GRAMMAR APPENDIX UNIT 1

Affirmative

Pe o p l e
PRESENT SIMPLE
FORM Negative Interrogative Do I / you work? Does he / she / it work? Do we / you / they work?

I / You work He / She / It works We / You / They work

Uses

I / You do not (dont) work He / She / It does not (doesnt) work We / You / They do not (dont) work
Examples

Adverbs of frequency / Time expressions

A regular habit or routine A general truth or scientific fact Stative verbs

My sister works on Sundays. London is a multicultural city. I think she is attractive.

always, usually, generally, regularly, occasionally, frequently, often, sometimes, rarely, seldom, never at 1 oclock, at night, in the morning, on Fridays, every week, once a month, how often ...?

Form
Affirmative: This is the same as the base form of the verb (the infinitive without to) for all persons, except for the third person singular, which adds s or es.

Uses
With habitual actions or routines. With general or scientific truths. With stative verbs (see the following page). With schedules and timetables. The train leaves at 4 oclock. (El tren sale a las 4.) Adverbs of frequency precede the verb, except in the case of to be, when they go after the verb. Ian never wears trainers. (Ian nunca lleva deportivas.) Paul is always nice. (Paul siempre es simptico.) Time expressions are placed at the end or at the beginning of a sentence. James runs every day. (James plancha todos los das.)
How often ...? is used to ask how frequently an action takes

To form the third person singular correctly, the following spelling rules must be observed: Ending in o, ss, sh, ch or x, we add es: do - does, miss - misses, wish - wishes, touch - touches, fix - fixes. Ending in vowel + y, we add s: say - says. Ending in consonant + y, change the y to i before adding es: try - tries.
Negative: We use do not (dont) or does not (doesnt) for the third person singular, preceding the base form of the verb. Interrogative: We use do or does before the subject and the verb. If the verb is to do, it will function as the auxiliary verb

and main verb at the same time. Remember that have got, to be and modal verbs do not need do / does either in the negative or in the interrogative.

place. How often do you read? (Con qu frecuencia lees?)

PRESENT CONTINUOUS
FORM Affirmative I am singing You are singing He / She / It is singing We / You / They are singing Uses Negative I am (Im) not singing You are not (arent) singing He / She / It is not (isnt) singing We / You / They are not (arent) singing Examples Interrogative Am I singing? Are you singing? Is he / she / it singing? Are we / you / they singing? Time expressions

An action which is happening now A temporary action A definite plan for the near future
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Alex is singing right now. They are learning French this year. Bob is meeting Martin tonight.

now, right now, at the moment this year, at present this evening, tonight, tomorrow, next Friday / week / year

Form
Affirmative: We use to be in the present tense + the main verb ending in ing, observing the following spelling rules:

perception and senses (feel, hear, see, smell, sound, taste, touch), prices and measures (cost, measure, weigh) and possession (belong, have, own). Some indicate both an action and a state and can be used in both the Present Simple and the Present Continuous. Donna thinks the book is wonderful. (Donna cree que el libro es estupendo.) [state] He is thinking about going to Malta in the summer. (Est pensando en irse a Malta en verano.) [activity] The verb see in Present Continuous indicates a future action planned beforehand. Brian and I are seeing Ann tonight. (Brian y yo veremos a Ann esta noche.) [We have already planned the meeting.]

Ending in silent e, loses the e: ride - riding. Ending in y, keeps the y: pay - paying. Ending in ie, changes the ie to y: die - dying. 1 syllable, ending in vowel + consonant, it doubles the consonant (except for w and x): run - running, but show - showing. 2 syllables, the first syllable being stressed, ending in l or p, it doubles that letter: travel - travelling. 2 syllables, the second syllable being stressed, ending in vowel + consonant, it doubles the consonant: refer - referring.
Negative: It is formed with the verb to be + not (or nt) + the main verb ending in ing. Interrogative: to be + the subject + the verb ending in ing.

Prefixes
The prefixes dis, il, im, in and un are added to some adjectives to express the opposite meaning. satisfied (satisfecho) dissatisfied (insatisfecho) legal (legal) illegal (ilegal) patient (paciente) impatient (impaciente) correct (correcto) incorrect (incorrecto) pleasant (agradable) unpleasant (desagradable) Remember that il precedes adjectives starting with l (illogical) and im precedes those starting with m or p (immortal, impossible). Take into account that sometimes they are not prefixes but part of a word: disaster, illusion, impressive, understand, etc. Other prefixes that are added to different kinds of words are anti, inter, multi, over, re and under. social (social, sociable) antisocial (antisocial) national (nacional) international (internacional) lateral (lateral) multilateral (multilateral) active (activo) overactive (hiperactivo) write (escribir) rewrite (reescribir) ground (suelo) underground (subterrneo)

Uses
To express actions that are happening at the exact moment of speaking. To express prolonged actions that are happening in a present period of time. To express what we will certainly do in the near future because we have planned it beforehand. With the adverb always, to express a complaint. He is always complaining. (Siempre se est quejando.)

Stative verbs
As they express situations or states, not actions, they are generally used in Present Simple. They are used to express: emotions and feelings (dislike, enjoy, hate, hope, like, love, prefer, want), thoughts and opinions (believe, forget, guess, know,

UNIT 2
Affirmative

Tr a v e l
PAST SIMPLE
FORM Negative Interrogative Did I / you finish? Did he / she / it finish? Did we / you / they finish? Time expressions

I / You finished He / She / It finished We / You / They finished

Uses

I / You did not (didnt) finish He / She / It did not (didnt) finish We / You / They did not (didnt) finish
Examples

A completed action in the past A series of completed actions in the past

I went to Paris last year. When I opened the door, the dog barked at him.

yesterday, last week / year, two days ago, in 2007, in the 1980s, in the 18th century, when, then
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Grammar Appendix

Form
Affirmative: We add ed to the base form of the verb.

Negative: We use did not (didnt) + the base form of the verb. Interrogative: We use did + the subject + the main verb.

Remember that you have to observe the following spelling rules when adding ed: Ending in silent e, we only add d: prove - proved. Ending in vowel + y, we add ed: stay - stayed. Ending in consonant + y, we change the y to i: carry - carried. 1 syllable ending in vowel + consonant, we double the consonant (except for w and x): stop - stopped, but fix - fixed. 2 syllables, the first syllable being stressed, ending in l or p, we double the consonant: cancel - cancelled. 2 syllables, the second syllable being stressed, ending in vowel + consonant, we double the consonant: prefer - preferred. Irregular verbs do not follow any rule (see pages 148-149).

Uses
To express complete actions that took place at a specific moment in the past. To express consecutive actions in the past. To indicate that a short action (introduced by when) took place while a longer action was in progress. Phil was returning home when his car broke down. (Phil volva a casa cuando se le estrope el coche.) To describe how things were in the past. In the 19th century, women didnt wear bikinis. (En el siglo XIX, las mujeres no llevaban bikinis.) The time expression ago comes after the indicated period of time and it means hace. They left two hours ago. (Se fueron hace dos horas.)

PAST CONTINUOUS
FORM Affirmative I was writing You were writing He / She / It was writing We / You / They were writing Uses An incomplete action in progress at a specific time in the past An incomplete action interrupted by another action Two incomplete actions in progress at the same time in the past Negative I was not (wasnt) writing You were not (werent) writing He / She / It was not (wasnt) writing We / You / They were not (werent) writing Examples Interrogative Was I writing? Were you writing? Was he / she / it writing? Were we / you / they writing? Time expressions

At 9 oclock last night, Eric was visiting his parents. They were skiing when their parents arrived at the resort. The plane was taking off as I was driving to the airport. last night / week / year, at 4 oclock, when, while, as

Form
Affirmative: We use to be in the past tense + the main verb ending in ing. Negative: We add not (or nt) to was / were + the main verb ending in ing. Interrogative: We use to be + the subject + the verb ending in ing.

Uses
To express what was happening at a specific past moment. To express a longer action in progress, interrupted by a short action. The long one is preceded by while/as and the short one by when. To express several incomplete actions that took place simultaneously in the past. They are linked by while or as.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

FORM Affirmative Negative Interrogative Had I / you arrived? Had he / she / it arrived? Had we / you / they arrived? Time expressions

I / You had arrived He / She / It had arrived We / You / They had arrived
Uses

I / You had not (hadnt) arrived He / She / It had not (hadnt) arrived We / You / They had not (hadnt) arrived
Examples

A completed action which took place before another action in the past
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By the time he arrived, the train had already left.

already, by the time, after, before, until, never, just

Grammar Appendix

Form
Affirmative: It is formed with to have in the past tense + the participle of the main verb. Negative: We use had not (hadnt) + the participle of the

careful (cuidadoso/a) neat (ordenado/a) quick (rpido/a) slow (lento/a)

carefully (con cuidado) neatly (ordenadamente) quickly (deprisa, rpidamente) slowly (despacio)

main verb.
Interrogative: We use had + the subject + the participle of the

main verb.

But some of them, like the following, are irregular: fast (rpido/a) fast (deprisa, rpidamente) good (bueno/a) well (bien) hard (duro/a, difcil) hard (duramente, mucho) Adverbs of manner are placed before or after the verb. Well done, Patrick! Its a great exam result. (Bien hecho, Patrick! Es una nota de examen fantstica.) My father drove fast because he was late for work. (Mi padre condujo deprisa porque llegaba tarde a trabajar.)
Adverbs related to the whole sentence

Uses
It expresses an action that took place before another action in Past Simple.

Phrasal verbs
They are followed by one or two particles, forming a new word meaning something different from each of the individual words. They can be transitive or intransitive. How did you get to the party? (Cmo llegaste a la fiesta?) I set off at 8 oclock. (Salgo a las 8.) Most transitive verbs are separable, that is, the direct complement can be included between the verb and the particle: a noun can go in between or after the phrasal verb, but a pronoun must go in between. Im going to pick up my brother at the station. (Voy a recoger a mi hermano a la estacin.) Im going to pick my brother up at the station. Im going to pick him up at the station. However, some transitive verbs, all the intransitive phrasal verbs and those made up of two particles are inseparable. Abel is looking for his keys / them. (Abel est buscando sus llaves / buscndolas.) Some verbs can be combined with different particles to form different phrasal verbs. get across (comunicar, hacer entender; cruzar, atravesar) get by (defenderse (idioma); arreglrselas) get through (comunicar(se)) In addition, many phrasal verbs have more than one meaning: get into (entrar / meterse en; interesarse por) turn down (bajar (el volumen); rechazar) turn up (subir (el volumen); aparecer, presentar(se)) switch off (apagar; desconectar, perder la atencin) Look at the list of phrasal verbs on pages 146-147 for more examples.

These kind of adverbs are related to the whole sentence and usually express the speakers opinion or attitude.
Luckily, they believed me when I told the truth.

(Afortunadamente, me creyeron cuando cont la verdad.) They are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence, but they can also be placed in the middle of it. He has probably left the city by now. (Probablemente ya se ha ido de la ciudad.)
Adverbs of degree

They are related to some adjectives or to other adverbs to provide an idea of their intensity or degree. a bit (un poco) rather (bastante) fairly (bastante) really (realmente) not at all (nada) slightly (ligeramente) pretty (bastante) totally (totalmente) quite (muy, bastante) very (muy) They precede the adjective or adverb they are related to. Meeting the Queen was quite exciting. (Conocer a la reina fue bastante emocionante.)

used to / would
They are used to express actions that took place frequently in the past but do not take place any more. They are usually related to adverbs or time expressions. Every night, Bob used to dream about becoming an actor. (Cada noche, Bob sola soar / soaba con llegar a ser actor.) When I was a child, we would often go to the country. (Cuando yo era un nio, solamos ir al campo a menudo.)
Used to is also used to speak about past situations and states. In this case, we translate the main verb in the past tense. Would

Adverbs
Adverbs of manner

cannot be used in this case. I used to live in this street. (Yo viva en esta calle.) * I would live in this street. [No es correcto.]
Used to cannot be used in the present tense. In the negative and interrogative forms, it requires the auxiliary verb did and it loses the d in both cases. Did your mother use to travel a lot when she was young? (Tu madre sola viajar mucho cuando era joven?) 121 121

They modify verbs and give information about the way in which an action takes place. They are used to answer questions starting with how ...?. Most of them are regular and are formed by adding the ending ly to the corresponding adjective:

Grammar Appendix

UNIT 3
Affirmative

Sport
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
FORM Negative Interrogative Have I / you lived? Has he / she / it lived? Have we / you / they lived? Time expressions

I / You have lived He / She / It has lived We / You / They have lived
Uses

I / You have not (havent) lived He / She / It has not (hasnt) lived We / You / They have not (havent) lived
Examples

An action that began in the past and continues until the present An action that took place at an undetermined time in the past, but is connected to the present

I have lived in York for two years. Pam has moved house recently.

never, ever, already, just, yet, recently, lately, how long ...?, for, since, in recent years

Form
Affirmative: We use have / has + the participle of the main

How long have they lived here?

(Cunto tiempo hace que viven aqu?)

For indicates how long the action lasted and since, when it

verb.
Negative: We use have / has + not (or nt) + the participle. Interrogative: We use have / has + the subject + the participle.

started. I have played volleyball for two years / since I was a child. (He jugado al voleibol durante dos aos / desde que era un nio.)

Uses
With actions that began in the past and still continue in the present. That is why the verb is sometimes translated in the present tense. With past actions whose consequences are still visible now. An action that has just taken place. In this case, we add just between the auxiliary verb and the participle. Your team has just scored a goal. (Tu equipo acaba de marcar un gol.)
Never, ever, already and just are placed between the auxiliary verb (have) and the participle of the verb, while yet is

Past Simple / Present Perfect Simple

The Past Simple expresses something that happened at a certain moment, while the Present Perfect Simple places an action in a period of time. I paid for the tickets, but I havent collected them yet. (Pagu las entradas, pero no las he recogido todava.)

Gerund and infinitive

Gerund

always placed at the end of the sentence. The match has already started. (El partido ya ha empezado.) Have you seen the new car yet? (Has visto ya el coche nuevo?)
Never and already are used in affirmative sentences, ever and yet in negative and interrogative sentences, and just can be used

This is the verb form ending in ing, which functions as a noun in the following cases: As a direct complement of some verbs: consider, continue, deny, detest, dislike, enjoy, finish, hate, like, love, miss, prefer, recommend, suggest, etc. I enjoy doing sport. (Me divierto haciendo deporte.) After prepositions. Lucy doesnt like his style of playing. (A Lucy no le gusta su modo de jugar.) After some verb forms: be used to / get used to, cant help, cant stand, dont mind / wouldnt mind, feel like, its no use, look foward to, etc. I like playing rugby. (Me gusta jugar al rugby.) As the subject of the sentence, when speaking about general facts.
Taking up a new sport is not easy.

in all of them. Ive never played basketball. (Nunca he jugado al baloncesto.) She hasnt tried snowboarding yet. (Ella no ha intentado hacer snowboard todava.) Have you ever met a football player? (Alguna vez has conocido a un jugador de ftbol?) With how long ...? we ask how much time has passed since the action, which still continues, started.
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(Empezar a hacer un nuevo deporte no es fcil.)

Grammar Appendix Infinitive

This is the base form of the verb preceded by to and it is used as follows: After verbs like: agree, appear, choose, decide, expect, hope, learn, plan, promise, refuse, seem, want, wish, etc. He decided to try parkour. (Decidi probar el parkour.) After some adjectives and adverbs. He woke up early to go fishing. (Se despert pronto para ir a pescar.) After the indirect complement of verbs like: advise, help, invite, persuade, teach, tell, warn, etc. He invited me to join them. (Me invit a unirme a ellos.) Some verbs of perception (hear, feel, see ...), make and let are followed by verbs in the base form (without to). I let Sally come with us. (Dej a Sally venir con nosotros.)
Verbs followed by gerund and infinitive

By contrast, other verbs do not mean the same if they are followed by a gerund or an infinitive. Here are some examples: forget + gerund is used in negative sentences to indicate that it is impossible to forget something that happened in the past. Ill never forget meeting Angelina Jolie. (Nunca olvidar haber conocido a Angelina Jolie.)
forget + infinitive means to forget to do something. He always forgets to bring the keys.

(l siempre se olvida de traer las llaves.) remember + gerund refers to something that happened in the past. I remember giving them their tickets. (Recuerdo haberles dado sus entradas.)
remember + infinitive means to remember to do

Verbs like begin, forbid, intend, propose and start can be followed by either of the two forms without changing their meaning: They started to answer / answering the letters. (Empezaron a contestar las cartas.)

something. Remember to close the door before you go. (Recuerda cerrar la puerta antes de irte.) stop + gerund means to give up a habit. Bob stopped smoking last year. (Bob dej de fumar el ao pasado.)
stop + infinitive means to stop doing something in order to do something different. Can we stop to have coffee? (Podemos parar para tomar caf?)

UNIT 4

The Environment
FUTURE SIMPLE
FORM

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative Will I / you allow? Will he / she / it allow? Will we / you / they allow? Time expressions

I / You will allow He / She / It will allow We / You / They will allow
Uses

I / You will not (wont) allow He / She / It will not (wont) allow We / You / They will not (wont) allow
Examples

A prediction A timetable A spontaneous decision

The government will allow this type of experiment. The TV programme will start at 5 oclock. Ive got a lot of newspapers. I will recycle them.

this evening, in an hour, at 2 oclock, later, tomorrow, next month / year, soon, in a few weeks, in the future, on 1st May

Form
Affirmative: We put will before the base form of the verb. In spoken English, it is more common to use the contracted form, which is pronounced as a single l. Negative: We put will not + the base form of the verb. The contracted form (wont) is more common in spoken English. Interrogative: We use will + the subject + the base form of the

Uses
To make predictions or announce future actions. To speak about a timetable. To express a spontaneous decision, something we decide to do while we are speaking.

verb.

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Grammar Appendix

BE GOING TO
FORM Affirmative I am going to buy You are going to buy He / She / It is going to buy We / You / They are going to buy Uses Negative I am not going to buy You are not (arent) going to buy He / She / It is not (isnt) going to buy We / You / They are not (arent) going to buy Examples Interrogative Am I going to buy? Are you going to buy? Is he / she / it going to buy? Are we / you / they going to buy? Time expressions

A planned action for the future An action that is about to happen

Mike is going to buy a hybrid car next year. Be careful! The dog is going to bite you!

this evening, later, in an hour, at 4 oclock, tomorrow, soon, next month / year, in a few weeks, on 8th May

Form
Affirmative: We use the present tense of the verb to be + going to + the base form of the main verb; it means ir a + infinitive. Negative: We use to be + not (or nt) + going to + the base

Present Continuous with future meaning

This announces actions planned beforehand that will take place in the near future. It is normally used for personal plans. It does not express an intention, like be going to, but something that has been planned and that is certainly going to take place. It is different from the normal Present Continuous because we use future time expressions instead of present ones. He is going to sign a contract next month. (l va a firmar un contrato el mes que viene.) [intencin] He is signing a contract tomorrow. (l firma / firmar un contrato maana.) [plan concertado]

form of the main verb. Interrogative: We use to be + the subject + going to + the base form of the main verb.

Uses
To express future intentions, decisions or planned actions. To say that something is about to happen because there is evidence for it.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS
FORM Affirmative Negative Interrogative Will I / you be travelling? Will he / she / it be travelling? Will we / you / they be travelling? Time expressions

I / You will be travelling He / She / It will be travelling We / You / They will be travelling
Uses

I / You will not (wont) be travelling He / She / It will not (wont) be travelling We / You / They will not (wont) be travelling
Examples

An action in progress at a certain future time

At this time tomorrow, Jack and Brian will be arriving in Brighton.

at this time tomorrow / next ..., on Thursday, in the next decade

Form
Afirmative: We use will be + the ing form of the main verb. Negative: We use will not (wont) be + the verb ending in ing. Interrogative: We use will + the subject + be + the verb ending in ing.

Uses
To express an action in progress at a certain future time.

To express what will be happening at a certain moment

in the future.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE

FORM Affirmative Negative Interrogative Will I / you have eaten? Will he / she / it have eaten? Will we / you / they have eaten? Time expressions

I / You will have eaten He / She / It will have eaten We / You / They will have eaten
Uses

I / You will not (wont) have eaten He / She / It will not (wont) have eaten We / You / They will not (wont) have eaten
Examples

A completed action at a certain future time

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I will have eaten by 3 oclock.

by this time next week, by 3 oclock, by the end of ..., by then, by August, in four months

Grammar Appendix

Form
Affirmative: We use will have + the participle of the main verb. Negative: We use will not (wont) + the participle. Interrogative: We use will + the subject + have +

In Spanish, it is usually followed by an infinitive. In this case, the subject of want and the subject of the infinitive is the same. Want + object + infinitive: This expresses the wish for somebody else to do something. Environmental groups want people to recycle paper. (Las organizaciones ecologistas quieren que la gente recicle papel.) The equivalent in Spanish is a subordinate clause made up of a subject and a verb in the subjunctive, but in English, this subject would be the direct complement of want; therefore, if this complement is a pronoun, remember to use object pronouns instead of personal pronouns. Do you want me to phone for help? (Quieres que llame para pedir ayuda?)

the participle.

Uses
To indicate a complete action at a certain time in the future.

want + infinitive / want + object + infinitive

Want + infinitive: This expresses a wish to do something. Joe wants to forget the ecological disaster. (Joe quiere olvidar el desastre ecolgico.)

UNIT 5
Uses who and that refer to people which and that refer to objects

Communication
RELATIVE CLAUSES
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Examples

when and that refer to a moment in time where refers to a particular place whose refers to possession

Nerriere was the first person who / that studied this phenomenon. This is the new mobile phone which / that Ive just bought. He gave me an iPod the day when / that I celebrated my birthday. The airport was the place where he first heard Globish. This is the man whose laptop I bought.
Examples

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Uses who, which, when, where, whose can all be used, but that cannot be used

My brother, who is an engineer, designs robots. This MP3 player, which is rather old, has got poor sound quality.
Ill never forget the day (when / that) I met her. (Nunca olvidar el da en que la conoc.) I visited the area where all the trendy shops are. (Visit la zona donde estn todas las tiendas de moda.) If a preposition is related to the relative pronoun or adverb, this is omitted and the preposition is located after the verb. The boy (who / that) I talked to was nervous. (El chico con el que habl estaba nervioso.)
Non-defining relative clauses

These are subordinate clauses introduced by a relative pronoun or adverb. They can be of two kinds: defining and non-defining.
Defining relative clauses

These provide essential information about the antecedent, so the sentence would be incomplete without them. The pronouns who (people), which (things) and that (people and things) can be omitted if they do not function as the subject. Whose (possession) cannot be omitted or replaced. She is the girl (who / that) I met in England. (Ella es la chica a la que conoc en Inglaterra.) I did not get the e-mail (which / that) you sent. (No recib el correo electrnico que mandaste.) This is the blog whose author is unknown. (Este es el blog cuyo autor es desconocido.) When (time) and where (place) are relative adverbs. When can be omitted or replaced by that. Where cannot be replaced by that and it can only be omitted in a few cases.

These add information about the antecedent and they go between commas. They are introduced by who, which, when, where and whose (never by that), which cannot be omitted. They are not common in spoken English because they are very formal. Jack, who is English, works for a French firm. (Jack, que es ingls, trabaja para una empresa francesa.)

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Grammar Appendix

Verbs + preposition
There are many verbs in English that are always followed by a set preposition. Im waiting for the bus. (Estoy esperando al autobs.) Some of them can be followed by different prepositions and their meaning varies. arrive at (llegar a un lugar) arrive in (llegar a una ciudad o un pas) talk about (hablar de / sobre algo) talk with / to (hablar con una persona) think about (opinar (sobre), parecer; pensar en) think of (pensar en)

Here are some examples: She has already arrived at the office. (Ella ya ha llegado a la oficina.) He arrived in Cartagena on Sunday morning. (Lleg a Cartagena el domingo por la maana.) We talked about our teachers. (Hablamos de nuestros profesores.) The reporters want to talk to Bruce Willis. (Los periodistas quieren hablar con Bruce Willis. Look at the verb + preposition list on page 147 for more examples.

UNIT 6
Modals be able to can Uses

Culture and Customs

MODAL VERBS
Examples

Ability Ability Request Possibility Lack of ability Certainty that something is impossible Past ability Polite request Polite suggestion Possibility Lack of obligation Necessity, obligation Possibility Polite request Possibility Necessity, obligation Certainty that something is true Prohibition Necessity, obligation Lack of obligation / necessity Advice, opinion Advice, opinion Formal request Offer

Her brother is able to speak many different languages. My sister can cook Moroccan food. Can I phone you this evening? Parkour can be dangerous. Alice cant speak Japanese. It isnt very late. The pub cant be closed. Aitor could run marathons when he was younger. Could you help me with the suitcases? Your cousin could take a taxi to the station. It could be useful to learn about other cultures. We dont have to get up early on Sunday. You have to arrive on time. Its rude to be late. It may snow tomorrow. May I join this team? It might be easier if Daniel helped you. Spanish students must learn English at school. Debbie has got a great job. She must be very happy. You mustnt exceed the speed limit. You need to study harder. You neednt bring anything - theres lots of food. My friend ought to improve her manners. You should try Indian food. Its great!
Would you open the window, please? Would you like something to drink?

cant

could

dont have to have to may might must mustnt need to neednt ought to should would

Modal verbs
They are invariable for all persons. They dont need do to form the negative or interrogative.
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They are always followed by another verb in the base form. They do not have infinitive, participle, future or ing forms, or perfect tenses.

Grammar Appendix Be able to and have to dont share all these features, but they

do share some uses of the modal verbs (ability, obligation, etc.)

can / be able to / cant Can, besides expressing ability or capacity, is used to make a

Must can only be used in the present tense. For the rest of the tenses, we use have to. need to / neednt Need to is not a modal verb because it does not need do

request or suggestion and to express possibility. To express all these uses in negative we use cant, which also means deduction or certainty that something is impossible.
Can can only be used in the present tense. For the rest of the tenses, we use be able to. could

in interrogative and negative and it can be used in any tense because it conjugates.
Neednt, however, is a modal verb and it indicates lack of obligation and necessity, like dont have to. mustnt / dont have to Mustnt indicates prohibition. However, dont have to means

This expresses ability in the past. We also use it to make requests or suggestions, in a more formal way than with can, and it also expresses a more remote possibility than can.
may / might

no tener que / por qu , that is, lack of obligation and necessity (like neednt).
should / ought to

They express possibility (more remote when we use might). May is also used to make more formal requests than with can.
must / have to

Both express advice or opinion. Ought to is rare in negative and interrogative. Should is more common.
would

We use it to make an offer or extend an invitation.

Both express obligation or necessity, but the obligation is stronger with must (like the law or an authority). They also express a logical conclusion (deber de, tener que).

MODAL PERFECTS
Modal Perfects could have couldnt have may / might have must have should / ought to have shouldnt have would have Uses Examples

Ability to have done something but in fact did not Certainty that something didnt happen A guess about a past action Certainty or logical conclusion about an event in the past Criticism or regret after an event

It was a stupid thing to do. You could have hurt yourself. Eric couldnt have broken the vase. He wasnt at home. Elisa may / might have taken the wrong bus. I hear youve been to Scotland. That must have been interesting. You should / ought to have warned me earlier.

Criticism or regret after an event I shouldnt have eaten so much. Willingness to have done something but in fact did not I would have gone to the party, but I was too busy.
should / ought to have + participle

could have + participle

This indicates that something could have been done in the past but finally wasnt done.
couldnt have + participle

Both are used to regret what happened or did not happen.

shouldnt have + participle

This expresses certainty that something could have been done in the past but finally wasnt done.
may / might have + participle

This expresses a critical opinion about a past action, indicating that it should not have happened.
would have + participle

This is used to make a guess about a past action.

must have + participle

This expresses willingness to have done something but in fact it wasnt done.

This expresses a logical conclusion about a past action.

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Grammar Appendix

Suffixes to form adjectives

Suffixes are endings that we add to some words in order to form new words. These are some of the suffixes that are added to nouns and verbs to form adjectives. predict (predecir) predictable (predecible) nation (nacin) national (nacional) consider (considerar) considerate (considerado) beauty (belleza) beautiful (bonito) pain (dolor) painless (indoloro) contempt (desprecio) contemptible (despreciable) attract (atraer) attractive (atractivo) danger (peligro) dangerous (peligroso) With some nouns, we can use different suffixes: careful -careless harmful - harmless However, with other nouns, we can only use one suffix: homeless - *homeful *peaceless - peaceful Other suffixes that are added to verbs in order to form adjectives are ed and ing. bore (aburrir) bored ([estar] aburrido) boring ([ser] aburrido)

When the adjective ends in ed, it describes how the person or thing it refers to feels, while adjectives ending in ing describe what makes one feel that way. Jack is boring so Im bored when I go out with him. (Jack es aburrido as que me aburro cuando salgo con l.)

be used to / get used to

Be used to means estar acostumbrado a, while get used to means acostumbrarse a. Both structures are followed by a noun or a gerund.

They are very different from the verb form used to (Unit 2), because here, used is not a verb but an adjective. The verbs related to used are be and get and they conjugate. Famous actors are used to the paparazzi. (Los actores famosos estn acostumbrados a los paparazzi.) She is used to going to the gym every afternoon. (Est acostumbrada a ir al gimnasio todas las tardes.) He is getting used to his new routine. (Se est acostumbrando a su nueva rutina.) I cannot get used to living in such a noisy street. (No me acostumbro a vivir en una calle tan ruidosa.)

UNIT 7
Conditional clause

Technology
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
FIRST CONDITIONAL Result clause Examples

if unless

Future Simple + Present Simple imperative modal + base form

You will download the attached file if you click twice.

Send Tina a text message if you want to contact her. If the mouse is broken, Mary can use the keyboard. SECOND CONDITIONAL

if + Past Simple unless

would + base form could / might

If they had enough money, they would buy this laptop.

I could / might open a restaurant if I won the lottery.

THIRD CONDITIONAL

would have if + Past Perfect could / might have These are sentences formed by a subordinate clause that expresses the condition (conditional clause) and a main clause that expresses the result (result clause). There are three kinds of conditional clauses in English.
First conditional

If I had read her e-mail, I would have gone on the date.

+ past participle He could / might have met her if he had gone to the party. The order in which the clauses are placed in the sentence does not matter, but if the condition clause comes first, both clauses are connected by a comma. If you give me a hand, I will be really grateful. (Si me echas una mano, estar muy agradecido.) Besides the Future Simple, we can use modal verbs or an imperative in the result clause. You cant go out if you dont finish your homework. (No puedes salir si no terminas tus deberes.)

We use if + Present Simple in the condition clause and Future Simple in the result clause. It expresses what will happen if the condition becomes true.
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Grammar Appendix If you search for information on the Internet, use Google.

(Si buscas informacin en Internet, utiliza Google.) To say that something wont happen if the condition clause does not become true, the clause is introduced by the conjunction unless, an equivalent of if not (a no ser que, a menos que), or we put the Present Simple verb in the negative.
Unless you make a daily backup copy, you will lose

Instead of would we can use the modal verbs could or might in the result clause, but they both mean that the condition is less likely to become true. They mean podra or tal vez / quizs. If she drove a virtual car, it could encourage her to buy a real one. (Si condujera un coche virtual, eso podra animarla a comprarse uno de verdad.)
Third conditional

all the information. If you dont make a daily backup copy, you will lose all the information. (A no ser que hagas / Si no haces una copia de seguridad diaria, perders toda la informacin.) Take into account that unless is very common in the first conditional but rare in the second conditional and never used in the third conditional.
Second conditional

This is formed with if + Past Perfect in the conditional clause and would have + participle in the result clause. In this case, it does not express a condition, because the action is in the past and cannot become true any more Sarah would have learnt French if she had gone to the lessons. (Sarah habra aprendido francs si hubiera ido a las clases.) Instead of would have + participle, we can use could have or might have + the participle in the result clause. If Jack had come, we could / might have eaten earlier. (Si Jack hubiese venido, podramos haber comido antes)

We use if + Past Simple in the condition clause and would + the base form of a verb in the result clause. It expresses conditions that are hypothetical, that is, they are not very likely to become true; therefore, we translate the verb in pretrito imperfecto de subjuntivo. He wouldnt buy a new computer unless he had the money. (l no comprara un ordenador nuevo a menos que tuviese el dinero.) If the verb in the conditional clause is to be, we normally use were for all persons in singular and plural. If that camera werent so expensive, I would buy it. (Si esa cmara no fuera tan cara, la comprara.) To give advice, we use the structure If I were. If I were you, I wouldnt download this file. (Yo en tu lugar, no descargara ese archivo.)

Time clauses
Time clauses referring to the future are formed like the first conditional: Present Simple in the subordinate clause and Future Simple in the main clause. What we change is the conjunctions. In this case we use as soon as, by the time, the moment (that), when, etc. Shell buy a car as soon as she passes her driving test. (Ella se comprar un coche en cuanto apruebe el examen de conducir.) When I get home, Ill be able to help you in the kitchen. (Cuando llegue a casa, podr ayudarte en la cocina.)

UNIT 8
Tense Present Simple Present Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous Present Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple Future Simple Modals Modal Perfects have to be going to

Film
THE PASSIVE Active Passive

Brad Pitt plays many roles. Brad Pitt is playing many roles. Brad Pitt played many roles. Brad Pitt was playing many roles. Brad Pitt has played many roles. Brad Pitt had played many roles. Brad Pitt will play many roles. Brad Pitt should play many roles. Brad Pitt must have played many roles. Brad Pitt has to play many roles. Brad Pitt is going to play many roles.

Many roles are played by Brad Pitt. Many roles are being played by Brad Pitt. Many roles were played by Brad Pitt. Many roles were being played by Brad Pitt. Many roles have been played by Brad Pitt. Many roles had been played by Brad Pitt. Many roles will be played by Brad Pitt. Many roles should be played by Brad Pitt. Many roles must have been played by Brad Pitt. Many roles have to be played by Brad Pitt. Many roles are going to be played by Brad Pitt.
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Grammar Appendix Form Affirmative: This is formed with the verb to be + the past Uses

participle of the main verb. An astronaut was sent into space. (Un astronauta fue enviado al espacio.)
Negative: We add not (or nt) to the verb to be. If the sentence includes a modal verb, a verb in Future Simple or a perfect tense, we add not to the modal, will or have / has. An astronaut wasnt sent into space. (No fue enviado un astronauta al espacio.) Interrogative: The structure of the sentence is to be + subject +

To stress the action more than the subject, either because it is irrelevant or unknown or because we do not want to mention it. This way we avoid an active-voice sentence whose subject is somebody, nobody, etc. Somebody added subtitles to the film. Subtitles were added to the film. (Los subttulos fueron agregados a la pelcula.)

Causative verbs: have / get + something + done

The structure have / get + direct complement + past participle expresses an action we let other people do for us. Im going to have / get my hair cut. (Voy a cortarme el pelo.) [lo har otra persona] This structure can be used with most of the tenses. Ann had her computer repaired. (Ann hizo que le arreglaran el ordenador.) The band will have their instruments repaired soon. (El grupo tendr pronto los instrumentos arreglados.) This structure has a passive sense, because the noun in between receives the action of the participle. We usually translate it in the active voice. My watch broke, so I had it repaired yesterday. (Se me estrope el reloj, as que lo hice arreglar ayer.) You should have your eyes checked every year. (Deberas revisarte la vista todos los aos.) The writer got his book published (by a publisher). (El escritor public su libro.) [lo public una editorial] Although we can use either have or get, get is more informal and, therefore, it is more common in spoken English. I got my house painted last week. (Me pintaron la casa / Pint mi casa la semana pasada.)

participle. If the question contains a modal, a verb in Future Simple or a perfect tense, the passive starts with the modal or the auxiliary, as in the active voice. Was an astronaut sent into space? (Fue enviado un astronauta al espacio?)
How to turn a sentence into the passive

The passive voice is more frequent in English than in Spanish. Therefore, we normally translate the sentence in the active voice or using an impersonal form. The tense of the verb to be is the same as that of the main verb in the active-voice sentence. They sold their house last week. Their house was sold last week. (Se vendi su casa la semana pasada.) Modals and be going to remain the same; it is the verb that follows them which is in the passive. The technician must operate the camera. The camera must be operated by the technician. (La cmara debe ser manejada por el tcnico.) They are going to show a new film at this cinema. A new film is going to be shown at this cinema. (Se va a poner una pelcula nueva en este cine.) The first complement after the verb in the active-voice sentence, either direct or indirect, becomes the subject in the passive. The actor explained the plot. The plot was explained by the actor. (El argumento fue explicado por el actor.) If the indirect complement is an object pronoun, it becomes a subject pronoun. The magazines photographers will photograph them at their wedding. They will be photographed at their wedding by the magazines photographers. (Ellos sern fotografiados en su boda por los fotgrafos de la revista.) We place the subject of the active-voice sentence at the end of the passive structure, preceded by by. If it is a personal pronoun, change it to an object pronoun. This film critic has written the article. The article has been written by this film critic. (El artculo ha sido escrito por este crtico de cine.)

Adjectives + preposition
After the verb to be, it is frequent to find adjectives followed by a preposition and a noun, a pronoun or a gerund. These adjectives have an attributive function. I was thrilled by the last Harry Potter film. (Me encant la ltima pelcula de Harry Potter.) My mother is worried about me. (Mi madre est preocupada por m.) We are tired of working. (Estamos cansados de trabajar.) Look at the list of adjectives + preposition on page 147 for more examples.

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Grammar Appendix

UNIT 9
Tense Present Simple Present Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Simple Past Perfect Continuous Future Simple

The News
REPORTED SPEECH
Direct Speech Reported Speech

He works as an editor. He is working as an editor. He worked as an editor. He was working as an editor. He has worked as an editor.

She said that he worked as an editor. She said that he was working as an editor. She said that he had worked as an editor. She said that he had been working as an editor. She said that he had worked as an editor.

He has been working as an editor. She said that he had been working as an editor. He had worked as an editor. She said that he had worked as an editor.

He had been working as an editor. She said that he had been working as an editor. He will work as an editor. She said that he would work as an editor.

CHANGE OF MODAL
Direct Speech Reported Speech

CHANGE OF OTHER WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS

Direct Speech Reported Speech

can may must / have to will

could might must / had to would

now today tonight yesterday last week a month ago tomorrow next week here this these

then that day that night the previous day / the day before the previous week / the week before the previous month / the month before the following day / the day after / the next day the following week / the week after there that those Besides removing the quotation marks and changing the verb tenses, we must change the demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns and time and place expressions. The subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction that, but it is omitted in spoken English. Ill start the investigation today, the detective said. The detective said (that) he would start the investigation that day. (El detective dijo que empezara la investigacin aquel da.) If the sentence expresses a general truth, we do not change the verb tense. Crime is punished by the law, she said. She said that crime is punished by the law. (Dijo que la delincuencia es castigada por la ley.)
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Reported speech is used to express what someone said without quoting his / her exact words.
Reported statements

To express in the present tense what someone just said, we only need to remove the quotation marks, change the subject pronoun and the person of the verb. I am tired.
He says that he is tired. (Dice que est cansado.)

But we usually use reported speech in the past. In this case, the verb that follows moves one step towards the past (the Present Simple becomes Past Simple, Past Simple becomes Past Perfect, etc.).

Grammar Appendix

As you know, the most common verbs to introduce reported speech are say and tell. Tell is always followed by an indirect complement without the preposition to. Say can be followed by an indirect complement or not, but if it is, it must be preceded by the preposition to. The police caught the robber, he said. He told us that the police had caught the robber. He said that the police had caught the robber. He said to us that the police had caught the robber. (Nos dijo que la polica haba cogido al ladrn.)
Reported questions

Lets watch the new TV show, Tom suggested. Tom suggested that we watch the new TV show. (Tom sugiri que viramos el nuevo programa de televisin.) with a gerund, not specifying any subject. Lets phone the police immediately! She suggested phoning the police immediately. (Ella sugiri llamar a la polica inmediatamente.)

Reporting verbs
The most common verbs to introduce reported speech are say, tell and ask, which transmit the message without adding any extra information. But if we want to transmit the speakers intention, we can use many other reporting verbs: Statements: admit, announce, answer, apologise, boast, claim, complain, declare, explain, inform, insist, mention, offer, remind, reply, state Questions: enquire, request, want to know, wonder Orders: ask, demand, order, shout, warn Requests: beg Suggestion: advise, invite, recommend, suggest I will be home late. She reminded me that she would be home late. (Me record que llegara tarde a casa.) Did you arrive on time? Dave wanted to know if I had arrived on time. (Dave quiso saber si yo haba llegado a tiempo.) Be careful! He shouted (at me) to be careful. Me grit que tuviera cuidado.) You should do your homework. The teacher advised me to do my homework. (La profesora me aconsej que hiciera los deberes.) Suffixes to form nouns As you know, suffixes are endings that we add to some words to form new words. Some of the most common suffixes to form nouns based on verbs are ment, tion / sion and er / or. These are some examples: agree (acordar) invite (invitar) conclude (concluir) run (correr) sail (navegar) agreement (acuerdo) invitation (invitacin) conclusion (conclusin) runner (corredor) sailor (marinero)

There are two types of questions in English: Yes / No questions are those that can be answered with yes or no. To change them to reported speech, we use the verb ask + if or whether. As the question becomes a statement, the order of the sentence is subject + verb and we remove the quotation marks. Did the contestant win a lot of money? Matt asked. Matt asked if / whether the contestant had won a lot of money. (Matt pregunt si el concursante haba ganado mucho dinero.) Wh-questions are those that cannot be answered with yes or no. They start with an interrogative particle (what, who, where, when, why, whose, how, how long, etc.) To change them to reported speech, we use the interrogative particle instead of if or whether. The order of the sentence is subject + verb and we remove the quotation marks. What is the name of the new show? Sue asked. Sue asked what the name of the new show was. (Sue pregunt cmo se llamaba el nuevo programa.)
Reported orders

To change an order to reported speech, we change the verb in imperative to infinitive. Before the infinitive, we must use a verb expressing demand, like tell or order, followed by an indirect complement. We can also use the verbs ask or beg to make requests, invite to extend an invitation and warn for warnings. Stop driving so fast. My mother ordered me to stop driving so fast. (Mi madre me mand que dejara de conducir tan deprisa.) When it is a negative sentence, we put not before to. Dont tell anybody. He begged me not to tell anybody. (Me suplic que no se lo dijera a nadie.)
Reported suggestions

We put the subject and the verb suggest in the past tense and we add what the person said. Suggestions can be changed to reported speech in two different ways: using a clause formed by that, subject and verb in the base form. The verb demand, which also expresses order, follows this structure as well.

They finally reached an agreement. (Finalmente, llegaron a un acuerdo.)

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