EM2 Notes

Electromagnetics 2 Course Notes
Fall 2004 M. W. Tompkins
Copyright Reserved 2004
Week 1
Lecture # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Date 8/30 9/1 9/3 9/6 9/8 9/10 9/13 9/15 9/17 9/20 9/22 9/24 9/27 9/29 10/1 10/4 10/6 10/8 10/11 10/13 10/15 10/18 10/20 10/22 10/25 10/27 10/29 11/1 11/3 11/5 11/8 11/10 11/12 11/15 11/17 11/19 11/22 11/24 11/26 11/29 12/1 12/3 12/6 12/8 12/10
Topic Introduction, expectations, historical perspective ELECTROSTATICS: Coulombs law, constitutive relations Gauss electric law, example, potential LABOR DAY HOLIDAY Potential of electric dipole, conservative fields, capacitance, Poissons and Laplaces equations Electrostatic boundary conditions, Laplace direct integration Uniqueness theorem, method of images Finite Difference Method: Dirichlet, Neumann, E-field, cap.. FD: calculating electric field and capacitance, handling dielectric boundaries Energy in electrostatic systems, MAGNETOSTATICS Fundamental laws of magnetostatics, examples Ideal solenoid example Inductance Diff. and integral forms of laws, magnetic vector potential Magnetostatic boundary conditions, Faradays law MAXWELLS EQNS, displacement current Time-harmonic solution methods, Helmholtz vector equation Helmholtz wave equation in 1D, plane wave solution Poyntings power theorem, plane wave example, complex pwr MID-TERM #1 No class Exam solution run-down, Poynting for phasors Complex propagation constant, skin depth Retarded potentials, Lorentz Guage, uniqueness of solutions 1-D FDTD formulation, simple examples Formulation for a 1-D perfectly matched layer, water slab example Extending 1-D FDTD concepts to a 2-D,supporting a 1.5 D PML 2-D FDTD supporting a full 2D PML Project discussion, introduction of separation of variables method Separation of variables, 2D Cartesian covered trough example Fourier series, general solutions to 2D Cartesian problems Separation of variables: 2D cylindrical Laplace eqn, Bessel functions Separation of variables: 3D cylindrical Laplace eqn, Bessel functions 2D cylindrical Laplace Eqn example, sep. of variables summary 2D product solutions to Helmholtz equation, Hankel functions Helmholtz boundary-value problem examples Introduction to waveguides NO CLASS THANKSGIVING HOLIDAY More boundary-problem examples no class 12:30-1:30 (office hours), MID-TERM #2: 4-7 p.m. Mid-term #2 discussion and solution Waveguides PROJECT DUE DATE, Waveguides lecture Wrap up, show some of the results from select projects
Book
1.2,1.3 1.3,1.4,1.8
1.7-1.12 1.14-1.16 1.17,1.18 1.20
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11
12
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14
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
1.22,2.1 2.2-2.4
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 2. Electrostatics ...................................................................................................... 2
How Static IS It? ......................................................................................................................4 Coulombs Law ........................................................................................................................5 Electrostatic Constitutive Relations ......................................................................................7 Gauss Electric Law.................................................................................................................8 Potential .................................................................................................................................11 Potential of an Electric Dipole ..............................................................................................15 Conservative Fields...............................................................................................................15 Capacitance ...........................................................................................................................16 Poissons and Laplaces Equations.....................................................................................18 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions......................................................................................19 Using Laplaces Equation via Direct Integration (1D Example).........................................22 Uniqueness Theorem ............................................................................................................24 Method of Images ..................................................................................................................25 Finite Difference Method.......................................................................................................28 Electrostatic Energy Storage................................................................................................33
3. Magnetostatics ................................................................................................. 35
History of Magnetics .............................................................................................................35 Fundamental Magnetostatic Laws .......................................................................................37 Example: Magnetic field of a solenoid................................................................................40 Inductance..............................................................................................................................43 Differential and Integral Forms of Magnetostatic Laws .....................................................47 Magnetic Vector Potential.....................................................................................................49 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions ...................................................................................50 Summary of Electrostatics and Magnetostatics .................................................................51 Food for Magnetostatic Thought..........................................................................................52
4. Maxwells Equations ........................................................................................ 54

Faradays Law........................................................................................................................55 Displacement Current ...........................................................................................................56 Time-Harmonic Forms for Maxwells Equations.................................................................58 One-Dimensional Helmholtz Wave Equation ......................................................................60 Poynting Power Vector .........................................................................................................64 Complex Propagation Constant ...........................................................................................70 Plane Waves, Normal Incidence...........................................................................................72 Plane Wave, Oblique Incidence............................................................................................77 Retarded Potentials ...............................................................................................................78 Quasi-static Circulating Currents in Conductors ...............................................................80 Unique Solutions to the Helmholtz Equation ......................................................................81 Summary of Maxwells Equations Topics Covered ............................................................82
5. Finite-Difference Time-Domain Simulation .................................................... 83

Magnetic Conductivity and Intrinsic Impedance Matching................................................83 One-Dimensional FDTD Formulation ...................................................................................84 Two-Dimensional Perfectly-Matched Layers.......................................................................92 Two-Dimensional FDTD Formulation...................................................................................93 FDTD Formulation with Full 2D PML....................................................................................98
6. 2D and 3D Boundary-Value Problems .......................................................... 104

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Separation of Variables Method .........................................................................................104 2D Laplaces Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates ...........................................................108 Bessel Functions.................................................................................................................114 3D Laplaces Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates ...........................................................116 2D Cylindrical Laplaces Equation Example .....................................................................118 Summary of 2D and 3D Laplaces Equation Solutions.....................................................121 Superposition and Separation of Variables ......................................................................122 3D Helmholtz Equation in Cartesian Coordinates ............................................................125 3D Helmholtz Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates ..........................................................128 Helmholtz Product Solution Examples ..............................................................................132
7. Waveguides .................................................................................................... 138

General Solution for +z-Direction Propagation.................................................................138 TEM Propagation Modes.....................................................................................................139 TE Propagation Modes........................................................................................................142 TM Propagation Modes .......................................................................................................144 Rectangular Waveguides ....................................................................................................145 Waveguide Cutoff ................................................................................................................149 Phase Velocity .....................................................................................................................150 Cutoff Revisited ...................................................................................................................153 Propagation in Rectangular Waveguides ..........................................................................154
8. Material Properties ......................................................................................... 158

Dielectric Materials..............................................................................................................159 Magnetic Materials ..............................................................................................................160
9. References ...................................................................................................... 161
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1. Introduction
Students enrolled in this course should: 1) Feel comfortable with vector calculus, including the curl, divergence, gradient, and Laplacian operations 2) Have a good basic understanding of complex variables; time-harmonic fields are a critical component of the electro- and magneto-dynamics we will cover and you must be comfortable with phasor-domain calculations 3) Be ready to work in Cartesian, spherical, and cylindrical coordinate systems... a change of variables can oftentimes make a seemingly intractable problem trivial! Goals for the course: 1) Strengthening each students ability to use Maxwells equations, the constitutive relations, the continuity equation, and boundary conditions to solve electromagnetic field problems 2) Familiarizing students with vector potentials and the fundamentals of radiation 3) Reinforcing students understanding of the Helmholtz, Laplace, and Poisson equations and solving two- and three-dimensional boundary value problems 4) Teaching students intermediate electromagnetics theorems and principles 5) Providing students with the theoretical and mathematical background they need to pursue more specific applications courses 6) Introducing numerical solution methods What you will remember in one year: 1) Retain intuition regarding canonical EM problems 2) Be able to pick up a textbook and in short order be able to solve some of those problems 3) Understand how analytic and numerical techniques for solving electromagnetic problems are related 4) Remember the importance of symmetry and how it can be used to reduce the number of degrees of freedom in EM problems 5) Recall fundamental principles such as boundary conditions, material properties, image theory, reciprocity, conservation laws, radiation condition, superposition, duality, uniqueness, etc. A little about me...
2. Electrostatics
Fundamental Experimental Electrostatic Postulate
Benjamin Franklin in a letter from 1755: I electrified a silver pint cann, on an electric stand, and then lowered into it a cork-ball, of about an inch diameter, hanging by a silk string, till the cork touched the bottom of the cann. The cork was not attracted to the inside of the cann as it would have been the outside, and though it touched the bottom, yet, when drawn out, it was not found to be electrified by that touch, as it would have been touching the outside. The fact is singular. You require the reason; I do not know it. Perhaps you may discover it, and then you will be so good as to communicate it to me. I find a frank acknowledgment of ones ignorance is not only the easiest way to get rid of a difficulty, but the likeliest way to obtain information, and therefore I practice it: I think it an honest policy. Those who affect to be thought to know every thing, and so undertake to explain every thing, often remain long ignorant of many things that others could and would instruct them in, if they appeared less conceited [1].
Questions: 1) What does Franklin mean by electrified? 2) What kind of a material is cork? 3) How would you expect charge to distribute itself on the cann if it were alone in a vacuum? 4) Why would the cork ball be attracted to the outside of the electrified silver cann? 5) How would the charge distribution on the can be affected as the cork ball approaches the outside of the cann? 6) What happens to the charge distribution on the cann when the cork ball is lowered into the cann? Initial observations and postulations all dealt with force. What are the limitations of thinking of electrostatics only in terms of force?
Early observers felt there was a strong connection between the way that gravitational forces and electric forces worked. Remember, in the 18th century Newtonian mechanics were well understood by the elite intellectuals but still considered rather cutting edge science! Experimentalists quickly concluded that electric force also obeyed an inverse square law but their understanding was very limited. Nontrivial to determine proportionality constant, k = 1/4o, and we have Cavendish to thank for that.
How Static IS It?

Ramo 1.1 How static is it? completely static: DC case, electrons and ions completely still pseudo-stationary: time variation is slow enough that the field may be considered stationary in time during the interval of interest (from signal processing, this is equivalent to the narrowband assumption) quasi-static: spatial distribution is nearly the same as for static fields even though the actual fields vary rapidly with time; the problems spatial dimensions are much much smaller than a wavelength Example #1: two large plates hooked up to opposite terminals of a battery utterly static once we neglect crazy tunneling effects charge assumes positions to minimize energy stored in the field distribution; this is a stable position, so it stays there in reality, we must keep everything at absolute zero to really be static; at room temperature we often neglect Brownian motion of charge since there is no net charge flow Example #2 from Ramo: electron gun in a television 20 kV electron source, tube, voltage applied to plates to steer the beam at any instant in time, can be analyzed as an electrostatic problem electrons are hardly holding still, kinematics reveals their velocity is roughly 1/4 the speed of light in a vacuum signals applied to plates are also varied rapidly, just not in a relative sense 29.97 Hz refresh rate, 59.94 Hz scan rate with interleaving 15,734 Hz horizontal scan rate (29.97 Hz refresh rate x 525 vertical lines) electrode shape designed to accelerate particles from a source and focus them into a beam of desired size (pixel size) and velocity (energy to illuminate phosphor) because the electrons move so fast, studying the performance of the electron guns beam steerer is a pseudo-stationary problem Example #3 from Ramo: transmission lines we can determine propagation characteristics of TEM and quasi-TEM transmission lines based purely on static field distributions wave propagation (GHz regime) far from being a static problem! still, wave velocity and field distribution in transverse plane depend on basic laws of electrostatics for many transmission line structures can treat these problems as quasi-statics as long as line dimensions (width, thickness of conductors) are kept << in the associated materials1
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Coulombs Law
Ramo 1.2
Notice that we can write electric field as a summation (discrete or continuous) of differential elements. This is due to the principle of superposition. Thought question: It is well known that superposition only applies in cases where linearity holds. Electric field follows an inverse square law, however. Clearly this is not linear. Why is it that we can get away with using superposition when using Coulombs law to compute electric field?
Electrostatic Constitutive Relations

Ramo 1.4 By definition for an electrostatic, charge is not moving, so electrical conductivity () is not a concern. Electrostatic problems do not concern magnetic fields or magnetic materials, so permeability () may be neglected. Types of materials: Homogeneous/inhomogeneousfor homogeneous materials, is not a function of space Isotropic/anisotropicfor isotropic materials, is not a function of direction Linear/nonlinearfor linear materials, e is not a function of applied field strength; nonlinear behavior is typically caused by a saturation effect at very high field strength
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Gauss Electric Law

Ramo 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 Gauss electric law in words: Electric flux flowing out of a surface = volume integral of charge enclosed
These are quantities we have invented, after all! Unlike charge and force, they are purely creations of our imagination used to help us understand and predict physical phenomena.
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Gauss Electric Law (continued)

Gauss Example:
Gauss Electric Law (continued)

Alternative approach: See that by symmetry, Ez = 0; every z-component created by one differential charge element above (x,y,z) at z+h is equally and oppositely opposed by another at zh. See that due to the circular symmetry, E = 0; there are always symmetrically-opposed field components nullifying E components The only field component left is in Er. Even so, it is axisymmetric and therefore at most dependent on radius r. Create Gaussian surface
Gaussian surface approach is much simpler than solving those integrals! Thought question: why wont this approach work for Franklins open can? What is the main limitation of the Gaussian surface method?
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Potential
Ramo 1.8 Defined as energy of a unit charge due to the presence of other charges 1D Cartesian Example:
release a single ion from a position xo close to Q in a vacuum once the ion is far, far away (i.e. the force between Q and q has tended to zero), how fast is it moving?
conversely, how much work is required to go from far, far away to position xo close to Q (at x = 0)?
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Potential (continued)
Relationship between electric field and potential:
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?
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Aside: Computation of potential using a path integral
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Potential of an Electric Dipole
Conservative Fields
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Capacitance
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Capacitance (continued)
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Poissons and Laplaces Equations
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Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
v Normal component of the electric flux density, D
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Electrostatic Boundary Conditions (continued)

v Tangential component of the electric field, E
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Electrostatic Boundary Conditions (continued)

Scalar potential,
Important point: The electrostatic boundary conditions tell us that the tangential electric field is continuous at a dielectric interface. This is also true when one of the materials is a conductor. In electrostatics, charge will move on a conductors surface to ELIMINATE all fields within the conductor. Those charges must therefore take up a distribution that cancels out all tangential field components near the surface of the conductor. The remaining normal electric flux density is then terminated with surface charge. ELECTROSTATIC ELECTRIC FIELD LINES WILL ALWAYS BE TO A CONDUCTING SURFACE (and constant- contours will therefore be parallel)
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Using Laplaces Equation via Direct Integration (1D Example)
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Using Laplaces Equation via Direct Integration (1D Example)
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Uniqueness Theorem
Ramo 1.17
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Method of Images
Ramo 1.18
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Method of Images (continued)

Example from Ramo, Whinnery, Van Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics: planes intersecting at 45
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Method of Images (continued)
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Finite Difference Method
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Finite Difference Method (continued)
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Show Covered_Trough.ppt slides at this point.
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Derived quantities computed from the grid of potentials
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Electrostatic Energy Storage
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Electrostatic Energy Storage (continued)
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3. Magnetostatics
History of Magnetics
Magnetic forces first observed in attraction of iron to naturally occuring magnets (e.g. lodestone, a magnetic ore), dating back to ancient times Plato, who lived from 427-347 B.C. wrote: this gift you have of speaking well on Homer is not an art; it is a power divine, impelling you like the power in the stone Euripides called the magnet.... This stone does not simply attract the iron rings, just by themselves; it also imparts to the rings a force enabling them to do the same thing as the stone itself, that is, to attract another ring, so that sometimes a chain is formed, quite a long one, of iron rings suspended from one another. For all of them, however, their power depends on that lodestone. Compass: (some from PageWise, Inc.) pre-compass sailors relied solely on the sun for navigationour of luck on overcast days! Chinese used lodestone floating on water to determine direction in feng shui (Taoist method of organizing your environment) around the 4th Century B.C. Chinese legends mention the use of compass in war for land navigation in foggy conditions introduced in Europe around 1190 A.D., but used by Chinese sailors first absolutely revolutionized seafaring navigation problem for Europeans: didnt figure out declination (difference between magnetic and geographic pole) until ~16th Century A.D.! Chinese had this worked out ~720 A.D. (Buddhist astronomer I-Hsing) another problem: superstition! Many superstitions associated with magnets... sailors thought that if they ate onions or garlic, the poles of the magnet would get drunk!
History (continued)
Big names in magnetics research Peregrinus (Pierre de Maricourt) studied magnetic materials in the 13th Century and came up with much of our modern terminology William Gilbert (1540-1603) recognized that the earth is a giant magnet, explaining how a compass worked (not magic!); he was also Queen Elizabeth Is doctor 9
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Oersted discovered that an electric current caused a compass needle to deflect during a class demonstration in 1820 at the University of Copenhagen Biot (1774-1862) and Savart (1791-1841) repeated Oersteds experiments and determined a law of force which governed the effect Ampere (1775-1836) extended Oersteds experiments and characterized the effect with a quantitative law describing how two electric currents interact and also wrote the magnetic force law in the JB form we see today Faraday (1791-1867) discovered magnetic induction (inducing a potential difference by passing a loop of wire through a magnetic field) and discovered diamagnetic materials (introducing the terms diamagnetic and paramagnetic) Franz Neumann (1798-1895) introduced the concept of magnetic vector potential in 1845 (the Neumann boundary condition is named after his son, Carl Gottfried Neumann) Wilhelm Weber (1804-1890) worked with magnetic materials, explained diamagnetism; in 1871 he proposed a new model for an Amperian molecular current: an electric charge orbiting around another of opposite sign... this was before Thomson discovered the electron and before the Rutherford-Bohr atomic model was proposed! Give that guy a unit!
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Fundamental Magnetostatic Laws
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Fundamental Magnetostatic Laws (continued)

Example: Infinite line of current
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Fundamental Magnetostatic Laws (continued)
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Example: Magnetic field of a solenoid
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Example: Magnetic field of a solenoid (continued)
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Example: Magnetic field of a solenoid (continued)
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Inductance
Goals: strenghten understanding of concepts of inductance, magnetostatic energy storage, flux linkage, mutual inductance distinguish between internal and external inducance work some examples to reinforce concepts and provide practice with using Amperes law
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Inductance (continued)
Joseph Henry (1797-1878) discovered the phenomenon of self-induction and basic principles of electric machines (motors, generators); built an electromagnetic telegraph, experimented with transformers to step voltage up and down; he did a poor job of disseminating his results and therefore missed out on credit for many of his accomplishments
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Example: Infinitely-long wire with uniform current distribution
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Example: External inductance of parallel-plate transmission line
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Differential and Integral Forms of Magnetostatic Laws
dSz y Cy dSy z dSx Cx x Cz
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Differential and Integral Forms of Magnetostatic Laws (continued)
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Magnetic Vector Potential
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Magnetic Vector Potential (continued)
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Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
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Summary of Electrostatics and Magnetostatics
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Food for Magnetostatic Thought

Why does DC current flow in uniform distributions in good conductors?
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Food for Magnetostatic Thought (continued)

Behavior of non-magnetic conductors in static and dynamic magnetic fields
Note: Currents are induced in the Al chunk when it is moved to a position near the magnet, but minute losses cause them to die down in time; if we replace our aluminum chunk with a perfect electric conductor (PEC), these currents will never die down! As a result PECs do not ever allow a nonzero magnetic field inside them. Instead, surface currents cancel them out.
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4. Maxwells Equations
In static case, only sources for fields were electric charges and currents Dynamics: time-varying magnetic fields generate electric fields time-varying electric fields produce magnetic fields can no longer deal with electrics and magnetics separately: they are coupled through their time-variance Michael Faraday (1791-1867) excellent experimentalist; discovered that changing magnetic fields could induce electric fields and thus voltages was initially looking for DC effects with no luck discovered the transformeralmost accidentallywhile looking for DC effects in August of 1831; wrapped two coils around an iron ring and noted current spikes in the secondary coil when he connected and disconnected a battery from the primary coil (not unlike the Oersted observation... by accident) October of 1831: Faraday performed his most important experiment in which he noted that current is induced when an electromagnet is passed through a coil later in 1831 Faraday presented his results to the Royal Society an excellent biography of Faraday can be found at the web site of the Royal Institute of Great Britain: http://www.rigb.org/rimain/heritage/faradaypage.jsp Displacement current first conceptualized by James Clerk Maxwell (1831 1879) in the mid1860s Faraday was the old master, Maxwell the young kid... Maxwells birth occurred near the same time as Faradays greatest discoveries Maxwell loved math and models... he gave many of Faradays ideas the mathematical construct they needed to be applied effectively Maxwell proposed a new term to account for a missing term in the continuity equation which accounts for the electrical analog of Faradays law if time-varying magnetic fields can induce electric fields and currents, surely time-varying electric fields will produce magnetic effects! given a time-varying source, it seemed that current was able to flow even if a closed circuit was not presented so long as the gap between conductors did not become too large the gap represented some series capacitance we know well that a capacitor has impedance at DC but a finite impedance at higher frequencies; this was not understood at the time the displacement current behaved just like DC current but was out of phase with the excitation voltage... interesting!
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Faradays Law
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Displacement Current
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Displacement Current (continued)
Maxwells incredible contribution was to UNIFY existing classical electromagnetic theory. He is responsible for much more than just the discovery of displacement current. We owe the notation we use today and the beautiful symmetry of our fundamental electromagnetic laws to him.
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Time-Harmonic Forms for Maxwells Equations
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Time-Harmonic Forms for Maxwells Equations (continued)

Example:
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One-Dimensional Helmholtz Wave Equation

Consider a homogeneous, source-free, isotropic medium source-free means no charges are floating around and no currents in the medium, not that our wave has no source; the source is off at
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One-Dimensional Helmholtz Wave Equation (continued)
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From M. F. Iskanders Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, p. 161. [3]
Question: What type of polarization does the wave shown above exhibit?
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cut to traveling wave demo
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Poynting Power Vector
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Poynting Power Vector (continued)
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Example: Plane Wave Source, Power Density Calculations Question: How do you create a plane wave which is by definition INFINITE in extent? Answer: Whip up an INFINITE current sheet
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Complex power: A primer for the Poynting vector for phasors
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Poynting vector for phasors
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Complex Propagation Constant
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Complex Propagation Constant (continued)

Intrinsic impedance and propagation constant
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Plane Waves, Normal Incidence
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Plane Wave, Normal Incidence (continued)
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74
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Plane Wave, Oblique Incidence
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Retarded Potentials
Problem: In dynamic case, electric field has nonzero curl; can no longer represent it as the gradient of a scalar potential (curl of a gradient = 0) Solution: Must modify our set of potentials to allow for dynamic effects
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Retarded Potentials (continued)
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Quasi-static Circulating Currents in Conductors
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Unique Solutions to the Helmholtz Equation

It is possible to guarantee a unique solution to the Helmholtz equation in both closed and open regions. For closed boundaries, we must have the tangential electric or magnetic field specified on a closed boundary (or part electric field specified on part of the boundary and magnetic field specified on the remainder) note that a boundary formed by a good conductor meets this requirement (tangential fields fall off to zero) For open boundaries, the radiation conditions require that the fields fall off at at least 1/r (r is radius) this condition is satisfied by fields due to real charge and current distributions contained within a finite region For transient problems, we need to know initial field values everywhere In steady-state problems, we generally are not concerned with initial conditions Unique solutions guaranteed for linear, isotropic media, but not necessarily for anisotropic or active media; no guarantees if multi-valued relationships between D and E and/or B and H (hysteresis) material amplifies field values, making oscillations possible Plane wave example with infinite current sheet source open boundary with infinite source, not covered by above criteria (?) solved as a steady-state problem (time-harmonic), no need for initial conditions for fields everywhere still has a unique solution: 1) we specified the tangential magnetic field on the (z = 0) plane of the current source, 2) due to symmetry, we can also specify the magnetic field on any other plane z = zo using the simple propagation delay, and 3) due to symmetry, it is not necessary to make our solution space finite in x or y; in fact, we dont even need to concern ourselves with variation in these dimensions since a 1D problem will yield a unique 1D solution
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Summary of Maxwells Equations Topics Covered

Faradays law, electromotive force Displacement current, continuity equation, Maxwells equations Time-harmonic forms for Maxwells equations moving back and forth between the time and phasor domains Helmholtz wave equation wave number time-harmonic case 1D Cartesian solution: plane waves (including the relation between electric field, magnetic field, and direction of propagation) intrinsic impedance complex propagation constant Poynting power vector time-domain derivation and physical significance of resulting components (instantaneous values) review of complex power phasor domain representation, resulting components Transmission and reflection of plane waves at planar material interfaces normal incidence on dielectric-dielectric interfaces applying tangential field boundary conditions to derive trick to deal with offset interfaces (not at x = 0) normal incidence on dielectric-conductor interfaces, skin depth most basic understanding of oblique incidence Retarded potentials Lorentz guage quasi-static circulating currents in conductors, diffusion equation Uniqueness of solutions to the Helmholtz equation
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5. Finite-Difference Time-Domain Simulation

Magnetic Conductivity and Intrinsic Impedance Matching
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One-Dimensional FDTD Formulation
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One-Dimensional FDTD Formulation (continued)
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1D FDTD Geometry
+x
JSRC,x A/m2 current sheet at z = 0 Note that H obeys Amperes law -z for all z < 0 E directed in x, H in +y +z for all z > 0 E directed in x, H in y
+y
FDTD Formulation
k=Nz1 k=Nz1 k=Nz2 k=1 k=2 k=2 k=3 k=3 k=5 k=4 k=6 k=5 k=6 k=Nz k=Nz5 k=Nz4 k=Nz4 k=Nz2 k=Nz3 k=Nz3 k=1 k=4 k=Nz
Ex=0 Dirichlet
Create grid for Ex and sub-grid for Hy Apply current source JSRC,x to Ex calculation (on grid) Compute Ex at each time step, then Hy one-half of a time step later; iterate A beautifully simple algorithm for full-wave electromagnetic simulation QUESTION: How to decide on grid spacing?
Ex=0 Dirichlet Must terminate grid somehow!
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FDTD Spatial Sampling

Linear approximations are used for temporal and spatial derivatives Time-averaging is essentially linear interpolation (used for Exn(k) and Hyn+(k+)) Example: a sine wave
only looks piecewise linear if we use many samples/period must have more than 10 samples per period for the highestfrequency component in an FDTD simulation (20+ is better) highest freq component with significant amount of energy can be thought of as Nyquist sampling in space; if we undersample, aliasing will occur, introducing errors
FDTD Temporal Sampling

Next question: how about time-sampling?
if we let too much time go by, our time-averaging falls apart it also turns out that the simulation becomes unstable if we sample a too infrequently; the stability condition is related to the time needed to propagate between grid points the time between samples, t, must obey the relation
n c
where n is the number of dimensions of variation in the simulation, c is the speed of light, and z is the grid spacing
For our 1D simulation, we will give ourselves 100% Warning: choosing a smaller t margin, choosing z
t = 2c
means that your simulation must run for more iterations to achieve the same time duration!
Stability vs. Convergence Time
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30 MHz Gaussian Pulse

(dx = 0.1 m dt = dx/2c = 166 ps)
1 |pulse| (unitless) 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 50 100 150 200 sample 250
0 |PSD| (dB) -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 0 50 freq (MHz) 100 150
g (x )
x =e
30 MHz 3-dB bandwidth and it is a low-pass waveform

Note: and at left are parameters of the Gaussian function, not permeability and conductivity
300
|PSD| (dB)
-100
-200
-300
0.5
1.5 2 freq (GHz)
2.5
3.5
100 MHz Gaussian Monocycle

(dx = 0.1 m dt = dx/2c = 166 ps)
1 |pulse| (unitless) 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
2( x ) dg (x ) = dx 2
x e
it is a band-pass waveform centered at 100 MHz with just over 100 MHz of bandwidth and NO DC component
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20
40
60 sample
80
100
0
120
100
|PSD| (dB)
-10 -20 -30 -40 -50
|PSD| (dB)
0 -100 -200 -300
50
100
150 200 freq (MHz)
250
300
0.5
1.5 2 freq (GHz)
2.5
3.5
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Lossy Matched- Interface

Matching magnetic and electric conductivities
effective permittivity
* = + j
+ m j o = = = o o + j
1=
effective permeability
* = + m j
m o + j o + o j o
m = magnetic conductivity
= usually choose = o , = o o o m = m = o for matched (2) j o j o o

(1)
equate real and imaginary parts of num and denom:
Perfectly Matched Layer, 5m Thick

Comparison with conductivity profile from last simulation
1.5 Stepped (S/m) x 10
-4
0.5
Instead of an abrupt change, the conductivity is continuously varied using an exponential profile For a PML extending from index k = ko to index k = ko + Npml:
10
20
30
40 50 60 Distance (m)
70
80
90
100
0.04 PML (S/m) 0.03 0.02 0.01 0
k ko + 1 2 1 (k ) = N t 3 pml
For a PML extending from index k = ko to index k = ko Npml:
10
20
30
40 50 60 Distance (m)
70
80
90
100
k k +1 2 1 (k ) = o t 3 N pml
89
Perfectly Matched Layer Formulation

PML from index k = ko to index k = ko + Npml:
k ko + 1 2 1 (k ) = t 3 N pml
3
0.04 PML (S/m) 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 95
m k + 1 2 (k )
k + 12 (k )
Note: m is chosen to match = o
, not collocated but take closest one
96
97 98 Distance (m)
99
100
Q1: Where does the 1/3 coefficient come from? Q2: How about the cubic exponential? Determined intrinsically:
sudden jump in conductivity larger reflected wave too little loss not enough absorption in layer material properties change too fast violation of stability criterion for simulation (need enough sampling to accurately model variations)
90
Plane Wave Incident on a Slab of Water

Time-averaged energy density (nJ/m3) for 10 MHz sinusoidal excitation
6
5 Mean Energy Density (nJ/m 3)
Q1: what causes the ripple in the power density in the free-space region? Q2: is the 30m free-space evident? How? Q3: why does the power fall off differently in the PML than it does in the slab of water?
50
100
150
200 250 Distance (m)
300
350
400
PML SOURCE
WATER SLAB
2 2 1 U (k ) n n (k ) E x (k ) + 1 k + 1 2 H y k+1 2 2 2 Vol k n = no no +T / t
Energy Density in Free Space

Are the units of nJ/m3 really correct? NANO-Joules?? In free space, wed need an electrostatic field strength of 475 kV/m to get 1 J/m3 of energy storage Consider a pair of 1 m2 plates separated by 1 m
C = A/d = = 8.85 pF (not much capacitance!) 2 -12 2 UE = CV = 1 J = (8.85x10 )V V = 475 kV/m
How is it then that capacitors are able to hold a significant amount of energy?
a 200 F capacitor at 100 V holds 1 J!! note that an electrolytic capacitor with plates 0.1mm apart and a 100 V voltage would have a field intensity of 1000 kV/m ! this explains why capacitors rated for higher voltage tend to be much larger than lower voltage versions... to reduce field density!
91
Two-Dimensional Perfectly-Matched Layers
92
Two-Dimensional FDTD Formulation
93
SAME result as 1D case!
Two-Dimensional FDTD Formulation (continued)
94
95
96

Our formulation so far is only going to work for PML slabs that have either an x- or y-directed normal. That is:
y y
PML
PML
PML
OR
PML
x x
Because our PML is designed to make a smooth transition from free space into the PML. When two regions of PML overlap (one with an x-directed and one with a y-directed normal), we get an undesirably discontinuous medium at their interface. For the geometry shown below, it is the corner regions that are going to make our lives difficult.
y
PML
PML
PML
PML
x
Solution: Alter our PML formulation to do BOTH 1) Meet the conditions required of a PML and 2) Have nice, continuous properties at PML-PML interfaces as well as at PML-free-space interfaces
97
FDTD Formulation with Full 2D PML
98
FDTD Formulation with Full 2D PML (continued)
99
100
101
102
2D FDTD Simulation Parameter Summary (with PML)

Bulk Medium (m = 0)
C x1 i, j + 1
Inside PML
C x1 i, j + 1
)= 1 2
1 py (j + 1 ) 2 ) = 2 1+ p (j + 1 )
y
t C x 2 i, j + 1 = 2 i, j + 1 x 2
) (
C x 2 i, j + 1
C x3 i, j + 1
(
(
)= 0
) )
C y1 i + 1 , j = 1 2 t C y2 i + 1 , j = 2 i, j + 1 2 x
) (
C y3 i + 1 , j = 0 2
C z1 (i, j ) =
C z 2 (i, j ) = C z 3 (i, j ) =
2 (i, j ) (i, j ) t 2 (i, j ) + (i, j ) t

2 t 2 (i, j ) + (i, j ) t
2 1 1 px i + 2 C y1 i + 1 , j = 2 1 + px i + 1 2 t C y2 i + 1 , j = 2 i + 1 2 , j x 1 + p x i + 1 2 t p y ( j ) C y3 i + 1 , j = 2 i + 1 2 , j x 1 + p x i + 1 2 (1 p x (i )) 1 p y ( j ) C z1 (i, j ) = (1 + p x (i )) 1 + p y ( j )
) = (i, j + 1 ) x (1 + p ( j + 1 )) y 2 2 t p x (i ) C x3 (i, j + 1 ) = 2 (i, j + 1 ) x ( 1 + p ( j + 1 ))

t 2
( (
) )
) ( ) (
))
( (
) )
))
C z 2 (i, j ) = C z 3 (i, j ) =
(i, j ) (1 + p x (i )) 1 + p y ( j )
)
)
2 t x(2 (i, j ) + (i, j ) t )

3
t x (i, j ) (1 + p x (i )) 1 + p y ( j )
Noting that:
i io + 1 p x (i ) = 0.2 for io i io + N pml N pml
i i + 1 p x (i ) = 0.2 o N pml
3
(PML on right edge of simulation) (PML on left edge of simulation) (PML on top edge of simulation) (PML on bottom edge of simulation)
for io N pml i io
3
j jo + 1 p y ( j ) = 0.2 N pml j j + 1 p y ( j ) = 0.2 o N pml
for jo j jo + N pml
3
for jo N pml j jo
The factor 0.2 in each of the above equations sets the maximum value of the conductivity in the PML. You can set it to any value you like, but realize that making it too large is likely to cause your simulation to become unstable once the fields impact the boundary.
Ez
n+ 1 2
n +1 Hx i, j + 1
n (i + 1 2 , j ) H yn (i 1 2 , j ) H xn (i, j + 1 2 )+ H xn (i, j 1 2 )] (i, j ) = C z1(i, j ) E zn 2 (i, j ) C z 2 (i, j ) J src, z + C z 3 (i, j ) [H y 1
) = C x1(i, j + 1 2) H xn (i, j + 1 2 ) C x2 (i, j + 1 2 ) Ezn + 12 (i, j + 1) Ezn + 12 (i, j ) Cx3 (i, j + 1 2 ) S yn + 12 (i, j + 1 2 )

(i, j + 1 2 ) = (i, j + 1 2 )+ (i, j + 1) (i, j ) n +1 (i + 1 2 , j ) = C y1(i + 1 2 , j ) H yn (i + 1 2 , j )+ C y 2 (i + 1 2 , j ) Ezn + 12 (i + 1, j ) Ezn + 12 (i, j ) + C y3 (i + 1 2 , j ) S xn + 12 (i + 1 2 , j ) Hy

where
n+ 1 Sy 2 n 1 Sy 2 n+ 1 Ez 2 n+ 1 Ez 2
where
n+ 1 Sx 2
(i + 1 2 , j ) =
n 1 Sx 2
(i + 1 2 , j )+
103
n+ 1 Ez 2
(i + 1, j )
n+ 1 Ez 2
(i, j )
27
6. 2D and 3D Boundary-Value Problems

Separation of Variables Method
Powerful technique for solving linear partial differential equations Leads to solutions which are products of separate functions for each dimension of the problem, each of which is only a function of only a single coordinate variable Example in Cartesian coordinates: Ez(x,y,z) = f(x)g(y)h(z) but what if our solution cant be represent in such a product form? Example: Ez(x,y,z) = C1x + C2y by using series of product-form solutions, we can represent any arbitrary solution 28 2-D Cartesian Separation of Variables:
104
Separation of Variables Method (continued)

2-D Cartesian Separation of Variables (continued):
29
105

Covered Trough Example:
106

Fourier Series: we commonly find our boundary conditions are given over a finite interval if so, we can pretend that the boundary condition is periodic by representing as 1/2 of a period, we can reduce the Fourier series to that of an even or odd function: a series of only cosines or sines
30
107
2D Laplaces Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates

Starting Point
First consider the 1D case we dealt with before:
Now consider case with no variation in z, (r,) (not so useful in practical terms)
108
2D Laplaces Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates (continued)

Axial symmetry: no variation in , (r,z) (e.g. Coaxial cable in TEM mode)
109
110
111
31
112
113
Bessel Functions
1 Bessel Function of 1 st Kind n=0 n=1 n=2 0.5
J ( )
-0.5 0
10
12
1 Bessel Function of 2 nd Kind n=0 n=1 n=2 0.5
-0.5
N ( )
-1 0
10
12
114
K ( )
n
Modified Bessel Function of 2 nd Kind 10 1 2 3 4 2 4 6 8 0 0
I ( )
Modified Bessel Function of 1 st Kind 12
Bessel Functions (continued)
-1 0 1
n=0 n=1 n=2
115
2 3 n=0 n=1 n=2 4
3D Laplaces Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
116
32
117
2D Cylindrical Laplaces Equation Example

Find the instantaneous potential distribution on an axisymmetric coaxial transmission line given the following boundary conditions:
You never thought the potential distribution on a coaxial transmission line could be so complicated, did you?
118
2D Cylindrical Laplaces Equation Example (continued)

Potential distribution in RG-58 cable based on 1V source on center conductor
% RG58 cable: % %
0.81mm inner conductor diam, 2.95mm dielectric diam polyethylene dielectric with rel permittivity of 2.3 50 ohm characteristic impedance
fo = 300e6; % 300 MHz freq epsilon_r = 2.3; % relative permittivity of dielectric lambda = 3e8/sqrt(epsilon_r)/fo; ko = 2*pi/lambda; % wavenumber for wavelength of 1m (assume 300MHz freq) A = 1; % nominal 1V peak voltage a = 0.00081; b = 0.00295; C1 = -A*besselk(0,ko*b)/(besselk(0,ko*a)*besseli(0,ko*b)-besselk(0,ko*b)*besseli(0,ko*a)); D1 = A*besseli(0,ko*b)/(besselk(0,ko*a)*besseli(0,ko*b)-besselk(0,ko*b)*besseli(0,ko*a)); rmax = 1.1*b; N = 401; dx = 2*rmax/(N-1); x = ones(N,1)*(-rmax:dx:+rmax); y = flipud(x'); r = sqrt(x.^2+y.^2); phi = zeros(N,N); indx = find(r<=b & r>=a); phi(indx) = C1*besseli(0,ko*r(indx))+D1*besselk(0,ko*r(indx)); phi(find(r<a))=C1*besseli(0,ko*a)+D1*besselk(0,ko*a); phi(find(r>1.02*b)) = C1*besseli(0,ko*a)+D1*besselk(0,ko*a); figure(1); pcolor2(phi,1,'Potential Distribution in RG58 Cable');
119
2D Cylindrical Laplaces Equation Example (continued)

Note that the 1D and 2D solutions are actually equivalent in terms of their radial variation. 2D solution:
2 Io b o (r , z ) = A K o 2 a I o 2 b K o 2 o o o 2 Ko 2 o b I a o o r
2 Ko b o 2 2 2 Ko a Io b Ko o o o 2 2 cos Io r 2 o o b I a o o
1D solution (where (a,z) = A for all z):

(r ) = A
( r) ln (b ) a
ln b
Plotting the 2D and 1D solutions on the same graphs:

1 0.8
(x,y) (V)
2D 1D
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -3 -2 -1 0 1 radius (mm) 2 3
Thus demonstrating that the field distribution in a TEM transmission line can be found using a simple electrostatic analysis. So a simpler expression for the quasi-static field distribution along the line is given by
(r , z ) = A
( r ) cos 2 z ln (b ) o a
ln b
120
Summary of 2D and 3D Laplaces Equation Solutions

2D Cartesian Coordinates (x, y ) = [C1 cos(K x ) + D1 sin (K x )] [C 2 cosh (K y ) + D2 sinh (K y )] = [C1 'e jK x + D1 'e jK x ] [C 2 'e K y + D2 'e K y ]
(x, y ) = [C1 cosh (K x ) + D1 sinh (K x )] [C 2 cos(K y ) + D2 sin (K y )] = C1 'e K x + D1 'e K x C 2 'e jK y + D2 'e jK y
or
][
2D Cylindrical Coordinates, longitudinal symmetry (variation in r and ) (r , ) = [C1 r K + D1 r K ] [C 2 cos(K ) + D2 sin (K )] 2D Cylindrical Coordinates, axial symmetry (variation in r and z) (r , z ) = [C1 J o (K r ) + D1 N o (K r )] [C 2 cosh (K z ) + D2 sinh (K z )]
or (r , z ) = [C1 I o (K r ) + D1 K o (K r )] [C 2 cos(K z ) + D2 sin (K z )]
3D Cylindrical Coordinates (r , , z ) = [C1 J (K r ) + D1 N (K r )] [C 2 cos( ) + D2 sin ( )] [C 3 cosh (K z ) + D3 sinh (K z )]

or (r , , z ) = [C1 I (K r ) + D1 K (K r )] [C 2 cos( ) + D2 sin ( )] [C 3 cos(K z ) + D3 sin (K z )]
2D Spherical Coordinates, axial symmetry (variation in r and ) 0 0 (cos ) + D2 Qn (cos )] if n is an integer (r , ) = [C1 r n + D1 r (n +1) ] [C 2 Pn
(r , ) = C1 r + D1 r
n
(n +1)
] [
0 C 2 Pn
(cos ) + D2 Pn0 ( cos )]
or
if n is not an integer
3D Spherical Coordinates m (cos )] [C3 e jm (r , , ) = [C1 j n (K r ) + D1 y n (K r )] [C 2 Pnm (cos ) + D2 Qn
+ D3 e jm
if n is an integer if n is not an integer
(r , , ) = [C1 j n (K r ) + D1 y n (K r )] C 2 Pnm (cos ) + D2 Pnm ( cos ) C 3 e jm + D3 e jm or
or
][
you can substitute C3 ' cos(m ) + D3 ' sin (m ) for C3 e jm + D3 e jm
Assorted functions:
Bessel function of first kind, th order

th
Bessel function of second kind, order Modified Bessel function of first kind, th order Modified Bessel function of second kind, th order Associated Legender functions of the first kind Associated Legender functions of the second kind Spherical Bessel function of the first kind, nth order Spherical Bessel function of the second kind, nth order
) N ( ) I ( ) K ( ) Pnm ( ) m () Qn
j n (K r ) = y n (K r ) =
J (
2K r
J n+1 2 (K r ) Yn +1 2 (K r )
2K r
121
Superposition and Separation of Variables

Oftentimes, we can break the boundary down in to several parts to make it easier to work with deal with each wall of a box individually, for example, setting all other boundaries to zero, or expand any individual boundary using a series of terms, each of which is dealt with separately
122
Superposition and Separation of Variables (continued)

% EM2 2D Cartesian separation of vars w/superposition example #2, Fall 2004 % covered trough with phi(x,b) = A1 sin(pi x/a) + A2 sin(3 pi x/a) V and % phi(x,0) = phi(0,y) = phi(a,y) = 0 V a = 1; % width of trough b = 1; % height of trough A1 = 1; % amplitude of spatial harmonic for phi(x,0) A2 = 1/3; % amplitude of spatial harmonic for phi(x,b) A3 = 1/5; Nx = 401; Ny = 401; dx = a/(Nx-1); dy = b/(Ny-1); x = ones(Ny,1)*(0:dx:a); y = (0:dy:b)'*ones(1,Nx); phi1 = A1/sinh(pi*b/a)*sin(pi*x/a).*sinh(pi*y/a); phi2 = A2/sinh(3*pi*b/a)*sin(3*pi*x/a).*sinh(3*pi*y/a); phi3 = A3/sinh(5*pi*b/a)*sin(5*pi*x/a).*sinh(5*pi*y/a); phi = phi1 + phi2 + phi3; figure(1); clf; plot(x(end,:),phi(end,:)); set(gca,'fontweight','bold'); xlabel('x (m)'); ylabel('\Phi(x,b) (V)'); figure(2); clf; pcolor2(phi);
Boundary condition (x,b) for a covered trough with a 3-term boundary condition (x,b) = A1sin(x/a) + A3sin(3x/a) + A5sin(5x/a) where A1 = 1, A3 = 1/3, and A5 = 1/5
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
(x,b) (V)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5 x (m)
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
123
Superposition and Separation of Variables (continued)

Intensity plot of the potential distribution (x,y) for the covered trough example solved using superposition to deal with the 3-term boundary condition.
124
3D Helmholtz Equation in Cartesian Coordinates
125
3D Helmholtz Equation in Cartesian Coordinates (continued)
Two possible solutions to the separated differential equations are Standing Waves: E x (x, y, z ) = [C1 cos( x x ) + D1 sin ( x x )] [C 2 cos( y y ) + D2 sin ( y y )] [C3 cos( z z ) + D3 sin ( z z )]
j y j y Traveling Waves: E x (x, y, z ) = C1 'e j x x + D1 'e j x x C 2 'e y + D2 'e y C 3 'e j z z + D3 'e j z z
2 2 2 where x + y + z = 2 = 2
Other combinations of standing and traveling waves are also possible. For example, standing waves in z but traveling waves in x and y: j y j y E x (x, y, z ) = [C1 'e j x x + D1 'e j x x ] C 2 'e y + D2 'e y [C3 cos( z z ) + D3 sin ( z z )]

126
3D Helmholtz Equation in Cartesian Coordinates (continued)

Now consider lossy case (>0), but still source-free, time-harmonic
Notice that for this case, we have a MINUS sign in the Helmholtz equation We follow the same procedure in terms of separating the equations Solutions to the separated differential equations are
Standing waves: E x (x, y, z ) = [C1 cosh ( x x ) + D1 sinh ( x x )] C 2 cosh y y + D2 sinh y y [C 3 cosh ( z z ) + D3 sinh ( z z )]
y y Traveling (but attenuating) waves: E x (x, y, z ) = C1 'e x x + D1 'e x x C 2 'e y + D2 'e y C 3 'e z z + D3 'e z z
2 2 2 where x + y +z = 2 = j 2
)]
Notice how this result differs from the case of Laplaces equation: Laplaces equation: kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = 0 Helmholtz equation, lossless case: x2 + y2 + z2 = 2 = 2 Helmholtz equation, lossy case : x2 + y2 + z2 = 2 = j 2 = ( + j)2
127
3D Helmholtz Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
128
3D Helmholtz Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates (continued)
129

Both Hankel functions have the same magnitude response 3.5 n=0 n=1 3 n=2
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0
|H(1)( )| = |H(2)( )|
Hankel Functions
10
12
Not surprisingly (due to their definitions), phase response distinguishes the Hankel functions of the first and second kinds. For a causal system, the phase response must have a negative slope when differentiated with respect to the direction of propagation. This implies that Hn(1) must correspond to waves traveling in the +r direction and Hn(1) to waves traveling in the r direction.
180 Hankel Function of 2 nd Kind Hankel Function of 1 st Kind 180 n=0 n=1 n=2
90
90
-90 n=0 n=1 n=2 2 4
-90
Hn ( )
-180 0
10
12
H n ( )
(1)
(2)
-180 0 2 4
10
12
130

Summary of solutions to cylindrical Helmholtz equation, lossless medium, time-harmonic excitations Product solutions to the separated differential equations include combinations of:
E z (r , , z ) = f (r ) g ( ) h(z )
standing waves C J m ( r r ) + D1 Ym ( r r ) f (r ) = 1 (1 ) ( 2) and + r directions C1 'H m ( r r ) + D1 'H m ( r r ) traveling waves in -r
C cos(m ) + D1 sin (m ) form #1 g ( ) = 1 (choose the form that best suits your boundary conditions) jm + D1 'e jm form #2 C1 'e
standing waves C cos( z z ) + D3 sin ( z z ) h( z ) = 3 j z z j z z and + z directions + D3 'e C 3 'e traveling waves in -z
2 where r2 + z = 2 = 2
Properties of Bessel and Hankel functions:

Given a Bessel function or Hankel function of order p denoted by Zp d [Z p (x )] = Z p1 (x ) p Z p (x ) = Z p+1 (x ) + p Z p (x )
dx x x
The same identity can be applied to modified Bessel functions by utilizing a complex argument . For integer-order Bessel functions:
J n (x ) = ( 1)n J n (x )
Bessel functions of the second kind:

1) H( p
Yn (x ) = lim
J p (x ) cos( p ) J p (x ) sin ( p )
p n
(x ) = J p (x ) + j Y p (x ) Hankel functions of the first kind: Hankel functions of the second kind: H (p2) (x ) = J p (x ) j Y p (x )
131
Helmholtz Product Solution Examples

Cylindrical Example: Find the fields due to a wire of radius a and infinite length located on the z-axis with z-directed surface current Jsz(t,z) = A cos(t zz) A/m along its length, where z < = . In TEM-mode transmission lines (e.g. twisted pair, microstrip, coaxial lines), there is no radiation and z = . A single, long wire will radiate, however, adding loss to the system. This implies a complex propagation constant z = z + z where z < . For this problem we will assume that we have z < but we will take z = 0 to simplify our analysis. This is equivalent to assuming that the change in |Jsz(t,z)| per unit length is small over the length of line we are analyzing. Since we started the problem assuming we have an infinite line to begin with, we left the realm of the realistic early on, anyway!
132
Helmholtz Product Solution Examples (continued)

Cylindrical Example (continued): But we must apply our current source boundary condition to the magnetic field, not the electric field.
133

Cartesian Example: Write a phasor-domain expression for the electric field for a z-polarized 150 MHz plane wave traveling in a medium with r = 4 given a 2y x = , an electric field magnitude of 1 V/m, and a direction of propagation n
5
phase of o at the origin.
134

Mixed-coordinate Example: Write a phasor-domain expression for the electric field in the geometry shown below assuming a TE-mode source located at x << 0 in the parallel-plate waveguide. A TE mode source in this geometry implies that the electric field is composed solely of a z component. Solve for the solution as completely as you can without knowing the source amplitude.
To make it easier to apply our boundary conditions, assume a Cartesian product-form solution in region and a cylindrical product-form solution in region . On the boundary between the two regions, the two solutions must agree. Region :
Since our geometry is bounded in y, we chose the sin/cos representation for the product-form solution. Since it is unbounded in x, we chose complex exponentials. This choice will make it easier to solve for the constants and possibly reduce the number of constants we need to find, but we can still get the correct answer if we guess wrong... it will just be more work to get there! Note that C e j x x = C1 cos( x x ) + D1 sin ( x x ) when C1 = C and D1 = j C .
135

Mixed-coordinate Example (continued): Region (continued):
136

Mixed-coordinate Example (continued): Region : note that the origin for this coordinate system is actually at some point xo < 0, where tan ( ) = a 2 , therefore xo = a xo 2 tan ( ) we must take this into account when we apply the boundary condition where the two regions meet and also note that the solution Ez2 is only valid when x > 0.
Final solution for region :
137
7. Waveguides
General Solution for +z-Direction Propagation
138
General Solution for +z-Direction Propagation (continued)
TEM Propagation Modes
139
TEM Propagation Modes (continued)
140
TEM Propagation Modes (continued)
141
TE Propagation Modes
142
TE Propagation Modes (continued)
143
TM Propagation Modes
144
Rectangular Waveguides
145
Rectangular Waveguides (continued)
146
147
148
Waveguide Cutoff
149
Phase Velocity
150
Phase Velocity (continued)
151
Phase Velocity (continued)
152
Cutoff Revisited
153
Propagation in Rectangular Waveguides

Propagation, Cutoff, and Dispersion Calculations
a (cm) b (cm) 7.214 3.404 1 0 43.5 2.08 f (Grad/ (GHz) s) 2.1 13.1 2.1 13.4 2.2 13.7 2.2 14.0 2.3 14.3 2.3 14.7 2.4 15.0 2.4 15.3 2.5 15.7 2.6 16.1 2.6 16.4 2.7 16.8 2.7 17.2 2.8 17.6 2.9 18.0 2.9 18.5 3.0 18.9 3.1 19.3 3.1 19.8 3.2 20.2 3.3 20.7 4.0 24.9 4.8 29.9 5.7 36.0 6.9 43.3 8.3 52.0 10.0 62.5 12.0 75.2 14.4 90.4 17.3 108.7 20.8 130.6 25.0 157.1 0 1 92.3 4.41 1 1 102.0 4.87 2 0 87.1 4.16 0 2 184.6 8.81 (Grad/ s) 55.4 56.7 58.0 59.3 60.7 62.1 63.6 65.1 66.6 68.1 69.7 71.3 73.0 74.7 76.4 78.2 80.0 81.9 83.8 85.8 87.8 105.5 126.9 152.5 183.4 220.5 265.0 318.6 383.1 460.6 553.7 665.8 2 1 126.9 6.06 m n kc,mn (rad/m) fc,mn (GHz)
Free Space
01 11 20 10 1 m g 1 m g 1 m g 1 m g f f f f (Grad/ (rad/ (Grad/ (rad/ (Grad/ (rad/ (rad/ (ns) (GHz) (ns) (GHz) (ns) (GHz) (ns) (GHz) s) s) s) m) m) m) m) 1.3 110.5 4.4 27.7 2.8 110.5 4.9 30.6 3.1 110.5 4.2 26.1 2.6 110.5 8.8 9.5 15.6 4.5 28.3 20.2 15.6 5.0 31.3 22.4 15.6 4.3 26.7 19.1 15.6 9.0 13.6 11.2 4.6 29.0 28.8 11.2 5.1 32.1 31.9 11.2 4.4 27.4 27.2 11.2 9.2 16.8 9.3 4.7 29.7 35.6 9.3 5.2 32.8 39.4 9.3 4.5 28.0 33.6 9.3 9.4 19.6 8.1 4.8 30.4 41.6 8.1 5.3 33.6 46.0 8.1 4.6 28.7 39.3 8.1 9.7 22.2 7.3 4.9 31.1 47.1 7.3 5.5 34.4 52.0 7.3 4.7 29.3 44.4 7.3 9.9 24.6 6.8 5.1 31.8 52.2 6.8 5.6 35.2 57.7 6.8 4.8 30.0 49.2 6.8 10.1 26.9 6.3 5.2 32.5 57.0 6.3 5.7 36.0 63.0 6.3 4.9 30.7 53.8 6.3 10.4 29.1 6.0 5.3 33.3 61.7 6.0 5.9 36.8 68.2 6.0 5.0 31.4 58.2 6.0 10.6 31.3 5.7 5.4 34.1 66.2 5.7 6.0 37.7 73.2 5.7 5.1 32.1 62.5 5.7 10.8 33.3 5.5 5.5 34.9 70.7 5.5 6.1 38.5 78.1 5.5 5.2 32.9 66.7 5.5 11.1 35.4 5.3 5.7 35.7 75.0 5.3 6.3 39.4 83.0 5.3 5.4 33.7 70.8 5.3 11.4 37.4 5.1 5.8 36.5 79.4 5.1 6.4 40.4 87.7 5.1 5.5 34.4 74.9 5.1 11.6 39.5 5.0 5.9 37.3 83.6 5.0 6.6 41.3 92.5 5.0 5.6 35.2 78.9 5.0 11.9 41.5 4.8 6.1 38.2 87.9 4.8 6.7 42.3 97.2 4.8 5.7 36.1 83.0 4.8 12.2 43.5 4.7 6.2 39.1 92.2 4.7 6.9 43.2 101.9 4.7 5.9 36.9 87.0 4.7 12.4 45.5 4.6 6.4 40.0 96.4 4.6 7.0 44.3 106.6 4.6 6.0 37.8 91.0 4.6 12.7 47.5 4.5 6.5 41.0 100.7 4.5 7.2 45.3 111.3 4.5 6.2 38.6 95.0 4.5 13.0 49.5 4.4 6.7 41.9 104.9 4.4 7.4 46.3 116.0 4.4 6.3 39.5 99.0 4.4 13.3 51.5 4.4 6.8 42.9 109.2 4.4 7.5 47.4 120.8 4.4 6.4 40.5 103.1 4.4 13.6 53.6 4.3 7.0 43.9 113.6 4.3 7.7 48.5 125.6 4.3 6.6 41.4 107.2 4.3 14.0 70.7 3.9 8.4 52.8 149.8 3.9 9.3 58.3 165.6 3.9 7.9 49.8 141.4 3.9 16.8 89.8 3.7 10.1 63.4 190.3 3.7 11.2 70.1 210.5 3.7 9.5 59.9 179.6 3.7 20.2 111.8 3.6 12.1 76.3 237.0 3.6 13.4 84.3 262.0 3.6 11.5 72.0 223.6 3.6 24.3 137.5 3.5 14.6 91.7 291.5 3.5 16.1 101.4 322.3 3.5 13.8 86.5 275.1 3.5 29.2 167.9 3.4 17.5 110.2 355.8 3.4 19.4 121.9 393.4 3.4 16.6 104.0 335.8 3.4 35.1 203.9 3.4 21.1 132.5 432.2 3.4 23.3 146.5 477.9 3.4 19.9 125.1 407.9 3.4 42.2 246.9 3.4 25.4 159.3 523.2 3.4 28.0 176.2 578.6 3.4 23.9 150.4 493.8 3.4 50.7 298.3 3.4 30.5 191.5 632.1 3.4 33.7 211.8 698.9 3.4 28.8 180.8 596.5 3.4 61.0 359.8 3.4 36.7 230.3 762.4 3.4 40.5 254.6 843.0 3.4 34.6 217.3 719.5 3.4 73.3 433.5 3.4 44.1 276.9 918.7 3.4 48.7 306.1 ##### 3.4 41.6 261.3 867.0 3.4 88.1 522.0 3.3 53.0 332.9 ##### 3.3 58.6 368.1 ##### 3.3 50.0 314.1 ##### 3.3 106.0
02 21 1 m g 1 m g 1 m g f f (Grad/ (rad/ (Grad/ (rad/ (rad/ (ns) (GHz) (ns) (GHz) (ns) s) s) m) m) m) 5.6 110.5 6.1 38.1 3.8 110.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.3 40.5 15.6 6.2 39.0 27.8 15.6 1.0 6.3 21.0 3.3 57.6 11.2 6.3 39.9 39.6 11.2 2.0 12.6 41.9 3.3 71.3 9.3 6.5 40.8 49.0 9.3 3.0 18.8 62.9 3.3 83.2 8.1 6.6 41.7 57.2 8.1 4.0 25.1 83.8 3.3 94.1 7.3 6.8 42.7 64.7 7.3 5.0 31.4 104.8 3.3 104.3 6.8 7.0 43.7 71.7 6.8 6.0 37.7 125.7 3.3 114.0 6.3 7.1 44.7 78.4 6.3 7.0 44.0 146.7 3.3 123.4 6.0 7.3 45.8 84.8 6.0 8.0 50.3 167.6 3.3 132.5 5.7 7.5 46.8 91.1 5.7 9.0 56.5 188.6 3.3 141.3 5.5 7.6 47.9 97.2 5.5 10.0 62.8 209.5 3.3 150.1 5.3 7.8 49.0 103.2 5.3 11.0 69.1 230.5 3.3 158.7 5.1 8.0 50.2 109.1 5.1 12.0 75.4 251.4 3.3 167.3 5.0 8.2 51.4 115.0 5.0 13.0 81.7 272.4 3.3 175.8 4.8 8.4 52.6 120.9 4.8 14.0 88.0 293.3 3.3 184.3 4.7 8.6 53.8 126.7 4.7 15.0 94.2 314.3 3.3 192.8 4.6 8.8 55.0 132.6 4.6 16.0 100.5 335.3 3.3 201.3 4.5 9.0 56.3 138.4 4.5 17.0 106.8 356.2 3.3 209.9 4.4 9.2 57.6 144.3 4.4 18.0 113.1 377.2 3.3 218.5 4.4 9.4 59.0 150.2 4.4 19.0 119.4 398.1 3.3 227.1 4.3 9.6 60.3 156.2 4.3 20.0 125.7 419.1 3.3 299.6 3.9 11.5 72.5 206.0 3.9 21.0 131.9 440.0 3.3 380.7 3.7 13.9 87.2 261.7 3.7 22.0 138.2 461.0 3.3 473.9 3.6 16.7 104.9 325.8 3.6 23.0 144.5 481.9 3.3 583.0 3.5 20.1 126.1 400.8 3.5 24.0 150.8 502.9 3.3 711.6 3.4 24.1 151.6 489.2 3.4 25.0 157.1 523.8 3.3 864.4 3.4 29.0 182.2 594.3 3.4 26.0 163.4 544.8 3.3 ##### 3.4 34.9 219.1 719.5 3.4 27.0 169.6 565.7 3.3 ##### 3.4 41.9 263.4 869.1 3.4 28.0 175.9 586.7 3.3 ##### 3.4 50.4 316.7 ##### 3.4 29.0 182.2 607.7 3.3 ##### 3.4 60.6 380.7 ##### 3.4 30.0 188.5 628.6 3.3 ##### 3.3 72.8 457.7 ##### 3.3 31.0 194.8 649.6 3.3
Group Delay in 1m Waveguide (ns)
500.0 450.0 400.0 140.0 120.0
50.0
m=1,n=0
45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
m=0,n=1 m=1,n=1 m=2,n=0 m=0,n=2 m=2,n=1 Free Space
(Grad/sec)
350.0
100.0 80.0
m=1,n=0
(rad/m)
300.0 250.0 200.0 150.0 100.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
m=1,n=0 m=0,n=1 m=1,n=1 m=2,n=0 m=0,n=2 m=2,n=1 Free Space
60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0
400.0
500.0
10.0
12.0
Frequency (GHz)
(rad/m)
Frequency (GHz)
This Excel spreadsheet is on the web site if you want to use it to look at the propagation characteristics of various rectangular waveguides.
154
Propagation in Rectangular Waveguides (continued)
versus Frequency
WR-284, Standard S-band Waveguide, a=2.84 in and b=1.34 in, air dielectric
500.0 450.0 400.0 350.0
(rad/m)
300.0 250.0
m=1,n=0
200.0 150.0 100.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
20.0
25.0
Frequency (GHz)
Points on the curve where mn0 represent the cutoff frequencies of the various modes, fc,mn
155
- for WR-284
140.0 120.0
(Grad/sec)
100.0 80.0
m=1,n=0
60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0
400.0
500.0
(rad/m)
phase velocity is the ratio of positions / group velocity is the slope of the curve d/d
156
Group Delay vs. Frequency

(1 m section of WR-284)
50.0
Group Delay in 1m Waveguide (ns)
m=1,n=0
45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
10.0
12.0
Frequency (GHz)
Group delay variations and the requirement to operate below the cutoff frequency of higher order modes inherently limit the usefulness of rectangular waveguide for carrying broadband communications signals... it is, however, excellent for power applications due to the low energy density and high fields that can be propagated before breakdown occurs.
157
8. Material Properties
158
Dielectric Materials
Constitutive Relation: Free Space:
v v xx D = [ ]E = yx zx
[ ] = o r [I ] v v v v = o [1 + e ]E = [ ' j "]E = o E + Pe ' o j " Electric Susceptibility: e = r 1 =

Isotropic Case: Electric Polarization:
v Pe =
v v D = oE v v D = o r E
xy yy zy
xz E x yz E y zz Ez
where
( ' o )2 + " 2
is the magnitude of o e and
v pe
v = oeE
o work must be applied to rotate the electric dipoles, " > 0 and the polarization will lag the changing field by . The polarization curve for this lossy case is shown as the ellipse in Figure 4. When loss occurs, the volumetric density of the energy dissipated per cycle can be found from T v r W de = C o E dPe where Co is a constant and T is the cycle
= arctan " ' , the negative of the phase of o e . If
r
v Pe
Vo
v V E= o z d
period of the applied field. Notice that the energy dissipated is proportional to the area enclosed between the lines of the elliptical hysteresis curve. The complex value of e often varies with frequency but most dielectric materials the v for v relationship between E and Pe is a linear (albeit complex) one. v Pe
Figure 1. DC voltage applied to parallel plate capacitor filled with an isotropic dielectric slab. Types of Electric Polarization: 1) Electronic. Occurs due to displacement of bound electrons from the center of an atom. v d v v pe = q d = dipole moment
lossless
v E
lossy
Figure 4. Electric polarization versus electric field for a linear, isotropic media. Separate curves are shown for examples of lossless and lossy dielectrics. Conductivity and Dielectric Loss: v v v v v Faradays Law: H = jD + J = jE + E v = j eff E Effective Permittivity: eff = ' j "+ Expanding,
center of +q charge center of q charge Figure 2. Nucleus and displaced electron cloud for an electronically polarized atom.
2) Orientational. The molecular structure is inherently polar. With no applied field, the electric dipoles are randomly oriented and therefore there is no polarization on a v macroscopic scale. When an external E field is applied, torque is exerted on the molecules (dipoles), reorienting them and aligning them with the direction of the field. e.g., water has two single covalent bonds, resulting in a strong dipole moment. Figure 3. Water is orientationally polarized.
v v H = [ j '+( "+ )]E "+ v = j ' 1 j E ' v = j ' [1 j tan ]E
O H
H 2O
v pe
Loss Tangent:
3) Ionic. The material consists of bound ions; an applied field breaks the bonds, allowing the ions to separate. e.g., NaCl Dielectric Hysteresis and Loss in Alternating Fields: The electric polarization versus electric field magnitude for an idealized lossless dielectric is shown as the straight line in Figure 4. If the electric susceptibility is purely real, the polarization and electric field will be in phase. For a lossy dielectric, e is complex in the frequency domain, implying direction, if that for a sinusoidal excitation in the n v v , Pe (t ) = E o ( ' o )2 + " 2 cos(t )n , E (t ) = E o cos(t )n
"+ "+ , = tan 1 ' ' For the capacitor shown in Figure 1, two forms of loss may occur. If there is an alternating applied field due to an AC source (replacing the DC source shown), dielectric loss will occur if work is required to rotate the electric dipoles ( " 0 ). Loss may also occur if the medium has a finite conductivity ( > 0 ); the resulting conduction current dissipates energy at a rate of I2R, where I is the RMS current and R is the effective resistance of the dielectric slab. Both the dielectric loss and conduction loss convert electrical energy into heat. The combined effects of dielectric and conduction loss are characterized for a given material by the loss tangent, tan . It is important to note that the loss tangent is highly dependent on frequency for most materials!
tan =
159
Magnetic Materials
xy xz H x v v xx B = [ ] H = yx yy yz Constitutive Relation: H y zx zy zz H z v v B = o H Free Space: v v [ ] = o r [I ] Isotropic Case: B = o r H v v v v = o [1 + m ]H = [ ' j "]H = o H + Pm
Magnetic Susceptibility: Magnetic Polarization:
m = r 1 =
v Pm =
v mi
S N
' o j " o
v = mH
d
S N S N
v N I H= z d S N S N S N N = # turns I = DC coil current (A) v S N = magnetic dipole, m i Figure 5. DC current applied to solenoidal coil filled with a para-, ferro-, antiferro- or ferrimagnetic core.
S N
v Pm
S N
S N
Classes of Magnetic Materials:
1) Diamagnetic. The moments of the electron spins and orbits arevboth v opposed to each other. With no externally applied H , Pm = 0 on a macroscopic scale. With an v v externally applied H , a slight Pm arises on a macroscopic v scale, opposing the applied H field. Diamagnetic materials have a slightly negative m and r slightly less than 1.0. e.g. copper, m = 9 10 , r = 0.999991 2) Paramagnetic. The moments of electron spins do not cancel each other out and each atom possesses a small v v magnetic moment. With no applied H , Pm = 0 on a v macroscopic scale. With an externally applied H , a v slight Pm arises on a macroscopic scale, supporting the v applied H field. For paramagnetic materials m is slightly positive and r slightly greater than 1.0. e.g. aluminum, m = 2 10 5 , r = 1.00002 3) Ferromagnetic. Strong atomic magnetic moments are present, primarily due to uncompensated electron spin moments. The magnetic moments of many atoms reinforce each other, forming regions called domains with dimensions typically from 1m to a few mm (depends on materials past magnetic state and history). With no v H , the domains are randomly oriented externally applied v and the net Pm = 0 on a macroscopic scale. With an v v externally applied H , the domain p m s align resulting in v very large overall Pm . Ferromagnetics have very large positive values of m and r , often exhibit a highly v v nonlinear relationship between B and H , and v can maintain polarization even after the applied H field is
6
removed due to material memory. e.g. iron, static r = 5000 m at 0 Hz 4) Antiferromagnetic. Strong magnetic moments are present but those for adjacent atoms are about equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. With no applied v v H , Pm = 0 on a macroscopic scale. With an externally v v applied H , a slight Pm arises on a macroscopic scale, v supporting the applied H field. For antiferromagnetic materials, m is slightly positive and r slightly greater than 1.0. e.g. nickel oxide. 5) Ferrimagnetic. Adjacent opposing magnetic moments are large v in magnitude but greatly unequal. With no v applied H , Pm = 0 on a macroscopic scale. With an v v externally applied H , a large Pm arises on a v macroscopic scale, supporting the applied H field. Ferrimagnetics have large positive values of m and r . Ferrites are a sub-class of ferrimagnetics with low electrical conductivities. Commercial ferrites are ceramic semiconductors and their low electrical conductivities result in smaller induced electrical currents and therefore less loss in alternating fields. Ferrites are used often in nonreciprocal components such as isolators, hybrids, gyrators, phase shifters, etc. e.g. nickel ferrite (NiO Fe2O3) and magnesium ferrite (MgO Fe2O3) with typical relative permeabilities 100 r 1000 v B saturation
v H
saturation Figure 6. Magnetization curve for typical ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials.
Magnetic Hysteresis and Loss in Alternating Fields:
The magnetic hysteresis curve for a typical ferro- or ferrimagnetic material is shown in Figure 6. Similar in form to dielectric loss, the volumetric density of the energy Tv v dissipated per cycle can be found from W dm = C o H dB
where Co is a constant and T is the cycle period of the applied field. This value is again related to the work required to rotate the dipoles and is proportional to the area enclosed by the hysteresis curve. Unlike the case with dielectrics, however, magnetic materials often exhibit a highly nonlinear v v relationship between B and H since m is a function of v H rather than a complex constant at a given frequency. For materials with nonzero electrical conductivity, circulating electric currents known as eddy currents are induced in the core. As was the case with dielectrics, these currents will result in I2R loss and there are therefore two mechanisms whereby loss can produce heat.
160
9. References
[1] Bernard Cohen, editor, Benjamin Franklins Experiments. Boston: Harvard University Press, 1941, pp. 331-338. [2] Robert S. Elliot, Electromagnetics History, Theory, and Applications. New York: IEEE Press, 1993. [3] Magdy F. Iskander, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1992. [4] Constantine A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics. New York: Wiley, 1989. [5] Simon Ramo, John R. Whinnery, Theodore Van Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, 3rd Edition. New York: Wiley, 1994. [6] David M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 2nd Edition. New York: Wiley, 1998.
161

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Electromagnetics 2 Course Notes

Fall 2004 M. W. Tompkins

Copyright Reserved 2004

1.7-1.12 1.14-1.16 1.17,1.18 1.20

4. Maxwells Equations ........................................................................................ 54

5. Finite-Difference Time-Domain Simulation .................................................... 83

6. 2D and 3D Boundary-Value Problems .......................................................... 104

7. Waveguides .................................................................................................... 138

8. Material Properties ......................................................................................... 158

9. References ...................................................................................................... 161

How Static IS It?

Electrostatic Constitutive Relations

Gauss Electric Law

Gauss Electric Law (continued)

Gauss Electric Law (continued)

Relationship between electric field and potential:

Potential of an Electric Dipole

Poissons and Laplaces Equations

Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

v Normal component of the electric flux density, D

Electrostatic Boundary Conditions (continued)

Electrostatic Boundary Conditions (continued)

Using Laplaces Equation via Direct Integration (1D Example)

Using Laplaces Equation via Direct Integration (1D Example)

Method of Images (continued)

Method of Images (continued)

Finite Difference Method

Finite Difference Method (continued)

Finite Difference Method (continued)

Show Covered_Trough.ppt slides at this point.

Finite Difference Method (continued)

Finite Difference Method (continued)

Electrostatic Energy Storage

Electrostatic Energy Storage (continued)

Fundamental Magnetostatic Laws

Fundamental Magnetostatic Laws (continued)

Fundamental Magnetostatic Laws (continued)

Example: Magnetic field of a solenoid

Example: Magnetic field of a solenoid (continued)

Example: Magnetic field of a solenoid (continued)

Differential and Integral Forms of Magnetostatic Laws

dSz y Cy dSy z dSx Cx x Cz

Differential and Integral Forms of Magnetostatic Laws (continued)

Magnetic Vector Potential

Magnetic Vector Potential (continued)

Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions

Summary of Electrostatics and Magnetostatics

Food for Magnetostatic Thought

Food for Magnetostatic Thought (continued)

Displacement Current (continued)

Time-Harmonic Forms for Maxwells Equations

Time-Harmonic Forms for Maxwells Equations (continued)

One-Dimensional Helmholtz Wave Equation

One-Dimensional Helmholtz Wave Equation (continued)

One-Dimensional Helmholtz Wave Equation (continued)

From M. F. Iskanders Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, p. 161. [3]

One-Dimensional Helmholtz Wave Equation (continued)

cut to traveling wave demo

Poynting Power Vector

Poynting Power Vector (continued)

Poynting Power Vector (continued)

Poynting Power Vector (continued)