisation is thus made
much easier.
R: S1 i/ i3 E/51248) a48Ba8D
S: )ot exactly. It is a process of evolving from struggle to relaxation. It is not
painful all the way.
R1 Bh! c35 9e le3r5 E5glish thro4gh co##45ic3tio58 i5ter3ctio5 or doi5g g3#esH
Is5>t it #ore e5Do!3$leH
S1 2t is o% #ourse a goo* way o% learning? &ut it is %ar %rom enough? &eing able to
#ommuni#ate orally taes a long time? We start learning +nglish 7ery late) whi#h
maes it 7ery *i%%i#ult %or us to a#hie7e that goal? 'his is one reason? 'he se#on*
reason is that the 4ro#ess Do% #ommuni#ationE is #asual) whi#h maes the use o%
grammar 4e##able or #ertain nowle*ge misse* out? A%ter all) we ha7e to *eal with
exams? So we;* better a#hie7e a##urate mastery o% grammar 4oints through text
memorisation be#ause oral languages in#lu*ing our !hinese #ontain many
grammati#al errors?
R1 Do !o4 #e35 the te6ts !o4 3re re<4ired to #e#orise #3i5l! de3l 9ith 9ritte5
l35g43geH
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S1 2 thin so? Memorising text bene%its writing mu#h more than oral #ommuni#ation?
Ior instan#e) it maes your wring more i*iomati# or #olour%ul? I dont think it helps
a lot with natural communication.
R1 Bh3t if 9e #e#orise di3log4esH Did5>t !o4 s3! D4st 5o9 th3t !o4 did
#e#oris3tio5 of di3log4es i5 D45ior highH
S1 'he *ialogue loos lie 7ery %lexible) but it is in %a#t rather sti%%? 'he *ialogue in
the text #an only simulate one ty4i#al situation? &ut in a#tual #ommuni#ation) there
are numerous 4ossible #ir#umstan#es? You may still be at a loss as to what to say in
real #ommuni#ation? So you need to be put in practical situations to learn how to
communicate. Dialogues are not 7ery suitable %or learning by heart? 2 realise* this
when 2 went to the BSA? 2 #oul* only gi7e a 4ositi7e res4onse when 2 was ase*
whether 2 sle4t well last night e7en i% 2 *i* not be#ause 2 ne7er learne* how to ex4ress
G2 *i*n;t slee4 well;?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 restr3i5s o4r cre3ti"e 4se of l35g43geH Or 9h3t is
the rel3tio5shi $et9ee5 #e#orised st4ff 35d fle6i$le 4se of l35g43geH
S1 2t is an in*ire#t #onne#tion? 'he memorise* stu%% will #reate a lin or stru#ture in
your brain although they might not be utilise* *ire#tly? 'he stru#ture gra*ually nit in
a bigger one as you memorise more an* it e7entually turns into your own stu%%? 2 thin
it shoul* be lie this? 2t;s not the #ase that you #an *raw out Dmemorise* stu%%E %or
imme*iate use? 2t;s *e%initely not that you memorise something yester*ay an* then you
#an use them to*ay?
R1 Do !o4 #e35 th3t e5o4gh sho4ld $e 3#3ssed $efore r3ctic3l 4seH
S1 Absolutely? 2t nee*s long.term a##umulation? Ior instan#e) what you;7e memorise*
yester*ay is in#or4orate* into what you;7e memorise* the *ay be%ore yester*ay? 'here
in7ol7es a %urther synthesis an* reorganisation? 2t is something you absorb yoursel%
an* then you s4ea out? 2t;s similar to eating? What we;7e eaten an* what is turne*
into through *igestion K 2 mean the stu%% su44orting the %un#tioning o% our bo*y are
two *i%%erent things? *hat we eat is rice, but what is transformed is glucose. 'his is
the %eeling 2 ha7e %or text memorisation?
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R1 /3cA to the <4estio5 I 3sAed e3rlier K does te6t #e#oris3tio5 restr3i5 o4r
cre3ti"it!H
S1 3o) no) o% #ourse not?
R1 Bill it e5co4r3ge the 4se of clichYs i5 !o4r 9riti5gH For e63#le8 9e te5d to 9rite
EHis f3ce is 3s red 3s 3 red 3le> 9he5 9e st3rt le3r5i5g to 9rite i5 Chi5ese;
S1 2t;s 7ery 4ossible at the 7ery beginning? 2t is sim4ly be#ause you *on;t now how to
ex4ress other i*eas a4art %rom this one? 2t *oesn;t mean that you *on;t ha7e *i%%erent
i*eas? You #an a##urately ex4ress yoursel% a%ter a#hie7ing a #ertain le7el o%
4ro%i#ien#y? 'he issue you 4ro4ose* #an not exist %or long? 'he e%%e#t #an be o%%set by
*oing as many extra.#urri#ulum rea*ings as 4ossible? 2t is no *i%%eren#e %rom !hinese
learning? We #an only say Ghis %a#e is as re* as re* a44le; i% we %ail to rea* extensi7ely
a%ter #lass?
R1 So there is 3 cert3i5 degree of restr3i5t o5 o4r thi5Ai5g;
S1 What 2 mean is that any language K es4e#ially when memorisation is in7ol7e* K
#an exert #ertain restri#tion on human min*? &ut we #an not Gyi 4ian gai quan; Da
!hinese i*iom) meaning Gtae the 4art as the whole;E) #onsi*ering the memorise*
stu%% as a sort o% #a4ti7ity o% our thining? As 2 sai* just now) it #an #ertainly be sol7e*
by rea*ing as many as 4ossible?
R1 So te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld co5ti54e to $e 4sedH
S1 2 thin it is ne#essary %or !hinese stu*ents in #urrent situation as we *on;t ha7e a
language en7ironment? Learning o% a language has mu#h to with the a##umulation o%
nowle*ge an* language use on the 4art o% the learner? Memorising texts is goo* way
o% su#h a##umulation?
R1 Do !o4 still #e#orise te6ts i5 se5ior highH
S1 Yes) but not ea#h text? 'he tea#her will #hoose some whi#h #ontain im4ortant
language 4oints or many new wor*s?
R1 Are !o4 $othered $! the 3ssig5#e5t of recit3tio5H
S1 3ot really) at least less than the ex4lanation o% grammar 4oints;
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S: *e are aware that it does not have much to do with exams.
R: T5e 0e012i3e9 3/u;; 91e34)/ 5e6: i4 /5e e.a03D
S: *ell, it can be more or less helpful. (ut we do this not mainly for exams.
R1 So !o4 3re 5ot 3"erse to this r3cticeH
S1 3o) not at all though it #an be 4ain%ul at the initial stage?
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Ve54e of i5ter"ie91 The %5d Te3chi5g /4ildi5g8 Cho5g<i5g Foreig5 L35g43ge School
D3te of i5ter"ie91 '. M3rch %&'&
Ti#e le5gth of recordi5g1 %, #i5s ** secs
/3cAgro45d i5for#3tio5 3$o4t the i5ter"ie9ee1
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E5glish roficie5c! co#3red 9ith eers1 F3ir ?''*='*&@
Affili3tio51 CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School8 P;R;Chi53
R1 C35 !o4 st3rt fro# t3lAi5g 3$o4t !o4r e6erie5ce of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish
le3r5i5gH Did !o4 do it i5 ri#3r! schoolH
S1 We rarely *i* text memorisation in 4rimary s#hool be#ause only !hinese an*
mathemati#s were teste* at that stage?
R1 Ho9 3$o4t i5 L45ior HighH
S1 We *i* lots o% memorisation o% texts in Junior Aigh?
R1 Fro# 2r3de ' to 2r3de (H
S1 Yes?
R1 B3s e3ch te6t re<4ired to le3r5 $! he3rtH
S1 3ot exa#tly) but most o% them) 2 thin?
R1 Did the te3ch checA i5 erso5H
S1 Sometimes? She may also a44oint the team lea*ers to *o that?
R1 Do !o4 feel the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 so#e9h3t hel 9ith !o4r E5glish
le3r5i5gH
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S1 GA %eel %or language;? Memorisation o% texts #an #ulti7ate Ga %eel %or language;?
'he grammar 4oints #an also be un*erstoo* better through learning texts by heart?
+s4e#ially Gthe %eel %or language; #an be a#hie7e* by a large amount o% re#itation an*
rea*ing?
R1 Bh3t is !o4r 45derst35di5g of Ethe feel for l35g43ge>H
S1 'o 4ut sim4le) 2 sub#ons#iously now how the grammar shoul* be use* without
thining about it when 2 try to mae a senten#e? 2t Dthe senten#eE just %lows out o% my
mouth #asually?
R1 A5! other 3sects i5 9hich it #3! helH
S1 2 woul* say writing? 2t is in %a#t about senten#e 4atterns an* wor*s? You memorise
them through learning texts by heart an* use them in your own writing?
R1 Bill !o4 4se the origi53l se5te5ces #e#orisedH
S1 We #an;t be that stu4i*?
R1 Is there 3 risA th3t !o4r thi5Ai5g is 3ffected $! ide3s of the te6t si5ce !o4 co##it it
to #e#or!H This #ight $e the co5cer5 of #35! foreig5 te3chers;
S1 3o) it shoul*n;t? 2 thin memorising texts is not %or *ealing with exams or
something lie that? 2t;s mainly %or #ulti7ating Ga %eel %or the language;? You see) we
ha7e many texts to learn? Learning +nglish through other means) lie learning
through #ommuni#ating with others) is a#tually not 4ra#ti#al at all? 2n most #ases) you
ha7e to learn by yoursel%? Learning through #ommuni#ating with others is im4ra#ti#al
in !hina? We *o ha7e a %oreign tea#her? &ut how #an only one *eal with so many
stu*ents? 'here are a %ew who are #ourageous enough to sto4 the %oreign tea#her %or
a #on7ersation? As 2 see it) you #annot signi%i#antly im4ro7e your ability Dto s4ea
+nglishE in this way? 'his is our #urrent situation? You see) we ha7e only one %oreign
tea#her %or all the (ra*e 5 stu*ents? Anyway) 2 thin the most e%%e#ti7e way is to
memorise texts?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 restr3i5s o4r cre3ti"it!H
S1 !reati7ityH 2 thin it shoul* not? 3owa*ays e7erybo*y has hisOher in*e4en*ent
thining or i*ea) at least it is the #ase in our generation? Learning by heart is meant
to equi4 us with more nowle*ge K the stru#ture o% nowle*ge) not to in%luen#e your
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thining? !reati7ity is built on a base o% #ertain amount o% nowle*ge? Learning by
heart #an a** in your nowle*ge) but will not sti%le your #reati7ity? +7ery stu*ent
shoul* ha7e hisOher own i*ea? My in*e4en*ent thining will #ertainly not be a%%e#te*
by learning texts by heart? We just learn the language itsel%?
R1 Ho9 c35 9e #o"e fro# #e#oris3tio5 of te6ts $! others to fle6i$le e6ressio5 of
o4r o95 ide3sH
S1 'his is an a44arently a big lea4 in terms o% quality? Most stu*ents are now unable
to #ommuni#ate with %oreigners %reely? 2% you really want to *e7elo4 in the *ire#tion) a
s4e#ial intensi7e training may be o% hel4?
R1 Do !o4 #e35 tr3i5i5g o5 the or3c!H
S1 +xa#tly?
R1 So #e#oris3tio5 of te6t is 5ot i5co5siste5t 9ith fle6i$le 4se of l35g43geH
S1 3o) they are not in#om4atible? 'hey are two 4arts o% learningL learning in s#hool
an* learning in real li%e? 'he %ormer is %or laying a %oun*ation while the latter
*e7elo4ing the sill? Learning texts by heart is to lay a goo* %oun*ation? (i7en the
a7erage le7el o% the stu*ents) the tea#her has to tea#h in this way? 2% you want to go
%urther) you #an only *e4en* on yoursel%? 2t;s im4ossible %or the tea#her to meet
e7eryone;s nee*s?
R1 So !o4 3re 5ot 3"erse to the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 E5glish le3r5i5gH
S1 3o) 2;m not against?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A it is $ori5g 35d ti#e:cost4#i5gH
S1 Ior this issue) ,Sigh0? As the !hinese saying goes) Gno 4ain) no gain;? Most o% us
#onsi*er it as being una7oi*able? A%ter all) we *on;t ha7e that goo* language
en7ironment lie in the %oreign #ountries? Aow to sayH 'his is a 7ery 4ra#ti#al issue?
We ha7e to *e4en* on oursel7es?
R1 Yo4 #e35 9e h3"e to e5d4re this ho9e"er it is $ori5gH
S1 6ight? 2 %oun* that those stu*ents who are goo* in +nglish lie rea*ing alou*? 'hey
#ulti7ate their %eel %or language an* gain 4leasure in *oing so?
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R1 The! do5>t feel $ori5gH
S1 3o) they enjoy *oing it? Ior me) 2 also %eel it;s %un to be able to im4ro7e my ability
to ex4ress in +nglish through re#itation? 9% #ourse) it woul* be better i% we ha7e less
test.oriente* stu%%) lie being ase* to re4ro*u#e a #ertain 4aragra4h in the oral test?
R1 Is5>t it 9h3t !o4 3re #e#orisi5g te6ts forH
S1 2;m not that a7erse to text memorisationN a%ter all) e7ery language has its unique
beauty? 2 just *on;t lie the %eeling that 2 *o this ex#lusi7ely %or exams?
R1 Bh! do !o4 h3"e s4ch 3 feeli5gH
S1 We all %eel the sameL test.oriente* e*u#ation?
R1 Is5>t the r3ctice ti#e:co5s4#i5gH
S1 Yes) es4e#ially %or those who ha7e 4oor memory?
R1 Be 5or#3ll! forget 9h3t is #e#orised the other d3!8 let 3lo5e l3st #o5th 35d l3st
ter#; Bh3t>s the oi5t of se5di5g ti#e doi5g te6t #e#oris3tio5H
S1 Aow in#isi7e the question is? As 2 sai* be%ore) it;s mainly %or *e7elo4ing Ga %eel %or
language; whi#h #an only be obtaine* through long.term a##umulation? 2t nee*s
#ontinual re4etition an* a**ition to intensi%y the %eeling) buil*ing your own system?
2t;s absolutely not %or borrowing a %ew senten#es when you write? Ior that 4ur4ose)
we *on;t really ha7e to memorise the whole 4assage or 4aragra4h? As a matter o%
%a#t) there is a trail retaine* in the *ee4er 4art o% your min* e7en i% you thin you;7e
%orgot them all? 2t;s 7ery liely that you regain them or use them un#ons#iously i% you
*on;t rote.memorise?
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2r3de1 '8 College
E5glish roficie5c! co#3red 9ith eers1 F3ir ?''-='*&@
Affili3tio51 SBUPL8 P;R;Chi53
R1 So#e st4de5ts liAe5 le3r5i5g $! he3rt to Egood #edici5e th3t t3stes $itter> or E3
thor5!> rose; Do !o4 3greeH
S1 2 *on;t lie this meta4hor? My %eeling towar*s this metho* may 7ary in *i%%erent
stages? 'his time 2 may #om4are it to Gthorny rose;) next time 2 will #om4are it to
others? 9% #ourse) 2;m no goo* at memory? 2 usually re#ite %i7e times be%ore 2 #an
memorise a senten#e?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A it>s 3 3i5f4l rocessH
S1 3o) 2 *on;t thin so? I feel happy after I memorise something because I feel that
Im proud of myself being able to do it. I especially feel a sense of achievement
when I perform better than my classmates. #he feeling that Im better than others
motivates me to learn more texts by heart. I en+oy the process most of the time
because I can get something out of it.
R1 Do5>t !o4 feel it h3rd to erse"ere 3t #e#orisi5g te6tsH
S1 Ior me it is a 4sy#hologi#al issue) not ne#essarily so? 2% you in#rease your s#ores
by learning texts by heart) you may ha7e a sense o% a#hie7ement an* #ontinue to
memorise texts? 2% you are eager to im4ro7e your +nglish) but %ail to in#rease your
s#ores in the exam) it is liely that you ignore this metho* later?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A !o4 c35 se3A E5glish fl4e5tl! 3fter le3r5i5g #35! te6ts $! he3rtH
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S1 9% #ourse) 2 #an? 2 now 2 memorise many 4hrases an* wor*s through text
memorisation an* 2 #an tae a*7antage o% them when 2 engage in real #on7ersation?
&ut it is ob7iously not enough? You ha7e to rea* +nglish news4a4ers) listen +nglish
4rogrammes an* wat#h +nglish %ilms? 'ext memorisation is only 4art o% means to
im4ro7ing your +nglish? 2 also want to em4hasise that memorisation o% texts must be
on the basis o% un*erstan*ing? 2% you wan to write a won*er%ul essay an* *is4lay your
own style o% writing) you ha7e to Gha7e in in your stoma#h;? 2 mean) you nee* to rea*
many boos? 2n my o4inion) there is not mu#h *i%%eren#e between rea*ing an* re#iting
texts? You use only your eyes while rea*ing) but you use your eyes) month an* ear at
the same time when it #omes to re#iting texts?
R1 Does te6t #e#oris3tio5 li#it o4r cre3ti"it!H
S1 'ext memorisation will *e%initely not limit our #reati7ity as it is a 4ro#ess o%
a##umulation? An* it also *e4en*s on your own attitu*e? 2% you memorise sim4ly %or
the 4ur4ose o% memorisation) it #ertainly limits your #reati7ity? 2t #an be a #lose*
4ro#ess i% you only absorb an* a##umulate without releasing it? 'he ey is that we
nee* to absorb the goo* sta%% o% others) imitate them an* e7entually mae use o% them
in a #reati7e manner?
R1 Bh3t 3re so#e of the 3sects do !o4 thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 eseci3ll! hel 9ithH
S1 2t hel4s most in the 7o#abulary whi#h is the basi#s o% learning +nglish? 2t also
hel4s with 4hrases an* grammar? A%ter re#iting texts) 2 now the stru#ture o%
senten#es? &e#ause 2 re#ite again an* again) my bo*y instea* o% my memory #an %eel
the sense? When 2 am in similar situation) i% 2 ha7e the ne#essary 7o#abulary) 2;m able
to automati#ally #onstru#t the senten#e without se#on* thought? 9% #ourse) you #an
only *o this a%ter lots o% 4ra#ti#e an* memorising many texts? &ut when 2 *o this in
*ormitory) my %latmates #om4lain about the noise 2 mae? 2 always try to s4ea
+nglish with them) but they res4on* in !hinese?
R1 C35 !o4 fi5d 35!$od! to r3ctice E5glish 9ithH
S1 Yes) 2 ha7e a %rien* %rom my hometown who is willing to #ommuni#ate in +nglish
with me?
R1 A5d the 3sect th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 does 5ot helH
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S1 'he least hel4%ul as4e#t is a##ent? A%ter 2 entere* #ollege) 2 %oun* 2 be#ame lazier?
R1 Does !o4r E5glish te3cher re<4ire !o4 to le3r5 te6t $! he3rtH
S1 No8 she o5l! re<4ires 4s to #e#orise 9ords 35d hr3ses8 5ot the 9hole te6t; I
Doi5ed E5glish Associ3tio5 o5 c3#4s; The ch3ir#35 i5 the 3ssoci3tio5 3sAed 4s to
recite the 9hole te6t;
R1 Is he 3 st4de5tH
S1 Yes? Ae requires us to learn by heart long 4assages %rom &oo >? Ae tol* me that
he ha* re#ite* all the texts in 3ew !on#e4t +nglish) &oo >?
R1 Is he E5glish #3DorH
S1 3o) he is majoring in Iorensi# S#ien#e?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 $ori5g r3cticeH
S1 2 %eel bore* only when 2 #ome a#ross many new wor*s in the senten#es be#ause 2
ha7e to loo them u4 one by one in the *i#tionary be%ore going on re#iting the
4assage? I have to understand the meaning of what Ill commit to memory before
reciting passages. I cannot memorise the text if I dont understand the meaning. 2
%orget them qui#ly i% 2 rote.memorise them without %ull un*erstan*ing?
2t normally taes me hal% an hour to re#ite a 4assage? A#tually) not the whole
4assage) just some 4aragra4hs?
R1 Bh3t Ai5d of te6ts do !o4 4s43ll! reciteH
S1 3ew !on#e4t +nglish?
R1 Ho9 does le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rt differ fro# gr3##3r e6ercises l4s #e#oris3tio5
of i5di"id43l 9ordsH Bhich o5e do !o4 refer 35d 9h!H
S1 Learning grammar an* wor*s are goo* %or *ealing with exams) whi#h is e%%i#ient
in a short term) but learning texts by heart #an truly im4ro7e your +nglish? 2t is a
*ilemma %or me? 'he %ormer is only e%%e#ti7e %or enhan#ing your 4er%orman#e in the
exams while the latter #ontributes to both exam 4er%orman#e an* o7erall +nglish
#om4eten#e? 2 belie7e text memorisation is a goo* way) but it is not a short#ut at all?
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R1 Ho9 #4ch do !o4 thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 co5tri$4te to !o4r E5glish le3r5i5g so
f3rH Bill !o4 4se it i5 f4t4re le3r5i5gH
S1 2t #ontributes /=Q or so? 2 want to raise the 4er#entage u4 to P=Q later?
R1 Bh! do !o4 thi5A 9e sho4ld le3r5 te6ts $! he3rt e"e5 i5 collegeH
S1 2 thin there are not many grammars to learn at tertiary le7el be#ause we learne*
almost all o% them in high s#hool? 2 thin we shoul* use more other metho*s lie
learning texts by heart instea* o% #on*u#ting grammar analysis as we normally *o in
high s#hool?
R1 Bh! do !o4 thi5A soH
S1 9b7iously) goo* mastery o% +nglish is im4ortant to our %uture? We #annot only
learn %or interest? 2 use text memorisation to learn +nglish not be#ause it is 4o4ular
but be#ause it 4ro7es e%%e#ti7e to me? 2 *on;t thin 2 ha7e learne* by heart enough
texts) but 2 memorise* more than many o% my #lassmates? 3ow 2 ha7e a sense o%
su4eriority when 2 %in* 2 s4ea better +nglish than my #lassmates? 9ne 4oint 2 ha7e to
a** is that 2 will go to some +nglish #orners in (uang*ong 2nternational Stu*ies
Bni7ersity when 2 go ba# to my hometown in (uang*ong? So 2 ha7e #han#e to mae
Gout4ut; rather than only taing in Gin4ut;? At this stage) what 2 *o is more on in4ut
than out4ut? 2n a**ition to learning texts by heart) 2 also wat#h Ameri#an %ilm an* try
to memorise the lines?
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R1 Co4ld !o4 rec3ll !o4r e6erie5ce of le3r5i5g te6ts $! he3rtH LiAe 9he5 did !o4
st3rt the r3ctice 35d 9h3t did !o4 doH
L1 2 start learning texts by heart %rom the 7ery beginning o% learning +nglish.%irst
gra*e o% Junior Aigh? 2 thin it;s 7ery use%ul? Most o% the texts in (ra*e - are
situational *ialogue? 2 #annot remember #learly where the tea#her require* us to *o
so or not? Some im4ortant arti#les were require* to be memorise*? 2 just %ollowe* the
tea#her;s instru#tion although heOshe *i* not ne#essarily #he# it? 2n senior high) 2
rea* alou* a lot? When it #omes to text memorisation) there;s not that mu#h? 2n the
%irst gra*e) we were require* to memorise some 4aragra4hs? &ut later) es4e#ially in
the thir* gra*e) there is no text memorisation at all?
R1 Bh3t 3sects do !o4 feel the r3ctice hels 9ith !o4r E5glish le3r5i5gH
L1 2t hel4s most with the *e7elo4ment o% Gsense o% language;? %ou have sentence
structures kept in your mind after memorising many texts, not necessarily the
contents. #hese structures are there for your use when you need them. If you only
memorise isolated words, you dont know how to use them. #here is a situation for
you to understand where and how words are used if you learn them through text
memorisation. You just un#ons#iously s4ea out in similar situation without se#on*
thought?
R1 Ho9 do !o4 defi5e the Ese5se of l35g43ge>H
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L1 2t;s something sub.#ons#ious an* *i%%i#ult to *es#ribe or *e%ine? When you *o
multi4le #hoi#e exer#ises on grammar) you rea* through an* now imme*iately the
right answer without se#on* thought i% you ha7e goo* Gsense o% language;?
R1 So#e st4de5ts liAe5 the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 to Egood #edici5e th3t t3stes
$itter>; Bh3t the! #e35 is o$"io4sl! th3t it #3! $e5efit !o48 $4t the rocess is
3i5f4l;
H: 2 ne7er %eel the 4ro#ess o% memorisation G4ain%ul;? 2 lie +nglish 7ery mu#h? 2t;s not
4ain%ul at all %or me?
R1 H3"e !o4 forced !o4rself to do thisH
L1 3o? 3obo*y %or#e* me to *o this either? 2 re4eate*ly rea* the text an* get mysel%
%amiliar with it? 2 memorise them 7erbatim i% 2 ha7e energy? I do lots of memorisation
even at college. )o one forced me to do so. #he easier it feels the more articles I
memorise. I naturally memorise it after reading a few times if it is a short
paragraph.
R1 It>s Eshu *u #heng song; Q3 Chi5ese e6ressio5 #e35i5g Eree3ted re3di5g le3ds
53t4r3ll! to #e#oris3tio5>R; Bh3t sort of te6ts do !o4 4se for #e#oris3tio5H
L1 2 memorise* texts in 3ew !on#e4t +nglish?
R1 Thro4gho4t /ooA ' to /ooA )H
L1 9nly - to >? &ut now 2 #an har*ly re#all them?
R1 Yo4 re<4ired !o4rself to do thisH
L1 Yes? 9ur tea#her suggeste* this boo series?
R1 B3s5>t it ti#e:co5s4#i5gH
L1 2 usually rea* them in the morning %or hal% an hour or so an* 4erse7ere *oing this
e7ery *ay? 2 *on;t thin it;s time #onsuming?
R1 Yo4 s3id D4st 5o9 th3t !o4 3l#ost forget #ost of the te6ts i5 Ne9 Co5cet E5glish
!o4 #e#orised; If it is the c3se8 9h3t is the oi5t of i5"esti5g ti#e i5 #e#orisi5g
the#H
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L1 It is by no means meaningless, of course. Its possible for me to forget the
content, the exact sentence in the text, but the inside stuff has insinuated in my
mind. #ext memorisation is a process through which I feel I have improved my
English. It has done its function or fulfilled its mission , I have learned what I was
supposed to learn through text memorisation. I found my English greatly improved
after the process, especially writing and speaking. 'his is my 4ur4ose in memorising
texts? Ior instan#e) I enlarged my vocabulary, learned many sentence structures
and developed a sense of language. It is in fact a gradual process of accumulation.
-etaining the texts in our memory is not our final purpose, improving our overall
English competence is.
R1 Ho9 did !o4 feel !o4r E5glish i#ro"edH
L1 A%ter memorising mu#h stu%%) 2 get to now o% how others ex4ress their i*eas? 2
*e7elo4 a G%eel %or language; an* now how to ex4ress my own i*ea? Aasn;t Marx
sai* that one has to %orget one;s mother tongue in or*er to learn well a %oreign
languageH You learn qui#er in this way? 2 #an gra*ually *ire#t me to thin in +nglish
through memorising +nglish texts e7ery *ay? 2t;s a in* o% being immerse* in that
language? 2 e7en s4oe +nglish in *ream . my roommates tol* me? 2n a wor*) 2
bene%ite* a lot %rom this metho*? 'ea#hers shoul* require stu*ents to learn texts by
heart? When 2 was ase* %or 7aluable ex4erien#e in learning +nglish by the juniors) 2
always sai*) Grea* more an* memorise more i% 4ossible;? 2t;s the only way to learn
+nglish in !hina where there is no language en7ironment?
R1 /4t te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 o5e:93! rocess8 5ot i5ter3cti"e co##45ic3tio5;
L1 'he thing is) we *on;t the #on*itions %or #ommuni#ation? 9ne.way in4ut is mu#h
better than without re#itation an* without s4eaing? !an you thin o% any better way
o% learning +nglish in !hinaH
R1 C35>t !o4 fi5d so#e$od! to r3ctice E5glish 9ithH
L1 9h) you mean s4eaing +nglish with your #lassmatesH 2t seems not 4ra#ti#al at all?
9% #ourse) we ha7e +nglish #orner? &ut 7ery o%ten we just re4eat a limite* number o%
ex4ressions? 2t may be more bene%i#ial to sit in the room to memorise 3ew !on#e4t
+nglish?

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R1 So#e st4de5ts #e5tio5ed th3t the r3ctice $4ilds the# 3 se5se of co5fide5ce; Is it
!o4r feeli5g 3s 9ellH
L1 Yes) 2 agree this 4ra#ti#e hel4s buil* one;s #on%i*en#e? 2t;s true that you are able
an* *are to s4ea a%ter memorising #ertain amount o% texts? 2n my #ase) #on%i*en#e
#omes more %rom the high s#ores in +nglish exams?
R1 Ho9 do !o4 see the ro$le# of Eti#e:co5s4#i5g> 9ith this r3cticeH
L1 2 woul* not see it as a 4roblem? You ha7e to in7est time in *oing e7erything? You
#an tae a*7antage o% a brie% time slot in the morning an* 4erse7ere at *oing it e7ery
*ay? You #annot *o the re#itation an* memorisation all *ay long as you a44arently
ha7e many other things to *o? You shoul* not *o re#itation %or eight hours on one
4arti#ular *ay an* %ail to *o it on other wee*ays? 'he time shoul* be e7enly
*istribute* to e7ery *ay in small amount? So 2 *o not see this 4ra#ti#e Gtime.
#onsuming;? 2t;s not about the 4roblem o% the a#ti7ity o% text memorisation) but about
how to arrange time?
R1 Is it liAel! th3t this r3ctice li#its o5e>s cre3ti"it!H
L1 2t may a44ly to those who memorise mo*el arti#les an* #o4y when they write? 2t is)
howe7er) not my #ase? Ior exam4le) I almost cannot recall a single text in )ew
.oncept English which I memorised before, but Im sure I still use many structures
or expressions I learned from the process of text memorisation. /ow can I copy the
idea since I almost forget the content0 Even if I can remember the ideas, I do not
necessarily agree with the arguments presented in the article. 1y purpose is to
learn the language rather than the authors ideas. 3ow we o%ten rea* arti#les in the
news4a4er an* are ex4ose* to all sorts o% o4inions? 2 may or may not agree with it
base* on my own ju*gement rather than blin*ly a##e4ting the author;s o4inion? 1y
experience is that reading or memorising more can, on the contrary, facilitate your
creative thinking. In the beginning, we of course, have to imitate others. /ow can
one be creative at the very beginning0 It is true in doing everything. *e imitate
until we reach a certain degree to allow us to create.
R1 Is it ossi$le th3t !o4 3re i5cli5ed to 4se #35! clichYs i5 !o4r 9riti5gH
L1 2 *on;t thin so? 2;m a s#ien#e stu*ent an* always engage in s#ienti%i# writing? 2t
may a44ly to stu*ents in arts? 6e%le#ting on our ex4erien#e o% learning !hinese) we
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were also require* to memorise many texts? 2 *i*n;t %eel 2 ten* to use those #li#hSs in
my own writing?
R1 A5! thi5g to 3dd 3$o4t te6t #e#oris3tio5H
L1 'o summarise my i*ea) text memorisation is a 7ery use%ul way o% learning? 2 *o
bene%it a lot %rom it? 9% #ourse) you #annot learn +nglish well only through
memorising texts? 2t has to be #om4lemente* by many other metho*sN %or exam4le)
you ha7e to listen to +nglish broa*#asting an* so on? When it #omes to my ex4erien#e
in text memorisation) 2;* lie to say) we shoul* not tae memorising texts as the %inal
goal or we may not ne#essarily nee* to learn them by heart 7erbatim? (etting
yoursel% %amiliar with them *oes the same wor? Ior exam4le) when 2 was re#iting
3ew !on#e4t +nglish) 2 got mysel% 7ery %amiliar with e7ery senten#e? 2 might not be
able to re#all exa#tly whi#h is %ollowe* by whi#h? 'his is not ne#essary an* time.
#onsuming? 2 *i*n;t require mysel% to *o this) es4e#ially at later stage?
R1 Does this r3ctice i5"ol"e rote:#e#oris3tio58 eseci3ll! 3t e3rl! st3ge of le3r5i5gH
LL 2 *on;t thin so? 2 ha7e to un*erstan* the #ontent or the meaning be%ore 2 memorise
them? Aow #an you memorise something that you *on;t un*erstan* themH 2t;s
im4ossible to memorise them without un*erstan*ing %irst? An* memorisation be#omes
easy only a%ter you ha7e %ull un*erstan*ing o% the #ontent?
R1 Is it ossi$le to #e#orise $efore 45derst35di5gH
L1 3o) 2 *on;t thin it;s 4ossible? +7en at the beginning) the tea#hing material shoul*
be suitable %or the stu*ents to un*erstan*? An* then we 4rogress ste4 by ste4?
R1 Bh3t 9ill !o4 do to if !o4 3re 3 te3cher 9ho tries to 4se this #ethod i5 !o4r
te3chi5g si5ce 9e 3re 3t hereH
L1 Iirst) 2 must mae sure they un*erstan* what they are su44ose* to memorise?
Se#on*) we shoul* not mae it a bur*en to them? 2 mean) this 4ra#ti#e shoul* not
o##u4y too mu#h time? 'his may *am4 their interest? !ulti7ation o% the stu*ents;
interest is 7ery im4ortant at the beginning? 'hir*) 2 nee* to mae sure to gi7e them
o44ortunity to use what they ha7e memorise* in the simulate* situation? 2 try to mae
them %eel +nglish is not *i%%i#ult be#ause they #an *o something with +nglish? 2
belie7e that language is learne* %or use? 2 hol* a 4ragmati# 4oint o% 7iew? Ior
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exam4le) 2 woul* not memorise those texts %ull o% jargons whi#h 2 #oul*n;t un*erstan*
e7en i% they are in 3ew !on#e4t +nglish? 2;* ne7er use them? So #hoosing material is
7ery im4ortant? My stan*ar*s in#lu*eL the to4i# is relate* to my li%e or 2;m intereste*N
many #ommonly use* wor*sO4hrases an* stru#tures are #ontaine* in the text? 2 may
try to #hoose those arti#les #ontaining some new wor*s an* get to now how they are
use* by rea*ing re4eate*ly?
R1 Yo4 so45d liAe 35 e6erie5ced te3cher;
L1 ,Laugh0 As 2 sai* just now) memorisation is not the 4ur4ose? 'ext memorisation is a
goo* way o% learning) but it nee*s to be smartly use*? We *on;t ha7e to *o it to the
extent that we are able to re#all 7erbatim? +nough %amiliarity with the textual
material ser7es the 4ur4ose alrea*y? You #annot ex4e#t signi%i#antly im4ro7e your
+nglish in a short 4erio* through memorising some texts? 2t must be a long 4ro#ess o%
a##umulation? 2 *o text memorisation all the way %rom the 7ery beginning till in
#ollege? I think its an indispensable way of learning English in .hinese context, at
least now. Irom my own ex4erien#e) 2 ha7e to say that 2 bene%ite* a lot %rom this
4ra#ti#e?
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Tea75e23 ?Three Tr35scritio5s 9ith O5e fro# E3ch
Ed4c3tio53l Le"el1 L45ior High8 Se5ior High 35d College@
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Ye3rs of te3chi5g1 )
2r3de i5 te3chi5g1 '8 L45ior High
Affili3tio51 CI Foreig5 L35g43ge School
R1 Do !o4 3gree o5 the st3te#e5t th3t ETe6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 good r3ctice i5
foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5i5g>H
B1 Yes) strongly agree? Ior any language learning) we #an only 4ro*u#e out4ut
buil*ing on the basis o% in4ut? 'ae writing #om4osition %or exam4le? 2% you want to
write well) i% you want to ha7e mu#h stu%% at your *is4osal while writing) you ha7e to
memorise many elegant wor*s an* senten#es? Memorising texts is meant to Gin4ut; in
an en7ironment lie ours? 3o in4ut) no out4ut? 2t shoul* be use%ul %or both s4eaing
an* writing? 2 #oul*n;t agree more?
R1 Did !o4 !o4rself $e5efit 3 lot fro# te6t #e#oris3tio5 9he5 !o4 9ere le3r5i5g
E5glishH
B1 Strongly agree? 2 starte* learning texts by heart %rom the 7ery beginning in both
!hinese an* +nglish learning? You #an turn them into your own stu%% %or use only
a%ter you memorise Dthe textsE? So we;* better memorise more?
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R1 Bh3t>s !o4r co##e5t o5 the st3te#e5t th3t ETe6t #e#oris3tio5> c35 hel st4de5ts
de"elo 3 se5se of l35g43ge>H
B1 2 agree? &ut 2 thin there is 4rerequisite? 'he stu*ents ha7e to imitate be%ore
memorisation? 2% they *on;t listen to the ta4e) they re#ite with their own 4ronun#iation
an* intonation? 2 suggest that my stu*ents imitate the stan*ar* 4ronun#iation be%ore
memorising texts? 8ure text memorisation without imitation #an at most hel4 with %ree
ex4ressions in oral +nglish) but their 4ronun#iation an* intonation #annot be
guarantee*?
R1 Bh3t did !o4 s3! te6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 hel 9ithH
B1 2 mean) the stu*ents may be able to ha7e lots o% Gout4ut;) to s4ea out a%ter text
memorisation? 9% #ourse) it a44lies to writing as well? &ut you #annot ensure that they
ha7e beauti%ul 4ronun#iation?
R1 Yo4 thi5A th3t i#it3tio5 is 5ecess3r! i5 te6t #e#oris3tio5H
B1 2 thin it;s a must? 'hey shoul* rea* alou* a%ter the stan*ar* re#or*ing be%ore
#ommitting to memorisation? 2 thin it is ne#essary at least at the stage o% Junior
Aigh?
R1 Do !o4 3gree o5 the st3te#e5t th3t EI s4ggest #! st4de5ts le3r5 3s #35! te6ts $!
he3rt 3s ossi$le>H
B1 2 more or less agree? &ut there is also a 4rerequisite? We ha7e to %irst mae it #lear
how the texts shoul* be memorise*? Some stu*ents memorise a lot) but they *on;t
now how to mae it use* a44ro4riately? 2 em4hasise the #on#e4t o% intensi7e
memorisation o% texts? You may #hoose those arti#les) 4aragra4hs an* senten#es you
lie %or learning by heart? Ior those you *on;t lie) you may still %in* a small
4aragra4h in whi#h some senten#e stru#tures are use%ul %or you? What 2 mean is that
we nee* to memorise the texts sele#ti7ely an* smartly? 2;m strongly against Gstu4i*
memorisation;?
R1 Do !o4 3gree th3t Eh3"i5g le3r5ed 3 te6t $! he3rt is <43lit3ti"el! differe5t fro#
$ei5g fl4e5t i5 re3di5g 3lo4d 3 te6t>H
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B1 2 agree? 'here is ob7iously a big *i%%eren#e between rea*ing alou* %rom what you
are seeing an* re#ite %rom you;7e #ommitte* to memory? 'he requirements on the 4art
o% the stu*ents are not the same? Memorisation requires a higher le7el o% mastery an*
4ro%i#ien#y while rea*ing alou* is still not in*e4en*ent o% external stu%%?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e 3$35do5ed 3s #oder5 #4lti:#edi3
tech5ologies 35d 9ester5 te3chi5g #ethods 3re i5trod4ced i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chi5gH
B1 2 *isagree? 'he mo*ern te#hnologies an* tea#hing metho*s #an o% #ourse be use*
in our tea#hing 4ro#ess? &ut in or*er to truly master a language an* to #ulti7ate
+nglish thining) one must ha7e #onsi*erable in4ut? Memorisation is a must? 2 a*mit
that some %oreign language tea#hing metho*s are *ynami#) but it *oesn;t mean our
stu*ents will not nee* to memorise texts any more? Aow #an you ha7e real #omman*
o% a language by only wat#hing animationsH 9% #ourse) as 2 mentione* just now) we
nee* to smartly memorise the material) maing a*justment an* turning in to your own
stu%%? 9nly in this way #an you now how to use them? What 2 mean is that both are
equally im4ortant K memorisation an* learning to use? &a# to the question you ase*
just now) 2 a#tually an a#ti7e a*7o#ator o% %oreign tea#hing metho*s whi#h #an mae
your #lass 7i7i* an* more interesting? &ut it is by no means suggesting that the
stu*ents will no longer nee* to *o text memorisation?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A he3"! 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9ill Aill st4de5ts> i5terest i5
le3r5i5gH
B1 2t might a%%e#t some stu*ents? 'o tell you the truth) some stu*ents in our %oreign
language s#hool ha7e e7en better #omman* o% s4oen +nglish than their tea#hers
when they are in their %inal year o% Junior Aigh or in Senior Aigh? 'he ex#ellent
stu*ents are usually those who are %on* o% rea*ing alou* an* memorising? Ior this
grou4 o% stu*ents) texts memorisation 4lays only %a#ilitating role? #hey become more
motivated as they memorise more " so much so that" they begin to en+oy it. Ior
those 4oor stu*ents) they are bothere* by this 4ra#ti#e be#ause they are sim4ly unable
to *o this?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A he3"! 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9ill restr3i5 st4de5ts> ide3
de"elo#e5t 35d cre3ti"it!H
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B1 *e indeed memorise others stuff, but it doesnt mean that we mean to copy
them or we dont need to reprocess them by adding our own stuff. 'fter all, we +ust
intend to use the bits of good or idiomatic use of language. It also depends on the
individual students. &or those excellent students, they absorb more as they
memorise more so that they become more active in their thinking and more creative
in language at later stage. I mean, they are able to add in their own ideas and
express themselves by making use of what theyve memorised. 9n the #ontrary)
some 4oor stu*ents memorise stu4i*ly without thining so that they be#ome more an*
more stu4i* later?
R1 Do !o4 #e35 th3t the o4tco#e dee5ds o5 the 3ro3ch to #e#oris3tio5 of the
i5di"id43l st4de5t to 3 l3rge e6te5tH
B1 +xa#tly? 2t *e4en*s on the stu*ents; initiati7e? Whether one is memorising smartly
or whether one is Gusing hisOher brain; while memorising really matters? Some
stu*ents also memorise many texts) but they *on;t thin using their hea*) they *on;t
try to %eel how the language is use* so that they en* u4 remain stu4i* without any
4rogress? 2n %a#t) the 4ra#ti#e o% memorising texts is extremely useful i% one tries to
thin more an* get hisOher un*erstan*ing in7ol7e*?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld or sho4ld 5ot $e 4sed i5 terti3r! le"el
3s 3 le3r5i5g r3cticeH
B1 2 thin it shoul* be use* in #ollege as well? 2 memorise* a lot in junior high an*
senior high) but 2 memorise* e7en more in #ollege? 2n se#on*ary s#hool) your ha7e
#ertain *egree o% limitation in terms o% thining an* un*erstan*ing? You #ertainly
arri7e at a higher le7el in #ollege in this res4e#t? Irom this 4ers4e#ti7e) we may
bene%it more %rom memorisation o% text in #ollege? Id like to memorise more good
articles even now if I didnt have so many trivial things to deal with. 2 %in* it an
enjoyable job? 2sn;t it a won*er%ul %eeling i% you #oul* let D+nglishE %low out o% your
mouth with a**ition o% your own stu%% as a result o% memorisation o% elegant essaysH
R1 Do !o4 re<4ire !o4r st4de5ts to #e#orise te6tsH
B1 Yes? 'he stu*ents in our s#hool are require* to *o this e7ery *ay in %ront the
tea#her K lie re#iting s#ri4ture?
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R1 E3ch of the# 3ro3ches to !o4 35d reciteH Yo4 checA the# i5 erso5H
BL Yes? 2 #he# e7ery *ay on ea#h o% them be#ause the s#hool requires us to *o this?
9% #ourse) it;s an enjoyable job %or me to listen to those goo* stu*ents whose
4ronun#iation an* intonation are ex#ellent? &ut when it #omes to those 4oor stu*ents
who stumble all the way) 2 %eel annoye*?
R1 So it is 3 re<4ire#e5t fro# the school 34thorit!H
B1 2n our s#hool) %rom Junior Aigh to Senior Aigh) es4e#ially Junior Aigh) ea#h text
is require* to be learne* by heart? We also ha7e oral test in the %inal.term exams? 'he
stu*ents are su44ose* to re#ite the whole text when gi7en the %irst senten#e o% any text
in the textboo?
R1 Bill !o4 re<4ire !o4r st4de5ts to #e#orise te6ts if it is 5ot #35d3tor!8 $4t
otio53lH
B1 Irom my ex4erien#e) memorising more DtextsE shoul* be %a#ilitati7e in e7ery
as4e#t %or the stu*ents) es4e#ially in terms o% in4ut? 2t is a bene%i#ial way o% learning?
2 will #ertainly require them to *o text memorisation i% the s#hool *oesn;t? &ut 2 will
not as them to #ome to re#ite be%ore me) whi#h maes me anguishe*?
R1 H3"e !o4 e5co45tered 35! diffic4lties 9he5 4si5g te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 !o4r
te3chi5gH For e63#le8 the st4de5ts> cooer3tio5 or 5o ti#e to checAH
B1 2 *on;t thin we ha7e any in this s#hool be#ause we ha7e to *o this? 'he stu*ents
are not allowe* to go home until they are able to re#ite the text? 'hey #ome to me to
re#ite one by one? 2 usually #annot go home until a%ter F or J4m? 'he tea#hers in our
s#hool are tie* to s#hool all *ay long? So time is not a 4roblem %or tea#hers here) but
it might be a 4roblem %or tea#hers in other s#hools?
R1 Do !o4 see 35! ro$le#s 9ith the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 !o4r te3chi5gH For
i5st35ce8 fro# the 9ester5 ersecti"e8 this le3r5i5g r3ctice l3cAs of h4#35istic
ele#e5ts;
B1 We just ha7e *i%%erent national #on*itions? Ioreigners are more #on#erne* about
#ulti7ating o4en thining? 'hey will get stu# i% they *on;t memorise when they are
learning !hinese? 'his is our tra*itional way o% learning? 2% there are in*ee* some
4roblems with the way o% learning) 2 woul* lie to mention the #hoi#e o% material %or
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memorisation? 2 *on;t agree that all the texts in the textboo are require* to be
learne* by heart without *is#rimination? Among all the many texts in any textboo)
there shoul* be some o% them whi#h are not that suitable %or memorisation? 'hey are
either out.*ate* or boring in terms o% #ontent or not 7ery use%ul in terms o% language
use*? We nee* to be sele#ti7e in #hoosing the material %or memorisation? 2t shoul* not
ne#essarily be the whole textN 2t #an be some 4aragra4hs or senten#e grou4s? More
im4ortantly) the students may be given the right to choose one they like among a
short list of articles because everyone has different interests. #hey are more likely
to be using their heart if they are memorising stuff they are interested in. #hey
will not be very willinghearted if they are forced to recite an article they dont like
at all.
R1 Do !o4 h3"e 35! s4ggestio5s for the 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 l35g43ge
te3chi5g8 eseci3ll! i5 ter#s of reso5di5g to the i5cre3si5g ress4re o5 the te3chers
to 4se Co##45ic3ti"e Aro3chH
B1 Iirst) the issue o% how to memorise is 7ery im4ortant? We ha7e to #hoose the right
material %or memorisation K 2 mean those arti#les the #ontent o% whi#h might interest
you an* the language use* in whi#h is use%ul %or you? Se#on*) one has to thin
#onstantly *uring an* a%ter the 4ro#ess o% memorisation? 2t;s not the en* o% the
4ra#ti#e when you are able to re4ro*u#e the text? You nee* to thin how you #an use
them in your own s4eaing or wring with #ertain a*a4tation? 'hir*) 2 suggest that we
as the stu*ents to gi7e their o4inions in the %orm o% 4resentation a%ter memorisation
o% a text? 'hey are su44ose* to in*i#ate whether an* why they agree or *isagree with
the i*eas ex4resse* in the text? 9% #ourse) this also #an be a *is#ussion among grou4s
or whole #lass?
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Sa0:6e 2
Ve54e of i5ter"ie91 Teleho5e i5ter"ie9 ?c3lli5g fro# the rese3rcher>s ho#e i5
Cho5g<i5g8 P;R;Chi53@
D3te of i5ter"ie91 '& Aril %&'&
Ti#e le5gth of recordi5g1 (- #i5s )' secs
/3cAgro45d i5for#3tio5 3$o4t the i5ter"ie9ee1
N3#e1 Li35g<i5g
Se61 Fe#3le
Age1 (,
Fi53l degree1 MA
Ye3rs of te3chi5g1 '(
2r3de i5 te3chi5g1 %8 Se5ior High
Affili3tio51 CI No; '- Middle School
R1 Do !o4 3gree th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 good r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
le3r5i5gH
L1 2 agree? I think it is indispensable for students either in test"oriented education or
use"oriented education. Many grammar 4oints are #ontaine* in the text? An* you #an
ha7e many use%ul senten#e 4atterns an* 4hrases at han* while writing? 's for the
use"oriented education in which language use and speaking is emphasised, it is
also beneficial to the students.
R1 Did !o4 $e5efit 3 lot fro# the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9he5 !o4 9ere
le3r5i5g E5glishH
L1 #o tell the truth, I didnt do many text memorisations when I was a student. #his
is probably because I am la2y. &ut 2 require my stu*ents to *o this as a tea#her?
R1 So it does5>t h3"e #4ch to do 9ith !o4r o95 le3r5i5g e6erie5ceH
L1 2 was lazy as 2 sai*) but 2 was aware o% the im4ortan#e o% *oing this?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A !o4 9ill h3"e $etter co##35d of E5glish if !o4 #e#orise #ore
ess3!sH
L1 2t;s out of !uestion?
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R1 Bh3t>s !o4r co##e5t o5 the st3te#e5t th3t ETe6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 hel st4de5ts
de"elo 3 se5se of l35g43ge>H
L1 2 #oul*n;t agree any more?
R1 Bh3t is !o4r 45derst35di5g of the so:c3lled El35g43ge se5se>H
L1 As 2 see it) it is %irst o% all relate* to 4ronun#iation an* intonation? Se#on*) you #an
ha7e i*iomati# ex4ressions %low out o% your mouth without any thought? Iinally) it
maes you #hoose the right answer %rom the %our #hoi#es in the #lose test e7en i% you
#annot gi7e the reason %rom the 4ers4e#ti7e o% grammar? 2 thin text memorisation
es4e#ially hel4s with i*iomati# ex4ressions?
R1 Yo4 #e5tio5ed D4st 5o9 th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 is i5dise5s3$le for 9h3te"er
ed4c3tio5; If it is i5deed 3 93! of co##45ic3tio5 3s #35! eole co5sider it to $e8
c35>t 9e 3cc4#4l3te thro4gh e6te5si"e re3di5gH
L1 3o) they are *i%%erent? +xtensi7e rea*ing o4erates only on a su4er%i#ial le7el
%o#using on the rough i*ea? 2t lea7es a 7ery shallow im4ression in your min*? 9nly
memorisation #an gi7e 4ro7i*e an o44ortunity to see a *ee4er un*erstan*ing o%
language? GA sense o% language; is just built on this 4ro#ess?
R1 Bh! c35>t i5te5si"e re3di5g hel de"elo the Ese5se of l35g43ge>H
L1 Well) 2 *on;t thin extensi7e rea*ing *oes the same job %rom my ex4erien#e? 2 *i*
rea* many) but rea*ing #an ne7er lea7e an as *ee4 im4ression as memorisation in
your min*? 'he latter #an also lea* to *ee4er un*erstan*ing?
R1 Do !o4 s4ggest th3t !o4r st4de5ts le3r5 $! he3rt 3s #35! te6ts 3s ossi$leH
L1 Yes8 I do; /4t ti#e does5>t 3llo9 the# to do this;
R1 So it is ti#e:co5s4#i5g;
L1 <ery mu#h so? Although memorisation o% texts is 7ery im4ortant) we ha7e only two
short 4erio*s o% time ea#h wee %or rea*ing alou* +nglish? 2n a**ition) they ha7e to
memorise some grammar nowle*ge %or *eal with exams? In fact, they have very
limited time to do text memorisation.
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R1 Do !o4 3gree o5 the st3te#e5t th3t EH3"i5g le3r5ed 3 te6t $! he3rt is <43lit3ti"el!
differe5t fro# $ei5g re3di5g 3lo4d 3 te6t>H
L1 'here is *e%initely a qualitati7e *i%%eren#e? 2% he #an memorise a text well) he must
ha7e a *ee4 un*erstan*ing o% the senten#e stru#tures? &eing %luently rea*ing a lou*
%luently requires mu#h lower le7el o% un*erstan*ing than #ommitting the text to
memory?
R1 Are !o4 3ss4#i5g th3t o5e 5ecess3ril! h3s 3chie"ed 3 good 45derst35di5g if he=she
c35 #e#orise 3 te6tH
L1 As 2 see it) i% one #an re#ite well an* 4ause a44ro4riately between an* in
senten#es) heOshe must ha7e un*erstoo* the text? A tiny number o% stu*ents *o 4ause
ina44ro4riately in the 4ro#ess o% re#itation? 2t;s a44arently rote.memorisation?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e 3$35do5ed 3s #oder5 #4lti:#edi3
tech5ologies 35d 9ester5 te3chi5g #ethods 3re i5trod4ced i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chi5gH
L1 What *o you mean by Gwestern tea#hing metho*;H
R1 I #e35 the 4se of co##45ic3ti"e 3cti"ities i5 the cl3ssroo#8 liAe role l3!8 gro4
9orA 35d g3#es8 9hich 3re co5sidered to $e #ore i5teresti5g th35 tr3ditio53l 93! of
te3chi5gH
L1 9h) 2 see? We ha7e alrea*y use* some o% these a#ti7ities be#ause there are some
mo*ules in the text %o#using on these sorts o% a#ti7ities? &ut I think we should use
more text memorisation in such circumstances. et me give you an example. *e
usually have parallel classes and advanced classes in .hina. %ou can only have
communicative activities successfully carried out in advanced classes, but never in
parallel classes. #his is because the students in advanced classes have accumulated
more and memorised more.
R1 Do !o4 thi5A th3t he3"! 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9ill Aill the st4de5ts> i5terestH
L1 3o) 2 *on;t thin so? Instead of killing their interest, the practice probably raises
their interest. If they find that they can speak out some sentences fluently or write
some good expressions in their composition, they will have a sense of achievement.
&rom this point of view, the practice makes them more motivated in learning. As a
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matter o% %a#t) it is a 7ery goo* way o% learning language e7en in the #urrent
situation? 'he reason why we teachers dont re!uire them to memorise the whole
text or very long paragraphs is the time issue. 9ur stu*ents ha7e many subje#ts to
learn an* many assignments to %inish? We ha7en;t gi7en them more tass on text
memorisation sim4ly %or the 4ur4ose o% re*u#ing their woring loa*s? &ut 2 really
ho4e that they #oul* memorise more texts?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 9ill restr3i5 st4de5ts> ide3 de"elo#e5t 35d
cre3ti"it!H
L1 3o) 2 *on;t thin so? 'he aim o% memorising texts %or our !hinese stu*ents is not
%or #o4ing or borrowing others; i*eas) but %or taing a*7antage o% senten#e 4atterns
or 4hrases use* in the texts %or their own use later whether in the exams or in
4ra#ti#al use?
R1 So !o4 thi5A it 9ill 5ot li#it the st4de5ts> cre3ti"it!H
L1 9% #ourse not? 'here is not su#h an issue as #reati7ity %or us !hinese learning
+nglish as %oreigners? We sim4ly ha7e to %ollow the rules o% their language? 2 *on;t
thin there exists the issue o% #reati7ity? 2nstea*) 2 thin the 4ra#ti#e %a#ilitates the
#reati7ity? 'hey #an ha7e a 7ariety o% stru#tures at their *is4osal in writing an*
s4eaing through re#itation o% texts? An* they may be able to #hoose more Gsu4erior;
wor*s in language use) whi#h 2 #onsi*er a in* o% #reati7ity %or language learners? As
2 see it) %lexible use o% language is the #reati7ity in language learning?
R1 Is there 3 c3se th3t so#eo5e does #e#orise 3 lot of te6t43l #3teri3ls8 $4t the!
do5>t A5o9 ho9 to 4se the# 3rori3tel!H
L1 +7en i% some in*ee* *on;t now how to %lexibly use what they;7e memorise*) they
are liely to be at the early stage o% memorisation? /asnt it been said that /e who
has memorised 344 #ang poems becomes a poet himself0 #his implies that one can
eventually savvy how that language works on the basis of long"term accumulation
through textual memorisation although the time it takes may vary from person to
person.
R1 Do !o4 thi5A this r3ctice sho4ld $e 4sed i5 terti3r! le"elH
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L1 2t is ne#essary to *o so? As 2 ha7e alrea*y mentione*) the language system o%
+nglish has not been establishe* %or most !hinese learners in#lu*ing those +nglish
majors? 'here are 7ery %ew who are able to %lexibly an* i*iomati#ally ex4ress
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essay %low out o% your mouth?
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R1 Do !o4 3gree th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 3 good r3ctice i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
le3r5i5gH
H1 2t is #ertainly an e%%e#ti7e way o% learning %oreign language? 2n the %irst two years
in uni7ersity) the tea#her o% intensi7e rea*ing require* us to learn text by heart? 'he
more you memorise) the more 4ro%i#ient you be#ome when you use the language?
+s4e#ially in oral +nglish) you ha7e all those rea*y.ma*e stu%% at han*? An* you
#ertainly mae less grammati#al mistaes?
R1 Did !o4 $e5efit 3 lot fro# the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9he5 !o4 9ere
le3r5i5g foreig5 l35g43ge>H
AL 'hat;s exa#tly my ex4erien#e?
R1 Do !o4 3gree th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 hel st4de5ts de"elo 3 se5se of
l35g43geH
H1 2 #oul*n;t agree any more? #he sense of language is more important than
grammatical knowledge. 2% a stu*ent has a goo* #omman* o% grammar but are 4oor
in terms o% sense o% language) he will en#ounter subsequent *i%%i#ulties in language
learning?
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R1 A good co##35d of gr3##3r does 5ot g43r35tee roficie5t 4se of th3t l35g43geH
H1 Absolutely? 2t is my ex4erien#e? When 2 *o multi4le.#hoi#e in the exams) 2;m able
to #hoose the right answer without nowing or bothering to analyse the grammar
stru#ture?
R1 Do !o4 s4ggest !o4r st4de5ts le3r5 3s #35! te6ts $! he3rt 3s ossi$leH
H1 2 always require my stu*ents to learn by heart as many texts as 4ossible? At least) 2
strongly suggest this metho*?
R1 Bh! do !o4 h3"e s4ch 3 stro5g feeli5g o5 itH
H1 2% you learn texts by heart) they are stored in your mind and can be accessible
immediately in need. #here are many ready"made sentences or expressions there
for your use. &eing %luent in rea*ing alou* #an not a#hie7e this result be#ause it is
not retaine* in your brain? *e can take advantage of the memorised stuff without
starting from scratch. 2;m always in %a7our o% learning by heart? 2 require my #hil* to
*o so?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 sho4ld $e 3$35do5ed 3s #oder5 #4lti:#edi3
tech5ologies 35d 9ester5 te3chi5g #ethods 3re i5trod4ced i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
te3chi5gH
H1 2 *on;t thin that learning texts by heart shoul* be aban*one* as mo*ern multi.
me*ia te#hnology an* new tea#hing metho*s are intro*u#e*? 'he stu*ents may %eel
#om%ortable to wat#h an* listen to more +nglish 4rogrammes without being %or#e* to
#ons#iously memorise texts? Without a##umulation o% a large amount o% language
material) how #an the stu*ents use the language 4ro%i#ientlyH 'his is my i*ea? What;s
your tae on this issueH
R1 M3! I t3lA 3$o4t #! ide3 3fter the i5ter"ie9H I># i5terested i5 this toic $ec34se
9ester5 schol3rs 4s43ll! thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 is 5ot differe5t fro# rote:
#e#oris3tio5 9hich is 3 "er! $3d r3ctice;
H1 anguage learning is a process of imitation. *e are supposed to imitate others
language rather than creating a language. Its obviously impossible to create
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others language. earning language is conceptually and !ualitatively different
form learning other science sub+ects.
R1 Do !o4 thi5A te6t #e#oris3tio5 9ill restr3i5 st4de5ts> ide3 de"elo#e5t 35d
cre3ti"it!H
H1 'here is no su#h a 4roblem as limiting one;s #reati7e thining? We #an #hoose %or
use those senten#es whi#h we thin are use%ul or 4ra#ti#al %or us? 2t is im4ossible to
#o4y the whole senten#es or others; i*eas? *e are learning the sentence structures
instead of the ideas expressed. We mean to learn how the senten#es are stru#ture*
through learning texts by heart? 2 *on;t thin learning texts by heart will restrain
stu*ents; #reati7ity? /ow can one rote"memorise many texts without understanding.
I think its impossible. 2n the #ase o% !hinese texts) we #annot rote.memorise either
as it ne#essarily in7ol7es un*erstan*ing? 2n terms o% language) 2 thin sometimes . not
in all #ir#umstan#es . we #an memorise some #lassi# senten#es) whi#h is o% hel4 when
you want to use them . lie use them as quotations? 2n most #ases) we memorise the
stru#ture rather than the whole senten#e? Lie learning !hinese) how #an you learn
how to rea* an* write without any memorisation o% language sam4leH 2t is im4ossible
to mae a senten#e %rom s#rat#h) whi#h seriously limit the s4ee* o% #ommuni#ation
an* the a##ura#y o% ex4ression? 'his way negati7ely a%%e#ts the use o% language?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A th3t he3"! 4se of te6t #e#oris3tio5 9ill Aill the st4de5ts> i5terestH
H1 2t is 4ossible that ex#essi7e use o% text memorisation #an ill the stu*ents; interest?
R1 Ho9 #35! te6ts do !o4 thi5A 9e sho4ld #e#oriseH
H1 9% #ourse) it is im4ossible %or use to memorise ea#h text in the textboo? &ut we
ha7e to memorise a su%%i#ient amount o% them? We o%ten say) Gprogressing from a
!uantitative change to a !ualitative change? 2t a44lies in text memorisation as well?
2 strongly agree that TAe who has rea* ten thousan* boos thoroughly #an wor
won*ers with his 4en?; 'fter reading many articles, you gradually develop an idea of
how that language is used and internalise into your own stuff.

R1 Bh3t 3rtic4l3r 3sects do !o4 thi5A the r3ctice hel 9ithH
H1 Learning texts by heart #an #ontribute to e7ery as4e#t o% language sills in#lu*ing
listening) s4eaing) rea*ing) writing an* translation? 2 agree?
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R1 Bh! does it hel 9ith tr35sl3tio5H
H1 We !hinese 4eo4le are in#line* to use !hinese stru#ture to #onstru#t a senten#e in
6ussian? We now the right stru#tures o% their language through text memorisation
an* mae them un*erstoo* by %oreigners? 'his 4ra#ti#e hel4s you mae i*iomati#
senten#e rather than !hinese 6ussian? 2 ha7e ri#h ex4erien#e in this res4e#t as 2 ha7e
translate* o7er millions o% wor*s o% *o#uments? &e%ore *oing translation) what 2 *o is
to stu*y those rele7ant materials to %igure out how nati7e s4eaers *o in *ealing with
similar issues? Ior instan#e) 2 loo at what stru#tures are use* by nati7e s4eaers in
s#ienti%i# an* te#hnologi#al *is#ourse when 2 translate rele7ant materials? As a result
2 #an always mae i*iomati# translation? 'his is also true to any ty4e o% writing an*
s4eaing? 2 ha7e a business 4artner who ha* #orres4on*en#e with me %or a while? Ae
ha* been taen me as a 6ussian until one *ay he %oun* a mistae in my email whi#h
woul* ne7er be #ommitte* by nati7e s4eaers?
R1 Does it hel 9ith gr3##3rH
H1 2n %a#t) that grammar nowle*ge is un#ons#iously stille* in our min* in the
4ro#ess o% memorising text? When we are learning grammar ex4li#itly) we are
learning many *is#rete 4oints? You learn how to integrate all those *is#rete 4oints
through memorising texts? 'here are some stu*ents who now 7ery well about
grammar but %ail to s4ea or write 4ro4erly? 'he #rux is that they %irst memorise too
little) thus la# o% a##umulation) an* se#on* . more im4ortantly . they la# #han#e o%
using the language . to use Gout; what you ha7e memorise* an* mae it be#omes your
own stu%%? 2 strongly o44ose the tea#hing metho* that %o#us ex#essi7ely on grammar?
(rammar learning shoul* not be 4ut in the #entre o% language tea#hing an* test?
Learning grammar #an only hel4 with the un*erstan*ing o% the stru#ture o% the
language) but little with oral +nglish?
R1 Do !o4 $elie"e th3t te6t #e#oris3tio5 c35 s4rel! i#ro"e o5e>s l35g43ge
roficie5c!H
H1 Yes; 2 agree that one will surely im4ro7e one;s language 4ro%i#ien#y a%ter learning
by heart a su%%i#ient amount o% texts? Ior instan#e) it is im4ossible that one *oesn;t
im4ro7e i% heOshe memorises the %irst two boos? 2 always require my stu*ents to learn
by heart? #hose who do a lot of text memorisation obviously perform better than
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those who dont either in oral English or grammar? 'hey ha7e little *i%%i#ulty
un*erstan*ing my ex4lanation? An* more im4ortantly) they now how to #onstru#t a
new senten#e base* on what they ha7e memorise*? Learning by heart really maes a
*i%%eren#e? 9% #urse) you ha7e to mae #ertain a*a4tations in a##or*an#e with
*i%%erent situations when you use the language?
R1 A5! other 3sectsH
H1 'ext memorisation hel4s learn senten#e stru#tures) %ixe* 4hrases ex4ression an*
i*iomati# ex4ression? 2t also hel4s resist the natural ten*en#y o% !hinese learners o%
+nglish to generate !hinglish D!hinese +nglishE? 9n#e 2 atten*e* an e7aluation
meeting on translation? 2 %oun* some translation was hea7ily mare* with !hinese
senten#e stru#ture? 2 woul* not #ommit the same errors as 2 now the nati7e stru#ture
o% senten#es through memorising arti#les written by nati7e s4eaers?
R1 /4t there 3re ro$le#s 9ith this r3ctice liAe ti#e:co5s4#i5g;
R1 2 *on;t thin the tea#her shoul* limit the use o% text memorisation be#ause it is time
#onsuming? 2t may be a little *i%%i#ult in the initial stage be#ause you ha7e limite*
#omman* o% grammar an* 7o#abulary? 2t may in7ol7e rote.memorisation an* Gshen
ban yin tao; Dunwise borrowing or ina44ro4riate useE? 3ow) it is 7ery easy %or me to
learn a text by heart? 2t is ine7itable that we ex4erien#e *i%%i#ulty in the earlier stages
when you %or#e yoursel% to memorise? 3ow it is a 4ie#e o% #ae %or me?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A th3t it sho4ld co5ti54e to $e 4sed i5 terti3r! le"elH
H1 2 thin this metho* shoul* #ontinue to be use* in tertiary le7el? My 4oint is that in
4rimary le7el) we shoul* not %or#e them to memorise too mu#h? 2% we *o) the #hil*ren
might lose interest in learning? 'hey shoul* be en#ourage* to imitate 4ronun#iation
an* intonation? In tertiary level, it is important to re!uire students to learn by heart
be#ause it is the stage where the stu*ents are mo7ing %rom interme*iate stage to
a*7an#e* stage? When basi# nowle*ge o% the language has been un*erstoo* an*
more use.base* 4ra#ti#e nee*s to be intro*u#e*? At this stage) the stu*ents ha7e
learne* almost all the grammars? 2% they #an learn more texts by heart) their listening
an* s4eaing will *e%initely im4ro7e? 'hey turn what they ha7e memorise* into their
own through learning by heart?
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R1 C35 the r3ctice li#it o5e>s cre3ti"it!H
H1 2 *on;t thin so? 2 *on;t belie7e that the %oreigners write #om4osition %rom s#rat#h
without ha7e mo*el #om4osition %or re%eren#e when they are beginners? I dont think
there is as important an issue of creativity in language learning as in other science
disciplines. %ou have to keep to the rules or idiomatic usage of the language you are
learning. %ou obviously cannot create a new rule yourself, can you0 2 a*mit that
many other subje#ts nee* more #reati7ity? &ut %or language learning) 2 #annot see the
nee* o% in7ol7ing a large amount o% #reati7ity? !an you #reate a new grammar
stru#ture yoursel%H Ior instan#e) in our 6ussian) the noun an* 7erb requires the
#hange o% Gas4e#t;? We #annot be so #reati7e that we *o not mae any #hange in
Gas4e#t;? Language is s4e#ial subje#t?
R1 Is it ossi$le th3t o4r oi5io5s 3re i5fl4e5ced 3fter #e#orisi5g 3 te6tH
H1 2t is 7ery unliely that we a*ults are a%%e#te* by the o4inion o% an arti#le we ha7e
memorise* be#ause our 4ers4e#ti7e o% looing at the worl* has been sha4e* through
our own ex4erien#e an* e*u#ation? 9% #ourse) it might be 4ossible %or young i*s to
be in%luen#e* by the arti#les they ha7e memorise*? So we nee* to be 7ery #are%ul
when #hoosing the texts to be memorise*? 'hey must be something 4ositi7e at least?
R1 Bh3t>s the rel3tio5shi $et9ee5 gr3##3r 35d le35i5g te6ts $! he3rtH
H1 2 thin they #om4lement ea#h other? A%ter we learn a #ertain grammar 4oint) we
now it shoul* be AU&U!? 2% we memorise* a senten#e sam4le) we *e%initely ha7e a
#learer un*erstan*ing o% the grammar? 9ur tea#hing mo*el now is normally starting
%rom grammar ex4lanation? 2nitially) the stu*ents may not be able to %ully un*erstan*
the grammar 4oint? 2% they memorise the senten#e sam4les) they may go ba# to
grammar ex4li#itly taught an* *ee4en their un*erstan*ing? My tea#hing mo*el isL
grammar ex4lanation.un*erstan*ing.learning text by heart? Irom my ex4erien#e o%
learning 6ussian %or o7er 5= years) 2 thin learning texts by heart is a 7ery e%%e#ti7e
metho*? 2 am 4rou* to say that 2 ex#el most o% my #olleagues an* ha7e been 4raise*
by nati7e s4eaers %or s4eaing i*iomati# 6ussian?
R1 H3"e !o4 #e#orised 3 lotH
H1 9% #ourse? 2 memorise* all the texts in high s#hool an* 2 #ontinue* to *o so in
uni7ersity? Ior -== 4assages 2 ha7e memorise*) 2 #an re#all only hal% o% them? &ut i%
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you are able to use all the stru#tures in those C= arti#les) it is alrea*y a great
a#hie7ement? 'here is a 4ro#ess o% s#reening an* *is#ar*ing? You;* better #hoose
those arti#les whi#h #ontain some stru#tures you are not %amiliar with?
R1 /4t !o4 9ill forget #35! of the# 3s ti#e goes $!H
H1 Sure? &ut there is a trail le%t in your min* e7en i% you %orget them? 2t will tae mu#h
less time when you nee* to 4i# them ba#? 2t;s *e%initely not a waste o% time? 'here is
something le%t in your min* . lie sense o% language . e7en i% you %orget the texts you
ha7e memorise*? Ior instan#e) i% now 2 try to memorise those texts 2 memorise* in
uni7ersity -J years ago) it #ertainly taes me mu#h less time than those who *i* not
memorise them at that time? You alrea*y ha7e an im4ression or %eeling at least?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A #e#oris3tio5 is 35 i#ort35t f3ctor i5 l35g43ge le3r5i5gH
H1 Yes) it is?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A those 9ho h3"e good #e#or! c35 le3r5 3 foreig5 l35g43ge 9ellH
H1 3ot ne#essarily? Memorisation is only one 4art o% language learning? A more
im4ortant 4art is the use o% language? Aow #an you learn a language well an*
ex4ress yoursel% without learning to %lexibly use it in authenti# en7ironmentH 'he %inal
goal o% language learning is to ex4ress i*eas? Memorisation is just a 4ro#ess o%
a##umulation? 2t is not ne#essarily true that those stu*ents who ha7e goo* memory
will *e%initely learn a language well? 'hey might 4er%orm well in the exam) but not
ne#essarily in language use? !ommuni#ati7e #om4eten#e in7ol7es many other %a#tors
in#lu*ing 4ersonality? 2% a stu*ent is 7ery shy an* not willing to ex4ress
himsel%Ohersel%) how #an heOshe *e7elo4 goo* #ommuni#ati7e #om4eten#eH So
a%%e#ti7e %a#tor is also im4ortant in language learning?
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R1 I 45derst35d fro# the i5ter"ie9 9e did l3st ti#e th3t !o4r ide3 is th3t 9e #4st
h3"e 3 l3rge 3#o45t of 3cc4#4l3tio5 Qof l35g43ge s3#lesR i5 order to h3"e 3
roficie5t 3#o45t of l35g43ge; C35>t 9e 3chie"e s4ch 3cc4#4l3tio5 thro4gh lo3ds of
e6te5si"e re3di5gH Bh! is it 5ecess3r! to le3r5 $! he3rt #35! te6t43l #3teri3lsH
H1 'his is be#ause you #annot ha7e 7ery 4ro%oun* memory Do% what you;7e rea*E i%
we only *o extensi7e rea*ing? Without *ee4 memory) you are unable to 4ro%i#iently
an* naturally *e7elo4 #ertain %ixe* senten#e 4atterns in your min*? Starting %rom
s#rat#h Din s4eaing an* writingE #an un*ermine the a##ura#y o% your ex4ression an*
be unable to guarantee the ee4ing o% the original %la7our o% that language? 2% you
ha7e some memorise* senten#es at han*) o% #ourse) they ha7e to be #orre#t an* o%
nati7e use) you #an tae them %or your own use? 'his a#tually %orms a in* o%
#on*itioning re%lex? #he correct structures or expressions are out there for their
immediate use if the students memorise thoroughly enough. Its as straightforward
as condition reflex which I think is the highest state of language learning. You
naturally thin o% that senten#e Dwhen you nee* itE an* you *on;t ha7e to start %rom
thining about the stru#ture K the subje#t) 4re*i#ate) obje#t an* so on? 2t;s there in
your min*? 2 %eel it a 7ery e%%i#ient way Do% learning languageE?
R1 So !o4 thi5A it is 5ecess3r! for o4r st4de5ts to le3r5 i5 this 93!H
H1 De%initely? &e#ause we *on;t ha7e the same DlanguageE en7ironment as we learn
our nati7e language? 2% you are in a nati7e language learning en7ironment) you learn
that language naturally through *aily imitation? A#tually what you hear an* what you
s4ea out yoursel% #an lea7e you a *ee4 memory? &ut in a non.nati7e language
learning en7ironment) you *on;t ha7e the #on*ition? You ha7e to rea* through your
month? In fact, the best way to memorise 5a text6 is through reading aloud using
your mouth.
R1 I g4ess eole 4s43ll! re3d 3lo4d 9he5 doi5g this r3cticeH
H1 6ight? 1emorising through silent reading is much less effective than reading
aloud. 2n*ee*) we *on;t ha7e the language en7ironment? You naturally learn how to
use it i% you hear a senten#e more than a %ew times? 2 thin you ha7e su#h ex4erien#e
when you are li7ing in the B$?
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R1 L3st ti#e !o4 #e5tio5ed th3t !o4 #e#orised #35! te6ts 9he5 !o4 9ere 3 st4de5t;
/4t co##itti5g 3 lot of te6ts to !o4r #e#or! o$"io4sl! c355ot g43r35tee 3 fle6i$le
4se of l35g43ge i5 o5:li5e co##45ic3tio58 rightH
H1 De%initely? 2n %a#t) the sam4le language in the textboo we;7e memorise* is rather
sti%%? 'hey only gi7e you 7ery limite* ways o% ex4ression? 6eal.time #ommuni#ation
sel*om allows you to use the original senten#es you;7e memorise* gi7en the
un4re*i#table nature o% this in* o% #on7ersation? 'here is a nee* %or a*a4tation? 'he
4ro#ess o% a*a4tation is a#tually that o% re.learning? We nee* to in#or4orate what is
new to us to what we ha7e alrea*y mastere*? 'here is in*ee* a long *istan#e %rom
memorisation o% texts to the %lexible use o% language to ex4ress onesel%? &ut i% you
ha7e lai* a goo* %oun*ation through the %ormer) the latter will #ertainly #ome qui#er
an* easier? 2 ha7e enough ex4erien#e to attest to it?
R1 Does the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 to so#e e6te5t li#it o5e>s cre3ti"e 4se of
l35g43geH
H1 2t 7ery mu#h *e4en*s on *i%%erent in*i7i*uals? 8ersonal initiati7e matters really
mu#h? 'hose who are moti7ate* to learn an* now how to learn through 4ra#ti#e
shoul* be able to a*a4t an* a#hie7e %lexible use o% language?
R1 So it is 5ot the r3ctice of te6t #e#oris3tio5 to $l3#eH
H1 3o) not at all? 2 shoul* say it;s a 7ery goo* way o% learning a##or*ing to my
ex4erien#e? 2t hel4s you lay a goo* %oun*ation o% language use? 2 ha7e a lot to say in
this as4e#t? 2t enlarges your 7o#abulary an* enables you to #omman* *i%%erent ways
o% ex4ression? 2n this sense) it %a#ilitates our #reati7e use o% language?
R1 Do !o4 thi5A it is 5ecess3r! to 4se te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 collegeH
H1 Yes) o% #ourse? 2t;s absolute ne#essary? 'he texts we use to memorise) you now) are
not limite* to those in the textboos? 3owa*ays internet is 7ery 4o4ular an* you #an
%in* news or all sorts o% arti#les on the web? 2% you #oul* memorise some o% the #lassi#
senten#es in#lu*ing those i*iomati# oral ex4ressions) you will %in* it 7ery #on7enient
when you nee* to use them?
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R1 So !o4 thi5A this r3ctice sho4ld 5ot $e li#ited to high school st4de5ts 35d it c35
$e e"e5 4sed $! 3d"35ced le3r5ersH
H1 De%initely? 2 *o this mysel% e7en now? 2 try to memorise some new ex4ressions 2
en#ounter when rea*ing news online?
R1 Yo4 do this deli$er3tel!H
H1 Yes) 2 memorise them on 4ur4ose? 'his is something 2 *on;t now) so 2 want to ha7e
#omman* o% them?
R1 I re3d th3t so#e 9ester5 schol3rs 3ttri$4ted Chi5ese h3$it of #e#orisi5g te6ts to
o4r 9orshi of $ooAs; The! tho4ght Chi5ese t3Ae $ooAs 3s 34thorit! 35d the
e#$odi#e5t of A5o9ledge so th3t the!8 so #4ch so th3t the! tr! to co##it the te6ts i5
$ooAs i5to #e#or!; Do !o4 3greeH
H1 2 thin there is a 4oint in this un*erstan*ing? We ha7e *i%%erent #ulture %rom
Western one? 6e#itation ha* been greatly em4hasise* in our an#ient litera#y
e*u#ation? We !hinese *o ha7e a ten*en#y to #onsi*er boos as authority? 'his might
be true in the 4ast? &ut the situation is #hanging now? 2 *on;t thin nowa*ays many
4eo4le belie7e what is written in boos is ne#essarily truth? We ha7e numerous boos
a44earing in the maret nowa*ays? Ior those boos whose #ontents are rubbish) #an
you treat them as truthH 2t;s ob7iously im4ossible? 9% #ourse) we might treasure some
stu%% in our tra*itional #ulture su#h as the writings o% !on%u#ius an* Men#ius? Ior
many mo*ern writings) we may tae them as in%ormation rather than truth?
R1 So le3r5i5g $! he3rt te6ts c35 $e se3r3te for# 3$sor$i5g the ide3s i5 the te6tH
H1 De%initely? 2t is at least so in language learning? 2 tae language learning as
learning a sill or learning to use a tool rather a##e4tan#e o% i*eas? Sill learning
in7ol7es #ontinuous re4etition? earning a text by heart doesnt by any means e!uate
accepting the ideas conveyed in the text. #hey are two different issues. #he former
is to understand how the language is used. $f course, I may accept those ideas that
I identify with and !uote them in my writing. &or those I dont, there is no reason
for me to accept them.
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A::e49i. " S/a/e0e4/ 1; Au/512i3a/i14
I8 3s 45dersig5ed8 gr35t #! er#issio5 ?re%erre* as Gthis 4ermission;@ to Ms; 0i3 Y48 3
rese3rch st4de5t 3t Moder5 L35g43ges8 School of H4#35ities8 U5i"ersit! of
So4th3#to5 ?re%erre* as GMs? Yu; or GShe;@8 9ho is 45dert3Ai5g 3 <43lit3ti"e i5<4ir!
i5to Chi5ese le3r5ers=te3chers> ercetio5 of te6t #e#oris3tio5 i5 foreig5 l35g43ge
le3r5i5g=te3chi5g 35d 4se the i5for#3tio5 rel3ted to #! l35g43ge le3r5i5g 35d=or
te3chi5g th3t I h3"e s4rre5dered to her i5 i5ter"ie9s 35d <4estio553ires 35d=or other
#e35s er#itted $! #e ?re%erre* as Gthe relate* in%ormation;@; Ms; Y4 #3! #3Ae
refere5ce8 <4ote8 or s4##3rise the rel3ted i5for#3tio5 i5 her f4t4re thesis8 3c3de#ic
reorts8 35d 3c3de#ic t3lAs ro"ided th3t she sho4ld strictl! #3i5t3i5 the 35o5!#it!
of #! erso53l ide5tit!8 #3Ae efforts to rotect #e fro# h3r#f4l res4lts8 35d
g43r35tee #! i5te5ded #e35i5gs to $e resected i5 3ll her 4$lic3tio5s;
I 3lso 9elco#e 35d e6ect Ms;Y4 to seeA co5s4lt3tio5 9ith #e o"er the
i5terret3tio5s of the rel3ted i5for#3tio5; Other9ise8 her i5terret3tio5s sho4ld 5ot $e
co5sidered to $e e<43l to #! "ie9s;
I5 c3se of 35! 45liAe co5flicts i5 re3di5gs of E5glish te6t 35d Chi5ese te6t of this
er#issio58 the E5glish te6t sh3ll re"3il o"er the Chi5ese o5e ?o#itted@;
Sig4a/u2e:
Da/e:
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-+*%
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-+*,
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-++)
-++*
-+++
-++,
-++-
-++.
-+,&
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-+,)
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-+.)
-+.*
-+.+
-+.,
-+.-
-+..
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-,&%
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Ii l4 Sh4 she;
CooA8 2; ?'..)@; Reetitio5 35d le3r5i5g $! he3rt1 A5 3sect of i5ti#3te disco4rse8
35d its i#lic3tio5s; +L' Journal /F?%@8 '((:')';
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CooA8 2; ?%&&(@; A44lie* Linguisti#s; O6ford1 O6ford U5i"ersit! Press;
Cooer8 /; L; ?%&&)@; The e5ig#3 of the Chi5ese le3r5er; A##ounting +*u#ation)
->?(@8 %-.:('&;
Cor$ett8 L; ?%&&(@; An 2nter#ultural A44roa#h to +nglish Language 'ea#hing; /4ff3lo1
M4ltili5g43l M3tters Ltd;
Cor5eli4s8 E; T; ?'.*(@; Language 'ea#hingL A (ui*e %or 'ea#hers o% Ioreign
Languages; Ne9 YorA1 Cro9ell;
Corso58 D; ?'..,@; Critic3l re3lis#1 A5 e#35ci3tor! hilosoh! for 3lied
li5g4istics; A44lie* Linguisti#s) -F?%@8 '++:'--;
Cort377i8 M;8 N Li58 L;:0; ?'..+@; C4lt4res of le3r5i5g1 l35g43ge cl3ssroo#s i5 Chi53;
I5 H; Cole#35 ?Ed;@8 So#iety an* the Language !lassroom; C3#$ridge1
C3#$ridge U5i"ersit! Press;
Cort377i8 M;8 N Li58 L;:0; ?%&'&@; !reati7ity an* #riti#alityL *e7elo4ing !hinese
a44roa#hes to learning; P3er rese5ted 3t the Tr35s53tio53l Di3log4es i5 HE1
Reso5di5g to the Needs of the Asi35 Le3r5er i5 Higher Ed4c3tio5;
Co"erd3le:Lo5es8 T;8 N R3st3ll8 P; ?Eds;@; ?%&&+@; 'he !hinese Learner ,s4e#ial issue)
Language) !ulture an* !urri#ulum) <ol? -JL-0; Lo5do51 Ro4tledge
Co"erd3le:Lo5es8 T;8 N R3st3ll8 P; ?Eds;@; ?%&&.@; 2nternationalizing the Bni7ersity)
the !hinese #ontext; Ho45d#ills1 P3lgr3"e M3c#ill35;
crie5glish;co#; ?%&&-@; T35g L458 the Most E6e5si"e E#lo!ee i5 Chi53; Retrie"ed
No"e#$er '&8 %&'&8 %&'&8 fro#
htt1==e5glish;cri;c5=))&+=%&&-=&)='+='')'^()+,)%;ht#
Cro#le!8 L; ?%&&&@; Learning to 'hin) Learning to LearnL What the S#ien#e o%
'hining an* Learning has to 9%%er A*ult +*u#ation; B3shi5gto58 DC1
N3tio53l I5stit4te for Liter3c!;
D3hli58 /;8 N B3tAi5s8 D; A; ?%&&&@; The role of reetitio5 i5 the rocesses of
#e#orisi5g 35d 45derst35di5g1 A co#3riso5 of the "ie9s of 2er#35 35d
Chi5ese seco5d3r! school st4de5ts i5 Ho5g Go5g; &ritish Journal o%
+*u#ational 8sy#hology) P=8 +*:-);
De /3r!8 B; T; ?Ed;@; ?'.+&@; Sour#e o% !hinese 'ra*ition ,7ols? 2 V 22?0; Ne9 YorA1
Col4#$i3 U5i"ersit! Press;
DeAert8 2; ?'..(@; Persecti"es o5 l3gi3ris# fro# ESL st4de5t i5 Ho5g Go5g;
Journal o% Se#on* Language Writing) 5?%@8 '(':')-;
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De57i58 N; G; ?'.,&@; 'he 6esear#h A#t; Chic3go1 Aldi5e;
De57i58 N; G; ?'.-.@; 'he 6esear#h A#t ,>r* e*n0; E5gle9ood Cliffs8 NL1 Pre5tice:
H3ll;
De57i58 N; G;8 N Li5col58 Y; S; ?Eds;@; ?'..-@; !olle#ting an* 2nter4reting
"ualitati7e Materials; Li5do51 SA2E P4$lic3tio5s;
De9e!8 L; ?'.&(@; Demo#ra#y in +*u#ation; Chic3go1 The U5i"ersit! of Chic3go
Press;
De9e!8 L; ?'.(-@; +x4erien#e an* e*u#ation; Ne9 YorA1 M3c#ill35;
De9e!8 L; ?'.(.@; E6erie5ce 35d ed4c3tio5; I5 S; /; Merri3# ?Ed;@8 Sele#te*
Writings on 8hiloso4hy an* A*ult +*u#ation; M3l3$3r8 FL1 Grieger P4$lishi5g
Co#35!;
Di5g8 N Ii8 Y; ?%&&'@; The role of le3r5i5g te6t $! he3rt i5 E5glish le3r5i5g; Ioreing
Language !ir#le) C?%@8 *-:+*;
Di5g8 Y;:R; ?'.-,@; Foreig5 l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi531 Pro$le#s 35d ersecti"es;
!ana*ian an* 2nternational +*u#ation) -1?'@8 )-:+';
Di5g8 Y;:R; ?%&&)@; Learning +nglish 'ext by Aeart in a !hinese Bni7ersity; 0iW351
Sh356i Nor#3l U5i"ersit! Press;
Di5g8 Y;:R; ?%&&,@; Te6t #e#ori73tio5 35d i#it3tio51 The r3ctices of s4ccessf4l
Chi5ese le3r5ers of E5glish; System) >C?'@8 %,':%-&;
Di5g8 Y;:R;8 N Ii8 Y; ?%&&'@; The role of le3r5i5g te6t $! he3rt i5 E5glish le3r5i5g;
Ioreign Language !ir#le) C?-*@8 *-:+*;
Dor5!ei8 S; ?%&&(@; "uestionnaires in Se#on* Language 6esear#hL !onstru#tion)
A*ministration an* 8ro#essing; Lo5do51 L39re5ce Erl$34# Associ3tes8 I5c;
Dre"er8 E; ?'..*@; Bsing Semi.stru#ture* 2nter7iews in Small.s#ale 6esear#hL a
tea#her;s gui*e; 2l3sgo91 Scottish Co45cil for Rese3rch i5 Ed4c3tio5;
D4o5g8 T; H; O; ?%&&(@; 'ea#hing an* learning oral 4resentation %or learning o%
+nglish in uni7ersities in <ietnam an* 3ew Zealan*? U54$lished PhD thesis8
Victori3 U5i"ersit! of Belli5gto58 Ne9 Se3l35d;
D4o5g8 T; H; O; ?%&&+@; Me#oris3tio5 35d EFL st4de5tsW str3tegies 3t 45i"ersit! le"el
i5 Viet53#; '+SL.+J) -=?%@;
D7348 Y; F; ?'..&@; +nglish in !hina; Ho5gAo5g1 API Press;
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e6licit 35d i#licit A5o9ledge; +uro4ean Journal o% !ogniti7e 8sy#hology)
C8 %-.:('-;
Ellis8 N; ?%&&'@; Me#or! for l35g43ge; I5 P; Ro$i5so5 ?Ed;@8 !ognition an* Se#on*
Language 2nstru#tion; C3#$ridge1 C3#$ridge U5i"ersit! Press;
Ellis8 N; ?%&&%@; Fre<4e5c! effects i5 l35g43ge rocessi5g1 A re"ie9 9ith i#lic3tio5s
for theories of i#licit 35d e6licit l35g43ge 3c<4isitio5; Stu*ies in Se#on*
Language A#quisition) 5/8 ')(:'--;
Ellis8 N; ?%&&(@; Co5str4ctio5s8 Ch45Ai5g8 35d Co55ectio5is#1 The e#erge5ce of
seco5d l35g43ge str4ct4re; I5 C; Do4ght! N M; Lo5g ?Eds;@8 Aan*boo in
SLA; O6ford1 /l3cA9ell;
Ellis8 N;8 N /e3to58 A; ?'..(@; F3ctors 3ffecti5g the le3r5i5g of foreig5 l35g43ge
"oc3$4l3r!1 Ps!choli5g4istic deter#i535ts; Language Learning) />8 **.:+',;
Ellis8 R; ?'..)@; 'he stu*y o% Se#on* Language A#quisition; O6ford1 O6ford
U5i"ersit! Press;
Ellis8 R; ?%&&&@; Se#on* Language A#quisition; Sh35gh3i1 Sh35gh3i Foreig5
L35g43ge Ed4c3tio5 Press;
+nglish &oo ,-./0; ?'.+'@; /eiDi5g1 PeoleWs Ed4c3tio5 Press;
+nglish &oo ,-.10; ?'.+*@; /eiDi5g1 PeoleWs Ed4c3tio5 Press;
E5glish Cr37e Le3ders; ?%&&%@; Retrie"ed L3543r! ,8 %&'&8 %&'&8 fro#
htt1==999;chi53tod3!;co#;c5=E5glish=e%&&%*=e';ht#
EricAso58 F; ?'.-+@; I43lit3ti"e #ethods i5 rese3rch o5 te3chi5g; I5 M; C; BittrocA
?Ed;@8 Aan*boo o% resear#h on tea#hing ?; ''.:'+'@; Ne9 YorA8 NY1
M3c#ill35;
F358 D;8 N Cohe58 R; S; ?'..+@; !hinese stu*ies in the history an* 4hiloso4hy o%
s#ien#e an* te#hnology; Dordrecht8 /osto51 Gl49er;
Fill#ore8 C; L; ?'.,.@; O5 fl4e5c!; I5 D; Ge#ler N B; S;:Y; B35g ?Eds;@8 2n*i7i*ual
Di%%eren#es in Language Ability an* Language &eha7iour; Ne9 YorA1
Ac3de#ic Press;
Flo9erde98 L; ?%&&%@; Eth5ogr3hic3ll! i5sired 3ro3ches to the st4d! of 3c3de#ic
disco4rse; I5 L; Flo9erde9 ?Ed;@8 A#a*emi# *is#ourse; H3rlo98 E5gl35d1
Lo5g#35;
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Flo9erde98 L;8 Li8 D;8 N Miller8 L; ?'..-@; Attit4des to93rds E5glish 35d C35to5ese
3#o5g Ho5g Go5g Chi5ese 45i"ersit! lect4rers; '+S9L "uarterly) >5?%@8
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Flo9erde98 L;8 N Li8 Y; ?%&&,@; L35g43ge Re:4se 3#o5g Chi5ese Are5tice
Scie5tists Briti5g for P4$lic3tio5; A44lie* Linguisti#s) 5F?(@8 ))&:)+*;
Freire8 P; ?'.,%@; 8e*agogy o% the 944resse*; Ne9 YorA1 Herder 35d Herder;
Freire8 P; ?'.,*@; The Ped3gog! of Li$er3tio5; I5 L; M; Rich ?Ed;@8 2nno7ations in
+*u#ationL 6e%ormers an* their !riti#s; /osto58 M3ss;1 All!5 N /3co5;
Freire8 P; ?'.,+@; +*u#ationL 'he 8ra#ti#e o% Iree*om? Lo5do51 Briters 35d Re3ders
Co:oer3ti"e;
Freire8 P; ?'..(@; The $35Ai5g co5cet of ed4c3tio5; I5 /3rtholo#3e N PetrosA!
?Eds;@8 Ways o% 6ea*ing; Ne9 YorA1 St; M3rti5;
F48 G; ?'.-+@; Zhongguowaiyujiaoyushi D'he Aistory o% !hinaMs Ioreign Language
+*u#ationE; Sh35gh3i1 Sh35gh3i Foreig5 L35g43ge Ed4c3tio5 Press;
23ir5s8 R;8 N Red#35; ?'.-+@; Woring with Wor*sWA (ui*e to 'ea#hing an*
Learning <o#abulary; C3#$ridge1 C3#$ridge U5i"ersit! Press;
23o8 0;:S; ?%&&*@; A t3le of t9o #3i5l35d Chi5ese E5glish le3r5ers; Asian +IL
Journal) P?%@8 ):%(;
23o8 0;:S; ?%&&+@; U5derst35di5g ch35ges i5 Chi5ese st4de5tsW 4ses of le3r5i5g
str3tegies i5 Chi53 35d /rit3i51 A socio:c4lt4r3l re:i5terret3tio5; System)
>/?'@8 **:+,;
23o8 0;:S; ?%&&,3@; Irom the !hinese mainlan* to AongongL un*erstan*ing shi%ts in
mainlan* an* !hinese stu*entsM +nglish learning strategy use? U54$lished
PhD thesis8 U5i"ersit! of Ho5gAo5g8 Ho5gAo5g;
23o8 0;:S; ?%&&,$@; A t3le of /l4e R3i5 C3fY1 A st4d! o5 the o5li5e 53rr3ti"e
co5str4ctio5 3$o4t 3 co##45it! of E5glish le3r5ers o5 the Chi5ese #3i5l35d;
System) >C?%@8 %*.:%,&;
23o8 0;:S; ?%&&-@; WForget Chi5ese : letWs thi5A o5l! i5 E5glishVW Chi5ese Neti7e5s
De$3ti5g the /est B3!s to Le3r5 E5glish i5 Chi53; !hanging +nglish) -C?)@8
)(* : )))
23rd5er8 D; G; ?'..&@; Learning to &e a Sage; /erAele!1 U5i"ersit! of C3lifor5i3
Press;
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2e8 /; ?%&&(@; No"ice EFL te3cher de"elo#e5t; A#a*emi# +x#hange ,S4ring08 '',:
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2i$so58 S; ?%&&-@; Re3di5g 3lo4d1 3 4sef4l le3r5i5g tool; +L' Journal) 15?'@8 %.:(+;
2illh3#8 /; ?%&&&@; De7elo4ing a questionnaire; Lo5do51 Co5ti544#;
2le3so58 L; /; ?'.-%@; Co5"ergi5g e"ide5ce for li5g4istic theor! fro# the st4d! of
3h3si3 35d child l35g43ge; I5 L; G; O$ler N L; Me55 ?Eds;@8 +x#e4tional
Language an* Linguisti#s; Ne9 YorA1 Ac3de#ic Press;
2r3h3#8 A; C; ?'.-.@; Dis4uters o% the 'aoL 8hiloso4hi#al Argument in An#ient
!hina; L3 S3lle1 Oe5 Co4rt;
2ree58 L; C;8 C3r3celli8 V; L;8 N 2r3h3#8 B; F; ?'.-.@; To93rd 3 co5cet43l
fr3#e9orA for #i6ed:#ethod e"3l43tio5 desig5s; +*u#ational +7aluation an*
8oli#y Analysis) 22?(@8 %**:%,);
2ree5holt78 L; ?%&&(@; Socr3tic te3chers 35d Co5f4ci35 le3r5ers1 E63#i5i5g the
$e5efits 35d itf3lls of 3 !e3r 3$ro3d; Language an* 2nter#ultural
!ommuni#ation) >?%@8 '%%:'(&;
2riffi58 P; L; ?'...@; 8er#e4tions o% the !ultural Learning 8ro#ess by +SL Learners?
U54$lished PhD thesis8 U5i"ersit! of Mi55esot3;
2riffiths8 C;8 N P3rr8 L; M; ?%&&'@; L35g43ge:le3r5i5g str3tegies1 theor! 35d
ercetio5; +L' Journal) CC?(@8 %),:%*);
248 I; ?%&&+@; Bho Ad3tsH /e!o5d C4lt4r3l Models of Ethe> Chi5ese Le3r5er;
Language) !ulture an* !urri#ulum) -J?'@8 ,):-.;
248 I;8 N /rooAes8 L; ?%&&-@; /e!o5d the 3cc4s3tio5 of l3gi3ris#; System) >18 ((,:
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248 Y;:I; ?%&&(@; Fi5e $r4sh 35d freeh35d1 the "oc3$4l3r!:le3r5i5g 3rt of t9o
s4ccessf4l Chi5ese EFL le3r5ers; '+S9L "uarterly) >P?'@8 ,(:'&);
24$ri4#8 L; F;8 N Holstei58 L; A; ?%&&%@; Aan*boo o% 2nter7iew 6esear#h; Tho4s35d
O3As8 CA1 S3ge;
H38 P; L; ?%&&)@; U5i"ersit! cl3ssroo#s i5 Viet53#1 co5testi5g the stereot!es; +L'
Journal) CF?'@8 *&:*,;
H3##ersle!8 M;8 N AtAi5so58 P; ?'..*@; +thnogra4hyL 8rin#i4les in 8ra#ti#e ,5n*
e*n0; Lo5do51 Ro4tledge;
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te3chi5g i5 Chi53; !ross !urrents) -J?%@8 ',*:'-';
H3r#358 D; ?'.,'@; Methodolog! for re"ol4tio5; Satur*ay 6e7iew) -J June;
H3r"e!8 P; ?'.-*@; A lesso5 to $e le3r5ed1 Chi5ese 3ro3ches to l35g43ge le3r5i5g;
+L' Journal) >J?(@8 '-(:'-+;
H3!hoe8 R; ?'.-.@; !hinaMs Bni7ersity an* the 94en Door; Ne9 YorA1 M;E;Sh3re;
H3!hoe8 R; ?Ed;@; ?'.-)@; !ontem4orary !hinese +*u#ation; Lo5do51 Croo# Hel#;
H3!hoe8 R; ?Ed;@; ?'..%@; +*u#ation an* Mo*ernisationL 'he !hinese +x4erien#e;
O6ford1 Perg3#o5 Press;
He5dricAso58 R; ?'..,@; 'he Ia#ts on Iile +n#y#lo4ae*ia o% Wor* an* 8hrase
9rigins ,6e7ise* +*ition0; Ne9 YorA1 F3cts o5 File;
Hird8 /; ?'..*@; Ho9 co##45ic3ti"e c35 E5glish l35g43ge te3chi5g $e i5 Chi53;
8ros4e#t) -=?(@8 %':%,;
Hollid3!8 A; ?'..)@; A44ro4riate Metho*ology an* So#ial !ontext; C3#$ridge1
C3#$ridge U5i"ersit! Press;
Hollid3!8 A; ?%&&%@; Doing an* Writing "ualitati7e 6esear#h ,5n* e*n0; Lo5do51
SA2E P4$lic3tio5s;
H48 2;:B; ?%&&'@; +nglish Language 'ea#hing in the 8eo4leMs 6e4ubli# o% !hina
?Co45tr! reort for the Si6:N3tio5 Ed4c3tio5 Rese3rch ProDect o5 Ped3gogic3l
Pr3ctices i5 E5glish L35g43ge Ed4c3tio5@1 N3tio53l I5stit4te of Ed4c3tio58
N35!35g Tech5ologic3l U5i"ersit!;
H48 2;:B; ?%&&%3@; Pote5ti3l c4lt4r3l resist35ce to ed3gogic3l i#orts1 The c3se of
co##45ic3ti"e l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi53; Language) !ulture an*
!urri#ulum) -C?%@8 .(:'&*;
H48 2;:B; ?%&&%$@; Rece5t i#ort35t de"elo#e5ts i5 seco5d3r! E5glish:l35g43ge
te3chi5g i5 the PeoleWs Re4$lic of Chi53; Language) !ulture an*
!urri#ulum) -C?'@8 (&:).;
H48 2;:B; ?%&&*@; Co5te6t43l i5fl4e5ces o5 i5str4ctio53l r3ctices1 A Chi5ese c3se for
35 ecologic3l 3ro3ch to ELT; '+S9L "uarterly) >J?)@8 +(*:++&;
H435g8 I;8 N Ii8 I; ?Eds;@; ?%&&*@; S4eaing %or Su##ess; Sh35gh3i1 Sh35gh3i
Foreig5 L35g43ge Ed4c3tio5 Press;
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H!l35d8 G; ?%&&&@; Dis#i4linary Dis#oursesL So#ial 2ntera#tion in A#a*emi# Writing;
Ne9 YorA1 Lo5g#35;
I"35hoe8 P; L; ?%&&&@; !on%u#ian moral sel% #ulti7ation ,5n* e*ition0; I5di353olis8
I5di3531 H3cAett P4$lishi5g Co#35!;
Li35g8 0;:L; ?%&&-@; !onstru#ting #on#e4ts o% learner autonomy in language
e*u#ation in the !hinese #ontextL a narrati7e.base* inquiry into uni7ersity
stu*entsM #on#e4tions o% su##ess%ul +nglish Language Learning? U54$lished
PhD8 B3r9icA U5i"ersit!;
Li35g8 0;:L;8 N S#ith8 R; ?%&&.@; Chi5ese le3r5ersW str3teg! 4se i5 historic3l
ersecti"e1 A cross:ge5er3tio53l i5ter"ie9:$3sed st4d!; System) >P?%@8 %-+:
%..;
Li58 L;:0;8 N Cort377i8 M; ?%&&%@; E5glish l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi531 A $ridge to the
f4t4re; Asian.8a#i%i# Journal o% +*u#ation) 55?%@8 *(:+);
Li58 L;:0;8 N Cort377i8 M; ?%&&-@; I#3ges of te3chers8 le3r5i5g 35d <4estio5i5g i5
Chi5ese c4lt4res of le3r5i5g; I5 E; /ere5dt ?Ed;@8 Meta4hor %or Learning ?;
',,:%&)@; A#sterd3#1 Loh5 /e5D3#i5s;
Ge#$er8 D; ?'..+@; The i5te5tio5 to $oth #e#orise 35d 45derst35d1 A5other
3ro3ch to le3r5i5gH Aigher +*u#ation) >-8 ()':(*);
Ge55ed!8 P; ?%&&%@; Le3r5i5g c4lt4res 35d le3r5i5g st!les1 M!th:45derst35di5gs 3$o4t
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Gr3she58 S; D; ?'.-,@; 8rin#i4les an* 8ra#ti#e in Se#on* Language A#quisition;
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Li8 I; ?'..)@; !ultural !lashesL A Stu*y o% Misun*erstan*ings an* Irustrations
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Li8 T; ?%&&-@; zui hou *e huang quan D'he Last 2m4erial So7ereignE; Hefei1 A5h4i
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Li8 Y;:H;8 Sh35g8 P;:R;8 N B35g8 H;:0; ?Eds;@; ?%&&'@; !ollege +nglish.2ntegrate*
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M3Aeh3#8 L; ?%&&-@; Lost SoulL T!on%u#ianismX in !ontem4orary !hinese A#a*emi#
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Miller8 2; A; ?'.+(@; I5for#3tio5 35d #e#or!; S#ienti%i# Ameri#an ,August08 )%:)+;
Mi5istr! of Ed4c3tio58 P; R; C; ?'.-)@; Zhongguo jiaoyu #hengjiu -J/J.-JF>
DA#hie7ement o% +*u#ation in !hina Statisti#s -J/J.-JF>E;
Mo4lto58 B; ?'.+(@; Li5g4istics 35d l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 the U5ited St3tes8 '.)&:
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worl*; Ne9 YorA1 St3te U5i"ersit! of Ne9 YorA Press;
Ng8 C;8 N T35g8 E; ?'..,@; Te3chers> 5eeds i5 the rocess of EFL refor# i5 Chi53 K A
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writing an* rea*ing; Ne9 YorA1 C3#$ridge U5i"ersit! Press;
O6ford8 R; ?'..&@; Language Learning StrategiesL What +7ery 'ea#her Shoul* $now;
/osto58 M3ss3ch4setts1 Hei5le;
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P3tto58 M; I; ?'.-.@; "ualitati7e e7aluation metho*s ,-=th 4rinting0; /e"erl! Hills8
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U5i"ersit! of /ritish Col4#$i3;
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l3gi3ris#; '+S9L "uarterly) >=?%@8 %&':%(&;
Philliso58 R; ?'..%@; Linguisti# 2m4erialism; O6ford1 O6ford U5i"ersit! Press;
Pierso58 H; D; ?'..+@; Le3r5er c4lt4re 35d le3r5er 34to5o#! i5 the Ho5g Go5g
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Polit7er8 R; L;8 N Mc2ro3rt!8 M; ?'.-*@; A5 e6lor3tor! st4d! of le3r5i5g $eh3"io4rs
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Rich3rds8 L; C;8 N Rodgers8 T; S; ?'.-+@; A44roa#hes an* Metho*s in Language
'ea#hingL A Des#ri4tion an* Analysis; C3#$ridge1 C3#$ridge U5i"ersit!
Press;
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Ridle!8 C; P;8 2od9i58 P; H; /;8 N Dooli58 D; L; ?'.,'@; 'he maing o% a mo*el #itizen
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Ri"er8 B; ?'.+)@; 'he 8sy#hologist an* the Ioreign Language 'ea#her; Chic3go1
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2nquiry) --?)@8 +%-:+).;
Rose5$l3tt8 P; C; ?%&&'@; I43lit3ti"e rese3rch 3s 3 sirit43l e6erie5ce; I5 G; R;
2il$ert ?Ed;@8 'he emotional nature o% qualitati7e resear#h; /oc3 R3to58
Florid31 CRC Press;
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H3!hoe ?Ed;@8 +*u#ation an* Mo*ernisationL 'he !hinese +x4erien#e;
O6ford1 Perg3#o5 Press;
Ross8 H; ?'..(@; !hina Learns +nglish; Ne9 H3"e51 Y3le U5i"ersit! Press;
R!358 L;8 N Sleth34g8 2; ?Eds;@; ?%&'&@; 2nternational +*u#ation an* the !hinese
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?Ed;@8 2m4ro7ing learningL new 4ers4e#ti7es ?; (%:)-@; Lo5do51 Gog35
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'+SL !ana*ian Journal) -?'@8 '.:(';
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S3"ille:TroiAe8 M; ?%&&+@; 2ntro*u#ing Se#on* Language A#quisition; C3#$ridge1
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Shi8 L;:L; ?%&&+@; The s4ccessors to Co5f4ci35is# or 3 5e9 ge5er3tio5H A
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Sh48 0;:C; ?'.+'@; Aistory o% Mo*ern +*u#ation in !hina ,!hinese +*ition0; /eiDi5g1
PeoleWs Ed4c3tio5 P4$lishi5g Ho4se;
Sil"er#358 D; ?%&&'@; 2nter4reting "ualitati7e DataL Metho*s %or Analysing 'al)
'ext) an* 2ntera#tion ,5n* e*n0; Lo5do51 S3ge;
Si#so58 S; T; ?%&&-@; Bester5 EFL te3chers 35d E3st:Best Cl3ssroo#:c4lt4r3l
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Si5cl3ir8 L; M; ?'..'@; !or4us) !on#or*an#e) !ollo#ation; O6ford1 O6ford U5i"ersit!
Press;
Si"ell8 L; N; ?'.-&@; H3$it43l #e#oris3tio5 $! liter3t4re st4de5ts : 3 hel 3s 9ell 3s 3
hi5dr35ce; +L' Journal) XXX<?'@8 *':*);
SAeh358 P; ?'..-@; A !ogniti7e a44roa#h to Language Learning; O6ford1 O6ford
U5i"ersit! Press;
SAi55er8 /; F; ?'.*,@; <erbal beha7iour; Ne9 YorA1 Aleto5:Ce5t4r!:Crofts;
So9de58 C; ?%&&*@; Pl3gi3ris# 35d the c4lt4re of #4ltili5g43l st4de5ts i5 higher
ed4c3tio5 3$ro3d; +L' Journal) CJ?(@8 %%+:%((
Se5ce8 L; D; ?'..&@; 'he Sear#h %or Mo*ern !hina; Ne9 YorA1 B;B; Norto5;
Sr3dle!8 L; P; ?'.,.@; 'he ethnogra4hi# inter7iew; Ne9 YorA1 Holt8 Ri5eh3rt N
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YorA1 Si#o5 NSch4ster;
Ste"icA8 E; B; ?'.-%@; 'ea#hing an* Learning Languages; C3#$ridge1 C3#$ridge
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Ste"icA8 E; B; ?'.-.@; Su##ess with Ioreign LanguagesL Se7en Who A#hie7e* 2t an*
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Str34ss8 A;8 N Cor$i58 L; ?'..-@; &asi#s o% qualitati7e resear#hL 'e#hniques an*
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S458 R; ?'..+@; Te3chi5g E5glish i5 Chi531 A /rief Histor!; Language 2nternational)
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T3Ae4chi8 O; ?%&&(@; Bh3t c35 9e le3r5 fro# good foreig5 l35g43ge le3r5ers1 A
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T35g8 L;:0; ?'.-(@; '+IL in !hinaL Metho*s an* 'e#hniques; Sh35gh3i1 Sh35gh3i
Foreig5 L35g43ge Press;
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Tho#so58 I; ?'.-,@; Me#or! i5 L35g43ge Le3r5i5g; I5 A; Be5de5 N L; R4$i5
?Eds;@8 Learner Strategies in Language Learning ?; )(:*+@; Ne9 YorA1
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Progressi"e Ed4c3tio5 P4$lishers;
T4dor8 I; ?%&&'@; 'he *ynami#s o% the language #lassroom; C3#$ridge1 C3#$ridge
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"35 Ho4ts8 E; ?'...@; Memory an* (en*er in Me*ie7al +uro4e) J==.-5==;
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I5 B; Hei5ecAe N L; Billis ?Eds;@8 6esear#h Metho*s in +*u#ational
'e#hnology ?; -':..@; 2ree59ich8 CT1 I5for#3tio5 Age P4$lishi5g8 I5c;
B35g8 M; L; ?%&&'@; The c4lt4r3l ch3r3cteristics of Chi5ese st4de5ts1 A st4d! of $3sic
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B3tso58 /; ?'.+,@; &asi# writings o% Mo 'zu) Asun 'zu) an* Aan Iei 'zu; Ne9 YorA1
Col4#$i3 U5i"ersit! Press;
Beir8 C; ?%&'&@; !ontinuity an* 2nno7ation -J->.5=-5L A !entury o% +nglish
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Rese3ch@ Se#i53rs;
Be58 I;:F; ?'..+@; +nglish Learning Strategies; Sh35gh3i1 Sh35gh3i Foreig5
L35g43ge Ed4c3tio5 Press;
Be58 I;:F; ?'..,@; The Chi5ese Le3r5er1 c4lt4r3l8 s!chologic3l 35d co5te6t43l
i5fl4e5ces; !om4arati7e +*u#ation) >>?(@8 ),&:),';
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+x4erien#e; O6ford1 Perg3#o5 Press lc;
Br3!8 A; ?%&&&@; For#4l3ic se<4e5ces i5 seco5d l35g43ge te3chi5g1 Pri5ciles 35d
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Br3!8 A; ?%&&%@; Iormulai# Language an* the Lexi#on; C3#$ridge1 C3#$ridge
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B48 L;:Y; ?'.-(@; IUCHAN2 /UDUAN : A Chi5ese "ie9 of foreig5 3rtici3tio5 i5
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B48 0;:Y; ?'.+'@; A $rief histor! of the school of l35g43ge tr35sl3tio5; I5 0;:C; Sh4
?Ed;@8 Aistory o% Mo*ern +*u#ation in !hina) <olume - ?; '%':'%-@;
/eiDi5g1 PeoleWs Ed4c3tio5 P4$lishi5g Ho4se;
B48 Y;:A; ?%&&'@; E5glish l35g43ge te3chi5g i5 Chi531 Tre5ds 35d ch3lle5ges; '+S9L
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U54$lished MA dissert3tio58 Northe3st Chi53 Nor#3l U5i"ersit!8 Sh35gh3i8
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Sh35g8 S;:2; ?'.-(@; The stre5gths 35d 9e3A5esses of tr3ditio53l l35g43ge te3chi5g;
Language Learning an* !ommuni#ation) 58 ':.;
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