10

0634841
Pumps and Compressors

Week 10
Thermodynamics of Compressors
Work, Temperature Rise, and Efficiency of Compression
Given the gas weight rate and given the desired or intended compression
ratio, P
2
/P
1
, it is necessary to be able to estimate the power required, and the
temperature rise per stage of compression. Compressive work results in an
increase in gas enthalpy and this means temperature rise. Heat may have to
be extracted from the compressed gas to avoid equipment damage and to
reduce the volume of the gas. Isothermal compression would be ideal but
difficult to achieve. Adiabatic operation is closer to reality in most cases. A first
analysis of compression may assume this condition and is described here.
Adiabatic Treatment
The pressurevolume relationship during an adiabatic change is given by
PV
= C a constant
where is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at
constant volume.
The work of compression (negative because it is being done on the gas) is
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = + =

1
1
) ( ) (
1
1
2 1 1
2 2 1 1
P
P V p
p Vd V p V pd V p W
f
The product P
1
V
1
may be replaced by ZRT
1
/MW
where Z is the compressibility factor
R is the gas constant (8314 joules per kilogram-mole per kelvin)
T
1
is the initial gas temperature (kelvins)
MW is the molecular weight of the gas

In practice, the required work is always greater, so an adiabatic efficiency
factor
ad
is inserted into the denominator of the right-hand side of the above
equation.

If the gas follows the ideal gas law then
T =PV/a constant = P(P/C)
1/
/a constant
So T
2
/T
1
=(P
2
/P
1
)
( -1)/

For example, if P
2
/P
1
is 5/1 and if is 1.4, then T
2
/T
1
is 1.58. If the initial
temperature is 50
0
C, i.e.323 K, then the final temperature is 512 K or 239
0
C.

In practice, the final temperature is always somewhat greater than this
prediction. If the temperature T
2
predicted by the above equation is called T
ad
,
then the adiabatic efficiency is
ad
= (T
ad
-T
1
)/(T
2
-T
1
) where T
2
is the actual exit
temperature. Then
T
2
=T
1
+ {[(P
2
/P
1
)
( -1)/
] * T
1
-T
1
}/
ad

Polytropic Treatment
A different approach, favored by compressor manufacturers, is to recognize
that adiabatic behavior is not exactly followed and to do the above calculation
based on a revised polytropic version of the above equation.
PV
n
=C a constant
where n is experimentally observed by tests and is generally greater than .
For instance, if n is 1.45, then the modified form of the Equation
T
2
/T
1
= (P
2
/P
1
)
(n -1)/n

leads to a prediction of T
2
equal to 259
0
C.
Use of the polytropic approach does not completely eliminate the need for an
efficiency factor but the residual inefficiency is smaller and more constant. So
the work of compression is calculated by a modification of the work eqn. as
( )
p
n
n
f
P
P V p
W
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
1
1
1
2 1 1
where
p
is the polytropic efficiency factor.
The value of n and an estimate of
p
are
supplied by the compressor manufacturer.
W
has units of joules per kilogram or of meter-kilogram-force per kilogram.

Because of the latter units, W
is called the adiabatic head in units of meter.

The power required by the compressor is given by
Pw
r
= -W
f
(J /kg) x weight rate of gas (kg/ s) W
Pw
r
= -W
f
(ft) x weight rate of gas (lb/min) /(60x550) hp
Use of Thermodynamic Charts
If a chart of entropy-versus-enthalpy is available for the gas then it may be
used directly to make the adiabatic estimate and then to correct it for
efficiency. Gases such as hydrocarbons deviate from the ideal gas laws
significantly, and therefore thermodynamic charts or equations
are the preferred method of calculating horsepower and discharge
temperatures. In the example steam is compressed from an initial state of
30 psia and 320F (point 1 in Fig.) to a pressure of 50 psia following a line of
constant entropy (isentropic). It can be seen that the initial enthalpy is
approximately 1200 Btu/ lb and the enthalpy at point 2 is 1245 Btu/lb. The
difference in enthalpy is the ideal adiabatic horsepower or 45 Btu/ lb (0.018
hp/ lb/hr). If the compressor actually has an adiabatic efficiency of 50% then
the exit conditions of the gas would be at point 3,50 psia, 514
0
F, and the
total horsepower consumed would be 90 Btu/ lb (0.035 hp/ lb/ hr).
Compressor required head can be calculated from the equation:
Head =Enthalpy/g (where g is the gravitational constant)
Thermodynamic chart for steam
Total Compressor Power
The power calculated above was the gas power (GP). To obtain the total
power requirements, the losses due to friction in bearings, seals, and speed-
increasing gears must be added. An approximate equation for this is
Brake power BP = GP+ Mechanical losses
where mechanical losses GP
0.4

Field Determination of Compression Horsepower
The complexity of using these calculations to determine energy use or motor
horsepower for a multistage compressor, in combination with having to know
the adiabatic and mechanical efficiencies (which may not be available), has
led to a simplified empirical approach. Using a current meter to determine
the electrical power usage of the compressor and an air flow meter to
determine the gas flow through the compressor, a value for the air flow
m
3
/h/kW of electricity can be determined. Typical values for compressing air
are 10 m
3
/h/kW for 100 psig air, and 7 m
3
/h/kW for 175 psig air.
Required Number of Stages
For most available compressors, compression ratios (P
disch
/P
inlet
) usually
vary from 1.05 to 7 per stage, but a ratio of 3.5 to 4 per stage is reasonable
for most compressors.

Sealing systems are usually limited to about 300
0
F (148
0
C) and this in turn
limits the stage compression ratio. Some gases, such as oxygen, chlorine,
and acetylene, require that the temperatures be maintained below 200
0
F
(93
0
C).

The number of compression and cooling stages can be estimated based on
meeting this requirement. Theoretically, the minimum power used occurs
when all stages have the same compression ratio, and thus

Compression ratio per stage = (Total compression ratio)
(1 / #stages)
Work done in a single stage reciprocating compressor without
clearance volume: Air enters compressor at pressure p
1
and is compressed
up to p
2
. Compression work requirement can be estimated from the area
below the each compression process. Area on p-V diagram shows that work
requirement shall be minimum with isothermal process 1-2. Work
requirement is maximum with process 1-2 ie., adiabatic process. Ideal
compression should occur isothermally for minimum work input. In practice it
is not possible to have isothermal compression. Generally, compressors run
at substantially high speed while isothermal
compression requires compressor to run at
very slow speed so that heat evolved during
compression is dissipated out and temperature
remains constant. Actually due to high speed
running of compressor the compression
process may be assumed to be near adiabatic
or polytropic process following law of
compression as Pv
n
=C with of n varying
between 1.25 to 1.35 for air.
Actual compression process should be compared with isothermal
compression process. A mathematical parameter called isothermal efficiency
is defined for quantifying the degree of deviation of actual compression
process from ideal compression process. Isothermal efficiency is defined by
the ratio of isothermal work to the actual indicated work in reciprocating
compressor. Practically, compression process is attempted to be closed to
isothermal process by air/water cooling, spraying cold water during
compression process. In case of multistage compression process the
compression in different stages is accompanied by intercooling in between
the stages. Mathematically, for the compression work following polytropic
process, PV
n
=C. Assuming negligible clearance volume the cycle work done.

Wc = Area on p-V diagram

( )( )
1 2 1 1
1 1 2 2
2 2
1 1
T T mR
n
n
V p
n
V p V p
V p Wc
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
In case of compressor having isothermal compression process,
n = 1, ie., p
1
V
1
= p
2
V
2

where r=V
1
/V
2
r V p V p r V p V p W
iso
ln ln
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
= + =
In case of compressor having adiabatic compression process,
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
1
h h m T T mC T T mR W
p adia
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|

( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
1
ln
1
1
2
1 1
1 1
n
n
iso
p
p
V p
n
n
r V p
The isothermal efficiency of a compressor should be close to 100% which

means that actual compression should occur following a process close to
isothermal process. For this there are some mechanisms to be derived to
maintain constant temperature during compression process.
Different arrangements which can be used are:
(i) Faster heat dissipation from inside of compressor to outside by use of fins
over cylinder. Fins facilitate quick heat transfer from air being compressed to
atmosphere so that temperature rise during compression can be minimized.
(ii) Water jacket may be provided around compressor cylinder so that heat can
be picked by cooling water circulating through water jacket.
(iii) The water may also be injected at the end of compression process in order
to cool the air being compressed. This water injection near the end of
compression process requires special arrangement in compressor and also the
air gets mixed with water and needs to be separated out before being used.
Water injection also contaminates the lubricant film inner surface of cylinder
and may initiate corrosion etc, The water injection is not popularly used.
(iv) In case of multistage compression in different compressors operating
serially, the air leaving one compressor may be cooled up to ambient state or
somewhat high temperature before being injected into subsequent compressor.
This cooling of fluid being compressed between two consecutive compressors
is called intercooling and is frequently used in case of multistage compressors.
Work done in a single stage reciprocating compressor with clearance
volume: With clearance volume the cycle is represented on the below Figure.
The work done for compression of air polytropically can be given by the area
enclosed in cycle 1-2-3-4. Clearance volume in compressors varies from
1.5% to 35% depending upon type of compressor.
W
c,with CV
= Area 1234
( ) ( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
1
1
1
1
4
3
4 4
1
1
2
1 1 ,
n
n
n
n
withCV c
p
p
V p
n
n
p
p
V p
n
n
W
Here P
1
= P
4
, P
2
= P
3

( ) ( )
4 1
1
1
2
1 ,
1
1
V V
p
p
p
n
n
W
n
n
withCV c

(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

In the cylinder of reciprocating compressor (V
1
-V
4
) shall be the actual volume
of air delivered per cycle. V
d
= V
1
V
4
. This (V
1
V
4
) is actually the volume
of air in the cycle and delivered subsequently.
( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
1
1
1
2
1 ,
n
n
d withCV c
p
p
V p
n
n
W
If air is considered to behave as perfect gas then pressure, temperature,
volume and mass can be inter related using perfect gas equation (pV=mRT).
The mass at state 1 may be given as m
1
, mass at state 2 shall be m
1
, but at
state 3 after delivery mass reduces to m
2
and at state 4 it shall be m
2
.

Ideally there shall be no change in temperature during suction and delivery
i.e., T
4
= T
1
and T
2
= T
3
from earlier equation.

Temperature and pressure can be related as,
1
2
1
1
2
T
T
p
p
n
n
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

and
3
4
1
3
4
T
T
p
p
n
n
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

3
4
1
2
1
T
T
p
p
n
n
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

Substiuting
( )
(

|
.
|
\
|
= 1
1
1
2
4 2 1 1 ,
T
T
RT m RT m
n
n
W
withCV c
Substituting for constancy of temperature during suction and delivery
( ) ( )
1 2 2 1 ,
1
T T R m m
n
n
W
withCV c

|
.
|
\
|
=
Thus (m
1
-m
2
) denotes the mass of air sucked or delivered. For unit mass of
air delivered the work done per kg of air can be given as,
( )
1 2 ,
1
T T R
n
n
W
withCV c

|
.
|
\
|
= per kg of air
Thus from above expressions it is obvious that the clearance volume
reduces the effective swept volume i.e., the mass of air handled but the work
done per kg of air delivered remains unaffected.
For single acting compressor running with N rpm, power input required,
assuming clearance volume.
( ) ( ) N V V p
p
p
n
n
red Powerrequi
n
n
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
4 1 1
1
1
2
1
1
For double acting compressor, Power
( ) ( ) N V V p
p
p
n
n
red Powerrequi
n
n
2 1
1
4 1 1
1
1
2
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
Efficiency of Compressors
Volumetric Efficiency: Volumetric efficiency of compressor is the measure
of the deviation from volume handling capacity of compressor.
Mathematically, the volumetric efficiency is given by the ratio of actual
volume of air sucked and swept volume of cylinder. Ideally the volume of air
sucked should be equal to the swept volume of cylinder, but it is not so in
actual case. Practically the volumetric efficiency lies between 60 to 90%.
Volumetric efficiency can be overall volumetric efficiency and absolute
volumetric efficiency as given below.
LPcylinder of volume Swept
cylinder in sucked air free of Volume
efficiency volumetric Overall =
fac
fac
LPcylinder of volume Swept
cylinder in sucked air free of Volume
efficiency Volumetric
) (
) ( =
Here free air condition (fac) refers to the standard conditions, 1 atm and 15
o
C.
Consideration for fac is necessary as otherwise the different compressors can
not be compared using volumetric efficiency because specific volume or
density of air varies with altitude. It may be seen that a compressor at sea
level shall deliver large mass than the same compressor at high altitude.
This concept is used for giving the capacity of compressor in terms of free
air delivery (FAD). Free air delivery is the volume of air delivered being
reduced to free air conditions. In case of air the free air delivery can be
obtained using perfect gas equation as,
( ) ( )
2
3 2 2
1
4 1 1
T
V V p
T
V V p
T
V p
a
a a

=
=
( )
cycle per FAD
T
V V p
p
T p
V
a
a
a
=
=
1
4 1 1 1
Where subscript a or p
a
, V
a
, T
a
denote properties at free air conditions. This
volume V
a
gives free air delivered per cycle by the compressor. Absolute
volumetric efficiency can be defined, using NTP conditions in place of free
air conditions.
( )
( )
( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
= =
s
c s
a
a
a
a a
vol
V
V V V
T p
T p
V V T p
V V T p
V V
V
volume Swept
FAD
4
1
1
3 1 1
4 1 1
2 1
Here V
s
is the swept volume = V
1
V
3
and V
c
is the clearance volume = V
3

Let the ratio of clearance volume to swept volume be given by C=V
c
/V
s

|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
n
a
a
a
a
vol
P
P
C C
T p
T p
V
V
C C
T p
T p
1
1
2
1
1
3
4
1
1
1 1
Volumetric efficiency depends on ambient pressure and temperature, suction
pressure and temperature, ratio of clearance to swept volume, and pressure
limits. Volumetric efficiency increases with decrease in pressure ratio in
compressor.
Work and Energy
Mathematical analysis of multistage compressor is done with following
assumptions:

(i) Compression in all the stages is done following same index of
compression and there is no pressure drop in suction and delivery
pressures in each stage. Suction and delivery pressure remains constant in
the stages.
(ii) There is perfect intercooling between compression stages.
(iii) Mass handled in different stages is same i.e, mass of air in LP and HP
stages are same.
(iv) Air behaves as perfect gas during compression.

Work and Energy
From combined p-V diagram the compressor work requirement can be given as,
( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
1
1
1
2
1 1
n
n
LP
p
p
V p
n
n
W
Work requirement in LP cylinder,
( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
1
1
1
2
2 2
n
n
HP
p
p
V p
n
n
W
Work requirement in HP cylinder,
For perfect intercooling, p
1
V
1
= p
2
V
2

Therefore, total work requirement, W
c
= W
LP
+ W
HP
, for perfect inter cooling
( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

2
1
1
1
' 2
1
1
2
1 1
n
n
n
n
c
p
p
p
p
V p
n
n
W
Work and Energy
Minimum work required in two stage compressor can be given by
( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1 2
1
1
1
2
1 1 min ,
n
n
c
p
p
V p
n
n
W
For i number of stages, minimum work,
( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

+
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 min ,
ni
n
i
c
p
p
V p
n
n
i W
It also shows that for optimum pressure ratio the work required in different
stages remains same for the assumptions made for present analysis. Due to
pressure ratio being equal in all stages the temperature ratios and maximum
temperature in each stage remains same for perfect intercooling.
Work and Energy
Energy balance: Energy balance may be applied on the different components
constituting multistage compression.
For LP stage the steady flow energy equation can be written as below:
m.h
1
+W
LP
=m.h
2
+Q
LP
Q
LP
=W
LP
-m(h
2
-h
1
)=W
LP
-m.Cp(T
2
-T
1
)
For intercooling between LP and HP stage steady flow energy equation shall be
m.h
2
=m.h
2
+Q
Int
Q
int
=m(h
2
-h
2
)=m.Cp(T
2
-T
2
)
For HP stage the steady flow energy equation yields:
m.h
2
+W
HP
=m.h
3
+Q
HP
Q
HP
=W
HP
+m(h
2
-h
3
)=W
HP
-m.Cp(T
3
-T
2
)
In case of perfect intercooling and optimum pressure ratio, T
2
=T
1
and T
2
=T
3

Hence for these conditions,
Q
LP
=W
LP
-m.Cp(T
2
-T
1
)
Q
Int
=m.Cp(T
2
-T
1
)
Q
HP
=W
HP
-m.Cp(T
2
-T
1
)
Total heat rejected during compression shall be the sum of heat rejected
during compression and heat extracted in intercooler for perfect intercooling.
Testing of Compressors
At manufacturing stage, the compressor is tested for cracks in the cast body.
Mixture of Air & Helium is sent inside the compressor & maintained at 300 psi
& held for 7 to 9 minutes. The reason for the mixture of helium is because
helium has its molecules, smaller than that of air which penetrates deep
inside to check for pores or crack.

Over a period of time performance of the compressors and compressed air
systems get deteriorated. This could be due to various reasons such as poor
maintenance, wear & tear, use of poor quality lubricants etc.

The reduction in performance of air compressors leads to increase in overall
power consumption, installation of additional compressors and increase in
cost of compressed air. Hence a periodic check on the performance of
compressors is required to ensure rated compressed air delivery, operating
efficiency and specific power consumption.

The compressed air leakage level has to be periodically monitored. The
increase in leakage level leads to increased energy loss. The leakage level in
the plant can be monitored by carrying out leakage test.
Performance test
The following are determined by carrying out the performance test on the
compressors.

Free air delivery (FAD)
Free air delivery is the quantity of compressed air delivered by the
compressor at ambient pressure.

Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual free air delivered to the
compressor swept volume.

Specific power consumption
Specific power consumption of the compressor is the ratio of actual power
consumption to the quantity of free air delivered.

After carrying out the performance test the actual performance of the
compressor has to be compared with the design values. Suitable measures
could be taken to improve the operating efficiency.
Measurement of Free air delivered by the compressor
The quantity of free air delivered by the compressor can be measured by any
of the following two methods.
Nozzle method
Pump up method

Nozzle method
The compressor receiver is connected with a specially designed nozzle. The
compressor is put into operation and the compressed air is discharged to
atmosphere through the nozzle. Sonic flow sets in the nozzle throat for a
particular ratio of upstream pressure to the down stream pressure.
When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for a particular period of
time, the compressed air delivered by the compressor is equal to the quantity
of airflow through the nozzle. The air flow through the nozzle can be
calculated from the known characteristics of the nozzle.
Before the nozzle a straightener and a control valve are installed.
Straightener is used to ensure streamlined airflow and the control valve is
used to set the pressures at the inlet to nozzle.
The testing arrangement for the nozzle method
The nozzle used for the flow measurement has to be selected based on the
installed capacity of the compressor. The recommended nozzle dimensions
for flow measurement for various capacity of compressors is given below. The
experiment can be carried out for different discharge pressure of
compressors. The discharge pressures can be 40%, 60%, 100% and 110% of
normal operating pressure of compressor.
It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve
should be equal to or twice the pressure beyond throttle. Once the system is
stabilized and the pressure in the
receiver is maintained constant for a
period of time the following
measurements have to be carried out.
The quantity of free air delivered by the compressor can be calculated using
the following formula.
( )( )
2
1
3
2 4 3
1
1
2
2
4
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
T
R P P P
P
T d
K Q
a
f

Free air delivered
Where
K - Coefficient of discharge of nozzle
d - Diameter of the nozzle, m
R
a
- Gas constant 287.1 J /kgK
P
1
- Absolute inlet pressure, bar
T
1
- Inlet temperature, K
P
2
- Absolute pressure in receiver, bar
T
3
- Absolute temperature before nozzle, K
P
3
- Absolute pressure before nozzle, bar
P
3
- P
4
- Differential pressure across the nozzle, bar
Compressor swept volume
Free air delivered (m
3
/min)
Compressor swept volume (m
3
/min)
Volumetric efficiency = x 100
4
2
LSnN D
=
D - Diameter of the cylinder in m
L - Stroke length in m
S - Compressor speed in rpm
n - Number of cylinders in compressor
N = 1 for single acting compressor and 2 for double acting
Actual power consumption
Measured free air delivered
Specific power consumption =
Free air delivered measurement using Pump up test method
The pump up test method is the simplest method of estimating the capacity of
the compressor in the shop floor itself. The free air delivered can be
measured without using any sophisticated measuring instruments.
The compressor to be tested and a known volume of receiver have to be
isolated separately from the main line. Totally empty the compressed air
receiver and close the outlet valve of the receiver. Also it should be ensured
that there is no condensate water inside the receiver and the drain valve is
also fully closed.
Start the compressor and note down the time taken for raise in pressure in
the receiver to the normal operating pressure (P
2
) from the initial pressure
(P
1
). The same exercise can be repeated for about three times. The free air
delivered by the compressed air can be calculated using the following
formula.
Free air delivered by the compressor (m
3
/min)
T
V
P
P P
atm
1 2

=
Where
P
2
- Final pressure in the receiver, bar (abs)
P
1
- Initial pressure in the receiver, bar (abs)
P
atm
- Atmospheric pressure, bar (abs)
V - Volume of compressed air storage, m
3
T - Time taken to build up pressure from P
1
to P
2
in minutes
While estimating the volume of compressed air storage the volume of after
cooler, volume of pipeline from the after cooler to the receiver should be
included along with receiver volume.
Also, since the compressed air temperature at discharge is higher than the
ambient temperature, the free air delivered has to be multiplied by the
following correction factor.
273
273
1
+
+
=
T
T
atm
Correction factor
T
1
- Temperature of compressor at discharge
T
atm
- Ambient temperature in
o
C
Compressed air Leakage test
The leakage test has to be periodically carried out to estimate the
compressed air leakage in the plant. The leakage test has to be carried out,
when there are no compressed air users in operation.
Run the compressor and pressurize the system to the normal pressure. Once
the system reaches the normal operating pressure the compressor will get
unloaded.
If there is no leakages inside the plant the compressor should remain in the
unload condition and should not get loaded again. But in actual practice due
to compressed air leakages the system pressure will come down and the
compressor will go to load mode.
The loading and unloading of the compressor indicates the compressed air
leakage inside the plant. Note down the load / unload time (take at least 3
readings)
The compressed air leakage can be estimated using the formula given below.
Load time
Load time + Unload time
The system leakages = x capacity of compressor
Air leakage
Compressor capacity
% leakage = x 100
Cost of compressed air leakages
The cost of compressed air leakage at 7.0 bar pressure is given below :
*Based on $0.5/kWh; 8000 operating hours; air at 7.0 bar pressure
$
Compressed air distribution
While designing the compressed air layout and distribution, it should be
ensured that the pressure drop in the system is very minimal.

Plant Layout
Compressed air layout can be of two types such as centralized and
decentralized compressor systems. Each system has its own advantages.
The location of the compressors, suction pipe work and discharge pipe work
are vital in configuring the plant layout.
In centralized compressor system all the compressors are located in a single
house. This provides greater cost effectiveness in process plants.
Decentralized compressor system is more suitable for plants having multiple
production lines and requiring compressed air at different pressures. The
compressors are dedicated to the individual production lines and their
pressure needs. Centralized compressed air systems usually require
additional space to provide adequate ventilation and additional piping to
reach the user end which can increase pressure drops. The decentralized air
layout allows for compressors to be located closest to the largest air users
and reduces pressure drop through the airlines. However this configuration
can also result in noise and heat complaints inside the plant.
Location of compressors
Ideally compressors should be located where it can induct clean, dry and cool
air. One of the major issues related to the compressor location is the ambient
temperature. The compressed air system exposed to extremely high
temperatures can result in higher specific power consumption, unscheduled
shutdowns, increased maintenance and decrease in lubricant life.
Ventilation is equally important for all compressors regardless of type of cooling.

It would be interesting to note that for every 4
o
C reduction in intake air
temperature there is 1% reduction in compressor power consumption.

At design stage, it is important to plan for proper ventilation and access to
compressor location. The locations exceeding temperature of 45
o
C should be
avoided. A free space of about 1 m around the compressor needs to be provided
for maintenance and 1 m for motor starter access panel. Addressing the issue of
ventilation at the design stage can help in increasing the life of the compressor,
Lubricating oil and the coolant.
The following points should be considered while locating the compressors.
Low humidity to reduce water entrainment
Adequate ventilation especially for air cooled unit.
Minimum suction piping
Minimum of bends

Suction pipe work
The following points should be considered while designing the suction pipe
work for air compressor installations.
The piping should be kept short to avoid excessive condensation and
pressure loss.
A high efficiency filter should be fitted to collect particulate matter. Generally
filters with dry disposable elements are suitable.
Sufficient access should be provided for inspection and cleaning of filters.
The intake silencer fitted with filter should be located upstream of the silencer
to minimize the effect of pulsation.
The piping should be large enough to avoid excessive energy losses.
For every 25 m of pressure lost at the inlet, the compressor efficiency is
reduced by approximately 2%.
Discharge pipe work
The following points have to be considered while designing the discharge
pipe work for the compressor.
Discharge piping should be full bore i.e. the size of the compressor outlet.
Pipe work should fall in direction of flow towards the air receiver and after
cooler.
The air receiver should be located close to the air compressor and the pipe
work should be as short as possible.
Safety valve should be fitted for positive displacement compressors.
Normally, it is set to release when the line pressure exceeds the operating
pressure by 5-10%.

Compressed air Distribution
Compressed air layout should be selected, to minimize the length of piping
between the air compressor and the farthest user of compressed air user.
In systems with a large distribution network, it is preferable to have
compressor centrally located, to minimize the length of piping between the
compressor and the farthest end in the plant.
Some common layouts used are shown in Fig below:

Out of these four headers, loop header is the
most desired and energy efficient layout to obtain
minimum pressure drop. In some cases, where
there is a minimal usage of compressed air at
farthest ends, a dedicated small capacity
compressor can be installed.
The following points should be considered for the distribution pipe work.
The drainage points should be installed with the aid of equal Ts. Due to
sudden change in direction of flow these fittings assist the separation of
water drops from the air.
The pipe work should fall in the direction of flow. The gradient can be kept
at approximately 1 in 100.
Distribution branch connections should be taken from the top of the main to
reduce water entrainment in the air.
Drain traps should be provided at all low points
The drain traps should be protected from the ingress of foreign matter by
installing a strainer.
The drain traps in the main line can be installed at every 30-40 m for
effective water removal.
Install pressure gauges in various sections of the entire distribution system
for monitoring the pressure in different sections of the network
The number of joints and bends in the distribution network should be
minimum. Further to minimize the joints, it should be ensured that joints are
welded, instead of flexible or screwed joints wherever possible. This
facilitates in minimizing the leakages and pressure drop.
Compressor Cooling Systems
Cooling of air compressors merits tremendous important since it affects the
energy efficiency. Cooling systems could be either air cooled or water cooled:

Air cooled compressors: These compressors use fan for forced cooling of
the compressors. Due to the low cooling efficiency, this type of cooling is
mostly used for low capacity compressors having intermittent usage.

Water cooled compressors: For heavy duty or continuous applications
water cooling system is adopted, as the efficiency of cooling is high.
Cooling water pumps
The cooling water pumps are designed such that, only one pump caters to a
series of compressors. This is a common feature in almost all the industries.
The pumps are designed keeping in view that all compressors are operated
continuously. But in actual practice, only 50 to 60 % of the compressors are
operated. This results in pumping of excess water, leading to higher power
consumption. A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) for the cooling water pumps
can be considered wherever dedicated systems are not possible. This will
result in considerable amount of power savings, as well as good process
control.
Alternatively, dedicated cooling water pumps i.e., a separate pump for each
compressor can be installed at the design stage. This not only saves power,
but also increases the flexibility of operation. The suggested norms are 12.5
lt/s of water per 1 m
3
/s of air, 4.25 kW power consumption per 1 m
3
/s of air
(for 20 m head pump).
Soft, clean water is required for cooling the compressor cylinder jackets,
intercooler and after cooler. The temperature of cooling water should be as
low as possible. Lowering the temperature of the cooling water increases the
volumetric efficiency and reduces overall power consumption.
Cooling tower
Cooling tower is an area which merits due importance, since it also
consumes power. For compressors the cooling tower should be designed for
heat duty specified by the compressor manufacturer. To select a cooling
tower the water flow rate, water inlet temperature, water outlet temperature
and ambient wet bulb temperatures must be considered.
At design stage any margin on wet bulb temperature is not recommended. In
some cases it is useful to provide design margins on cold well temperature.
The margin on cold well temperature will result in increase in capital cost. It
is usually not economical to design a tower with approach below 3
o
C.
Film flow fills are utilized for compressor applications in case where clean
water is available. If the water quality is poor i.e suspended solids > 100 ppm
splash fills may be used.
Usually, the cooling tower fans operate continuously throughout the year. The
load is lower during nights and higher during day time. This fluctuation has to
be kept in view and a temperature indicator controller (TIC) has to be
incorporated in cooling tower fan. This temperature control should
automatically cut off cooling tower fan at 30
o
C and start the cooling tower
fan at 32
o
C (Suggested temperatures are typically desired temperatures).
Compressed Air Dryers
Moisture in Atmospheric air
The atmospheric air has certain amount of moisture. The moisture holding
capacity of air depends on the ambient temperature. Higher the temperature
more the moisture holding capacity of air in the form of water vapour and
vice versa. Saturated air at a given temperature is the air that contains the
maximum amount of water in the form of water vapour. Any excess water
vapour will be condensed in the form of water.

Dew point temperature
The extent of drying compressed air is expressed by the term Atmospheric
dew point, which is the temperature at
which moisture present in the air starts
condensing at atmospheric pressure.
Lower the dew point, more dry is the air.
Air at -40
o
C atmospheric dew point means
no moisture would condense unless
temperature of the air is reduced to less
than 40
o
C, at atmospheric pressure.
Effect of water vapor in compressed air
The compressor compresses the air with certain amount of water vapor
depending upon the temperature and relative humidity. When the compressed
air is cooled in the after cooler the water vapor in the compressed air gets
condensed and significant amount of water is removed. Typically the after
cooler removes about 50-60% of water vapor.

When the air leaves the after cooler and passes through the compressed air
lines, the temperature of the compressed air further reduces. The remaining
water vapor in the air starts condensing.

The effects of water particles in the compressed air are given below.
The water particles travel at the same velocity of compressed air and
damages the pneumatic valves or instruments at the user ends.
Corrosion in the distribution pipe work
Impaired finishing processes particularly in paint spraying
Compressed air Drying
The water vapor in the compressed air has to be removed. This can be
achieved by passing the compressed air through the air dryers.
There are two methods of compressed air drying.
Refrigeration drying
Adsorption drying

1.Refrigeration drying:
Refrigeration drying is based on the principle that
when the temperature of the compressed air is
lowered, the moisture holding capacity is reduced.
By lowering the temperature the water vapor in the
compressed air is condensed and removed.
It is a simple mechanical refrigeration system, wherein
the dew point is reduced by chilling. Additionally there
is a second heat exchanger, where in the outgoing cool
air pre cools the incoming compressed air. The
Maximum achievable atmospheric dew point in this kind
of refrigeration system is 20
o
C.
2. Adsorption Drying
In adsorption drying compressed air is passed through a bed of desiccant
material where the moisture adheres to the surface.
These desiccants have a very large internal surface. They are once saturated
with moisture can be regenerated and reused.

These adsorption dryers can be classified into the following:
a. Desiccant heated, blower reactivated type
b. Desiccant heat less purge type
c. Desiccant Heat of compression type
a. Desiccant heated blower reactivated type
This dryer consists of two pressure vessels filled with desiccants, which has
the property to adsorb water. While one vessel is in service, the other vessel
will be in regeneration mode. Regeneration involves heating and cooling of the
desiccant, before put into use.
A blower and external heater is used to achieve the regenerating temperature.
The operating cost is higher because of the heater (electrical or steam) and
also because there is a purge loss of about 1-2% of compressed air. The
vessel, which is regenerated, is purged with dry air before it is taken into
service. These dryers are normally used for capacities higher than 425 m
3
/h.

b. Desiccant heat less purge type
The operation is very similar to the blower-reactivated type, only difference
being that no heating of the desiccant is done. Pure dry air is used for purging
through the saturated desiccant. These are used for capacities less than 425
m
3
/h. The operating cost is very high due to purge losses of about 10-12%.
c. Desiccant Heat of Compression type dryer
This is a break-through in drying technology where the operating cost is zero
or very minimal. HOC dryers are available from 700 m
3
/h to 8500 m
3
/h
capacities. The discharge compressed air, which is at a temperature of 135
o
C (in the case of reciprocating compressor) is used to regenerate the
desiccant. There are no electrical heaters and no purging loss. This makes
the dryer very attractive in terms of operating cost. The desiccant can be
Activated Alumina or Silica gel depending on the dew point required.

Desiccant Selection
Adsorption property is exhibited by some forms of silica, alumina (including
bauxite), carbon and certain silicates (molecular sieves). Silica and alumina
are used primarily to remove moisture while carbon is used for organic
vapors. Molecular sieves can give very low atmospheric dew points, as low
as -80
o
C while activated alumina gives about -40
o
C.
While using desiccants, it should be noted that attrition (grinding) occurs due
to air pressure surges. This desiccant powder is carried away by air because
of which after filters needs to be installed before the dry air is taken for use.
Molecular sieves have the capacity of adsorbing small molecules of water.
Extremely low dew points can be achieved by passing an air stream over
molecular sieves. Normally, air is passed through a standard desiccant
before it is passed through molecular sieves.

Desiccant Life
Adsorbing capacity of desiccant materials decreases with age. Contaminants
like oil or dust particles will add to this effect. Heat is also one of the factors,
which contributes to desiccant ageing. Many manufacturers recommend a
desiccant life of three to five years, based on the operating conditions.
The condition of the desiccant should be checked periodically. Any effort to
monitor the desiccant condition will give significant benefits in the form of
high quality air, reduced frequency of desiccant change and reduced
maintenance cost.
The comparison between the above discussed dryers is given below.
Pressure drop across the Dryers
Pressure drop across the compressed air dryer adds to indirect energy cost.
The operating pressure of the compressor has to be set considering the
pressure loss across the air dryer and the total compressed air requirement.

If the pressure loss across the dryer is higher, accordingly the operating
pressure of the compressor has to be raised and ultimately will result in
increased power consumption.

In refrigeration type dryers the design of heat exchangers decides the
pressure drop across the dryer. The maximum allowable pressure loss
across the refrigeration dryer is 0.2-0.3 kg/cm
2
.

In case of adsorption dryers the pressure drop is affected by the filter used.
Improper filters can cause significant pressure drop across the dryer.
The maximum allowable pressure drop across the desiccant type dryer is 0.5
kg/cm
2
.
Accessories
The accessories used in compressed air system play a major role in
maintaining the quality of compressed air, effective utilisation and enhancing
energy efficiency.

Drain valves
Condensate from compressed air is always detrimental to the life of
pneumatic equipments. This condensate should be removed as and when
formed at various stages. Condensation formation takes place at after
coolers, air receivers, filters, pipe lines, drop legs etc. The effective removal
of condensate will reduce the moisture load on the air dryers and ensure the
quality of air at the user ends.
Removal of condensate is done by automatic drain valve. In automatic drain
valve there is no need for manual intervention. The automatic drain valves
can be classified as follows:

a. Electronic timer based drain valves
b. Condensate sensing drain valves
Accessories
Filters
The other contaminants present in the compressed air such as dust, oil, rust,
bacteria & viruses etc will lead to detrimental effects. Filters are used to
remove the contaminants especially dust, oil and moisture. Some of the filter
media used is Ceramics, Sintered Bronze, Boro Silicate glass micro fiber
and activated carbon.

The effective removal of those contaminants are explained below.
a. Solids
Solids, i.e., dust is found in compressed air depending on suction air quality,
desiccant, pipeline rust and scale. Filters should have a low-pressure drop,
as the energy loss across the filter is in the form of pressure drop. A surface
filter like pleated paper, ceramic or sintered bronze filter can be used for dust
removal. Pleated paper / cellulose are best suited, as they offer very low-
pressure drop and can handle high dust loads without significant pressure
drop. A pressure drop of 0.3 to 1.0 psi is allowable.
Accessories
b. Oil
Oil from the compressor comes as vapor and liquid aerosol. The vapor cools
and becomes liquid in the line. For most industrial applications only the liquid
oil need to be removed and is done by a coalescing filter. Coalescers are
depth filters and most energy efficient. E.g. a wet 0.01 micron filters @
99.999% efficiency has a pressure drop of 6 psi, while a 0.01 micron filters
@ 99.97% efficiency has a pressure drop of 3 psi only.
Hence it is recommended to install 99.97 % efficiency, 0.01 micron
coalescing filter for industrial applications.

c. Bacteria /Viruses
In food and pharmaceutical plants the intake air must be free from bacteria
and viruses. This can be achieved by heating the compressed air above 180
o
C then cooling it to normal temperature. The compressed air can also be
passed through sterile filters, which capture bacteria of sizes 0.3 2.0 and
viruses.
Accessories
Pressure drop in filters
After the installation of filters, over a period of time the pressure drop across
the filters increases. The increased pressure drop across the filters leads to
resetting of compressors at slightly higher pressure to match with the
requirement. It costs 7% of the total energy for 1 kg/cm2 pressure drop at 7-8
kg/cm2 operating pressure. This can be higher for higher pressure. Hence,
the filters have to be sized properly and have to be replaced when the
pressure drop is high. Typically a filter element should have a working life of
12 months or 6000 working hrs.

Separators
Moisture is found in liquid as well as in suspended form. Moisture in liquid
form is called as condensate and the moisture in suspended form is called as
aerosol. Aerosol is normally removed using water separators. The common
types of water separators are ceramic cartridge, baffle plate, demister pad
type. The demister pad type is the most desired and energy efficient water
separator, as it is good in removing water droplets and has a lower pressure
drop also.
Accessories
Pressure Switches
The possibility of lowering the compressor delivery pressure settings should
be explored by a careful study of pressure requirements of various
equipment and the pressure drop in the line between compressed air
generation and utilization points. A reduction in the delivery pressure by 1 bar
in a compressor would reduce the power consumption by 6 10 %.

Hence, it is suggested to use Pressure switches such that the compressor
cuts-in and cuts-out at optimum levels. In a battery of compressors, the
pressure setting can be adjusted such that only one compressor caters to the
load variation while others operate at full load.

Energy Meter
For individual compressors/ sections, sub meters could be installed to record
power consumption. This would help in identifying any deviations in power
consumption and hence record the variation in consumptions.
Energy Conservation Aspects
Many of the energy savings ideas can be adopted either at the design
stage or during operation. The energy saving potential in compressed air
systems vary from 20 30%. The following are some of the aspects to be
considered :
1. Minimize unload power consumption by correctly sizing the
compressor
The total energy consumption of the compressed air system depends on
correct type of size of compressors. If the installed compressor capacity is
much higher than the compressed air requirement of the plant the
compressor often falls in unloading mode.
During unloading the suction valve of the compressor is closed. There is no
air intake / delivery from the compressor i.e there is no useful work done by
the compressor. The power consumption of the compressor is used only to
overcome the internal frictional losses.
In case of reciprocating compressors the unload power consumption is in the
range of 15-20% of load power consumption. For screw compressors it is in
the range of 30-35% of load power consumption. Maximum 10% excess on
capacity of compressor is allowed.
2. Suction air intake to air compressor
The compressors generate heat, due to their continuous operation. This heat
gets dissipated inside the compressor room / chamber / leading to hot air
feed to the compressor intake. This results in lower volumetric efficiency and
higher power consumption. For an approximate 4
o
C rise in temperature, the
power consumption increases by 1% for the same output. Hence, it is
recommended to provide a separate suction duct from outside (atmosphere)
to the compressor directly.
3. Segregation of HP & LP Compressed air system:
Higher the pressure, higher is the power consumption. In any industry, the
compressor is selected for the high pressure requirement, though there are
both higher and low pressure users. While calculating the average
compressed air consumption of the plant, the total requirement of Low
Pressure (2.5 to 3.5 bar) and High Pressure (above 3.5 bar) compressed air
has to be estimated. If any, say LP or HP air constitutes more than 30 % of
the average compressed air consumption and then separate compressed air
system has to be installed.

4. Minimize unload power consumption when combination of
reciprocating and screw compressors are in operation
In reciprocating machines the unload power consumption is only about 15-
20% of the load power consumption where as in screw compressors it is in
the range of 30-35% of load power. Hence the screw compressor should
never be allowed to unload. The pressure settings of the compressors should
be reset in such a way that the screw compressor should be always on
loading and the reciprocating compressor gets loaded/unloaded depending
upon the requirement.
5. Install screw compressors with built-in variable frequency drives
(VFD) for fluctuating loads
Variable speed drives eg. (variable frequency drives) can be installed for all
types of air compressors. However, it is best suited for screw air
compressors. The major advantage of variable speed drive is that if 4 or 5
compressors are connected to a common header, then by installing VFD in
one compressor, the energy savings due to pressure reduction is achieved in
all the compressors.

The screw compressors with built in variable frequency drive facilitates fine
tuning of the compressor capacity precisely to meet the fluctuating
compressed air demand. This leads to precise pressure regulation. It
accurately measures the system pressure and adjusts the speed to
automatically maintain a constant pressure. Hence it is recommended to
install screw compressors with built-in VFD for fluctuating loads at the design
stage.
6. Minimize compressed air pressure fluctuation by installing
intermediate control system
The quantity of compressed air requirement varies depending on the users.
Majority of time the duration of usage may be small but quantity requirement
is significant. This leads to fluctuation in overall system pressure. A sudden
air demand leads to reduction in overall system pressure and makes the
compressor to load. There is time delay between the reduction in system
demand and the compressor to sense the pressure to come to load mode.
Majority of time the time delay is so much that by the time the compressor
comes to the load mode the demand vanishes and the compressor pumps
air into the system to the higher pressure limit. Thus the system operates for
artificial demand and not for the real demand.
Hence a proper balancing of supply and demand is needed to satisfy the
production without creating an artificial demand. This can be achieved by
installing an intermediate controller between the compressor and the end
users. The intermediate controller creates a useful storage by introducing a
controlled differential pressure across an upstream receiver. This storage
isolates the compressor from demand side. Peaks are dealt with the reserve
energy stored.
7. Minimize compressed air leakages
Quantity of air losses through small holes, cracks, leaky couplings, joints,
etc, can add up to a very large value. With proper installation and
maintenance, leakage losses should not exceed 5% of the total capacity of
the compressor.
The relation between hole size, quantity of compressed air leakage and
power loss is given below.
8. Install transvector nozzles for cleaning hoses
The use of compressed air for cleaning applications is common in the
industry. The cleaning application requires large quantity of air at low
pressure (2.5 ksc), while compressed air at 6.0 ksc is normally used for
cleaning applications. This is mainly due to the usage of centralized
compressed air for cleaning applications.
Transvector nozzles can be installed for the compressed air cleaning hoses,
to minimize the compressed air consumption. Transvector nozzles are based
on the venturi effect. The passing of high-pressure air through a constricted
hole, creates a vacuum: This results in the atmospheric air getting sucked
through the circumferential holes provided. Results show that almost
30 to 40 % of the atmospheric air is utilized, thereby reducing the
compressed air consumption.

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Pumps and Compressors

has units of joules per kilogram or of meter-kilogram-force per kilogram.

is called the adiabatic head in units of meter.

The isothermal efficiency of a compressor should be close to 100% which

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