EUROPEAN TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRICAL POWER Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.

com) DOI: 10.1002/etep.229

Detection of series arcing in low-voltage electrical installations

Nedzad Hadziefendic, Miomir Kostic and Zoran Radakovic*,y
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

SUMMARY Series arcing, which can occur at any point of a line or neutral conductor between the switchboard and a load (mechanically damaged conductor, clamps in the switchboard or in the equipment, connections in outlets, receptacles, and switches), is the most frequent electrical cause of re. This paper presents an original and simple algorithm for the detection of series arcing, based on permanent spectral analysis of the circuit current signal. A prototype of a simple and cheap detector of series arcing has also been developed. The target group for the application of the protective device are residential premises, the most numerous and most critical buildings in which series arcing occurs. In such buildings a range of potential loads is limited, which enables the application of the presented simple algorithm. Its applicability is conrmed through an extensive set of tests. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. key words: series arcing; residential premises; algorithm; prototype of protective device

1. INTRODUCTION It was stated in Reference [1] that more than 400 thousand res occur in the USA every year, 1520% of which are caused by faults in electrical installations (xed wiring participates with 34.7%, light xtures with 20.7%, cords and plugs with 17.2%, switches, receptacles and outlets with 11.4% [2], etc.). The most dangerous electrical faults are represented by a long-lasting electric arc. There are two types of electric arc: 1. series arcing, which can occur at any point of a line or neutral conductor between the switchboard and a load (mechanically damaged conductor, clamps in the switchboard or in the equipment, connections in outlets, receptacles, and switches), 2. parallel arcing, which can occur between two conductors at different potentials. Parallel arcing is frequently manifested by signicant increase in current in the circuit, so that the supply switch-off can be expected by means of classical overcurrent protection. The detection of parallel arcing between the line and equipment-grounding conductor is successfully performed by means of residual current devices. Unlike parallel arcing, the detection of series arcing by means of classical protective components is not possible. The series arcing represents impedance connected in series to the impedance of the load, which means that the circuit current is reduced compared to its normal value. Therefore, protection from the series arcing requires the application of a special, non-conventional algorithm of detection. Reference [3] describes an AFCI (Arc-fault circuit interrupter) device, the function of which is the detection of a series electric arc and switch-off of the circuit in which it occurred. It was pointed out that the operation test and settings of such a device must be performed accurately, in order to make its functioning reliable. It was underlined that the AFCI device does not respond to electric arcs occurred during normal operation of some components and devices (switches, arc igniters, motors with brushes, etc.), nor when applying items of equipment which have the form of current similar to the current of the electric arc. Note that Reference [3] does not specify the principles on which the operation of the AFCI device is based.
*Correspondence to: Zoran Radakovic, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia. y E-mail: radakovic@etf.bg.ac.yu

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

N. HADZIEFENDIC, M. KOSTIC AND Z. RADAKOVIC

Reference [4] describes the CutlerHammer AFCI. This device contains a load current sensor (resistive or magnetic) located in the line conductor. Its output is fed into an arc signature lter that passes frequency components of arcing waveforms while rejecting other power line frequencies. The arc signature lter output is amplied and sent to a logic circuit which detects the electric arc occurrence. Both amplitude and duration are used to detect the arcing fault condition. Since the electric arc occurrence provokes both audio and light effects in its surrounding, the arc can be, as an alternative, detected by means of a photo-detector or a microphone [5]. However, such detections are practically limited only to switchboards and transformer substations. It was reported in Reference [6] that in 1999 the American national electrical code (NEC) had enacted the regulations according to which all branch circuits that supply 125 V, single phase, 15 A and 20 A receptacle outlets installed in dwelling unit bedrooms should be protected by AFCI devices (these regulations came into force on January 1, 2002). It is expected that the application of AFCIs will be expanded to other residential circuits. The AFCI device application can also be expected to expand to higher voltages associated with commercial and industrial electrical distribution systems [7]. It should also be noted that the Aerospace Industry is interested in AFCI technology regarding the protection of onboard electrical wiring [8]. This paper presents an algorithm for the detection of series arcing which may occur in residential premises. In such buildings a range of potential loads is limited, which enables the application of a simple algorithm for detecting the fault and setting the protective device. On the basis of that algorithm, a prototype of the detector of series arcing has been designed.

2. OUTLINE OF THE METHOD Since the electric arc represents a non-linear element of a circuit, its occurrence causes distortion of the circuit current waveform. This is why our idea was to perform the harmonic analysis of the current waveform, hoping to detect a phenomenon which does not exist during normal circuit operation. After extensive experimental research, described in the next section, the criterion for the detection of series arcing in a current circuit with loads appearing in residential premises was established. It was based on the value of the 5th current harmonic. Figure 1 presents all steps of the experimental research which enabled the development of an algorithm for the detection of series arcing. The gure also shows that the necessary testing of the algorithm was performed. Figure 2 presents a scheme of the protective device based on the developed algorithm. The applicability of the device (its sensitivity and robustness) was also analyzed. Since the research was limited to loads existing in households, the target group for the

Figure 1. Steps of the experimental research on which the algorithm for the detection of series arcing is based.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep

DETECTION OF SERIES ARCING

Figure 2. Scheme of the protective device.

application of the protective device are residential premises. Note that all practical cases appearing in residential premises were analyzed systematically.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Experimental set-up for the research is shown in Figure 3. Various combinations of load and electric arc were connected between points A and B. Series arcing in the circuit was produced by a mechanism enabling ne setting of the distance between the electrodes. The measuring-acquisition system consisted of a current sensor (denoted with LEM), its power supply, a resistor (R) of 1000 V, a digital oscilloscope, and a personal computer. The role of the current sensor was to convert the real current into a voltage signal adjusted to the oscilloscope. The harmonic analysis was performed by using relevant algorithms from the Matlab software package, taking into account the recommendations from Reference [9] regarding the sample period and the number of samples.

Figure 3. Experimental set-up.

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep

N. HADZIEFENDIC, M. KOSTIC AND Z. RADAKOVIC

Table I. Minimum current for stable arc depending on electrode materials. Electrodes Coppercopper Copperbrass Brassbrass Brassalloy of aluminum Minimum current for stable arc (A) 10 6.5 7 2

The tests were performed by using the following loads: (1) variable resistor 220 V, 30 A (as a pure resistive load), (2) uorescent lamps, (3) monophase universal motor, (4) microwave oven, (5) compact uorescent lamp, and (6) personal computer.

4. MEASUREMENT RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF ALL RELEVANT PRACTICAL CASES APPEARING IN RESIDENTIAL PREMISES 4.1. Inuence of the electrode material on the minimum current for stable arc This inuence is tested because the decrease in the minimum current for stable arc increases the possibility of arc appearance. In other words, the group of potential circuits where the arc can appear is getting wider, including low-wattage loads. The minimum current for stable arc depends to a large extent on the electrode material. The electric arcs between the electrodes made of different materials, all in a series connection with the variable resistor, were tested. For each combination of materials the electrodes were short-circuited and the current was adjusted to 12 A using the variable resistor. After that the arc was formed by disjoining the electrodes and the distance between them was slowly increased until the arc was extinguished. The recorded minimum currents for stable arc are shown in Table I. The highest value of the minimum current for stable arc corresponds to the coppercopper connection (where it amounts to around 10 A), while its lowest value exists in the case of the brassalloy of aluminum connection (where it amounts to about 2 A). Fortunately, the latter connection is not practically used in electrical installations. The most critical practical case is the copperbrass connection in which the minimum current for stable arc equals 6.5 A. It was also concluded that the highly distorted waveform of the arc current does not depend very much on the electrode material. Figure 4 illustrates typical arc voltage and current waveforms in a circuit with a pure resistive load with series arcing. Let us note that the waveform of the electric arc strongly depends on the current amplitude and the impedance of the circuit, consisting of the

Figure 4. Arc voltage and current waveforms in a circuit with a pure resistive load.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep

DETECTION OF SERIES ARCING

installation and load impedances. According to the explanations given in Introduction and Section 4.3., only series arcing in a circuit with a resistive load is of practical interest. 4.2. Criterion for series arcing detection By spectral analysis of the signal, higher harmonic components of the arc current were determined. Although known to the authors, the values of the third and fth current harmonics for the copperbrass connection and at the minimum current for stable arc of 6.5 A will be presented using symbols I3g and I5g, respectively. Less dominant, but still noticeable, were the 7th and 9th current harmonics (values of these harmonics are about three times smaller than I5g). A possibility of series arcing detection through the 3rd arc current harmonic has been eliminated, because some loads have a high third harmonic during normal operation (e.g., universal motors with a control triac, which operate in a short interruptible time working cycle, at the current of the basic harmonic of 3 A have the 3rd harmonic of even 1.6 A). Therefore, the following criterion for the detection of series arcing was established: the value of the fth harmonic of the circuit current must be higher than I5g. 4.3. Loads in residential premises in which series arcing can occur The most numerous and highest-power loads in residential premises are resistive appliances: accumulating and owing boilers, infrared heaters, stoves, ovens, TA heating units, etc. The current of such loads is usually higher than the specied minimum current for stable arc (the minimum current of 6.5 A in the 3 400 V/230 V system corresponds to the power of 230 V 6.5 A 1495 W per phase). Other loads usually found in residential and business premises are light sources (uorescent lampsstandard or compact ones, and incandescent lamps), motors of small or medium power (as in vacuum cleaners, hair-dryers, washing machines, drills, etc.), TV sets, audiovideo devices, personal computers,. . . As a rule, their electric powers are insufcient to maintain the electric arc in their circuits in case of a loose connection. In addition, loose connections provoke operation disturbances of these loads: complete blocking of their operation or a disturbance that can be perceived by ear or eye. For example, experiments have shown that electric motors, due to voltage drop (caused by a series arcing), lose torque and stop, while uorescent lamps usually burn out. Thus, if in a circuit with a load of this type series arcing appears, the user can notice that there is something wrong on the basis of the manifestations specied above. Regarding the possibilities of arc detecting, spectral analysis of a current during normal operation of these loads is of great importance, and it will be treated in the following sections. 4.4. Spectral contents of a current of relevant non-linear loads It is necessary to analyze higher current harmonics appearing during the operation of relevant non-linear loads. They potentially have two negative impacts. Firstly, they can be so high to cause false detection of the arc in the current circuit. Secondly, superposed to the higher harmonics of the electric arc current, they can reduce the total current harmonics (due to being in opposite phase to that of the arc harmonics) so that series arcing cannot be detected. The rst impact is treated in Section 4.5. and the second in Section 4.6. 4.5. Detailed discussion about the 5th current harmonic of non-linear loads at sinuous voltage All of the non-linear loads can be classied into two groups: those which, during normal operation, can produce the electric arc (the rst group), and those that cannot (the second group). One of the signicant characteristics of uorescent lamps, which belong to the rst group, is that they produce a high 3rd harmonic, while the 5th harmonic is negligible. For example, when the current of the basic (rst) harmonic of a group of uorescent lamps was 3.35 A, currents of the 3rd and 5th harmonics amounted to 0.60 and 0.015 A, respectively. However, in case when a load from the rst group such as a welder is switched on, the only solution is to switch-off the detection device during the use of such an appliance. Fortunately, the use of such loads is extremely rare. An example of loads from the second group having a high 5th current harmonic is represented by the already mentioned universal motor (with adjustable speed). Because of the relatively small power of universal motors used in households, the 5th current harmonic which they produce is signicantly lower than the 5th current harmonic introduced by the electric arc in a circuit with a pure resistive load (in a test with a motor of 1500 W, the maximum current of the 5th harmonic was 2.35 times smaller than I5g).
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep

N. HADZIEFENDIC, M. KOSTIC AND Z. RADAKOVIC

A high 5th harmonic was recorded during the start of universal motors, characterized by current amplitudes which are considerably higher than the rated ones. In addition, the increased sparking on the collector occurs in such cases. The problem of such a high 5th current harmonic lasting for a short time can be overcome by time-delay in the arc detection device. The next obstacle for the application of the proposed algorithm can be the use of a large number of compact uorescent lamps or personal computers, which have a highly emphasized 5th current harmonic (a large number of such loads are more frequently met in business than in residential premises). The total harmonic distortion (THD) factor of these appliances, dened as s nP 1 In THD s nP 1 In
n 1 n 2

where In represents the nth current harmonic is exceptionally high. It amounted to 78.4% in case of the tested compact uorescent lamp, and 76.7% in case of the tested personal computer (see Figure 5). On the basis of the 5th current harmonic of the tested 20 W compact uorescent lamp (Philips Lighting), it has been concluded that the connection of even 20 such lamps will not cause a false response of the protective device. Regarding personal computers, it has been concluded that up to four of them can be connected to a circuit without causing a false detection. Note that the number of personal computers (PCs) in a housing unit is rarely greater than three, and there is a small probability that all of them are connected to the same circuit. 4.6. Measurements of the 5th harmonic in case of loads connected in parallel In order to investigate if the phase displacement between the fth harmonics of an electric arc and a non-linear load can jeopardize the conceived protection, a series of tests with parallel loads has been performed. A pure resistive load and loads of other types were connected in parallel (within the same circuit). Two cases have been considered: 1. electric arc in a branch with a pure resistive load, 2. electric arc in a series connection with a parallel connection of a pure resistive load and a non-linear load. The least favorable option of the electric arc at the minimum current for stable arc has been tested for each case. For example, in case of uorescent lamps and a universal motor the following values of the 5th harmonic of current have been obtained:  arc in a series connection with a parallel connection of a pure resistive load and a group of uorescent lamps1.05 I5g,  arc in a series connection with a pure resistive load, to which a group of uorescent lamps is connected in parallel1.14 I5g,

Figure 5. Current waveform (a) and harmonic spectrum of current (b) of a personal computer.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep

DETECTION OF SERIES ARCING

 arc in a series connection with a parallel connection of a pure resistive load and a universal motor: 1. for interruptible current of the universal motor1.96 I5g, and 2. for non-interruptible current of the universal motor1.59 I5g,  arc in a series connection with a resistive load to which a universal motor is connected in parallel: 1. for interruptible current of the universal motor1.05 I5g, and 2. for non-interruptible current of the universal motor1.00 I5g. Since in all of the tested parallel connections the 5th current harmonic was higher than I5g, the arc will be detected in all of these cases. However, this conclusion is not valid for a microwave oven, which has a considerably high 5th current harmonic (the maximum 5th harmonic for an oven at the rated power of 1600 W, experimentally determined, amounted to 45.5% of I5g). During simultaneous operation of a microwave oven and a pure resistive load with an electric arc in its circuit, the 5th harmonics are phase displaced in such a way that the overall current of the 5th harmonic is smaller than that produced by the arc. This means that in a certain range of series arcing the conceived protection would not respond. Fortunately, the microwave ovens operate in intermittent duty with a long pause, so that possible occurrence of series arcing in a circuit with a pure resistive load can be detected during the pause of the microwave oven operation.

4.7. Analysis of the current distortion caused by voltage distortion In addition to non-linear appliances, the 5th harmonic of current can also occur in case of linear appliances if there is a large distortion of network voltage. Theoretically, at a very high 5th harmonic of the supply voltage, the 5th harmonic of current higher than I5g can appear, causing unwanted action of the protective device adjusted to the current I5g. The maximum value of the 5th voltage harmonic allowed by the standards [10] amounts to U5maxIEC 0.06 230 V 13.8 V. The minimum value of the resistance of pure resistive loads is equal to 230 V/16 A 14.375 V (established according to the maximum rated current of the fuses or miniature circuit breakers in the house, which in majority of countries equals 16 A). During normal operation, in such a circuit the 5th harmonic of the current amounts to I5max 13.8 V/14.375 V 0.96 A. This value is lower than I5g. Note that this case is the most critical one, because the rated currents of pure resistive loads are smaller than 16 A, and the distortion of network voltage is, as a rule, signicantly lower than the maximum value specied by the standards. In addition to the above, another analysis that could have a practical signicance is the one which considers a possible case of a parallel connection of a pure resistive load and some other non-linear appliance, supplied by distorted voltage with a high content of the 5th harmonic. Such an analysis is planned as the next stage of this research. The essence of the future tests and analyses will be directed to the phase displacement between the 5th harmonic of current of a pure resistive load caused by distorted network voltage and the 5th harmonic of current of a non-linear appliance connected in parallel.

5. THE REALIZED PROTOTYPE OF THE PROTECTIVE DEVICE Using the elaborated idea of arc detecting, based on permanent measurement of the 5th harmonic of current, a prototype of an electronic device, intended for the protection from a series electric arc in electrical installations of residential premises, was realized. This device includes a lter for extracting the 5th harmonic, as well as a component for its comparison with the set limit value (I5g). It also contains a component which generates the output signal, which can be used as a turn-off order for the circuit breaker. The applied high-pass and low-pass Chebyshev lters of the sixth degree for the frequency of 250 Hz are set using the recommendations from [11] and Spice software package. Figure 6 shows the block scheme of the realized device. Blocks 17 from Figure 6 have the following functions: Block 1. Input block. A voltage or current signal proportional to the value of the circuit current is brought to its input. Block 2. High-pass Chebyshev lter of the sixth degree for the frequency of 250 Hz, which should eliminate all signals with the frequency below 250 Hz. Block 3. Low-pass Chebyshev lter of the sixth degree for the frequency of 250 Hz, which should eliminate all signals the frequency of which is above 250 Hz.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep

N. HADZIEFENDIC, M. KOSTIC AND Z. RADAKOVIC

Figure 6. Block scheme of the realized protective device.

Block 4. Rectifying and smoothing circuit for the ltered signal. The DC voltage, prepared in such a way, is ready to be processed. Block 5. Microprocessor (mP) for the procession of the DC signal. Block 6. Time base generator which, using the integrated comparator in the applied microprocessor, enables the A/D conversion and the measurement of the DC voltage. Block 7. Liquid Crystal Display, which is not necessary in the commercial version of the device.

Table II contains the results of measurements carried out during the functional tests of the realized prototype. The electric arc was produced in series with a pure resistive load, and this branch was connected in parallel with one of the following two non-linear appliances in the house: personal computer and universal motor of the vacuum cleaner. The measurement results show that the detector output had 24.5 times higher value than in the case with no arc. Existence of DC output voltage in case of a pure resistive load, without series arcing, is a consequence of network voltage distortion and small sparking on old contacts of the resistor used during the tests. For several values of root mean square (RMS) of the circuit current (I), Table III presents values of the 5th harmonic of current (I5) in case of a pure resistive load in the circuit in which the electric arc occurred, which were obtained by the application of the fast discrete Fourier transformation, as well as the prototype output values of the DC voltage (Udc). It is obvious that Udc increases, although not linearly, with the growth of the 5th harmonic of current.

Table II. DC output voltages of the protective device prototype measured during its functional testing. Type of load Variable resistive load Parallel connection of a variable resistive load and a personal computer Parallel connection of a variable resistive load and a universal motor Load current (A) 10 15 20 10 15 20 10 15 20 No series electric arc in the circuit (V) 0.10 0.12 0.143 0.15 0.125 0.135 0.195 0.20 0.21 With series electric arc in the circuit (V) 0.40 0.53 0.60 0.40 0.50 0.55 0.40 0.45 0.50

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep

DETECTION OF SERIES ARCING

Table III. Measured values of the 5th current harmonic and DC output voltage of the protective device. I (A) 10 15 20 I5 (A) 1.45 2.5 3.15 Udc (V) 0.40 0.50 0.60

6. CONCEPT OF THE FUTURE COMMERCIAL PROTECTIVE DEVICE The principal components of the future commercial protective device will be the above described lter of the 5th harmonic and a digital signal processor (microprocessor). Because of the potential superposition of the 5th current harmonics from different circuits which could cause a false reaction of the protective device, as well as due to the importance of detecting the circuit in which the arc occurred, the current sensors should be incorporated into each circuit in a housing unit. An analog multiplexers role will be to provide information on current signals from all of the circuits to the lter-microprocessor block. The current signal from each circuit would last a few seconds only. After receiving the information that series arcing occurred in a circuit, scanning of that circuit would continue (e.g., for the next 10 seconds). If the signal persists, an order for switch-off would be sent to the applied classical overcurrent protective component. The device could also contain light emitting diodes (LEDs), which would signalize, for each circuit, the normal regime (a green LED) or the occurrence of series arcing (a red LED). 7. CONCLUSIONS This paper presents an algorithm for the detection of series arcing in low-voltage electrical installations within residential premises, the most numerous and most critical buildings in which series electric arcs occur. The algorithm is based on permanent spectral analysis of the current signal, i.e., on monitoring its 5th harmonic. In order to test the algorithm, an extensive and well-structured set of experiments was carried out. The experiments enabled proper setting of the designed protective device based on the algorithm and conrmed its reliable operation in all practical cases of loads appearing in residential premises. The designed arc detector is small in size and inexpensive. It requests no setting by a costumer and can be incorporated in the trigger part of the existing overcurrent protective devices. The simplicity of the algorithm limits its application exclusively to residential premises and other buildings in which there are no loads with a high 5th current harmonic. For electrical installations with a high 5th current harmonic (e.g., in buildings with large number of personal computers, compact uorescent lamps, etc. or in industry plants with power converters with no lters) protective devices based on more complex algorithms have to be applied. 8. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS AFCI I I5 I3g I5g I5max In LED NEC PC mP t R RMS arc-fault circuit interrupter RMS of the circuit current values of the 5th harmonic of current third harmonic of load current at the minimum current for stable arc fth harmonic of load current at the minimum current for stable arc fth harmonic of the current at U5maxIEC and load of maximum power value of the nth current harmonic light emitting diode national electrical code personal computer microprocessor time base of time base generator resistor of 1000 V root mean square
Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

N. HADZIEFENDIC, M. KOSTIC AND Z. RADAKOVIC

THD U5maxIEC Udc

total harmonic distortion limit of the fth harmonic of voltage according to IEC Standard DC voltage at output of the prototype device
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Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power (2008) DOI: 10.1002/etep